CIVE 4307

Municipal Hydraulics

Lecture 1.1
Course overview
Review of Fluid Properties
Municipal hydraulics: What does it
involve?

• Water supply distribution

• Storm and sanitary sewer design

• In-take and outlet structures

 Water supply
• Pipe networks
- Hydraulics of pipe flow
- Mechanics of pumps
- Network calculations

• Channels
- Open Channel Flow
- Supercritical, critical, and subcritical flow
- Control structures
Storm and sanitary sewer design
• Calculation of runoff from design rain
event
• Sewer system hydraulics
• Water hammer
• Monitoring and maintenance
 In-take and outlet structures
• Jets and mixing from out-take structures
• Coupling of temperature and mixing
• Design features: e.g. maximum speed to
avoid sucking up fish, minimum speed to
avoid settling out of sediments
Holland – Much of country below sea level
Levee before Hurricane Katrina
Levees after Katrina
Failure mechanism: overtoping
and erosion
Tank testing and CFD modelling
in Yacht Racing
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uc35JR
OubRM&NR=1

www.youtube.com/watch?v=4-
PpU8MUbHE

I.M. Viola: Numerical and Experimental

Flow Dynamics applied to Sailing Yacht
Dynamics, Ph.D.
Thesis, Politecnico di Milano, May 2008
Non-Newtonian fluids

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3zoTKX
XNQIU&feature=related
 Application:
Deposition of mine waste
History of Hydraulics
History of hydraulics
Roman Aqueducts
Design of the aqueduct:
Slope of 1:200
Flow in a trough lined
with cement or impermeable rock

Trough is covered to limit

evaporation,
But vented with holes to prevent
pressure
buildup

Total supply to ancient Rome:

Over 1 m3 per capita per day

Some Aqueducts are over 100 km

long
 Course Objectives
• Learn the principles of closed pipe and
open channel fluid mechanics necessary
for design of hydraulic structures
• Learn how to apply these principles to the
basic design of water supply and sewer
networks
• Complete a professional quality design
report on the storm sewer design for a
small subdivision
Review of fluid flow properties and
terms
• This course will deal primarily with
Newtonian fluids
• That is, fluids having negligible yield stress
and a constant viscosity
• Liquids having a yield stress of zero have
no strength when they are static
• Theoretically, a Newtonian fluid will extend
infinitely when spilled on a horizontal plane
– but will water do this in reality?
 Viscosity
Viscosity relates the shear stress generated during
flow to a velocity gradient perpendicular to the
direction of flow:
¶u
t zx = µ
¶z
Where τ is the shear stress between two sheets of fluids
along the xy plane, µ is the dynamic viscosity (Ns / m2),
and u is the velocity is the x direction.

Viscosity is sometimes expressed as kinematic viscosity,

υ = µ / ρ.
Viscosity can be
determined using a
Couette flow
geometry, and
by measuring the
resistance between
two parallel plates

Viscosity gives rise to

the non-linear velocity
profiles in pipes
Here is shown the
profile for laminar flow
 Example
• Two parallel plates, one fixed and one free
to move, are positioned 10 cm apart, with
a Newtonian fluid in-between. A shear
force of 0.2 Pa is applied to the free plate.
If the velocity reaches a maximum of 0.5
m/s, determine the dynamic viscosity of
the fluid.
 Hydrostatic Fluid Pressure
• At rest, fluid pressure is hydrostatic
• At a point in a fluid, pressure is equal is all
directions, different from stress in solids
• Hydrostatic pressure, P = ρgz or γz
• Where z is the depth of water from the free
surface
• Recall the difference between absolute
and gauge pressure
 Laminar and turbulent flow
• Laminar: fluid moves as collection of
infinitesimal sliding sheets
• Turbulent: mixing occurs across the
direction of flow
• Reynold’s number:
• Re = VDρ/µ, V is average flow rate, D is
characteristic length such as a diameter
• Re < 2000, flow is laminar, > 4000
turbulent
Velocity profiles in pipes: Laminar
and turbulent flow
 CIVE 4307

Lecture 1.2: Continuity, Energy

and Momentum
 More definitions
• Uniform flow – flow is of uniform velocity
No change in velocity with space!

• Steady – State flow: At any point in

space, the velocity of the flow does not
change with time, formally:

dv
= 0
dt
 Control volumes
• We can solve fluid flow problems by
applying conservation laws to a control
volume
• What goes in must come out
 Continuity
• Most formally, the continuity equation is derived from
conservation of mass at a point

- This equation states that the change in density ρ

must equal the change in mass flux away from the point

- However, water is often considered to be

incompressible. For this assumption, the continuity of
mass equation becomes the continuity of flow equation

– The first term in the above equation becomes zero

Applying conservation of flow to a
control volume of a closed pipe

The continuity equation for steady state,

incompressible flow is:

ò v dA = ò v dA
A1
1
A
To solve many of our problems we will use the
average velocity in a pipe or an open channel

V1 = ò v dA
A1
1

Therefore, the continuity equation becomes:

V1A1 = V2A2 = Q
 Conservation of Energy
• The most important application of energy
conservation is the energy equation for
incompressible, steady-state flow
• This equation, the Bernoulli equation can be
derived a number a ways, including by applying
the work-energy principle at two different points
along a streamline
• Change in energy in a system = Work done by
external forces on the system
• In this case, pressure is the external force
 The work done by forces, is:

The change in potential energy is:

The change is kinetic energy is

 Combining these terms

Dividing by delta t and Q:

p1 – p2 + ρgh1 – ρgh2 = ½ ρv22 - ½

ρv12

By further division by rg, we obtain a

standard form of Bernoulli’s equation
Assumptions applying to Bernoulli’s
equation:
• No viscous or other friction effects are
significant
• Incompressible flow
• Steady state
• Often used for analyzing problems for
flows over short distances
 Example problem
• Consider the steady state flow of water
through a nozzle in which the upstream
diameter of 30 cm reduces to a
downstream diameter of 20 cm. The flow
rate is 0.08 m3/s. The pipe is sloped down
in the direction flow at 10% and the
distance across the nozzle is 10 cm. What
is the change in pressure across the
nozzle?
 Power
• Power = rate of work done or rate of
energy change
• Often we want to know the power required
for pumping
 To calculate required power :
• The energy difference:
• Delta H = Delta (P/γ+v2/2g + z)

H is in units of Energy / weight,

So Power P= Q γ (delta H)
Since Q (volume / time)
And γ (weight / volume)
Energy and Hydraulic grade lines

If you insert a vertical tube into the pipe, the water

will rise to the hydraulic grade line
 The Momentum equation
• Conservation of momentum originates from
Newton’s law, F = ma
• The equation below is the general form of the
momentum equation for fluids
• The term on the left represents “ma” while the
terms on the right express forces applied to an
infinitesimal unit of fluid, both pressure forces
and shear forces (viscous forces)
• In this course, we are generally interested in
incompressible and steady-state flow
• The conservation of momentum is most often
applied, in this course, to the calculation of forces on
pipes
• Cannot calculate based on hydrostatic principle!
Derivation of equation for forces of
fluid on conduits
ÑV
F = ma = m
Ñt
\ F = rQÑ V
Alternatively

å F =å rQV
 Example: Flow into 90 degree
elbow joint
• Assume R=0.1 m, v=0.2 m/s, and
pressure is 5 kPa (gauge)
CIVE 4307 Lecture 2.1
Review
• Bernouilli’s equation:

• P1/Gamma + v12 / (2g) +h1 = P2/Gamma + v22 / (2g) +h2

• Units of pressure term?? If fluid is water, 1 m of pressure head means

how much pressure?

• Whiteboard : problem of large tank draining

Lecture 2.1: Topics

• Calculating head loss due to friction in Laminar flow

• Calculating head loss due to friction in Turbulent flow

• Cavitation
Ideal fluids:
• Incompressible
• Inviscid (means no viscosity, therefore no friction losses!)
• No surface tension
• Fluids often can be considered ideal for a class of problems where the
friction losses can be neglected (e.g. changes in pipe geometry
problem from last lecture)
However, for flow over more than a metre or
so, we usually need to account for friction
• For flows of any significant length, we need to be able to calculate the
energy loss due to friction
• How we calculate the friction losses depends on whether the flow is
laminar or turbulent
• Recall, from the first lecture, we use Reynold’s number to classify the
flow:
Recall range of Reynold’s number for each:

The method to calculate friction losses is different for each flow

Friction in laminar range
• We can derive an expression for head loss do to friction for laminar
flow by following these steps:

• Find an expression between shear stress at the wall and the pressure in the
pipeline
• Combine this with Newton’s shear stress equation to find expression for
velocity distribution across pipe
• Solve for average velocity
Shear stress at the wall related to pressure
To get the velocity profile across the cross section,
substitute the above expression into Newton’s Shear
stress equation:

Then average velocity is obtained by integrating the above

expression. Hgrad, the term inside the square brackets in
the first equation, is a constant across the cross section of
the pipe
Example: laminar flow friction loss
• A 600 m long pipe line of diameter 5 mm connects two water
reservoirs. The difference in elevation between the frees surfaces of
the reservoirs is 10 m. The unit weight is 9.79 kN/m3 and the dynamic
viscosity is 1.002 x 10-3Ns/m2. Based on the head loss in the pipe,
what is the steady state flow velocity?
1
Point 1 is 10 m higher than point 2

