Fluid Mechanics-1

Lecture - 2

Fluid Statics

Engr. Shafiq-ur-Rahman Sameja

 Fluid Statics
 Fluid Statics means fluid at rest.
 At rest, there are no shear stresses, the only force is the normal
force due to pressure is present.
 Pressure is defined as:
 “Force per Unit Area” Or
“The amount of force exerted on a unit area of a substance or
on a surface.”
 This can be stated by the equation:
F dF
p (For Finite Area) p (For Infinite Area)
A dA
 Units : N/m2(Pa), lbs/ft2 (psf), lbs/in2 (psi)
 Example
A load of 200 pounds (lb) is exerted on a piston confining
oil in a circular cylinder with an inside diameter of 2.50
inches (in). Compute the pressure in the oil at the piston.
Solution:
 Principles about Pressure
 Two important principles about pressure were described by
Blaise Pascal, a seventeenth-century scientist:
1. Pressure acts uniformly in all directions on a small volume
of a fluid.
2. In a fluid confined by solid boundaries, pressure acts
perpendicular to the boundary.
Direction of fluid pressure on boundaries
 (Pascal’s Law)
Pressure at a Point is same in All direction
1. Consider a wedge shaped element of fluid at rest.
2. Thickness  dy (perpendicular to plane of paper).
3. Let p  Avg. pressure in any direction.
4. p x and p z are avg. pressure in horizontal and vertical direction.
5. Forces in y direction need not be considered because they cancel.
6. No tangentia l force is involved, since the fluid is at rest.
7. Equilibriu m Condition : Sum of the force components on element
in any direction must be equal to Zero.
8.  Fx  0; p cos dl dy - p x dy dz  0
Since dz  dl cos
Therefore;
p  px
 Pressure at a Point is same in All direction

1
9.  Fz  0; p z dx dy - p dl dy sin   dx dy dz  0
2
Neglecting 3rd term due to higher order.
Since dx  dl sin
Therefore;
p  pz
10. We can also proof p  py by considerin g a three dimensiona l case.
Thus
pressure at any point
in a fluid at rest is
same in all direction.
 (Hydrostatic Law)
Variation of Pressure in a Static Fluid
 It states:
“Rate of increase of pressure in vertical downward direction
must be equal to Specific Weight of fluid at that point.”
 Variation of Pressure in a Static Fluid
(Hydrostatic Law)
1. Consider an element of static fluid.
2. Assume density of fluid to be constant within the element
(Since the element is very small).
3. Pressure at the center of element is p.
4. Dimensions of element are x y and z.
5. Force acting in vertical direction are :
a. Body force : theaction of gravity on the mass within the fluid.
b. Surface force : transmitted from the surrounding fluid.
6. If the forces are summed in the horizontal direction, that is x and y,
theonly forces acting are the pressure forces on the vertical faces of
element.
7. To satisfy  Fx  0 and  Fy  0, the presssures on the oppositevertical
faces must be equal.
p p
8. Thus  0
x y
9. Summing forces in the vertical direction and putting it equal to zero.
 p z   p z 
 Fz   p  xy   p  xy  xyz  0
 z 2   z 2 
After simplification :
p
 
z
Since p is independent of x and y, we can write above equation as :
dp
 
dz
This is the general expression that relates variation of pressure in a
static fluid to vertical position.The minus sign indicates that as z gets larger
(increasin g elevation) , the pressure gets smaller.
To evaluate the pressure anywhere in a fluid at rest, we must intergate previous
equation between appropriat e chosen limits.

dp   dz

 dp    dz
p  z
Say; z  h
p  h
Or
p
h (Pressure Head)

 Pressure expressed in Height of Fluid

 The term elevation means the vertical distance from

some reference level to a point of interest and is
called z.
 A change in elevation between two points is called h.
Elevation will always be measured positively in the
upward direction.
 In other words, a higher point has a larger elevation
than a lower point.
 Fig shows the illustration of reference level for
elevation.
Relationship between Pressure and Elevation:
 Pressure Head
 It is the pressure expressed in terms of height of fluid.
p
h

