Bourdon Pressure gauge

Quantity to be measured : Pressure

Primary sensing element and Variable conversion element : Bourdon

Tube

Data Transmission element : Mechanical Linkages

Variable manipulation Element : Gearing arrangement

Data presentation Element : Pointer and Dial

Static Characteristics of a measuring instrument

Accuracy: Accuracy is defined as the degree of closeness

with which an instrument reading approaches to the
true value of the quantity being measured. It
determines the closeness to true value of instrument
reading. Accuracy is represented by percentage of full
scale reading or in terms of inaccuracy or in terms of
error value. Example, Accuracy of temperature
measuring instrument might be specified by ±3ºC.
Bias: Bias is quantitative term describing the difference
between the average of measured readings made on
the same instrument and its true value (It is a
characteristic of measuring instruments to give
indications of the value of a measured quantity for
which the average value differs from true value).

Precision: Precision is the degree of repeatability of a

series of the measurement. Precision is measures of the
degree of closeness of agreement within a group of
measurements are repeatedly made under the
prescribed condition. Precision is used in measurements
to describe the stability or reliability or the
reproducibility of results.

Sensitivity: Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of change

in output signal (response) to the change in input signal
(measured). It is the relationship indicating how much
output changes when input changes.
Linearity: Linearity is the best characteristics of an
instrument or measurement system. Linearity of the
instrument refers to the output is linearly or directly
proportional to input over the entire range of
instrument. So the degree of linear (straight line)
relationship between the output to input is called as
linearity of an instrument.
Resolution: Resolution or Discrimination is the smallest
change in the input value that is required to cause an
appreciable change in the output. (The smallest
increment in input or input change which can be
detected by an instrument is called as resolution or
discrimination.)

Hysteresis: Hysteresis is Non-coincidence of loading and

unloading curves on output. Hysteresis effect shows up
in any physical, chemical or electrical phenomenon
When input increases, output also increases and
calibration curve can be drawn.
Dead Zone: Dead zone or dead band is defined as the
largest change of input quantity for which there is no
output the instrument due the factors such as friction,
backlash and hysteresis within the system.( The region
upto which the instrument does not respond for an
input change is called dead zone) Dead time is the time
required by an instrument to begin to respond to
change in input quantity.
Backlash: The maximum distance through which one
part of the instrument is moved without disturbing the
other part is called as backlash. (Backlash may be
defined as the maximum distance or angle through
which any part of the instrument can be moved without
causing any motion of next part of the system)
Threshold: The minimum value of input which is
necessary to activate an instrument to produce an
output is termed its threshold. This is the minimum
value below which no output change can be detected
when the input is gradually increased from zero.

Loading Effect: Loading effect is the incapability of the

system to fully measure, record or control the input
signal in accurate form.
Repeatability: Repeatability is defined as the ability of
an instrument to give the same output for repeated
applications of same input value under same
environmental condition.
Reproducibility: Reproducibility is defined as the ability
of an instrument to reproduce the same output for
repeated applications of same input value under
different environment condition. In case of perfect
reproducibility the instrument satisfies no drift
condition.

Dynamic Characteristics

The dynamic behavior of an instrument is determined

by applying some standard form of known and
predetermined input to its primary element (sensing
element) and then studies the output.
Generally dynamic behavior is determined by applying
following three types of inputs.
Step Input: Step change in which the primary element is
subjected to an instantaneous and finite change in
measured variable
Linear Input: Linear change, in which the primary
element follows a measured variable, changing linearly
with time.
Sinusoidal input: Sinusoidal change, in which the
primary element follows a measured variable, the
magnitude of which changes in accordance with a
sinusoidal function of constant amplitude.
The dynamic characteristics of an instrument are (i)
Speed of response, (ii) Fidelity, (iii) Lag, and (iv)
Dynamic error.
Speed of Response: It is the rapidity with which an
instrument responds to changes in the measured
quantity
Fidelity: It is the degree to which an instrument
indicates the changes in the measured variable without
dynamic error.
Lag: It is the retardation or delay in the response of an
instrument to changes in the measured variable. The
measuring lags are two types:
i)Retardation type: In this case the response of an
instrument begins immediately after a change
inmeasured variable is occurred.
ii)Time delay type: In this case the response of an
instrument begins after a dead time after the
application of the input quantity.
Dynamic Error: It is the difference between the true
values of a quantity changing with time and the value
indicated by the instrument, if no static error is
assumed. It is also called as Measurement Error.
All measurements are made without perfect accuracy
(degree of error must always be assumed). In reality, no
measurement can ever made with 100% accuracy. It is
important to find that actual accuracy and different
types of errors can be occurred in measuring
instruments.
Errors may arise from different sources and usually
classified as follows,
1)Gross Errors
2)Systematic Errors
Instrumental errors
i. Inherent shortcomings of instruments
ii. Misuse of instruments
iii. Loading effects
Environmental errors
Observational errors
3) Random errors
1. Gross Errors:
The main source of Gross errors is human mistakes in
reading or using instruments and in recording and
calculating measured quantity. As long as human beings
are involved and they may grossly misread the scale
reading, then definitely some gross errors will be
occurred in measured value.
Example, Due to an oversight, Experimenter may read
the temperature as 22.7oC while the actual reading may
be 32.7oC He may transpose the reading while
recording.
Gross errors can be avoided by using the following two
ways.
-Great care should be taken in reading and recording
the data.
-Two, three or even more readings should be taken for
the quantity being measured by using different
experimenters and different reading point (different
environment condition of instrument) to avoid
re-reading with same error. So it is suitable to take a
large number of readings as a close agreement between
readings assures that no gross error has been occurred
in measured values.