600 m long
D = 0.005 m
Turbulent flow: expressions for friction (BUT
really we use the Moody diagram)
• There are several expressions that are derived from experiments
• For smooth pipes, one example is power law formula of the form
u/umax= (y/r0)m, where umax is the velocity at the centre of the pipe, ro
is the radius, and m depends on Reynold’s number
• •Other expressions for rough pipes, which include a roughness
parameter, k , where k accounts for height of the roughness elements
in the pipe (units of length)
The Moody Diagram

• For all flows, laminar, transitional, and turbulent, we can use the
moody diagram to evaluate the friction factor

• The roughness coefficient is determined experimentally as a function

of the pipe material and geometry
Example: Turbulent flow
• A 10 cm diameter 2 km long steel (roughness of 0.05 mm) pipeline
connects two reservoirs open to the atmosphere. What is the
discharge in the pipeline if the difference in free surface elevation of
the reservoirs is 200 m? Assume fully turbulent flow.
1
Point 1 is 200 m higher than point 2

2000 m long
D = 0.10 m
Fully turbulent flow
Roughness is 0.05 mm
Cavitation
• Formation of air (vapour cavities) in fluid when the absolute pressure
of the fluid drops below the saturated vapour pressure
• Occurs normally when there is a contraction in the conduit, resulting
in an increase in velocity and a corresponding drop in pressure
• These vapour cavities may implode when compressed, causing
damage to pipes or pumps
• Saturated vapour pressure rises as a function of temperature, there is
a table in the text book
• For example, at 100 C, vapour pressure is 100.3 kPa
 CIVE 4307

Lecture 2.2
More on friction losses
Minor Losses
 Solution scheme used Darcy-
Weisbach equation for turbulent
flow
There are three main classes of problems
 For Type I, we can solve directly by
calculating Re and k/D and looking up f
on the Moody diagram
For Type II,
1. Calculate k/D
2. Estimate a value of f
3. Solve for V using the Darcy-Weisbach
equation
4. Solve for trial Re value
5. Find next f from the Moody diagram
 For Type III problems, we are asked
to design the pipe for a given flow
and head loss

Solution:
1. Assume a value of f
2. Solve for D using the Darcy-Weisbach
equation
3. Solve for RE and k/D
4. Lookup new f value on Moody diagram
Example of Type III problem (Note
we did a Type II last class)
• What size of galvanized iron pipe would be
required to convey 200 L/s of water in a 35
m long pipe with a maximum headloss of
50m? Assuming the temperature of the
water is 20 degrees C

• Pipe roughness is 0.15 mm.

First we need to express the Darcy-
Weisbach equation to calculate D:
 Other methods to account for
friction besides Darcy-Weisbach
• Before computers, having
to solve problems
iteratively was often very
time-consuming
• For fully flowing pipes,
the Hazen-Williams
equation was used: V  0.354CH D S
.63 .54

• CH is an empirical
coefficient ranging from
60 -140, based on pipe
roughness
• S is the slope of the
energy grade line
 Similar expressions for open channel
flow or partially flowing pipe flow

• These types of empirical head loss

equations are more commonly used in
open-channel or partial pipe problems, e.g.
the Manning equation and the Chezy
equation (R is the hydraulic radius)

1 2 / 3 1/ 2
V  R S
n
V  C RS
 Comparison of these methods
• The Darcy-Weisbach equation is more
accurate for pipe flow than the Hazen-
Williams equation
• The Manning and Chezy equations are
widely used in open-channel flow
problems- you will use them a lot!
 Minor losses
• These are additional losses in head (dissipation
of energy) induced by the additional friction and
mixing that occurs due to a change in pipe
geometry
• These additional terms must be included in the
Bernoulli equation
• The form of the terms is generally:

2
V
hm  K
2g
Schematic of flow entering pipe
from a reservoir
Example of minor loss coefficients
Minor loss coefficients for various
structures
 What Velocity do you use to
calculate the minor head loss?
• Depends on the structure
• For example, for sudden expansions or
enlargements of pipes, V = (V1 + V2)/2 where V1
is the velocity coming into the expansion and V2
is the exiting velocity respectively
• But for sudden contractions, the velocity exiting
the contraction is used
• For entering and exiting reservoirs, the normal
pipe velocity is used, as velocity in the reservoir
is usually negligible.
 Velocities
for minor
loss
calculations
 Aside:
Using the equivalent length of pipe
• In cases where you
must calculate the
loss of head across
many changes in V 2
L 2
e V
geometry, it may be hm  K  f  hf
more efficient to 2g D 2g
express the minor KD
head losses as the Le 
f
friction loss due to
some extra length of
pipe:
 Example minor loss problem
• Water flows though a 12 inch diameter 600-ft
long pipe. The difference in water level between
the reservoirs ins 50 ft.
• The pipe travels horizontally for 200 ft from the
upper reservoir, before bending 90 degrees and
traveling vertically down for 10 ft, then bending
again 90 degrees to travel 390 ft to the entrance
of the lower reservoir. There is a valve 10 ft
from the exit to the reservoir with a loss
coefficient of 1.5. Assume a minor loss of 0.25
for each elbow
Example minor loss problem
continued
 Example minor losses continued
• The roughness of the pipe is 0.0005 ft,
and the kinematic viscosity is 0.609 x 10-5
ft2/s
• Taking into account the minor losses, what
is the flow rate?
 Example minor losses continued
• Energy equation:
2 2
p1 v1 p2 v

 2g
 z1 


2g
 z2  h f  h
m
 Example continued: Sum of minor
losses
h m  entrance  elbow  elbow globevalve  exit

V2 V2 V2 V2
 Ke  2 Kelbow  Kvalve  Kentrance
2g 2g 2g 2g
 Example continued
• Once you have the expression in which
only V and f as unknowns, assume fully
turbulent flow to find an estimate of f.

• Calculate Reynolds to check

• After iterations in f and V converge,
calculate Q
• Done
CIVE 4307 Lecture 3.1

Simple Pipe networks

Examples:
Parallel pipes. Branching pipes
 Review Lecture 4
• As water flows in a pipe, it loses energy
through friction loss, as well as energy
loss by increased mixing that occurs with
changes in flow geometry
• The latter is generally calculated by
• Hm = K v2/ 2g , where k is an empirical
constant associated with each change in
geometry, and v is a representative
velocity
Schematic of flow entering pipe
from a reservoir
Pipe networks
Example of plan view of pipe
network in a suburb
 Simple pipe systems
• As pipe networks can be complex, often it
is advisable to simplify the system
• Pipes that run in parallel or in series can
be treated as equivalent single pipes
• Minor losses can be converted to virtual
extensions of pipe length, as discussed in
the last lecture
 Aside:
Using the equivalent length of pipe
• In cases where you
must calculate the
loss of head across
many changes in V 2
L 2
e V
geometry, it may be hm = K = f = hf
more efficient to 2g D 2g
express the minor KD
head losses as the Le =
f
friction loss due to
some extra length of
pipe:
 Pipes in series:

Consider the system shown below

 Pipes in series
• Through continuity, the discharge is the
same through each pipe, Q1= Q2=Q3 etc

• The total friction loss will be the sum of

friction losses along each pipe,
h total = hf1 + hf2 + ….
Pipes in Parallel:
Consider this system
 Pipes in parallel
• Now what are the relevant continuity and
energy relationships?
• Q=Q1+ Q2 …..
• Energy loss : If we examine the change in
energy from the point the pipes separate
to the point they merge back into a single
pipe -> this means that the loss of energy
from flow in each of the pipes must be the
same
 Example: Parallel pipes
• A three pipe system Pipe D L(ft) f
shown below has (in)
the following
characteristics: A 8 1500 .020

The friction factors

were estimated B 6 2000 .025
using the roughness
k and assuming fully
C 10 3000 .030
turbulent flow
Example: Parallel pipe flow

Head loss from 1 to 3 is the same regardless of path!