 h=p/ represents the energy per unit wt. stored in the fluid by
virtue of pressure under which the fluid exists. This is also
called the elevation head or potential head.
 Example
An open tank contains water 1.40m deep covered by a 2m
thick layer of oil (s=0.855). What is the pressure head at
the bottom of the tank, in terms of a water column?
Solution:
 w  9.81kN / m 3
 o  0.855 x9.81  8.39kN / m 3
For interface : p i   o ho  8.39 x 2  16.78kN / m 2
for water equivalent of oil :
pi 16.78
h oe    1.710m
w 9.81
So h we  hw  h oe  1.40  1.710  3.11m
SOLUTION  2
pb   o ho   w hw
 (8.39)2  9.81(1.4)
 30.51kN/m2
pb 30.51
hwe    3.11m
 w 9.81
 Absolute and Gage Pressure
 Atmospheric Pressure: It is the force per unit area exerted by the
weight of air above that surface in the atmosphere of Earth (or that
of another planet). It is also called as barometric pressure.
 Gauge Pressure: It is the pressure, measured with the help of
pressure measuring instrument in which the atmospheric pressure is
taken as Datum (reference from which measurements are made).
 Absolute Pressure: It is the pressure equal to the sum of
atmospheric and gauge pressures. Or
 If we measure pressure relative to absolute zero (perfect Vacuum)
we call it absolute pressure.
 Vacuum: If the pressure is below the atmospheric pressure we call it
as vacuum.
pabs  patm  pgage
 Measurement of Pressure
 There are many ways to measure pressure in a
fluid. Some are discussed here:
1. Barometers
2. Bourdon gauge
3. Pressure transducers
4. Piezometer
5. Simple Manometers
6. Differential Manometers
1. Barometers:
 To measure the atmospheric pressure.
 Procedure:
1. Immerse the open end of tube in a liquid
which is open to atmosphere.
2. The liquid will rise in the tube if we
exhaust air from the tube.
3. If all the air is removed and the tube is
long enough, than only pressure on the
surface is the vapour pressure and liquid

pO  p a  p atm  y  pvapour
will reach its max. possible height (y).

If the vapour pressure on liquid surface in tube is negligible than :

p atm  y
2. Bourdon Gauge:
 The pressure, above or below the atmospheric pressure,
may be easily measured with the help of a bourdon’s tube
pressure gauge.
 It consists on an elliptical tube: bent into an arc of a
circle. This bent up tube is called Bourdon’s tube.
 Tube changes its curvature with
change in pressure inside the tube.
Higher pressure tends to
“straighten” it.
 The moving end of tube rotates
needle on a dial through a linkage
system.
3. Piezometer Column/Tube:
 A piezometer tube is the simplest form
of instrument, used for measuring,
moderate pressure.
 It consists of long tube in which the
liquid can freely rise without
overflowing.
 The height of the liquid in the tube
will give the pressure head (p/)
directly.
 To reduce capillary error, the tube
error should be at least 0.5 in.
4. Manometer:
 Manometer is an improved form of a piezometer
tube. With its help we can measure comparatively
high pressures and negative pressure also.
Following are few types of manometers.
1. Simple Manometer
2. Micro-manometer
3. Differential manometer
4. Inverted differential manometer
4. Simple Manometer:
Simple Manometer:
 It consists of a tube bent in U-Shape, one
end of which is attached to the gauge point
and the other is open to the atmosphere.
 Mercury is used in the bent tube which is
13.6 times heavier than water. Therefore it
is suitable for measuring high pressure as
well.
Procedure:
1. Consider a simple Manometer connected to
a pipe containing a light liquid under high
pressure. The high pressure in the pipe will
force the mercury in the left limb of U-tube
to move downward, corresponding the rise
of mercury in the right limb.
Simple Manometer:
2. The horizontal surface, at which the heavy and light liquid meet in
the left limb, is known as datum line.
Let h1 = height of light liquid in the left limb above datum.
h2 = height of heavy liquid in the right limb above datum.
h= Pressure in the pipe, expressed in terms of head of water.
s1=Sp. Gravity of light liquid.
s2=Sp. Gravity of heavy liquid.
3. Pressure in left limb above datum = h +s1h1
4. Pressure in right limb above datum = s2h2
5. Since the pressure is both limbs is equal So,
h + s1h1 = s2h2
h = (s2h2 - s1h1)
Simple Manometer:
To measure negative pressure:
In this case negative pressure will suck the light liquid which
will pull up the mercury in the left limb of U-tube.
Correspondingly fall of liquid in the right limb.