2. Systematic Errors:
Systematic errors are divided into following three
categories.
i. Instrumental Errors
ii. Environmental Errors
iii. Observational Errors
i) Instrumental Errors
These errors are arises due to following three reasons
(sources of error).
a) Due to inherent shortcoming of instrument
b) Due to misuse of the instruments, and
c) Due to loading effects of instruments
a) Inherent Shortcomings of instruments
These errors are inherent in instruments because of
their mechanical structure due to construction,
calibration or operation of the instruments or
measuring devices. These errors may cause the
instrument to read too low or too high.
Example, if the spring (used for producing controlling
torque) of a permanent magnet instrument has become
weak, so the instrument will always read high.
Errors may be caused because of friction, hysteresis or
even gear backlash.
Elimination or reduction methods of these errors,
instrument may be re-calibrated carefully.
procedure of measurement must be carefully planned.
Substitution methods or calibration against standards
may be used for the purpose.
Correction factors should be applied after determining
the instrumental errors.
Misuse of Instruments
In some cases the errors are occurred in measurement
due to the fault of the operator than that of the
instrument. A good instrument used in an unintelligent
way may give wrong results.
Examples, Misuse of instruments may be failure to do
zero adjustment of instrument, poor initial
adjustments, using leads of too high a resistance and ill
practices of instrument beyond the manufacturer’s
instruction and specifications etc.
Loading Effects
The errors committed by loading effects due to
improper use of an instrument for measurement work.
In measurement system, loading effects are identified
and corrections should be made or more suitable
instruments can be used.
Example, a well calibrated voltmeter may give a
misleading (may be false) voltage reading when
connected across a high resistance circuit. The same
voltmeter, when connected across a low resistance
circuit may give a more reliable reading (dependable or
steady or true value).
In this example, voltmeter has a loading effect on the
circuit, altering the actual circuit conditionsby
measurement process. So errors caused by loading
effect of the meters can be avoided by using them
intelligently

ii.Environmental Error
Environmental error occurs due to external
environmental conditions of the instrument, such
aseffects of temperature, pressure, humidity, dust,
vibration or external magnetic or electrostatic fields.
Elimination or reduction methods of these undesirable
errors are
Arrangements should be made to keep the conditions
as nearly as constant as possible. Example, temperature
can be kept constant by keeping the instrument in the
temperature controlled region. The device which is used
against these environmental effects
iii.Observational Errors
There are many sources of observational errors. As an
example, the pointer of a voltmeter rests slightly above
the surface of the scale. Thus an error on account of
PARALLAX will be acquired unless the line of vision of
the observer is exactly above the pointer. To minimize
parallax errors highly accurate meters are provided with
mirrored scales
3) Random errors
These errors are occurred due to unknown causes and
are observed when the magnitude andpolarity of a
measurement fluctuate in changeable (random)
manner. The quantity being measure is affected by
many happenings or disturbances and ambient
influence about which we are unaware are lumped
together and called as Random or Residual.
The errors caused by these disturbances are called
Random Errors. Since the errors remain even after the
systematic errors have been taken care, those errors
are called as Residual (Random) Errors.
Random errors cannot normally be predicted or
corrected, but they can be minimized by skilled
observer and using a well maintained quality
instrument.
True value
The true value of quantity being measured is defined as
the average of an infinite number of measured values
when the average deviation due to the various
contributing factors tends to zero. In ideal situation is
not possible to determine the True value of a quantity
by experimental way.
Normally an experimenter would never know that the
quantity being measured by experimental way is the
True value of the quantity or not. In practice the true
value would be determined by a “standard method”,
that is a method agreed by experts with sufficient
accuracy.
Calibration
Calibration refers to the adjustment of an instrument so
its output accurately corresponds to its input
throughout a specified range.
The only way we can know that an instrument’s output
accurately corresponds to its input over a continuous
range is to subject that instrument to known input
values while measuring the corresponding output signal
values. This means we must use trusted standards to
establish known input conditions and to measure
output signals

The simplest calibration procedure for an analog, linear

instrument is the so-called zero-and-span method. The
method is as follows:

Apply the lower-range value stimulus to the instrument,

wait for it to stabilize
Move the “zero” adjustment until the instrument
registers accurately at this point
Apply the upper-range value stimulus to the
instrument, wait for it to stabilize
Move the “span” adjustment until the instrument
registers accurately at this point
Repeat steps 1 through 4 as necessary to achieve good
accuracy at both ends of the range
 Transducers
A transducer is a device that converts energy from one
form to another. Usually a transducer converts a signal
in one form of energy to a signal in another.Transducers
are often employed at the boundaries of automation,
measurement, and control systems, where electrical
signals are converted to and from other physical
quantities (energy, force, torque, light, motion,
position, etc.). The process of converting one form of
energy to another is known as transduction
What is Piezoelectric Transducer?
The definition of a Piezoelectric transducer is an
electrical transducer which can convert any form of
physical quantity into an electrical signal, which can be
used for measurement. An electrical transducer which
uses properties of piezoelectric materials for conversion
of physical quantities into electrical signals is known as
a piezoelectric transducer.
Piezoelectric materials exhibit the property of
piezoelectricity, according to which on the application
of any type of mechanical stress or strain leads to the
generation of an electric voltage proportional to the
applied stress. This produced electric voltage can be
measured using voltage measuring instruments to
calculate the value of stress or strain applied to the
material.
Piezoelectric materials:Naturally Available Ones:
Quartz, Rochelle salt, Topaz, Tourmaline-group
minerals, and some organic substances as silk, wood,
enamel, bone, hair, rubber, dentin. Artificially
manufactures piezoelectric materials are Polyvinylidene
difluoride, PVDF or PVF2, Barium titanate, Lead
titanate, Lead zirconate titanate (PZT), Potassium
niobate, Lithium niobate, Lithium tantalate, and other
lead-free piezoelectric ceramics.
Piezoelectric Transducer works with the principle of
piezoelectricity. The faces of piezoelectric material,
usual quartz, is coated with a thin layer of conducting
material such as silver. When stress has applied the ions
in the material move towards one of the conducting
surface while moving away from the other. This results
in the generation of charge. This charge is used for
calibration of stress. The polarity of the produced
charge depends upon the direction of the applied
stress. Stress can be applied in two forms as
Compressive stress and Tensile stress as shown below.