 Branching pipe flow
• For three reservoirs as shown in the figure
below, if the diameter of the pipes are
given, how would we calculate the flows
(ignoring minor losses)?
• The head loss from A to C is given by the
difference in the water elevation in the
reservoirs, this must be equal to the
headloss due to friction in pipes AB and
BC
• We know that continuity at the junction
must be preserved
Example: Branching pipe flow
780 m
800 m

1 700 m

2
 Relevant equations
• We apply Bernoulli’s equation from A to D,
D to B, and D to C
• We can neglect velocity head for long
pipes (L/D > 1000)
• Then, for example, the headloss from A to
D is:
Zba=Zd+ Pd/ γ + hf ad
 Relevant Equations
• We can also use the continuity equation at
the junction D
 Example problem
• If we use the same Pipe L D f
geometry, with these (km) (m)
details, solve for the
flow in each pipe AD 5 0.25 .020
• The reservoir levels
are 800 for A, 780 m DB 4 0.25 .020
for B, and 700 m for
C. The junction is at
an elevation of 720 m DC 4 0.25 .020
 CIVE 4307

Lecture 3.2
Pipe network analysis:
Hardy-Cross Method
 Review of last lecture

• The head loss over a series of pipe is

equal to the sum of the losses in each pipe
• For parallel pipes, the head loss must be
the same over each pipe that travels
between two junctions
• For pipes with a L/D ratio > 1000, we can
neglect velocity head
 “Equivalent” pipes
• A convenient form to express head loss in a
pipe when we are dealing with many pipes, is :
hl = rQn
• The values of r and n depend on what type of
flow we are assuming. For example, if we are
assuming fully turbulent flow, where there is a
constant f for a given roughness ratio, it is most
accurate to determine r and n from the Darcy –
Weisbach equation

LV2 L Q2 æ 8 fL ö 2
hl = f = f 2 = ç 5÷Q
D 2g D 2 gA è p gD ø
2
• Similarly, if we cannot be assured that there
is a constant f (we do not have fully
turbulent flow), then we will use an equation
based on the Hazen-Williams formula for
head loss:

V = 0.849CH R 0.63
S 0.84

æ 10.66 L ö 1.85
hl = ç 4 .87 ÷ Q
è CH D ø
1.85
 Equivalent pipes in series
• Now, for pipes in series, we know the flow is
the same in each:

Qe = Q1 = Q2 = ...... = Qn
re Qe = r1Q1 + r2 Q2 + ..... = (r1 + r2 + ..+ rn )Qe
n n n n

\ re = r1 + r2 + ..+ rn
 Equivalent pipes in parallel
• We know head loss is the same in each pipe
• We know continuity at a junction must be
observed
• Assume n is the same in all pipes
Qe = Q2 + Q3 + .... Qn
Substitute hl = rQ n in each term above
1/ n 1/ n 1/ n 1/ n
æ hL ö æ hL ö æ hL ö æ hL ö
ç ÷ =ç ÷ =ç ÷ = ..... = ç ÷
è re ø è r1 ø è r2 ø è rn ø
1/ n 1/ n
æ 1ö æ 1ö
ç ÷
è re ø
= å
i
ç ÷
è ri ø
 Solutions for pipe networks
• In general, we solve for the distribution of
flows and head losses in network by
solving systems of equations including:
• 1. Continuity at each junction
• 2. Head loss equal to zero around a
closed circuit
• This can be done by a variety of solution
techniques, including Newton-Raphson
 Pipe networks: The Hardy-Cross
method
• The Hardy-Cross method is an example of a “loop”
method
• The loop method is based on the fact the sum of head
losses around any circuit in a pipe network must be
zero:

å
NP
i
hL ,i - h p ,i
Where NP is the number of pipes in the circuit, hp is the
head generated by any pumps on that pipeline
• Now, in the Hardy-Cross method, we
initially assume the flow rate in each
pipe, such that continuity is obeyed
across the network

• The true flow Q= Qest + ΔQ

• Now, using the above relationship, we

write the head loss equation for each
pipe (next slide)
hl = rQ = r (Qest + D Q)
n n

n -1
= r (Qest + nQest
n
D Q+ ..... D Q )
n

Assume D Q is small , retain only

first two terms
n -1
hl = rQest + rnQest
n
DQ
• We are going to sum this equation around
each loop in order to solve for ΔQ
• But we have to note that velocity and head
loss are direction dependent, so we assume
“positive” is either clockwise or
counterclockwise for a given loop
• Therefore the equation should be written:

n -1 n -1
hl = rQest Qest + rn Qest DQ
• If we sum the above equation around a
loop, and then solving for ΔQ, we get the
Hardy-Cross equation:

å + D Qå i =1 nri Qi
NP n -1 NP n -1
i =1
ri Qi Qi =0

å
NP n -1
i =1
ri Qi Qi
DQ = -
å
NP n -1
i =1
nri Qi
 Solution scheme for Hardy-Cross
1. Simplify network by replacing parallel
pipes and pipes in series by equivalent
pipes. Calculate r for each pipe.
2. Assume a flow distribution that satisfies
continuity. For each loop, apply the
Hardy-Cross equation to solve for ΔQ
3. Apply ΔQ (which is unique to each loop)
to the flows and repeat step 2 until ΔQ is
acceptably small
Example
 Step 1
• Replace any pipes in series and
parallel pipes with equivalent pipes
Pipe r
• Calculate r for each pipe 1 270
• Using the Hazen-Williams based
expression 2 540
3 13500
4 13500
5 27000
æ 10.66 L ö 1.85
hl = ç 4 .87 ÷ Q
6 270
è CH D ø
1.85
7 27000
 Step 2
• Assume a flow distribution
For each loop, calculate ΔQ. You need to assume
a “positive” direction, clockwise or
counterclockwise. Here loop 1 (left hand loop)
and loop 2 are both defined as clockwise
positive
 Step 3: Calculate new flow
distribution
• As an example, lets do pipe 7
• The original flow is 0.025 upwards
• ΔQ from loop 1, as it is clockwise, would
be applied as a negative to the flow in pipe
1. The reverse is true for ΔQ from loop 2.
• New Q in Pipe 7 =
 New flow distribution

When we do the next iteration, you will find that both ΔQ’s
will be less than 0.001. That is small enough.
 Summary
• Careful of signs!
• When in doubt, use the Hazen-Willams
formula to estimate head losses in the
Hardy-Cross method
 CIVE 4307

Lecture 4.1:
Review of HGL and EGL
Siphons
Pressure Surge and Water Hammer
 Review of HGL and EGL
• Hydraulic grade line -> P/γ + z
• Physical meaning: insert a pitot tube into the
pipe, water will rise to the level of the
hydraulic grade line.
• If the HGL drops below the elevation of the
pipe, we will have negative gauge pressures
• Energy Grade line -> P/γ + z + V2/ ( 2g )

• The EGL only changes by energy dissipation

from friction and minor losses, or by pumps

• Slope of the EGL cannot be negative in the

direction of flow, or you won’t have flow in
that direction!
Example of HGL and EGL
Siphons: how do they work?
 Pressure surge and water hammer
• When the flow rate in a pipe network is
changed, pipes and valves will be stressed by
forces resulting from the change in momentum
of the fluid:

dM dv
= rAL = F = D PA
dt dt
A is cross-sectional area

L
 If the rate of decrease of the flow is relatively slow,
we may assume the water is incompressible, and
calculate the force on the valve assuming a constant
density

dM dv
= rAL = F = D PA
dt dt

rL dv/dt =
 Water Hammer
• For a rapid or sudden decrease in velocity, we
cannot ignore compressibility
• A pressure wave will travel back from the
valve against the normal flow direction
• This pressure wave may be severe enough to
burst the pipe
• Water hammer may frequently occur in a pipe
network due to opening and closing valves
and pump breakdowns
Some water hammer videos

http://www.kirsner.org/pages/ToiletWaterhammer.h
tml
 Pressure wave oscillation due to Water
Hammer
• Closing of valve generates a pressure wave
back against the flow
• When the wave arrives at the reservoir, some
of the pressurized fluid in the pipe will
discharge to the reservoir, creating a negative
pressure wave moving back towards the valve
• The wave is reflected back from the valve
again. This process repeats itself until the
wave is damped out by frictional losses
Pressure and velocity dissipation in pipe over time
after sudden valve closure
 We can solve for the initial magnitude of
the pressure wave using conservation of
momentum
• “When a valve is closed the water will decelerate
rapidly and the pressure will rise, but as the pressure
rises the fluid will compress a small amount and the
pipe will expand a small amount, absorbing some of
the energy and restricting the pressure rise to a finite
value. Determining this finite value is very important,
as it must be kept below the maximum allowable
working pressure of the pipe to avoid damage to the
system”
Mays, 2005
Using the equation we obtained for a pressure surge, we can
calculate the increase in pressure as a function of the wave
velocity

dv
rD x = DP BUT , now we replace
dt L by some delta x

D x = Vc D t

rVcV = D P

Vc ?
 Determining Vc, the wave velocity
• If we assume a rigid pipe, the change in volume of
the fluid with original density must be equal to the
change in the volume of fluid in the compressed
region:

rVA - r(vc t ) A + ( r + D r) vc tA = 0

Dr V DP By Definition
= = E =ΔP/(Δρ/ρ)
r vc E

VE E
vc = =
DP r
Control volume for equation on previous
slide
mass entering compressed zone
=rV

mass exiting = delta r Vc

 Expression for vc for non-rigid pipe
• The above derivation was for rigid pipes only,

• Vc is a function of pipe stiffness and soil conditions

for soft pipes

æEé 1 ùö
Vc = ç ê ú ÷
ç r ê1 + (D / t w )(E / E p )k ú ÷
è ë ûø
Value of k for soft pipes
 Example
• A cast iron pipe, 20 cm in diameter, flowing
from a reservoir to a valve is suddenly closed.
The flow rate was 40 l /s. If Ewater is 2.17 x
109 N / m2, calculate the water hammer
pressure rise for a rigid pipe.

desity of water x Vc x V
 How to protect pipelines against water
hammer
• Bypass valves or surge tanks:
CIVE 4307

Lecture 4.2
Pumps I
 Types of Pumps
• The role of pumps is to impart energy to the fluid

