SAND2012-6471C

Introduction to Microelectromechanical
Systems (MEMS) Materials, Fabrication
Processes and Failure Analysis

Jeremy A. Walraven,
Sandia National Laboratories
Albuquerque, NM
[email protected]

Sandia is a multiprogram laboratory operated by Sandia Corporation, a

Lockheed Martin Company, for the United States Department of Energy’s
National Nuclear Security Administration under contract DE-AC04-94AL85000.
 Purpose/Outline
• What are MEMS?
• Motivation for using MEMS
• Describe materials and fabrication
technologies for MEMS
– Pros/Cons
– Site example devices
• Discuss different actuation mechanisms
• Discuss MEMS failure analysis
• Conclusions

2
 What are MEMS?
• Microscopic devices used to sense, transport,
or produce a change in an environment
– An external mechanical, electrical, or chemical
stimulus can be detected and measured, and a
response to the stimulus can be produced
ADXL accelerometer
10 m Fixed beams

Mobile beams
ADXL accelerometer images courtesy of Analog Devices

3
 Where are MEMS?
MEMS are everywhere! $7.8B market in 2008, growing at ~14% per year*

*http://www.researchandmarkets.com/product/64d8ff/mis07_status_of_the_mems_industry
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 Motivation for using MEMS
• Driving forces for using MEMS in the
market place:
Smaller, light weight Batch Fabrication Create Arrays
To Reduce Cost

Consume less power

Work at Micro Scales Integrate

5
 Top 30 MEMS Manufacturers
TOP 30 MEMS Manufacturers

Courtesy of Yole Developpement, Jourdan D. I-Micronews, March 24; 2009, <http://www.i-micronews.com/news/2008-Top-30-MEMS-

manufacturer-ranking-Yole,2893.html>.
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 MEMS materials
• Materials systems used to fabricate
MEMS include:
– Polysilicon surface micromachining
– Bulk silicon micromachining
– Metal surface micromachining
• GaAs processes - Polyimide/SiON
– LIGA (Lithographie Galvanoformung
Abformung)
– Silicon carbide
– Diamond and diamond-like carbon
– Polymers

7
MEMS technology is derived from
standard CMOS technologies

Deposition Lithography Etching

8
 Polysilicon surface micromachining
• Additive process
– Polysilicon is used as the structural material
• Structural material is encased in sacrificial silicon oxide
(sacox)
• Multiple layers are deposited and etched to
fabricate 3-dimensional structures
– Metal can be deposited on top layers to improve
performance
Structural
Sacox Polysilicon
Sacox
SiN

Substrate 9
 Examples: polysilicon surface
micromachining
• Deposition of oxide, SiN, poly, and sacrificial oxide
– SiO2 and SiN insulate structural material from the substrate
• High temp. anneals needed to relieve stress in poly
– Internal stress is reduced to prevent thin film warping
• Sacrificial oxide is removed using super critical CO2
drying to prevent a liquid/vapor interface
• Released structural poly is free to move
– Metal can be deposited on the top poly level

Structural Sacox
poly

FIB cross section of an unreleased MEMS

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 Polysilicon micromachined devices
in consumer electronics
Wii controller & MotionPlus IPhone, IPad and IPod Touch products
Acceleration Z

Y X

Polysilicon
MEMS beam
Triaxial
Accelerometers
& gyroscopes
Ring-shaped 2-axis
• Anchored silicon beam in an electric accelerometer
field between 2 capacitor plates
– Si beam bends with acceleration
• Acceleration changes the electric field,
translates into motion on the screen
• MotionPlus senses rotational movement
– Measures x (pitch), y (roll) and z (yaw)
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 Polysilicon micromachining:
pros and cons
• Pros • Cons
– Fabrication equipment – High temperature
& infrastructure is fabrication processes
readily available • Anneal temps can reach
• Use same tools and 1100oC
wafers used in the IC – Release and dicing
industry require care
– IC compatible process • Device release is done at
• Fabricate MEMS & ICs on wafer level then die are
same chip sawed and packaged
FIB cross-section of released devices

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 Bulk silicon micromachining
• Subtractive process
– silicon substrate is the structural material
Nozzle Membrane
Groove
Channels Holes
Substrate Substrate
Wet Etch Patterns Dry Etch Patterns
– Wet etch process – Dry etch process
• Requires potassium • Deep Reactive Ion Etch
hydroxide and etches along (DRIE) or Bosch etch
<111> planes more quickly • Iterative polymer
creating a hole or channel deposition and ion etch
• Requires etch stops or timed process
etch to prevent over etch • Higher selectivity creates
higher aspect ratios (30:1
– 1000:1)
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 Example: bulk micromachining