The orientation of the crystal also effects the amount of

voltage generated. Crystal in a transducer can be
arranged in longitudinal position or transverse position.

Piezoelectric Transducer Applications

As piezoelectric materials cannot measure static values
these are primarily used for measuring surface
roughness, in accelerometers and as a vibration pickup.
They are used in seismographs to measure vibrations in
rockets.
In strain gauges to measure force, stress, vibrations
etc…
Used by automotive industries to measure detonations
in engines.
These are used in ultrasonic imaging in medical
applications.
Advantages
These are active transducer i.e. they don’t require
external power for working and are therefore
self-generating.
The high-frequency response of these transducers
makes a good choice for various applications.
Limitations
Temperature and environmental conditions can affect
the behavior of the transducer.
They can only measure changing pressure hence they
are useless while measuring static parameters
INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCER
The inductive transducers work on the principle of the
magnetic induction of magnetic material. Just as the
resistance of the electric conductor depends on number of
factors, the induction of the magnetic material depends on a
number of variables like the number of turns of the coil on the
material, the size of the magnetic material, and the
permeability of the flux path. In the inductive transducers the
magnetic materials are used in the flux path and there are one
or more air gaps. The change in the air gap also results in
change in the inductance of the circuit and in most of the
inductive transducers it is used for the working of the
instrument.
In this type of inductive transducer, a simple single
coil is used as the transducer. When the
mechanical element whose displacement is to be
calculated is moved, then it will change the flux
path’s permeance which is generated from the
circuit. It modifies the inductance of the circuit as
well as the equivalent output. The circuit o/p can
be directly adjusted against the input value.
Therefore, directly it provides the parameter’s
valve to be calculated.
Inductive Transducer Working Principle
The working principle of an inductive transducer is the
magnetic material’s induction. Just like the electrical
conductor’s resistance, it depends on various factors.
The magnetic material’s induction can depend on
different variables like the twists of the coil over the
material, the magnetic material’s size, & the flux’s
permeability.
Inductive Transducer Applications
The applications of these transducers include the following.

The application of these transducers finds in proximity sensors

to measure position, touchpads, dynamic motion, etc.
Mostly these transducers are used for detecting the kind of
metal, to find miss lost parts otherwise counts the objects.
These transducers are also applicable for detecting the
movement of the apparatus which include belt conveyor and
bucket elevator etc..

The advantages of inductive transducer include the following.

The responsivity of this transducer is high
Load effects will be reduced.
Strong against ecological quantities

The disadvantages of inductive transducer include the

following.
The operating range will be reduced due to side effects.
The working temperature should be under the Curie
temperature.
Sensitive to the magnetic field

What is a Capacitive Transducer?

Transducers are categorized into two types such as
active transducers and passive transducers. Active
transducers are one kind of transducers which do
not require any kind of power for their operation.
Whereas passive transducer requires external
power for their operation in the energy conversion
process. These transducers have come under
passive transducers.
The definition of the capacitive transducer is to
measure the displacement (how much distance it
covers), pressure and for other several physical
quantities, these transducers are preferred. In
these transducers, the capacitance between the
plates is varied because of the distance between
the plates, overlapping of plates, due to dielectric
medium change, etc

The working principle of a capacitive transducer is

variable capacitance. As per its structure, these are
having two parallel metal pates which are
maintaining the distance between them. In
between them, dielectric medium (such as air) can
be filled. So, the distance between these two
metal plates and positions of the plates can change
the capacitance. So, variable capacitance is the
principle of these transducers. The basic difference
between the normal capacitors and capacitive
transducers is, the capacitor plates are constant in
normal capacitors wherein these transducers,
capacitor plates are the movable condition.
The capacitance of the variable capacitor can be
measured by this formula

C indicates the capacitance of the variable

capacitance
εo indicates the permittivity of free space
εr indicates the relative permittivity
A indicates the area of the plates
D indicates the distance between the plates
Capacitive Transducer Advantages
The capacitive transducer advantages are
discussed below. They are