• Kinetic energy (or Rotodynamic) pumps – Impart

energy to the fluid using impellers, commonly
used for water distribution (We will be using this
type of pump in this course!)
• Positive displacement pumps – Have moving
parts that actually “push” on the fluid, displacing
a specific volume of fluid per rotation of the
pump rotor, they are mostly used for highly
viscous fluids
One commonly used kinetic energy pump in
water distribution is the centrifugal pump,
where water exits the pump in a radial
direction away from the impeller
What is the head the pump must impart for a
given system
 What is the total head the pump
must over come?
• Ht – The total dynamic head

• Ht = Δz +S Hf + S Hm

• Minor losses and pipe friction losses for

both downstream and upstream sides of
pump
Pump Performance Charts are also commonly
expressed with curves relating Ht to Q

The system curve is a relationship between Q and Ht that is

dictated by the pipe network the pump is placed in!
 Required Power and Pump
efficiency
• How to calculate the power required to achieve
a certain Ht
• The power delivered to the fluid is :
• P= y Q Ht
• However, due to friction losses and separation
phenomena within the pump, the power
delivered to the impeller is not the same as
imparted to the fluid
• Pm= y Q Ht / e ,
where e is pump efficiency
 How to determine efficiency
• The two parameters of pump performance are Ht and e
• Both parameters are complex functions of pipe size, impeller
speed and flow rate
• However, we can express the parameters as functions of
dimensionless variables, to aid in determination of experimental
relationships
• Ht is straightforward, g ht / ( w2D2)
• For e, we can use dimensional analysis to show that e is a
function of two dimensionless factors, though we can consider
the viscous forces to play a small role in efficiency for most
pumps
æ Q rwD 2 ö
e= fç 3 , ÷
è wD µ ø
æ Q ö
e= fç 3÷
è wD ø
 Pump efficiency charts
• For pumps of different sizes but with the same
geometry, unique relationships between the
two dimensionless variables, g ht / ( w2D2) and
Q/ ( wD3), and e can be determined
experimentally
• For a given point on the curve defining the
relationship between g ht / ( w2D2) and Q/ (
wD3),

wQ1/ 2
= ns
( gh )
t
3/ 4
• The constant ns is called the specific
speed.
• In the United States, charts are commonly
expressed in terms of Ns, where Ns = wQ0.5
/ (ht0.75) , The respective units for the right
hand terms are revolutions per minute,
gallons per minute, and feet
 Example of pump efficiency chart:
You should maintain Q between 70% and 130% of the
flow rate that gives maximum efficiency
Or alternatively (and more
simply!)
 Affinity laws (or how changing pump speed changes the pump
curve)

• Also arising from the two dimensionless

variables for pump performance, we can
relate the characteristics of geometrically
similar pumps or changing variables for a
single pump:
• Q1 / ( w1D13) = Q2 / ( w2D23)

• Ht1 / (w12D12) = Ht2 / (w22D22)

• For the same pump working at different
speeds, we can derive from the
relationships on the previous slide:
• Q1/Q2 = w1/ w2

• H1 / H2 = w 1 2 / w 2 2
 Example
• The performance curve for a pump with a
1000 rpm motor is given by h=12-0.2Q2

• What is the performance curve if the

speed is lowered to 500 rpm?
 Example pump problem
• Determine the operating point and
discharge for a system where two
reservoirs are connected by a 20 m long
pipe, diameter 20 cm made out of cast
iron. Assume fully turbulent flow and a
friction factor of 0.02. The elevation
difference between the reservoirs is 5 m.
Ignore minor losses. Use performance
curve for the largest size pump in the
example pump chart.
 The system curve
• Requirements of the system as to the
relation between ht and Q
• Refer back to the equation for ht earlier in
the lecture:
• Ht =
CIVE 4307

Lecture 9
Pumps II:
NPSH
Multiple pumps
Boring you are… do something
useful, and make with the soft
cat food you must
 Cavitation and pumps
• Cavitation, the formation of air voids (bubbles),
occurs spontaneously when the absolute
pressure of the fluid drops below the saturated
vapour pressure
• These bubbles are transported through the
system, and when the pressure rises above the
vapour pressure, the bubbles collapse
• The collapse of the bubbles induces very large
localized pressures where the fluid rushes in to
fill the space left by the air bubbles
• This results in pitting and erosion of pumps and
pipe surfaces
Damage to a turbine from
cavitation
 Applications of cavitation
• Aids in mixing of suspensions, breaking apart
flocculated particles
• Similarly used to breakup organic material to
assist in disinfection of drinking water
• Underwater projectile and torpedo design:
“Supercavitation” used to reduce viscous drag
and therefore achieve very high speeds -> The
Soviet Shkval torpedo, rumored to reach speeds
as high as 300 mph, compared to 80 mph for
conventional torpedoes
“Supercavitation” – large air bubble
created around object travelling
quickly through water
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)
• Pump manufacturers will specify a required
NPSH to avoid cavitation

• Actual NPSH is the difference between the head

at the inlet side of the pump and the head
required to cause cavitation

• The required NPSH is greater than the cavitation

head at the inlet because the impellers will
decrease the pressure within the body of the
pump!
The required NPSH is a function of flow rate
and is often given with the performance
curve
• For example, if we have a reservoir on the
upstream side of the pump:

• NPSHactual = (Absolute Pressure head at

pump inlet + velocity head)– Pv / γ

• NPSHactual needs to be less then NPSHreq

(from the pump curve)
• Why do we include velocity head..true
velocity head inside in the pump is
accounted by NPSHreq
NPSH calc

0.2m diameter
20 m long
f=0.02
if pump is halfway
Do Bernouill from reservoir 2.5 m elevation
What is NPSH?
Review…we got 0.34 m^3/s as q

so our second analysis point is inlet side of pump

 Example
• For our problem above, assume our pump
is in the middle, and ignore minor losses.
Assume the temperature is 15 degrees C.

• Compare our calculated NPSH with

required NPSH from pump chart
 Affinity laws (or how changing pump speed changes the pump
curve)

• Also arising from the two dimensionless

variables for pump performance, we can
relate the characteristics of geometrically
similar pumps or changing variables for a
single pump:
• Q1 / ( w1D13) = Q2 / ( w2D23)

• Ht1 / (w12D12) = Ht2 / (w22D22)

• For the same pump working at different
speeds, we can derive from the
relationships on the previous slide:
• Q1/Q2 = w1/ w2

• H1 / H2 = w 1 2 / w 2 2
 Example
• The performance curve for a pump with a
500 rpm motor is given by h=12-0.2Q2

• What is the performance curve if the

speed is increased to 1000 rpm?
 Multi-pump systems
• Performance curves of individual pumps
may not meet the system demands, or not
meet them at a good pump efficiency

• To overcome high head losses, pumps in

series are used

• To manage high or variable flowrates,

parallel pumps are used
Performance curves of pumps in
parallel and in series
 60

50
Performance curve

40 two in series
Head (m)

two in parallel
30

20

10 25-68Q^2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
cubic metres per second
 120

100
Performance curve

80 Double impeller speed

Head (m)

60

40

20

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
cubic metres per second
 CIVE 4307

Lecture 6.1
Design considerations for water
distribution systems
Storage tank design
Per capita water use in Canada