Microfluidic
Channels

• Channels etched into substrate to allow fluid flow

– Probe shown pushing valve into the substrate channel

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 Example: bulk micromachining
Micro biological cell manipulator

Cell direction

50 m Fluid direction

• Bosch etched holes act as channels for fluid flow

– Each hole serves as a channel for medicinal interaction,
insertion, and retrieval
– Channels and holes allow for fluid flow and interaction of fluids
and gases
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 Bulk micromachined devices in
consumer products
Ink Jet Print Head DNA Chip & Silicon Blade

• Nozzle with integrated

CMOS
– Ink is resistively flash
heated and ejected through • DNA analysis on a chip
nozzles
• Silicon blades for surgery
Accelerometers
MEMS microphone

Images courtesy of Standard MEMS Inc. 16

 Bulk silicon: pros and cons
• Pros • Cons
– Fabrication equipment – Requires wet or dry
and infrastructure is etching through the
readily available substrate
• Use same tools and
wafers developed for • Creates holes with
the IC industry limited placement
accuracy
– Bulk processes can be
combined with surface • Wet etch leads to large
holes on the backside of
micromachining
the substrate
• Fabricate moveable
structures with
channels and holes
– IC compatible process
• Fabricate MEMS & ICs
on same chip
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 Metal surface micromachining
• Metals (gold, aluminum) are used as the
structural material to fabricate moving
components
– Structural material is encased in sacrificial material
(photoresist)
– Like IC fabrication, multiple layers of metal and
sacrificial material are deposited and etched to
fabricate 3-D structures
• Metal processes are also compatible with
GaAs and RF applications
– Metal MEMS technology is readily suited and
compatible with MMIC processing and integration

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 Example: metal surface
micromachining
• Deposition of metals and Mirror
sacrificial material
– Photoresist or other polymers
Address
can be used as the sacrificial
Electrode
material
• Stress relief can be Torsionial
Landing
performed with low Hinge
Tips
temperature thermal
Landing
anneals
Site
– Internal stress is
reduced to prevent the
mirror from warping

DMD structure, Image courtesy of TI

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 Example: metal surface
micromachining

Image courtesy of Lucent

Technologies Images courtesy of TI

Thin metal layers are used to create the Lambda Router™

and Digital Micromirror Display (DMD™) optical switches
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 Example: metal surface
micromachining
• RF MEMS can be realized using SiON, polyimide, gold
and/or aluminum on GaAs or alumina substrates
• Polyimide acts as the sacrificial material
• SiON is the structural material with either gold or
aluminum deposited to form an electrode
• RIE etches are used to remove the polyimide and free up
the metallized SiON structures Metal
Signal Line Contact

Al or Au SiON
Au SiON

Au
GaAs Substrate Metal
Part of
Ground Line Polyimide Anchor
Gold and SiON used as the structural material for GaAs MEMS
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 Metal: pros and cons
• Pros • Cons
– Fabrication equipment – Thin film stress
and infrastructure is management
readily available
• Reduced stress is
– Materials are readily needed to prevent thin
compatible with IC film warping
materials – Metal components are
• Fabricate MEMS & ICs
on same chip more susceptible to
– Metal MEMS are fatigue and creep than
typically low temp. polysilicon
processes

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 LIGA micromachining
• Lithographie Galvanoformung Abformung
– Lithography, electroplating and molding process
used to fabricate small metal parts
• Typical LIGA materials include gold, nickel, copper, iron,
nickel iron, permalloy, etc.
• LIGA Process
– Uses lithographic techniques (deep X-ray or UV),
microelectroforming and micromolding
• X-ray or UV reacts through a mask with a sensitive
photoresist (PMMA)
– Exposed material is washed away
• The mold is connected to a substrate where metal is
electrodeposited into the mold
– The existing mold and substrate are removed or
dissolved while the LIGA components remain

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 Example: LIGA process overview
• LIGA fabrication process
– Lithography defining the PMMA mold
– Metal deposition UV or deep x-ray