These transducers offer high input impedance. So

the loading effects value will be too low.
The frequency response of these transducers is
extremely high.
These transducers are highly sensitive.
These are consuming low power to operate. So,
these transducers are called low power consuming
devices.
High resolution can be possible by using these
transducers.
Capacitive Transducer Disadvantages
It has a high output impedance. Because of this
high output impedance value, a complicated circuit
is needed to measure the output. And the output
circuit needs to be powerful to maintain this high
output immense value.
These transducers exhibit non-linear behaviors
due to edge effects.
These are temperature-dependent. The external
temperature value can affect this transducer
capacitance value.
Capacitive Transducer Applications
This transducer has a wide range of applications in
determining the quantities like temperature,
displacement, and pressure, etc. Capacitive
transducer applications are listed below.
These transducers have applications in the field of
linear and angular displacement with the
sensitivity factor.
One of the best applications of this transducer is to
find the humidity level. As the humidity value
changes the capacitance value of this transducer
also changes. By this value, we can measure the
change in humidity.
The variable capacitance pressure transducer is
applicable to find the pressure variations by using
the variable capacitance.
Thus, capacitive transducers are useful for
converting one form of energy to another form of
energy by taking the change in capacitance value.
These are the passive transducers because this
requires external power to operate them. And
with the help of capacitive transducers, we can
measure the pressure, temperature, and
displacement, etc.
Resistance or Resistive transducer
The resistive transducers are also known as
resistive sensors or variable resistance
transducers. These transducers are most
frequently used for calculating different physical
quantities like pressure, vibration, temperature,
force, and displacement. These transducers work
in both primary as well as secondary. But
generally, these are used as secondary because the
primary transducer’s output can work as an input
to the resistive transducer. The output which is
attained from it is adjusted against the amount of
input & it provides the input value directly. This
article discusses an overview of this transducer.
The resistive transducer can be defined as; the
resistance of a transducer can be changed due to
the effects of the environment. Here, the
resistance change can be calculated with the help
of measuring devices like AC or DC. The main
purpose of this transducer is to measure physical
quantities such as vibration, displacement,
temperature, etc.
This transducer works on both the primary & the
secondary. The primary transducer converts the
physical quantities to a mechanical signal whereas
the secondary transducer converts to an electrical
signal directly.

The major types of resistive transducer include

potentiometers, resistive position transducers,
resistive pressure transducers, thermistors, strain
gauges, and LDR.
Working of Resistive Transducer

This is the most frequently used transducer to

calculate pressure, temperature, force,
displacement, vibrations, etc. To understand the
working of a resistive transducer, the conductor
rod is considered as an example of this transducer.

These transducers work on the principle of the

length of a conductor which is directly
proportional to the conductor’s resistance & it is
inversely proportional to the conductor’s area. So,
the denominated length of the conductor is ‘L’, the
area is ‘A’ and resistance is ‘R’ and the resistivity is
‘ρ’. It is stable for every material which is used in
conductor construction.
R = ρL/A
‘R’ is the resistance of the conductor.
‘A’ is the side view part of the conductor.
“L’ is the conductor’s length.
‘ρ’ – the resistivity of the conductor.

The transducer’s resistance can be changed

because of the exterior environmental factors as
well as the conductor’s physical properties. The
change in resistance can be measured using AC
devices or DC devices. This transducer acts like a
primary as well as the secondary transducer. A
primary transducer is used to change the physical
quantity to the mechanical signal whereas a
secondary transducer is used to convert a
mechanical signal to an electrical signal.

Applications of Resistive Transducer

The applications of resistive transducer include
potentiometer, resistance thermometer, strain
gauges, thermistor, etc.
These transducers are mainly used to calculate the
temperature in several applications.
The applications of resistive transducer include
potentiometer, resistance thermometer, strain
gauges, thermistor, etc.
These transducers are used to measure
displacement.
The best examples of this transducer are
potentiometers like rotator & translation. The
resistance of these can be changed with the
deviation within their lengths to measure the
displacement.
The semiconductor material’s resistance can be
changed when the strain happens on it. This
property can be used to measure force,
displacement, and pressure, etc.
Advantages of Resistive Transducer
The advantages of the resistive transducer include
the following.
These transducers give quick response.
These are available in different sizes and they have
high resistance.
The voltage otherwise current for both the AC &
DC is suitable for calculating variable resistance.
They are low-cost.
The operation of these transducers is very easy
and used in various applications wherever the
necessities are not mostly severe.
These are used to measure the huge amplitudes of
displacement.
Its electrical efficiency is extremely high and gives
adequate output to let control operations.
Disadvantages
When using these transducers, huge power is
necessary to move the sliding contacts. The sliding
contacts can exhaust, become uneven and produce
noise.
Ionization transducer
Ionization transducers (vacuum gauges) are used
to measure low pressures (vacuum levels) below
atmospheric pressure.
The basic transduction mechanism in these gauges
is the generation of positive ions from the gas
molecules that are present in the chambers to be
evacuated. The ions are generated as a result of
collisions between the gas molecules and the
high-energy electrons that are generated
specifically for that purpose. The resulting ion
current is proportional to the gas pressure in the
chamber.
It consists of a tungsten filament and cathode in
the center. Concentric with the cathode is the grid,
which is made from a fine nickel wire helix, held in
position by upright supports. Surrounding the grid
is the external nickel plate electrode, which is
concentric with the grid. The gauge is housed in an
enclosure with an opening that is connected to the
chamber whose pressure is being measured.

UNIT II
Temperature: the degree or intensity of heat
present in a substance or object, especially as
expressed according to a comparative scale and
shown by a thermometer or perceived by touch
The thermodynamic temperature is defined as one
of the seven quantities (length, mass, time, electric
current, thermodynamic temperature, amount of
substance and luminous intensity) in the
International System of Unit (SI). The definition of
unit is as described below:
The kelvin, unit of thermodynamic temperature, is
the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic
temperature of the triple point of water.
Temperature and temperature difference can be
expressed in both Kelvin and Celsius. Relation of
temperature in degree Celsius (t, unit : °C) and
thermodynamic temperature in Kelvin (T, unit : K)
is shown as follows. Degree Celsius is commonly
used in meteorological observation
There are many types of thermometers. The major
ones employ the characteristics of expansion and
contraction of substance according to the
temperature, employ the valuable of electrical
characteristics (electrical resistance) of substance
according to temperature, or employ
characteristics between temperature and heat
radiation energy emitted from surface of
substance.
There are a wide variety of thermometers
available on the market today. Some highly precise
measurements are still done with glass
thermometers. Since the properties of fluids, and
in particular, mercury are well known, the only
limitation to accuracy and resolution come in the
form of how well you can manufacture a glass tube
with a precision bore. Some manufacturers have
made thermometers that have variable scales for
specific uses. One such use is a process called wet
viscosity. In this process it is important to know
the precise temperature of the water bath. The
glass thermometer is still used because of it
extreme repeatability.