Source: Environment Canada

 Ontario guidelines for water
demand
• Use actual data, or consider historical data
(likely 300-400 litres per day for mean
demand per capita)
• Peak flows – Use Maximum Daily Demand
plus Fire Flow, or peak hour, whatever is
larger
• MDD =average daily flow x factor
• Peak hour = average hour x factor
• Minimum hour =“
 From Ont. Guidelines
https://www.ontario.ca/document/design-
guidelines-drinking-water-systems/general-design-
consideration-and-source-development
 Needed Fire Flow, NFF
(sometimes RFF required fireflow)
• This value varies from jurisdiction to
jurisdiction, but from Ontario guidelines on
application of the buildling code, the
maximum required fireflow is 9000 litres
per minute, for 30 minutes
• See
http://www.mcscs.jus.gov.on.ca/english/FireMarshal/Legislation/Tec
hnicalGuidelinesandReports/TG-1999-03.html#P101_13056
 Components of a distribution
system
• Intake structures
• Pumps
• Storage structures (Water towers,
reservoirs)
• Distribution network (pipe network to and
within the city)
 Intake structures
• Locate below water level to avoid entrainment of surface
debris
• If danger of ice, locate below ice level
• Maximum intake velocity (0.15 m/s) to avoid sucking in
fish
• Minimum velocity in the pipe (0.5 m/s) to avoid
sedimentation
 Distribution Networks
• Water can be distributed by gravity or pumps,
directly from the supply or from a storage
structure
Design requirements for distribution
pipes
• Diameter:
• Transmission lines, carrying water up to 3
km: 600 mm
• Arterial mains, carrying water no more
than 1km: 400mm.
• For distribution mains, 300 mm to 150 mm
• Min 150 mm, 200 mm for high density
residences or facilities, 300 mm for
principal streets
Allowable velocities and pressures
• Maximum : To reduce friction losses and
damage due to cavitation
• < 1.5 m/s under normal operating conditions
• Pressures: at least 240 kPa needs to be
maintained for good supply to residential
dwellings and to prevent ingress of waters from
soil into pipe network
• Maximum pressure 650 kPa to reduce leakage
and wear on pipe system
 Examples of Pipe material
• Ductile iron pipe, common diameters up to
760 mm
• Steel pipe, better performance for large
pipes (Diameter > 400 mm)
• PVC pipe, typically used for small (< 300
mm) diameter pipes. Weaker than above
pipes, also permeable to non-polar organic
contaminants, r = 0.0015 mm
 Pipe burial
• Trench or trenchless technology
• In our climate, pipes must be buried
greater than 2.5 m to avoid freezing.
• Either buried in backfill, or pushed through
soil with trenchless technology
Stresses in pipe-soil interaction
• For buried pipe, a more rigid design is not
necessarily better!
 Storage systems
• Elevated Tanks, Standpipes, or Underground
storage
• Can ensure adequate water to meet varying
demands, while allowing supply from treatment
plant to arrive at constant rate
• Often located on the other side of a city from the
treatment plant, to serve as emergency supply of
water if treatment plant fails
Elevated Water Storage Tanks
 Design of a water storage tank
• The variation of water pressure in the
normal operating range (typically less than
6 m in head) should be restricted to the
upper part of the tank, the lower half of the
tank is for fire and emergency situations
• The minimum pressure required in the
distribution network is 240 kPa, therefore
the midpoint of the tank is designated as
25 m plus the maximum head loss to any
delivery point in the distribution network
• For emergency conditions, the minimum
pressure required is 140 kPa
• Size of tank restricted by structural and
foundation concerns:
• 30,000 m3 is the largest tank in current use
• The storage required to meet the peak
demand should be 25% of the maximum
daily demand volume
• Recall, volume required for fire flow is NFF
x required duration
• The emergency supply is usually
considered the amount of water needed to
meet one day’s average demand
Water tower design requirements
 Example
• Design a system of external water tanks to serve
a community for the next 20 years. The
population in 1996 was 12,000, in 2001 was
14,000, and was 17,000 in 2006.
• The critical head loss is 7 m (greatest headloss
from storage facility in any part of the network).
Assume a flat topography.
• Consider emergency supply for fire, where the
critical NFF is 10 000 l/min
CIVE 4307 Lecture 6.2

Introduction to open channel flow

Uniform flow
The Manning equation
 The free surface
• Open channel flow is flow with a “free
surface”
• That is, flow in which there is a boundary
characterized by P = 0 (gauge)
• Transient flow problems with a free
surface are a challenging area in fluid
mechanics – moving boundary condition!
• However, we will consider only steady flow
 Some videos of open channel
flow
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PEp22TM
poHA

http://serc.carleton.edu/details/files/19076.ht
ml
 Energy equations
• The energy equation for open channel flow can
be derived similar to the Bernouilli equation for
full flow in pipes, by the relationship:
• ΔE = SFd
• Change in energy is equal to the work done
(Refer to earlier lecture)
• The principle difference is pressure:
Pressures will remain hydrostatic in open
channel flow
Schematic of open channel flow

Specific Energy: the depth of the flow plus the velocity head
The energy equation for steady channel flow
is
P1 V1 2 P2 V2 2
1) + z1 + a1 = + z2 + a 2 + hl
g 2g g 2g

V1 2 V2 2
2) y1 + z1 + a1 = y2 + z2 + a 2 + hl
2g 2g

Where V is the average velocity, and a is a velocity correction factor,

which depends on the geometry of the cross-section.

Equation 2 follows from Equation 1 by applying the energy equation along

the channel bottom

For uniform flow, y1 = y2 and Sf = hl/ L = (z1-z2) / L

 To obtain an expression for the average
velocity as a function of wall shear stress,
we can analyze the momentum equation for
uniform flow
• Recall SF = ma = dM/dt
• Looking at flow, we can express the
change in momentum with time
between two points as ρQ(V1-V2) for
steady flow
• But for uniform flow, V1=V2
Then the momentum equation becomes :

γALsinf - twPL = 0

Where P is the wetted perimeter. Solving for tw

t w = gRS 0
Where S0 is the slope, (for small slope S0 = sinf), R is the
hydraulic radius

This equation applies only for uniform flow. For non-uniform

steady flow the more general equation is
tw= γRSf
 How do we find velocity
• From dimensional analysis, for turbulent
flow, t0= Cf ρV2/2
• Combining this equation with the previous
equation yields V = (2g/Cf)0.5(RS0)0.5
• Setting C = (2g/Cf)0.5 we obtain the Chezy
equation for uniform channel flow,
postulated from experiments in 1775:
• V = C (RS0)0.5
 The Manning equation
• In the 1890’s , Robert Manning found that
Chezy’s C value was related to the innate
roughness of the material and the geometry of
the channel:
• C=1/n R1/6
• From this comes the Manning equation:
1 2 / 3 1/ 2
V = R S0 SI Units
n

149
.
V = 2/3
R S0 1/ 2
Im perial Units
n
 Manning equation is the most
commonly used, but requires two
assumptions to be satisfied
• The flow is hydraulically rough:
• - n6(RSf)0.5 > 9.6 x 10-14

• The flow is fully turbulent:

• Re > 105 , where Re = ρV (4R) / µ

 Uniform flow versus flow after a
transition in slope geometry
• Uniform flow takes a while to develop,
needs to develop for a constant geometry
and slope
 Example
• A rectangular channel 5 m wide is to
convey 3 m3/s down a slope of 2%. Using
a roughness coefficient of 0.015,
determine the normal depth of flow.
V= (1/ n) R(2/3) S0(1/2)

Q=V A V = 0.3 m3 /s / 5y = (5y/(5+2y))^2/3 *

0.02^(0.5)
A=5m
x depht Solve iteratively
(y)
y=
R= A/P =
5y/
(5+2y)
 CIVE 4307
March 2 2021
Lecture 7.1
Specific energy
Sub and supercritical flow
 Review
• Last class, we looked at the Manning equation
for calculating the average velocity of open
channel flow for a given slope, flow rate, cross-
sectional area, and bed material.
• The Manning equation is for uniform flow, where
the gravitational forces due to slope are
balanced out by the frictional forces
• Recall from the example, that we can find a
given depth and velocity using the Manning
equation
 Uniform flow versus flow after a
transition in slope geometry
• Uniform flow takes a while to develop,
needs to develop for a constant geometry
and slope

But if we have a change in geometry,

how does the velocity and height of the flow vary?
We need to consider the energy
equation for open channels

Specific Energy: the depth of the flow plus the velocity head
 Specific energy
• Specific energy, is the energy head of the
flow with respect to the channel bottom:
• E = y +α v2/2g
• Where y is the flow depth, and v is the
average velocity through the cross-section
• This is a “snapshot” of the flow energy –
there is no dependency on the slope or
roughness of the channel
 Interesting things about this
eqn.
• E = y +α v2/2g

• For a constant E, and a constant Q…there

are often two possible solutions for y and v

• There is one solution with high y and low v

- called subcritical
• The reverse solution is called supercritical
 Use of specific energy
• From our energy equation for open
channel flow, we can see that the change
in specific energy from point to point is:
• E1-E2=hL+Δz
• For problems where there is a change in
slope, or geometry of channel, we can use
the above equation to find the new depth
of flow, given we know the upstream
specific energy E1
 Relationship between Flow and
Specific Energy
• We can substitute Q / A for v in the
specific energy equation, and assuming…:
• E= y + Q2/ (2 gA2)
• For a rectangular channel of width b x y,
we can rewrite the above equation in
terms of discharge q (Q/b):
• E = y + q2/ (2 gy2)
• Then expressing either y as a function of E
for constant q, or y as a function of q for
constant E
• We find there is a critical flow depth, at
which the specific energy is at a minimum
• For a given Q and E, there are two
possible flow regimes, for E > Ecrit
• Subcritical is the flow regime with y > yc
and a velocity lower than the critical
velocity
• Supercritical is the flow regime with y < yc
and a velocity faster than the critical
velocity
 Froude Number
• The Froude number is a dimensionless
variable that relates gravitational to inertial
forces
• Fr = V / (gy)0.5
• Fr < 1 for subcritical flow, > 1 for
supercritical flow
• Using Fr=1, we can relate the critical
velocity to the critical depth for any cross-
sectional geometry
 Example: Flow over a hump
• Water flows through a rectangular channel
0.5 m wide at a rate of 0.75 m3/s. The
normal flow depth is 1.0 m. What will
happen at the point where the bed is
raised a) 0.1 m b) 0.5 m?
 We see from our solution that there is a
maximum rise in the bed elevation that can
be sustained by the upstream normal depth

But in reality, there is nothing to stop us from continuing

to increase the bed elevation! So what happens?
What happens when we
Have a vertical or horizontal contraction
Of the flow, such that the specific energy
Would fall below the minimum value at
the contraction?

This cannot occur, so the contraction will

force an increase in the upstream depth!