6. Pressure in left limb above datum = h +s1h1 + s2h2

7. Pressure in right limb = 0
8. Equating, we get
h = -s1h1-s2h2 = -(s1h1+s2h2)
 Example
A simple manometer containing mercury is used to measure the
pressure of water flowing in a pipeline. The mercury level in the open
tube is 60mm higher than that on the left tube. If the height of water in
the left tube is 50mm, determine the pressure in the pipe in terms of
head of water.
Solution:
Pressure head in the left limb above Z - Z
 h  s1h1  h  (1x50)
 h  50 mm
Pressure head in the right limb above Z - Z
 s 2 h2  13.6 x60
 816 mm
Equating;
h  50  816
h  766 mm
 Example : A simple manometer containing mercury
was used to find the negative pressure in pipe containing water. The
right limb of the manometer was open to atmosphere. Find the
negative pressure, below the atmosphere in the pipe.
Solution:Pressure head in the left limb above Z - Z
 h  s1h1  s 2 h2  h  (1x 20)  (13.6 x50)
 h  700 mm
Pressure head in the right limb above Z - Z  0
Equating;
h  700  0
h  -700 mm  -7m
Gauge pressure in the pipe  p   h
 9.81x(-7)  - 68.67kN/m 2
 -68.67kPa  68.67kPa (Vacuum)
 Example
Figure shows a conical vessel having its outlet at A to which U tube
manometer is connected. The reading of the manometer given in
figure shows when the vessel is empty. Find the reading of the
manometer when the vessel is completely filled with water.
 Solution:
h 2  200mm  0.2m
s1  1 and s 2  13.6
Let h  Pressure head of mercury in terms on head of water.
1. Let us consider the vessel is to be empty and Z - Z be the datum line.
Pressure head in the right limb above Z - Z
 s1h1  1xh  h
Pressure head in the left limb
above Z - Z  s2 h2  13.6 x0.2  2.72m
Equating; h  2.72m
2. Consider the vessel to be completely filled with water.
As a result, let the mercury level goes down by x meters in the right limb, and
themercury level go up by the same amount in the left limb.
Therefore total height of water in the right limb
 x  h  3  x  2.72  3  x  5.72
Pressure head in the right limb  1(x  5.72)  x  5.72
Weknow that manometer reading in this case :
 0.2  2x
Pressure head in the left limb
 13.6 (0.2  2x)  2.72  27.2x
Equating the pressures :
x 5.72  2.72  27.2x
x  0.115m
and manometer reading  0.2  (2x0.115)  0.43m  430 mm
Differential Manometer:
 It is a device used for measuring the difference of pressures,
between the two points in a pipe, on in two different pipes.
 It consists of U-tube containing a heavy liquid (mercury)
whose ends are connected to the points, for which the
pressure is to be found out.
Procedure:
 Let us take the horizontal surface Z-Z, at which heavy liquid
and light liquid meet in the left limb, as datum line.
 Let, h=Difference of levels (also known as differential
manometer reading)
ha, hb= Pressure head in pipe A and B, respectively.
s1, s2= Sp. Gravity of light and heavy liquid respectively.
Differential Manometer:
1. Consider figure (a):
2. Pressure head in the left limb above
Z-Z = ha+s1(H+h) = ha+s1H+s1h

3. Pressure head in the right limb above

Z-Z = hb+s1H+s2h
4. Equating we get,
ha+ s1H + s1h = hb+ s1H + s2h
ha – hb = s2h - s1h = h (s2-s1)
Differential Manometer:
Two pipes at different levels:
1. Pressure head in the left limb above
Z-Z = ha+s1h1
2. Pressure head in the right limb above
Z-Z = hb+s2h2+s3h3
3. Equating we get,
ha+s1h1 = hb+s2h2+s3h
Where;
h1= Height of liquid in left limb
h2= Difference of levels of the heavy liquid in the right
and left limb (reading of differential manometer).
h3= Height of liquid in right limb
s1, s2, s3 = Sp. Gravity of left pipe liquid, heavy liquid, right pipe liquid, respectively.
 Example
A U-tube differential manometer connects two pressure pipes A and B.
The pipe A contains carbon Tetrachloride having a Sp. Gravity 1.6
under a pressure of 120 kPa. The pipe B contains oil of Sp. Gravity 0.8
under a pressure of 200 kPa. The pipe A lies 2.5m above pipe B. Find
the difference of pressures measured by mercury as fluid filling U-
tube.
Solution:
Given : s a  1.6, p a  120kPa; s b  0.8, p b  200kPa;
h1  2.5m and s  13.6
Let h  Differnce of pressure measured by
mercury in terms of head of water.
We know that pressure head in pipe A,
p a 120
  12.2m
 9.81
p 200
Pressure head in pipe B, b   20.4m
 9.81
We also know that pressure head in Pipe A above Z - Z
 12.2  (s a . h1 )  s.h
 12.2  (1.6 x 2.5)  13.6 x h
 16.2  13.6 h
Pressure head in Pipe B above Z - Z
 20.4  s b h  20.4  (0.8 x h)
Equating;
16.2  13.6 h  20.4  (0.8 x h)
h  0.328 m  328 mm
Inverted Differential Manometer:
 Type of differential manometer in which an inverted U-tube is used.
 Used for measuring difference of low pressure.
1. Pressure head in the left limb above Z-Z = ha-s1h1
2. Pressure head in the right limb above Z-Z = hb-s2h2-s3h3
3. Equating we get, ha-s1h1 = hb-s2h2-s3h3

(Where; ha, hb are Pressure in pipes A and B

expressed in terms of head of liquid, respectively)