he liquid in glass thermometer, is the most

commonly used device to measure temperature
and it is inexpensive to make and easy to use.
The liquid in glass thermometer has a glass bulb
attached to a sealed glass tube (also called the
stem or capillary tube). A very thin opening, called
a bore, exists from the bulb and extends down the
centre of the tube.
The bulb is typically filled with either mercury or
red-coloured alcohol and is free to expand and rise
up into the tube when the temperature increases,
and to contract and move down the tube when the
temperature decreases.
In the Liquid In Glass Thermometers (LIG) the
thermally sensitive element is a liquid contained in
a graduated glass envelope.
The background of the glass tube is covered with
white enamel and the front of the glass tube forms
a magnifying glass that enlarges the liquid column
and facilitates with reading the temperature.
In Below Figure (Left), an all glass thermometer is
depicted, with its scale etched into the stem.
Liquid in glass thermometers are fragile and for
industrial use, the thermometer is mounted in a
protective housing and the scale is engraved on a
separate plate that is part of the protective case.
Advantages
They are comparatively cheaper than other
temperature measurement devices.
They are handy and convenient to use.
Unlike electrical thermometers, they do not
necessitate power supply or batteries for charging.
They can be frequently applied in areas where
there is problem of electricity.
They provide very good repeatability and their
calibration remains unaffected.
Limitations
They are considered inapt for applications
involving extremely high or low temperatures.
They can not be applied in regions where highly
accurate results are desirable.
As compared to electrical thermometers, they are
very weak and delicate. Therefore, they must be
handled with extra care because they are likely to
break.
Besides, they can not provide digital and
automated results. Hence, their use is limited to
areas where only manual reading is adequate, for
example, a household thermometer.
“Temperature readings should be noted
immediately after removal because a glass
thermometer can be affected by the
environmental temperature, heat produced by the
hand holding it, cleaning, etc. This temperature
should be recorded because a glass thermometer
does not offer a recall of the measured
temperature.”
Reading temperature via liquid-in-glass
thermometers call for brilliant eyesight.
Liquid element contained in a glass thermometer
may be perilous or risky to health owing to their
potential chemical spills.
These thermometers display temperature either in
Celsius or Fahrenheit scales. Thus, temperature
conversion would be needed if the temperature
reading is wanted in some other scale.
Bimetallic Thermometers
The bimetallic thermometer uses the bimetallic
strip which converts the temperature into the
mechanical displacement. The working of the
bimetallic strip depends on the thermal expansion
property of the metal. The thermal expansion is
the tendency of metal in which the volume of
metal changes with the variation in temperature.
Every metal has a different temperature
coefficient. The temperature coefficient shows the
relation between the change in the physical
dimension of metal and the temperature that
causes it. The expansion or contraction of metal
depends on the temperature coefficient, i.e., at
the same temperature the metals have different
changes in the physical dimension.
Constructions of Bimetallic Thermometer
The bimetallic strip is constructed by bonding
together the two thin strips of different metals.
The metals are joined together at one end with the
help of the welding. The bonding is kept in such a
way that there is no relative motion between the
two metals. The physical dimension of the metals
varies with the variation in temperature.

Since the bimetallic strip of the thermometer is

constructed with different metals. Thereby, the
length of metals changes at different rates. When
the temperature increases, the strip bends
towards the metal which has a low-temperature
coefficient. And when the temperature decreases,
the strip bends towards the metal which has a
high-temperature coefficient.
Advantages
The thermometer is simple in construction, robust
and less expensive.

Disadvantages
The thermometer gives the less accurate result
while measuring the low temperature.

Applications of Bimetallic Thermometer

The bimetallic thermometer is used in household
devices likes oven, air conditioner, and in
industrial apparatus like refineries, hot wires,
heater, tempering tanks etc. for measuring the
temperature.
Resistance thermometers
The electrical conductivity of a metal depends on
the movement of electrons through its crystal
lattice. Due to thermal excitation, the electrical
resistance of a conductor varies according to its
temperature and this forms the basic principle of
resistance thermometry. The effect is most
commonly exhibited as an increase in resistance
with increasing temperature, a positive
temperature coefficient of resistance. When
utilising this effect for temperature measurement,
a large value of temperature coefficient (the
greatest possible change of resistance with
temperature) is deal; however,stability of the
characteristic over the short and long term is vital
if practical use is to made of the conductor in
question. The relationship between the
temperature and the electricalr esistance is usually
non-linear and described by a higher order
polynomial:
The following are the requirements of the
conductor used in the RTDs.

The resistivity of the material is high so that the

minimum volume of conductor is used for
construction.
The change in resistance of the material
concerning temperature should be as high as
possible.
The resistance of the material depends on the
temperature.
Operation
A known constant current is passed through the
resistance of the thermometer and the initial
resistance of wire is measured using the wheat
stone bridge.
Now the resistance thermometer is introduced
into the media whose temperature is to be
measured. Due to the change in temperature
(assume the change is in the positive direction),
the resistance wire of the thermometer gets
heated and due to this heat, the ressitance of the
wire changes.
Now this change in the ressitance of the wire is
measured using the wheat stone bridge. This
change in resistance beccomes a measure of
temperature when calibrated. (usually a null
balance bridge is used to measure the change in
resistance)
Applications:
It is used when temperature measurement is to be
done from a distance. This is possible since the
sensing element and indicating element can be
separated.
used in continous monitoring situations
Advantages
These are simple in construction
They are more accurate
Average temperature measurement is possible by
connecting the temperature sensing elements
suitable.
very easy to install and replace the thermometer
A wide range of measuring equipment are
available and the thermometer is flexible to accept
the same
the accuracy of the circut can be easily checked by
replacing the thermometer with a standard
resistance
easy reproducibility
Limitations
slow in response as the sensing wire is covered by
a protecting glass or metal tube.
current leakage might take place between
thermometer and the ground
lead resistance and compensation becomes
essential
thermoelectric emf may be generated due to a
junction of dissimilar metals