– Removal of the mold

Photo mask

LIGA Mold
Photolithography

Development

Electroplating

Remove Resist
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 Example: LIGA process
• Electrodeposited material is released from the
PMMA mold and used to fabricate LIGA
components
– LIGA process can be used to fabricate metal based
springs, actuators and other mechanical structures

Gold and gold nickel deposited into a PMMA mold are

used to fabricate a spring and mechanical actuator
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 LIGA components used in today’s
mechanical movement watches
Tourbillion
Tourbillion – designed
to eliminate the effect
of gravity

1 mm 1 mm
Escape wheel used to reduce inertia
Images courtesy of Mimotec SA Manufactured using LIGA process 26
 LIGA: pros and cons
• Pros • Cons
– UV-LIGA uses standard – Deep x-ray method
microelectronic fabrication requires a synchrotron
process equipment source
– Can fabricate devices with • Non-standard and
high aspect ratios limited availability
• 1 - 10 m wide by 2 – 4 mm – Assembly is required
thick
• LIGA components must
– LIGA electroplating uses be assembled for
less current than bulk operation
electroplating
– Can fabricate many LIGA
parts on a single wafer

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 Silicon carbide micromachining
• MEMS fabrication using SiC as structural material is
under development
– Many structures are fabricated and tested at the research level
– SiC offers better tribological properties than Si
• SiC MEMS can be processed on SiO2 or Si substrates
using chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
– Substrates and sacrificial materials are etched away
• SiC fabrication processes
– SiC can be deposited using a liquid 1,3 – disilabutane precursor
at 800 – 1000oC with a vapor pressure of ~ 20 mTorr
• Deposition of SiC at 10-4 – 10-5 Torr
– SiC can be deposited in a polysilicon mold
• SiC thin film can be deposited on a polysilicon device
– Improves wear and chemical resistance

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 Example: SiC micromachining
• CVD deposition of SiC MEMS components
– SiC coated polysilicon MEMS atomizer
• Used for highly corrosive fuel applications
– SiC fabricated electrostatically driven resonator

Swirl chamber and exit orifice SiC based MEMS resonator

of a fuel atomizer Photo courtesy of UC Berkeley

Photo courtesy of Case Western Reserve University

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 SiC micromachining : pros and cons
• Pros • Cons
– SiC offers better – Deposition process is
chemical, electrical, difficult and expensive
and mechanical – Harsh chemicals used
properties over poly in manufacturing
– Can be used in harsh • 1,3 - disilabutane, SiH4,
environments acetylene, etc.
• High temperatures – SiC film properties
• Corrosive fluids depend on substrate
– Requires expensive
gas handling and
distribution systems
– Difficult to integrate
into IC technology

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 Diamond and diamond-like carbon
• Good chemical, electrical, and mechanical
properties for MEMS
– Excellent wear resistance and low stiction
• Can use conventional wet chemical processes with no
concern over stiction induced failure
• Diamond processes are performed using CVD
based techniques
• Diamond fabricated MEMS can made in
– Polycrystalline
– Nanocrystalline
– Amorphous

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 Example: diamond micromachining
• Nano and polycrystalline diamond fabricated by:
– Hot flame CVD for polycrystalline films (grains ~ 1 m)
– Microwave plasma enhanced CVD for nanocrystalline
films (grains ~ 3 - 5 nm)
– Multiple thermal anneals are required on each layer of
diamond to relieve thin film stresses
• Amorphous diamond (or diamond like carbon) is
fabricated at room temperature
– Pure carbon beam is energized around 100 eV
– 600oC anneal is used for stress relief
– SiO2 is used as sacrificial material between layers
• Timed wet etches (HF) are used to release the MEMS structure

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 Example: diamond micromachining
• Nanocrystalline and amorphous diamond are
deposited and patterned to form mechanical
structures
Diamond gear fabricated on a Free standing amorphous
silicon substrate diamond MEMS

1000 m

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 Diamond and DLC micromachining :
pros and cons
• Pros • Cons
– Excellent tribological – Processing is time
properties consuming and
• Low stiction expensive
– Excellent mechanical • Large scale processing
properties infrastructure not in
place for crystalline or
• ~10,000x more wear amorphous diamond
resistant than
polysilicon – Process integration
– Chemical inertness with other technology
is difficult
• Applications for harsh
environments
– High elastic modulus
• Good resistance to wear,
rubbing and impact
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 Polymer micromachining
• Polymers used in MEMS fabrication are
typically UV curable
• Typical MEMS polymer materials include
– Urethane acrylate
– Epoxy acrylate
– Acryloxysilane
• Low viscosities allow for easy molding and
elimination of solvents