This is why structures such as weirs are

referred to as control structures
What happen’s after we get critical flow
over the hump?
See video
http://serc.carleton.edu/details/files/190
76.html
A similar procedure can be used for
horizontal contractions
Design critieria for Normal depth
• is the flow depth for uniform flow over a constant
slope at a constant flow rate through a constant
cross-sectional geometry
• Can be either supercritical or subcritical,
• Tends to be supercritical for steeper slopes
• We want to avoid designing channels where the
normal flow depth approaches the critical flow
depth -> flow is unsteady
• Keep Fr > 1.13 or < 0.86
 Critical depth for non-rectangular
channels
• The Froude equation may also be written,
at the critical depth, as:
• Fr2=1= Q2T / ( g A3)
• T is the top width of a channel with an
irregular cross-section
 CIVE 4307
March 10th
Lecture 8.1
Gradually varied flow profiles
Introduction to hydraulic jump
Part I: Water surface profile equations
• For the shape of flows diverging or converging
from uniform flow, expressions can be derived
from the energy equation
d æ v 2 ö dy æ Q 2 dA ö
S 0 - S f = çç y + ÷÷ = çç1 - 3 ÷÷
dx è 2 g ø dx è gA dy ø

dy (S 0 -Sf )
Recall:
= Fr2=1= Q2T / ( g A3)
dx 1 - Fr 2
 Qualitative interpretation of the GVF
equation
• So = Sf , this means the flow is
• What can the above equation tell us about the
direction of the slope (curving up or down?)
 The value of the slope depends on the signs in the
numerator and the denominator of the profile
equation

• To evaluate the numerator, we can derive an

expression for the ratio for Sf and So using the
Manning equation
• Sf / So = ( AnRn2/3 / AR2/3 )2

• Where the subscript n denotes

• Therefore Sf > So when y ? yn

 For the denominator
• The value of Fr2 depends on the relation of y to yc
….The froude number is larger than 1 for what type
of flow?

• 1- Fr2 < 0 when y ? Yc

• Therefore, the relation of the actual depth, y, to the

normal and critical depths, will tell us the sign of the
slope of the water profile (dy/dx)
Examples of water surface profiles
 Computation of gradually varied profiles
(GVF) using water profile slope equation

Say we want to find how long it will take to reach the

normal depth either upstream or downstream of the
critical depth in the geometry below
• One way is by numerical integration, calculate
Δy for a given small Δx using the profile
equation, and recalculate Sf at each step
• Using the general equation
dy / dx = (S0-Sf) / ( 1-Fr2)
 If the channel geometry does not change
we can use a simpler approach
• Water surface profiles can be calculated using
the energy equation, if we use an “average” Sf
term:
• ΔL = [ y1 + v12/(2g) – y2- v22/(2g) ] / ( Sf ave – S0)
• Sf average is the average of Sf at the beginning
and end of delta L
 Example
• We know the depth of a rectangular channel
at a certain section is 4 m high, with a width of
30 m, and an average velocity of 0.4 m/s.
Calculate the depth 100 m upstream. The
channel is lined with concrete (n of 0.015).
The slope is 4%
 We calculate the normal depth using..?

We calculate the critical

depth using..?

What does this tell us about the slope of the water surface,
and the kind of flow we have?
 CIVE 4307
Lecture 8.2
Hydraulic jump
 Hydraulic jump
• A case where we need to transition from
supercritical to subcritical to come back to the
normal depth downstream

• But this cannot occur through GVF!

Gate above critical depth
Gate just below critical depth
As gate opening decreases past original supercritical
depth,
upstream depth increases
Flow through a sluice gate
Hydraulic jump from supercritical to
subcritical
Video of hydraulic jump

http://viswiki.com/en/Hydraulic_jump
Water profile upstream of gate will
follow a GVF profile, if gate opening less This depth is the normal depth for
than the critical depth uniform flow, or follows a GVF profile
if there is a nearby downstream control or
change in channel geometry

Flow between vena contracta

And first conjugate depth is GVF

Vena contracta, occurs approximately at a distance h from

the gate, where h is the height of the opening under the gate
Water profile upstream of gate will
follow a GVF profile, if gate opening less This depth is the normal depth for
than the critical depth uniform flow, or follows a GVF profile
if there is a nearby downstream control or
change in channel geometry

Flow between vena contracta

And first conjugate depth is GVF

Vena contracta, occurs approximately at a distance h from

the gate, where h is the height of the opening under the gate
 Problem
• A rectangular channel is 1 m wide with a slope of
0.5%, and a roughness of 0.02. When a vertical
gate is placed such that the gate opening is 0.3 m,
the upstream depth increases to 0.8 m.

• A) What is the flow rate?

• B) What will be the conjugate depths of the
hydraulic jump, if there is no change in channel
geometry for several km downstream of the
gate?
Height and location of vena contracta
• The height of the vena contracta , for a
“sharp” vertical gate is 0.6 the height of the
gate opening, yg
• The distance from the gate is yg
• The depth upstream of the gate can be
calculated using the specific energy equation
with reference to the height of the VC
 Solution to part A
• So, we know the subcritical and supercritical
solutions to the specific energy equation....
 How do we calculate the depth of flow
before or after the hydraulic jump (called
the conjugate depths)
• In the transition from super to sub, there is
significant energy loss -> Can’t use the energy
equation
• But we can use the momentum equation

y1 y2 æ Q Qö
gA1 - gA2 = rQç - ÷ Re c tan gular Channel
2 2 è A2 A1 ø
Momentum equation for rectangular
channel

2 2
1 2 Q 1 Q
gy1 + 2 = gy2 + 2
2
2 B y1 2 B y2
The problem definition gives us one of
the conjugate depths
• The upstream condition is uniform flow, so
therefore the upstream depth is the..?
 Position of the jump
• The jump will occur when the upstream and
downstream profile depths, separated by the length
of the hydraulic jump, match the conjugate depths
• The length of the jump is given by the empirical
equation:

L/y1 =220 tanh ((Fr1-1)/22)

• And the ratio of the conjugate depths are given by

applying the momentum equation across the jump
 Procedure for calculating position
• Plot profile following downstream from the
vena contracta
• Plot profile of conjugate depths to this profile
• The position of the jump will approximately be
where the plot of the conjugate depths
intersects the upstream GVF profile
 Position of the jump
2. Plot conjugate depth of M3 profiles using momentum
equation
EF is length of the jump

1. Plot GVF profiles

 Submerged discharge from a gate
• This occurs when the downstream height
given by the GVF profile is greater than the
conjugate depth of the vena contracta
Submerged case
 CIVE 4307
Lecture 9.1

Design of open channels

 Weirs

Designed to induce critical flow, in order to

determine Q!
For a v-shaped weir
 Channel design criteria
• Best Hydraulic section to carry a given
flow

• Sedimentation

• Erosion / damage to channel lining

 Limiting cost of channel
construction: Best Hydraulic
section
• Find the minimal area for a given Q
• Rearrange the Manning equation to:
• A=(Qn/So1/2)3/5P2/5

• (Qn/So1/2)3/5 is a constant independent of

channel geometry, A and P are functions
of the water depth for a given channel
shape
For example, compare rectangular
vs trapezoid cross sections

W
 Minimum permissible velocity

• Applicable to rigid channels

• To prevent sediment build up on the
bottom (Varies, depends on sediment
type, load)
• To prevent vegetative growth ( V > 0.75
m/s)
 Channel slopes
• Maximum values are limited by the soil
conditions and the strength of the channel
lining.
• USBR recommends 1.5:1 H:V for concrete
channels
 Freeboard
• The minimum depth between the top of
the channel and the free surface
• Some equations are given in the textbook,
a good rule of thumb is 0.30 m.
 Maximum shear stress -> erosion
prevention
• The maximum shear stress on the channel can
be approximated by ρgy Sf
• This is shear stress at a point , not the average
shear force ρgR Sf
• For unlined channels, the maximum permissible
shear stress can be found as a function of the
particle diameter for cohesionless bed material
(e.g. sands), or void ratio for cohesive material
(e.g. clayey soils)
Maximum bed shear stress for
cohesion-less soils
 Example of stress distribution
Trapezoidal cross-section

The maximum shear stress on the walls of the channel may be greater than
ρgySf for steep slopes and narrow bottom widths (up to 110% of the
predicted value)
 Maximum
bed
shear stress,
cohesive
soils

(Critical shear
stress for
cohesive soils is
at the bottom)
Distribution of shear stresses
around a bend
 Coefficient
accounting for
acceleration of
water around a
bend
B is the bottom
width
 “Unlined or flexible” channels
• Natural bare soil, vegetation, riprap, wooden
planks or logs
• Vegetation – either slow moving channel, or
intermittently flowing channel will allow
vegetation to grow
• Riprap – either gravel size or stone to boulder
size
• Advantages: promotes infiltration, contaminant
attentuation (filtration, adsorption into soil)
• Disadvantages:
 Vegetation lined channels
Advantages: Intermittent runoff control, improves
infiltration, minimizes erosion
Disadvantages: Flow can only be intermittent to permit
vegetation to survive
Vegetation for unlined channels
Vegetati
Cover Condition
on Class
Weeping Lovegrass Yellow bluestem Excellent stand, tall (average 30¡±)
A
Ischaemum Excellent stand, tall (average 36¡±)
Kudzu Bermuda grass Native grass Very dense growth, uncut Good stand,
mixture (little bluestem, bluestem, blue tall (average 12¡±) Good stand,
grama, other long and short Midwest unmowed Good stand, tall (average
grasses) Weeping Lovegrass Lespedeza 24¡±) Good stand, not woody, tall
serices Alfalfa Weeping lovegrass (average 19¡±) Good stand, uncut
Kudzu Brome, smooth Tall Fescue Tall (average 11¡±) Good stand, unmowed
B Fescue with Birdsfoot Trefoil Grass – (average 13¡±) Dense growth, uncut
Legume mixture – Timothy, Smooth Good stand, mowed (average 12¡± to
Bromegrass, or Orchardgrass Blue 15¡±) Good stand, uncut (average 18¡±)
grama Good stand, uncut (average 18¡±) Good
stand, uncut (average 20¡±) Good stand,
uncut (average 13¡±)