Thermistor

A thermistor is a resistance thermometer, or a

resistor whose resistance is dependent on
temperature. The term is a combination of
“thermal” and “resistor”. It is made of metallic
oxides, pressed into a bead, disk, or cylindrical
shape and then encapsulated with an
impermeable material such as epoxy or glass.
There are two types of thermistors: Negative
Temperature Coefficient (NTC) and Positive
Temperature Coefficient (PTC). With an NTC
thermistor, when the temperature increases,
resistance decreases. Conversely, when
temperature decreases, resistance increases. This
type of thermistor is used the most.
A PTC thermistor works a little differently. When
temperature increases, the resistance increases,
and when temperature decreases, resistance
decreases. This type of thermistor is generally used
as a fuse.
Typically, a thermistor achieves high precision
within a limited temperature range of about 50ºC
around the target temperature. This range is
dependent on the base resistance.
Thermistor materials
Thermistors are made of metallic oxides of copper,
iron, uranium, nickel etc. These metallic oxides are
mixed with binders, pressed to required shapes
and then they are sintered.
Temperature measurement
A thermistor does not actually “read” anything,
instead the resistance of a thermistor changes with
temperature. How much the resistance changes
depends on the type of material used in the
thermistor.

Unlike other sensors, thermistors are nonlinear,

meaning the points on a graph representing the
relationship between resistance and temperature
will not form a straight line. The location of the
line and how much it changes is determined by the
construction of the thermistor. A typical
thermistor graph looks like this:
Advantages
 The thermistor has fast response over narrow
temperature range.
 It is small in size.
 Contact and lead resistance problem not
occurred due to large resistance.
 It has good sensitivity in NTC region.
 Cost is low.
Disadvantages
 The thermistor need of shielding power lines.
 The excitation current should be low to avoid
self heating.
 It is not suitable for large temperature range.
  The resistance temperature characteristics are
non linear.
Applications
 As the thermistors have good sensitivity, they
are used for measuring varying temperatures.
 They are used for temperature compensation
in electronic equipment
 They are used in time delay circuits
 They are used to measure thermal conductivity
Some of the most common uses of thermistors are
in digital thermometers, in cars to measure oil and
coolant temperatures, and in household
appliances such as ovens and refrigerators, but
they are also found in almost any application that
requires heating or cooling protection circuits for
safe operation. For more sophisticated
applications, such as laser stabilization detectors,
optical blocks, and charge coupled devices, the
thermistor is built in.
Pyrometer Working Principle – When temperature
being measured is very high and physical contact
with the medium to be measured is impossible or
impractical, optical pyrometers based on the
principle of thermal radiation are used. These
Pyrometer Working Principle are used under
condition where corrosive vapours or liquids
would destroy thermocouples, resistance
thermometer and thermister, if made to come in
contact with the measured medium.
Radiation pyrometers measures the radiant
(energy) heat emitted or reflected by a hot object.
Thermal radiation is an electro magnetic radiation
emitted as a result of temperature and lies in the
wavelength of 0.1 —100 μm

According to the principle of thermal radiation, the

energy radiated from a hot body is a function of its
temperature. Referring to Fig. the heat radiated by
the hot body is focused on a radiation detector.
The radiation detector is blackened and it absorbs
all or almost all radiation falling on it (if the
temperature is very small compared with that of
hot body, then

Therefore, the heat received by the detector is

proportional to the fourth power of the absolute
temperature of the hot body.

Radiation pyrometers are of two types.

Total Radiation Pyrometers
Infrared Pyrometers
Total Radiation Pyrometer (TRP)
The total radiation pyrometer receives virtually all
the radiation from a hot body and focuses on a hot
body and focuses on a sensitive temperature
transducer such as thermocouple, bolometer,
thermopile, etc. Total radiation includes both
visible and infrared radiation.
The total radiation pyrometer consists of a
radiation receiving element and a measuring
device to indicate the temperature directly.

In this type of pyrometer, a diaphragm unit along

with a mirror is used to focus the radiation on a
radiant energy sensing transducers. The lens
(mirror) to the transducer distance is adjusted for
proper focus. The mirror arrangement has an
advantage that since there is no lens, both
absorption and reflection are absent.
Presence of any absorbing media between the
target and the transducers, reduces the radiation
received and the pyrometer reads low.
Due to the fourth Power Law (q is proportional to
T4) the characteristics of total radiation pyrometer
are non-linear and has poor sensitivity in lower
temperature ranges. Therefore, total radiation
pyrometers cannot be used for measurement of
temperature lower than 600 °C, since errors are
introduced at lower temperatures.
Hence, total radiation pyrometers are used mostly
in the temperature range of 1200 °C — 3500 °C.
The output from a total radiation pyrometers
whether amplified or not, is usually taken to a
PMMC instrument or to a self-balancing
potentiometer. The output may be fed to a
recorder or controller.
Infrared Pyrometers
Infrared pyrometers are partial or selective
radiation pyrometers. Above temperatures of 550
°C, a surface starts to radiate visible light energy
and simultaneously there is a proportional
increase in the infrared energy.
Infrared principles using thermocouples,
thermopile and bolometers are used. Also various
types of photo-electric transducers are most
commonly used for infrared transducers. The most
useful transducers used for industrial application
are the Photo-voltaic cells. These cells used in
radiation pyrometers, respond to wavelength in
infrared region and may be used to measure
temperature down to 400 °C.
The infrared radiation is focused on a
photo-voltaic cell as shown in Fig. It is necessary
to ensure that the cell does not become
overheated. The core of radiation passing to the
cell is defined by the area of the first diaphragm.