35
 Example: Polymer micromachining
• Polymer based MEMS can be fabricated using a
microstereo lithography (MSL) technique
– Polymer MEMS are fabricated using a focused laser
beam (~ 1 m spot size)
– Polymer surface begins polymerization upon
exposure to the laser
• Repeated scanning and exposure can be used on single or
multiple layers of polymer to fabricate a true 3-d device
• Other fabrication techniques include
– Micromolding
– Jet molding
– Embossing

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 Example: Polymer micromachining
• Polymer MEMS fabrication can produce true 3-d
mechanical structures
– Biological compatibility makes them excellent choices
for biomedical applications

Photo courtesy of Vijay K. Varadan, Pennsylvania State University

37
 Polymer micromachining :
pros and cons
• Pros • Cons
– Fabricated MEMS are – Newly developed field
true 3-d components • Much more research and
– Readily adaptable to development is needed
biological applications – Process integration
– Low Young’s modulus with current silicon
• Good for bending and
electronics is difficult
flexing applications • Will require polymer
based electronics
– Easily fabricated system
• Micromold process

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 MEMS operation/actuation
• Two common methods for operating MEMS
components include thermal actuation and
electrostatic actuation
– Electrostatic actuation
• An electric field is applied to a fixed structure creating a
fringing field which is used to attract a mobile structure to
produce motion
– Electrothermal actuation
• Specific elements of the MEMS device are heated where the
coefficient of thermal expansion of the MEMS material is
used to produce motion

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 Electrostatic principle
(Interdigitated Fingers)
F
E1

L
Huge
attractive
force
x

E2

Capacitor: F Electrostatic Force:

C = 2nt(L-x)/g g F = nt(E1-E2)2/g
n = number of fingers Ex = plate voltage t = thickness of film (dimension
measured into the page)

• Examples include capacitive sensors (Accelerometers) and

electrostatically driven microengines
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 Electrostatic principle
(Parallel Plate)
Fe

Moveable Plate Electrode

g +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
------------------------------------------------- V
Fixed Plate Electrode
L
Parallel Plate Capacitor: Potential Energy: Electrostatic Force:
(orLw) dU (orLwV2)
C= U = ½ CV2 Fe = =
g dg 2g2
o = permittivity r = dielectric L = Plate Length w = Plate Width
of free space const. g = gap V = Voltage

• Examples include some optical micromirrors and

microfluidic drop ejectors,
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 Electrostatic driven devices
• Electrostatic actuation can be used to move
fluids, components, or reposition structures

Torsional Ratcheting Actuator (TRA) Optical Micromirror

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 Electrothermal principle
• Current through the polysilicon legs produces
Joule heating
– Joule heating results in thermal expansion of the
polysilicon legs leading to displacement

Ln    (T ( x)  Tsubstrate ) dx
 = coefficient of thermal expansion for polysilicon
T(x) = Temp. of the beam at time (x)
Tsubstrate = substrate temperature

43
 Thermal actuators
Current 100 μm

Direction of shuttle
motion (throw)

44
 Taxonomy of MEMS Devices
Class I Class II Class III Class IV
No Moving Moving Parts Moving Parts, Moving Parts,
parts No Rubbing Impacting Impacting and
or Impacting Surfaces Rubbing
Surfaces Surfaces

Image courtesy of
Texas Instruments
Image courtesy of SI Time

Accelerometers Gyros TI DMD Optical Switches

Pressure Sensors Comb Drives Relays, Valves Shutters
Inkjet Print Heads Resonators Pumps, Optical Scanners, Locks
Strain Gauge Filters Switches Discriminators

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 Taxonomy of MEMS FA:
Class I Class II Class III Class IV
No Moving parts Moving Parts, No Moving Parts, Moving Parts,
Rubbing or Impacting Impacting and
Impacting Surfaces Surfaces Rubbing Surfaces

Image courtesy of
Texas Instruments
Image courtesy of SI Time
Stiction
Stiction Stiction Contamination
Contamination Stiction Contamination
Contamination – Fracture
Fracture Fatigue
changes fo Fatigue
Fracture Creep
Creep Shock/vib
Fatigue Temperature
Creep Temperature
Shock/Vib Friction
Impact Wear Wear
Wear-induced
Adhesion
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 Failure analysis of MEMS
• Failure analysis of MEMS require assessment of
the structural, chemical and electrical behavior
– Structural – device structural integrity
– Chemical – analysis of chemical constituents
– Electrical – device operation and performance