Crabgrass Bermuda grass Red top Fair stand, uncut (10¡± to 48¡±) Good
Common lespedeza Grass-legume stand, mowed (average 6¡±) Good stand,
mixture - Summer (orchard grass, headed (15¡± to 20¡±) Good stand, uncut
C redtop, Italian ryegrass, and common (average 11¡±) Good stand, uncut (6 to 8
lespedeza) Centipedegrass Kentucky inches) Very dense cover (average 6
bluegrass inches) Good stand, headed (6 to 12
inches)
Bermuda grass Common lespedeza Good stand, cut to 2.5¡± height
Buffalo grass Grass-legume mixture fall, Excellent stand, uncut (average 4.5¡±)
spring (orchard grass, redtop, Italian Good stand, uncut (3¡± to 6¡±) Good
D ryegrass, and common lespedeza) stand, uncut (4¡± to 5¡±) Good stand, cut
Kentucky Bluegrass or Lespedeza to 2¡± height. Very good stand before
sericea Red Fescue cutting. Good stand (headed (12¡± to
18¡±)
Bermuda grass Bermuda grass Good stand, cut to 1.5¡± height Burned
E
stubble
Permissible shear stress by
vegetation class

Vegetation Permissible Shear Stress Average Height, h ft. Stiffness, MEI

Class lbs./ft2 lb.¡¤ ft2

A 3.7 3.0 725

B 2.1 2.0 50

C 1.0 0.66 1.2

D 0.6 0.33 0.12

E 0.35 0.13 0.012

Permissible stresses for road
drainage channels
 Rigid channels
• Concrete, grouted brick or stone, asphalt
• Advantages: Smaller losses into soil, can
convey higher flows, resistant to erosion
• Disadvantages: Rigid linings are
susceptible to swelling / shrinkage cycles -
> Solution: Use well-draining backfill
(expensive)
 Design procedure for erosion
susceptible lining
• Determine maximum permissible shear stress
based on liner material
• Select channel shape, slope, and design
discharge
• Determine Manning’s coefficient
• Calculate the normal depth using Manning’s
equation
• Accounting for channel bends, determine the
maximum shear stress on the channel bottom
and side slopes. If unsatisfactory, the shear
stress must be reduced by altering the channel
geometry, or a different lining used
Design procedure rigid channels
• As above, use Manning’s coefficient to
determine the normal depth of flow
• Check on minimum possible velocity and
on the Froude number, Fr < 0.8 to ensure
stable subcritical flow and V < 2.1 m/s to
minimize stress on lining – If there are
long durations of supercritical flow in a
channel, reinforced concrete is
recommended
 Review of maximum shear
stress
• Calculate shear stress at bottom of
channel , τb = γ y Sf

• Calculate shear stress at side of channel,

τs = Ks τb ,where Ks has a value of 1.1

• If there is a bend, the maximum shear

stress in the bend is τr = Kr τb
 Permissible shear stress
• Obtain permissible shear stress, τb‘ from
charts

• If τb ‘ ‘ > τr

Then design OK
 CIVE 4307
Lecture 9.2
Design of Sanitary Sewers
Sanitary and storm sewer
 Sanitary sewers
• Though sewers are underground and flow
in pipes, they flow only partially full

• Therefore we use open channel flow

principles to design sanitary sewers
 Design flows
• Service flows: domestic, industrial, etc

• Infiltration from soils into pipe and flows

into sewer vents and leaky manholes
 Wastewater generation
• Domestic:
In NA: 60-80% of water supply ends up as
wastewater – some losses due to
evaporation, gardening
• In US, per capita generation ranges from
400 to 1000 l/d
• In cities, population ranges from 75 to
2500 people / hectare)
 Inflow and infiltration
• These rates can vary substantially,
depending on the quality of installation and
ages of the sewer, the soil conditions,
depth of the water table.
• Will peak during and after rainfall events
• US EPA guidelines specify a maximum of
140 litres/day / mm diameter/ km length
 Typical response of wastewater flow due to
increases in inflow and infiltration following a
storm
 Total design flows: Qpeak and Qmin
• Calculate Qave for a given area from population
density and the per capita flow, plus any
contributions in the area from industrial or
commercial sources (Ignore infiltration and
inflows)
• Calculate Qpeak = Qave x 5.5/ p0.18
• Where p is the population in the service area in
thousands (p minimum =1)
• Qmin= Qave x 0.2p0.16
• Infiltration and Inflow is then added to obtain the
design peak flow
 Design limits
• We need to ensure Vmin > 0.60 m/s to
prevent buildup of gunk

• We need to ensure h/D < 0.75 and that V

< 3.5 m/s

( When h/D approaches 1, trapped air pockets

may be pressurized and damage pipelines )
 Design Method 1
• Manning’s equation for partially full pipe:
• A, P, and h can be expressed as a
function of q
• Using Manning’s equation, we can obtain
an equation with q as the only unknown:
• q-2/3(q-sin q)5/3 - 20.16nQminD-8/3S0-1/2 = 0
• Have to solve iteratively
Definition of θ in Manning equation
for partially full pipe
 Design Method 2
US Army Corps of Engineers Solution to partial pipe flow
 What value of n to use?
• Accumulation of crud on sides of pipe
• nfull is about 0.013 (US ARMY Corps of
Engineers), but experiments show this
varies with depth of flow (See previous
table)
 Design parameters of individual
pipes
• Range of materials used: concrete, clay, cast or
ductile iron, PVC
• Minimum diameter typically 8 inchs
• Minimum slope of 1%, 2% preferable
• Minimum horizontal separation of 3 m, 0.5 m
vertical separation between sewers and water
mains
• Regular manhole spacing ~ 100 m, can be
larger for larger pipes
• Depth to avoid frost penetration
 Hydrogen Sulphide generation
• H2S is formed under anaerobic conditions
through the reduction of sulphates, which are
present in the original wastewater, to sulphide.
This reaction is catalyzed by Sulphate-reducing
Bacteria.
• H2S is a gas (rotten egg smell), and therefore is
present at the exposed walls of the sewer ->
Under aerobic conditions, H2S will oxidize to
produce H2SO4 on the walls, resusting in
corrosion
• Concrete pipes especially vulnerable to H2S
attack
• 2H2S + 3O2 +2H2O -> 2H2SO4+ 4 H+
• Requires high humidity (Water supply) and
gaseous oxygen
• Severity of the H2S attack has been
characterized experimentally in terms of the
BOD5 of the wastewater:
• Z= 0.308 BOD5 x 1.07T-20 / So1/2 / Q1/3 x P/B
• Where T (C) is the wastewater temperature, P
(m) is wetted perimeter, and B (m) is the top-
width of the flow
• Z < 5000, no significant generation
 Design of Sanitary Sewer :
Example
• Consider a single sewer line proposed for
a new street servicing 10,000 people. The
line will be 2500 m long. Q average is 800
l/capita/d.
• The street slopes away from the existing
sewage line at 1.5 %.
• Determine the required slope of the sewer
line and the necessary diameter.
 CIVE 4307
Lecture March 24 th

Design of Storm sewers

 Where we are
• Last lecture we looked at designing a
single pipe in a sanitary sewer network

• In this class we will learn how to estimate

loading for a single storm sewer pipe
(Runoff)

• Next we will look at systems of sewer

pipes
 Quantification of storm sewer
capacity
• Function of storm sewers is to collect and
redirect overland flow, to prevent flooding
• Overland flow results when capacity of the
ground to absorb precipitation, snow melt,
or fire water is exceeded
• Overland flow function of topography, soil
type, and antecedent moisture conditions
 Rainfall: I-D-F curves
• This data is determined for a specific
location from historical storm data
• Intensity is the average rate of rainfall
during a storm of a particular return period
for a particular duration
• The longer the storm, typically the lower
the intensity
Characterization of storm event: Intensity
duration frequency curves (I-D-F)
 The Rational Method: to predict
peak runoff rate
• Simple method to estimate sewer
capacity, but still in widespread use in
design today
• The peak runoff rate of a storm, Q (m3/s)
• Q = KCiA, where K is 0.28, i is the rainfall
intensity in mm / hr, and A is the area
(km2) draining to the sewers. C is the
runoff coefficient
 The runoff coefficient
• Depends on slope, character of surface,
and return period of storm
• For asphalt

• For mostly grassy area (Coverage > 75%

of area)
Coefficients for the Rational method
 What duration to use to get i ?
• The duration used to find the intensity
must be equal to the time of concentration,
tc, of the catchment area
• The time of concentration should be equal
to td, the time it takes water from the
farthest point in a catchment to reach the
outlet.
• Why?
Assuming rainfall rate is constant,
If tc > td Q?
If tc < td Q?
 What assumed td will give the
highest Q?