The protective window is made of thin glass and

serves to protect the cell and filter from physical
damage. The filter is used on the range of 1000 °C
to 1200 °C in order to reduce the infrared radiation
passed to the photo cell. This help in preventing
the photo cell from being overheated.
All infrared systems depend on the transmission of
the infrared radiant energy being emitted by a
heated body to a detector in the measuring
system. The sensor head is focused on the object
whose temperature is being measured and/or
controlled.
The infrared energy falling on the detector either
changes the detector resistance in proportion to
the temperature as in the case of thermister or
generates an emf in the detector such as a
thermopile. The change in resistance or generated
emf is then indicated on a meter.

Measurement of Pressure

Pressure is the force applied perpendicular to the

surface of an object per unit area over which that
force is distributed. Gauge pressure is the pressure
relative to the ambient pressure. Various units are
used to express pressure

How pressure is measured?

Absolute pressure:
Absolute pressure is measured relative to a full
vacuum. In contrast, pressure that is measured
against atmospheric pressure (also known as
barometric pressure) is called gauge pressure.
Piston type differential pressure gauge

Differential Pressure p1 and p2 are given in the HP

& LP ports and measuring medium chambers
separated by magnetic piston under pressure resp.
magnetic piston and separation diaphragm.
The difference in pressure causes axial movement
(measuring travel) of the piston supported by a
measuring range spring and it indicates the
respective DP value.

A magnetic ring mounted on the instrument

pointer follows the magnets movement in the
piston so that each piston position is appropriated
to a defined pointer position. This design ensures
complete mechanical separation of the measuring
system and the case and eliminates external
leakage.
Manometer
The most basic manometers measure gas/liquid
pressure against atmospheric pressure
Manometers come in a variety of shapes and sizes
and while the principle for measuring pressure
differential is the same the degree of accuracy can
be enhanced
As there are no moving parts, manometers require
no maintenance and they are extremely accurate
What does a manometer measure?
A manometer gauge is an extremely basic but very
effective device which is used to measure
pressure. In the majority of cases this will relate to
a gauge which consists of a U-shaped glass tube
which is filled with mercury or some other liquid.
Traditionally one end of the manometer tube is
left open, susceptible to atmospheric pressure,
while a manometer hose is connected via a gas
tight seal to an additional pressure source. While
normally associated with gas pressures a
manometer gauge can also be used to measure the
pressure exerted by liquids.
working principle of a manometer?
The principle behind a manometer gas or liquid
pressure gauge is extremely simple. Hydrostatic
equilibrium shows that the pressure when a liquid
is at rest is equal at any point. For example, if both
ends of the U-tube are left open to the
atmosphere then the pressure on each side will be
equal. As a consequence the level of the liquid on
the left-hand side will be the same as the level of
the liquid on the right-hand side – equilibrium.
However, if one end of the U-tube is left open to
the atmosphere and the other connected to an
additional gas/liquid supply this will create
different pressures.
Following are the benefits or advantages of
Manometer:
It is simple in construction.
It has higher accuracy.
It can be used to measure pressure, temperature,
flow and other process variables.
The monometer is suitable for low pressure
applications.
It is cheap to use.
It is simple in construction.
A manometer does not have to be calibrated
against any standard, the pressure difference can
be calculated from first principles.
It has better sensitivity.
The monometer is available for a large range of
filling fluids of varying specific gravity.
Following are the disadvantages of Manometer:
Manometers have poor dynamic response.
They are fragile and hence offer less portability.
They have smaller operating range which is on the
order of 1000 KN/m2.
The manometric fluids density depends on
temperature. Hence errors may result due to
change in the temperature.

Bellows
Bellows are also used for pressure measurement,
and can be made of cascaded capsules. The basic
way of manufacturing bellows is by fastening
together many individual diaphragms. The bellows
element, basically, is a one-piece expansible,
collapsible and axially flexible member. It has
many convolutions or fold. It can be manufactured
form a single piece of thin metal.
The bellow is a one-piece, collapsible, seamless
metallic unit that has deep folds formed from very
thin-walled tubing. The diameter of the bellows
ranges from 0.5 to 12 in. and may have as many as
24 folds. System or line pressure is applied to the
internal volume of the bellows. As the inlet
pressure to the instrument varies, the bellows will
expand or contract. The moving end of the bellows
is connected to a mechanical linkage assembly. As
the bellows and linkage assembly moves, either an
electrical signal is generated or a direct pressure
indication is provided. The flexibility of a metallic
bellows is similar in character to that of a helical,
coiled compression spring. Up to the elastic limit of
the bellows, the relation between increments of
load and deflection is linear.
Construction:
A bellows gauge contains an elastic element that is
a convoluted unit that expands and contracts
axially with changes in pressure. Most bellows
gauges are spring-loaded; that is, a spring opposes
the bellows, thus preventing full expansion of the
bellows. Limiting the expansion of the bellows in
this way protects the bellows and prolongs its life.
In a spring-loaded bellows element, the deflection
is the result of the force acting on the bellows and
the opposing force of the spring. The movement of
bellows is transferred to a pointer though a
linkage. Bellows can also be used to measure
differential pressure as shown in figure. Here two
different pressure are applied to the two different
pressure connection. Scale and Pointer is attached
with gauge movement linkage at the center of the
force bar. The bellows are connected between the
input pressure connection and force bar
Working
The pressure to be measured is applied to the
outside or inside of the bellows. However, in
practice, most bellows measuring devices have the
pressure applied to the outside of the bellows. As
the inlet pressure varies, the bellows will expand
or contract. This will move the linkage assembly
and pointer will shows the applied pressure on the
scale.
For differential pressure measurement using
bellows, applied differential pressure will try to
imbalance the force bar and accordingly this
movement is transferred to scale via gauge
movement and pointer.
Like Bourdon-tube elements, the elastic elements
in bellows gauges are made of brass,
phosphorbronze, stainless steel, beryllium-copper,
or other metal that is suitable for the intended
purpose of the gauge.
List advantages and disadvantages of Bellows type
pressure gauge.
Advantages
• Bellow joints do not require access;
• No maintenance is required.
• Low cost
• Can be used to measured differential pressure
Disadvantages
• Bellows joints can fail catastrophically.
• No in place maintenance or repair can be
performed - they must be replaced if damaged.
• Require that the system to be shut down when a
failure occurs.
• Smaller pressure range of application.
• Temperature compensation needed.