Remember, rainfall intensity decreases as td becomes….

 Advantages and disadvantages of
rational method
• Pros: Method is easy to use
• Cons:
- Accurate or conservative for areas < 3 km2
- Assumes a uniform rainfall across area
 Method 1
• Iterative solution using Kinematic wave
equation (Derivation in water resources
textbooks)
• tc = 6.99 L0.6n0.6 / (i0.4S0.3)
• L is length of overland flow from
catchment boundary(m)
• S is the slope, i is the rainfall intensity in
mm / hr, n is Manning’s coefficient for
overland flow
• Guess td , go to I-D-F chart, pick off i
• Calculate t : iterate until t = t
 Solution method 2:
SCS lab equation
• Tc = {100 L0.8 [ (1000/CN) – 9]0.7 }/ [
1900S0.5]
• CN is the SCS runoff curve number
• This method works well for areas less than
2000 acres and for paved areas
• L is in feet
 Method 3
• Assume either 10 or 20 mins for small
catchments
• Rule of thumb
 Example
• Estimate the peak overland flow from a
new 1.6 ha parking lot at Carleton
University for a 5 year return period. “n” is
0.012 and the maximum flow length to the
catchment boundary is 300 m down a 1%
slope.
 Relating Peak flow to sewer line
design
• At any point, the sewer must be capable of
handling the peak flow from all the areas
upstream
• As one moves downstream, the total area,
flow length, and time of concentration will
increase
Example
of sewer
layout in
Urbana,
Illinois
 Critical time of concentration for
downstream sewers
• Evaluate travel time of water from all upstream
sewers, or for water flowing directly overland to
the downstream sewer**
• Travel time for each path= time of concentration
for upstream sewer’s catchment, PLUS time it
takes for water to flow in the pipe from the
upstream sewer to the downstream sewer
• Take the maximum travel time as the time of
concentration for the downstream sewer

** Assume maximum distance of overland flow is 2 subcatchments

Recall, how do we calculate time of
concentration for each sewer
catchment?
 Example: Sewer 2.1
• Catchment Area includes TOTAL area
draining to sewer 2.1, including water
draining from sewers 1.1 and 1.2
• Travel time of water from catchment of 1.1
to sewer 2.1 is the time of concentration
for 1.1 plus the pipe travel time from 1.1 to
2.1
• Travel time in pipe is given by
Calculation table for peak flows in sewer pipe
system
 Total travel time for
Travel times in pipe Time of concentration Water draining into
From 1.1 to 2.1 For total catchment draining
1.1 and then flowing
And 1.2 to 2.1 To Sewer 2.1
In pipe to 2.1
 Sewer design parameters
• Sizing pipes commonly done using the
Manning equation for fully flowing circular
pipe (assume no pressurization, though it
is possible to design assuming
pressurized flow)
• Minimum velocity 0.6 m/s
• Maximum velocity 4.6 m/s for rigid pipe,
3.0 m/s for flexible pipe.
• Minimum size of pipe 0.3 m
• Depth of soil cover to prevent frost
 Backwater analysis of HGL
• We want to make sure HGL is below the
surface of any manholes, in order to
prevent flooding
• We assume Q= Qp, full flow, and work
backwards from the head at the outlet
 Backwater analysis for hydraulic grade: In
practice, one assumes Q=QpFrom Manning eqn.
We can check using DarcyWeisbach equation
Calculated HGL if hf/ L> Pipe slope

P/γ

Calculated HGL if hf/L

< pipe slope
Free Discharge z
P=0 (atmospheric pressure)

Datum
 Is there a contradiction here?
How could we use Manning’s for a pressurized
pipe?
• Manning equation and Hazen-Williams
equation are functionally similar:
• HW: V=0.849CHR0.63Sf0.54

• Manning: V = (1/n) R2/3Sf0.5

• Coefficients are very similar!

 Equations for headloss
• Manning: hf =(1/n)2 LV2 / D4/3
• HW: hf = 6.82 L/D1.17 (V/CH)1.85

• Again, similar equations

What does it mean if HGL is below
the crown of the pipe?
• No longer have full flow
• Open channel flow: for uniform flow So =
Sf
• HGL will actually run parallel to the pipe
 Hydraulic design: Losses
• Flow in sewers may either be open-
channel or pressurized flow
• Transition losses open channel:
• For a contraction: Hl= 0.1 [ V22/ (2g) – V12/
(2g) ]
 Losses for manholes
• For straight-through manholes, K=0.05
• For terminal manholes, K=1
• For junction manholes, with pipes
changing directions or more than one pipe
passing into the manhole, K is given for
different configurations in the attached
notes
Improper design
Design corrected by increasing the
pipe size to lower friction loss
 Example
Design a pipe to drain a 50 hectare airstrip
to a nearby creek in the Ottawa area. The
airstrip slopes down at a 2% slope and
has a maximum flow length of 1 km. The
creek is 2 km distant from the outlet of the
airstrip catchment, and the intervening
land slopes down at 0.1 %. Using this
slope, specify the diameter of the outlet
pipe for a concrete pipe (n= 0.015)
100 yr rain really 100 yr rain?

http://www.cbc.ca/canada/ottawa/story/200
9/07/29/ottawa-flood-west-end-rain.html
 Some projections for Ontario

Source: Projecting Ontario’s future IDF curves and associated potential impacts
using extrapolated and projected climate variables
 Effect of antecedent moisture
• A powerful flood occurred in Darwin, NT,
Australia, in 1991

• But the rain storm was not close to the 100

yr storm

• However, it had been a smaller rain storm

a few days earlier
Example of information used in a sophisticated
runoff model
Delineation of sub-catchments
Groundwater influence
Specific location of rainfall
 CIVE 4307
Lecture 20
Mixing theory for cooling channels
 Environmental effects of
temperature on natural water
bodies
• The discharge of high temperature water
to a natural body may be destructive to the
ecology and water quality of that body
• For instance, the DO saturation limit
decreases as temperature increases
• May alter the natural temperature profile in
surface waters, stressing their ecosystems
Ontario regulations for discharging
thermal plumes
Ambient Temperature Changes
“…..The temperature at the edge of a mixing zone shall not
exceed the natural ambient water temperature at a
representative control location by more than 10C° (18F°).
However, in special circumstances, local conditions may
require a significantly lower temperature difference than
10C° (18F°). ……“

Discharge Temperature Permitted

“……The maximum temperature of the receiving body of
water, at any point in the thermal plume outside a mixing
zone, shall not exceed 30°C (86°F) or the temperature of a
representative control location plus 10C° (18F°) or the
allowed temperature difference, which ever is the lesser
temperature. ……“

From the Ontario Water Resources Act

 What defines a mixing zone?
• Mixing zones are regions of surface water
adjacent to a discharge point for which water
quality parameters will exceed regulations
• In Ontario, the use of mixing zones must satisfy
a number of criteria as specified in MOEE
guidelines, including:
• The mixing zone should not cause mortality of
aquatic life or threaten adjacent ecosystems,
should not be a barrier to travel of aquatic life,
and not impinge on other uses of the water
resource (for example, drinking water
withdrawal, swimming, fishing).
 What are the options available to
reduce water temperature?
• Cooling ponds -> water stored in
reservoirs for a certain time to allowing
cooling
• This method takes large volumes and
occupies large surface area
• An alternative is to design a cooling
channel
Design of cooling channel
Cross-section of cooling channel
“Regular” Hydraulic Jump
Temperature variation in the upper
layer of the channel
 Density of water
• The density of water is a function of
temperature.
• This affects the mixing that occurs in the internal
hydraulic jump
• This is accounted for by replacing g in the
momentum equation by
• g’ = g (ρa – ρ) / ρ
• Where ρ is the density of the overlying water, ρa
is the density at the ambient temperature - in our
case the density of the water in the bottom of the
channel
Equation of state for density of
water
Equations for solution of the IHJ
Conservation of
heat

QoTo = Q1T1
Conservation of Momentum

Note that g’ is a function of temperature T1

The unknowns are T1 and Q1
Equations for GVF region
Loss of heat energy to the
atmosphere,q=T-Tw
h is the heat transfer coefficient

Loss of momentum due to interfacial friction

between water layers
 Boundary conditions
• The contraction at the outlet of the channel
forces critical flow
• Fo = 1
• 1 = Q1 / ( g’bc2yc3)0.5
• We are given Tc and bc, so for an
assumed ratio of Q1 to Q0 we can solve for
yc using the above Froude equation
• Now we can solve for the depth y2 using
the energy equation
 How to obtain the required length
of the channel
• y2 and Tc can be used as a boundary condition
for the GVF equations, which will give us
expression for T and y heading back towards the
IHJ, as a function of some assumed ratio of Q1/
Qo
• The IHJ equations will also give us an
expression for y and T after the hydraulic jump
as a function of Q1/Qo
• These solutions must be matched
• The depth of the channel must be > 3 X
maximum depth of the GVF for this solution to
be valid
Matching GVF and IHJ solutions