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY GAUGES

Applications might vary from simply monitoring all
or part of a pumpdown cycle, carefully measuring
a stringent ultimate pressure, or measuring and
controlling a critical process gas. There are,
however, two types of gauges that are arguably
the most commonly used out of the many gauge
types available: ionization gauges and thermal
conductivity gauges.
A high vacuum process will need to be provided
with gauging that follows the pumpdown cycle
from atmospheric pressure through the volume
zone and into the drydown zone. A thermal
conductivity gauge can follow the pressure all the
way through the volume zone, but when the
system goes into the drydown zone below about
10-3 torr where water vapor becomes the
predominant residual gas, an ionization gauge is
required. In general, with the exception of some
extended range gauge modifications, these two
gauges together can be used to cover the full
pumpdown cycle. This is why so many electronic
gauge controllers combine both types of gauges in
the same unit.
Pirani gauge
A hot wire, placed within an envelope, will transfer
thermal energy from the wire to any gas molecules
that come into contact with it, and that energy will
be again transferred to the walls of the envelope.
With continual motion of the gas molecules, a
thermal equilibrium will be reached as long as the
number of gas molecules (pressure) remains
constant. If, though, the pressure changes and the
wire is resistively heated by current from a
constant power source, a new thermal equilibrium
will be reached, and the temperature of the wire
will change to reflect the new number of gas
molecules that can carry heat away from the wire.
This means that the temperature of the wire can
be used as an indication of the pressure within the
envelope.

McLeod Gauge
McLeod gauge amplifies the low pressure and was
developed to extend the range of vacuum
measurement significantly.
The McLeod Gauge measures the vacuum pressure
in the range between 10-1 and 10-5 torr. This can
be used as a primary standard device for
calibrating other low-pressure gauges.

Working Principle
McLeod gauge is essentially a mercury manometer
in which a volume of gas is compressed before
measurement. It operates by compressing a
low-pressure gas of known volume into a smaller
volume so that its pressure is sufficiently higher
enough to be read. The resultant final volume and
pressure provide the indication of applied low
pressure

The McLeod gauge consists of a reservoir

containing mercury. A plunger is attached on the
top of the reservoir which is used to raise or lower
the level of mercury into the reference column and
bulb. Above the reservoir, there is a bulb and
reference column. The point of connection of bulb
and reference column is the opening or cut-off
point. The other end of the reference column is
open to vacuum pressure and it has a reference
capillary. The reference capillary has a zero
reference point up to which the mercury is raised.
The mercury rises in the capillary as much as it
rises in the column but only the volume differs.
The reference column is attached to a measuring
capillary which is a sealed chamber and from
which the final volume of gas is read.
Operation
The working of McLeod Gauge is based on Boyle’s
law.
pV = pcVc
where,
p & V – Pressure and Volume of gas before
compression
pc & Vc – Pressure and Volume of gas after
compression
The unknown vacuum pressure source is
connected to the reference column and the
pressure is applied. The level of mercury is
adjusted so that it at the opening or cut-off point.
Now, the unknown pressure, p, fills the bulb and
capillary. The volume of unknown pressure is the
volume of bulb and capillary which is given by V.
The mercury is forced into the bulb and capillary
by operating the plunger. Once the level of
mercury crosses the cut-off point or opening, it
stops the entry of applied pressure into the bulb
and measuring capillary. The level of mercury is
raised until it reaches the zero reference point. The
pressure and volume of gas trapped in measuring
capillary are read and unknown vacuum pressure
is calculated.
The pressure of gas remaining in the measuring
capillary is given by,
pc = p + h
The volume of gas remaining in the measuring
capillary is given by,
Vc = Ach
Where, h – the difference in height of mercury in
reference and measuring capillary
Ac – Area of the cross-section of measuring
capillary
By Boyle’s Law,
pV = (p +h) Ach
= p Ach + Ach2
p(V - Ach) = Ach2
Ach <<<<<V, so it can be
neglected.
p = Ach2/ V
Advantages
1. McLeod gauge is an inexpensive standard that
measures vacuum pressure without any
electronics or sophisticated equipment.
2. It is used for calibrating other low pressure
measuring gauges.
3. It is not influenced by gas composition.
4. The readings obtained from McLeod gauge do
not require any correction.

Disadvantages
1. The McLeod gauge is useful for measuring
pressures of true gases that obey Boyle’s law.
2. Condensable gases cannot be used.
3. The gauge is to be handled only by skilled
technicians.
4. It cannot give continuous output.
5. Precautions are to be taken to remove any
condensable vapors present inside otherwise the
gauge will show a false low reading.
6. There are chances for the gauge to get
contaminated.