The success of any MEMS failure analysis

activity involves analyzing the device WITHOUT
compromising the failure mechanism

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 Electrical analysis / response localization
techniques: A general strategy

1. Provide a stimulus ( e- 4. Compare the images of

or laser) at a given spot good and bad devices
on the MEMS device (Differences tend to
occur at failure sites)

2. Measure an electrical
3. Make a false color image
property at external bond
whose intensity at a spot
pads (e.g., voltage required
is proportional to the
for constant current)
electrical measurement at
that spot

48
 Electron beam based techniques
• Resistive Contrast Imaging (RCI)
– Generates a “resistance map” of an unbiased device
• Localizes abrupt changes in resistance

• Verifies electrical continuity of the component

SCANNING
ELECTRON
BEAM
i1
CURRENT SEM Display
AMPLIFIER and/or
R1 Computer System
i2 109 GAIN
R2
INTEGRATED
DEVICE

49
 MEMS analysis using RCI

Conductive

Applied
Bias Open

Secondary Electron Image 10 keV RCI Image

• Top pad is observed (conductive), Bottom pad is not observed

• Open on bottom pad is suspected

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 Results identify an open circuit
Tungsten
Aluminum bridge

SiON

Open
1µm
• Non-uniform metal deposition over the cut region resulted in an open
failure
− Open identified during testing and verified using RCI
• Focused Ion Beam (FIB) cross-section revealed an open in the metal
• Ion beam deposited metal (tungsten) used to “close” the circuit
– Switch functioned
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 Optical beam based MEMS FA
• Scanned laser produces localized heating, changes the
resistance of a short (Thermally-Induced Voltage Alteration)
• TIVA Localizes shorted circuit elements
– Employs constant current biasing to increase sensitivity
– Without transistor amplification there may be no sensitivity
to gain in constant current mode vs. constant voltage mode
– Detects subtle changes in device power demand
• same physics as OBIRCH

– The resistance change on the power demand is used to

produce a TIVA image
– Normally uses a 1.3 µm laser to avoid photocurrent effects
– Can be performed in biased or unbiased states
• thermocouple effect
52
 MEMS aspects of TIVA
• Shorter wavelength lasers can be used to increase
spatial resolution
– No EHP recombination sites

• MEMS are particularly sensitive due to thermal isolation

− Unreleased - encased in sacrificial material

− Released – surrounded by air or other environment

• thermally isolated structures get hotter

• Images can be acquired in biased or unbiased states

– Biasing usually increases signal

• resistive versus thermocouple effect

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Example 1: Electrostatic actuator comb
finger shorted to the ground plane
Reflected
TIVA Image SEM Image
Light Image

Poly1 comb finger vertically shorted to the

poly0 ground plane

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 Example 2: Support spring
shorted to the ground plane
1.5 µm

Reflected light image TIVA image FIB cross section

• Applied voltage pulled the spring into contact with the

poly 0 power line prior to mirror actuation
• Short was diagnosed through the polysilicon mirror

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 Package access techniques
• MEMS FA generally requires direct access to the
structure of interest
• What do you do if you want to maintain the package
environment?
– Removing the lid may generate and/or introduce contamination
– Create a rapid change in the device environment
• Many MEMS devices can be analyzed through the
backside
• MEMS in ceramic or plastic packages can have the
backside packaging material removed
– Enables direct access to the silicon substrate
– Enables structural / electrical response failure analysis using
IR beam based techniques

56
 Backside access for MEMS FA
• MEMS components that are anodically bonded and
packaged can be backfilled with epoxy and
deprocessed from the backside
• CNC milling and/or wet etch deprocessing techniques
have been used to open a “window” through the
backside of a package
– Backside “window” must be smaller than the die to prevent a
breach in the packaging environment or contamination
• Substrate must either be transparent or polished
– Enables IR inspection through substrate silicon
– Enables structural / electrical response failure analysis using
IR beam based techniques

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 Backside MEMS FA
Reflected light
RF MEMS device & TIVA images Reflected light images

Si Substrate

• Damage identified along short site in a failed RF MEMS device

58
 Conclusions
• Multiple fabrication technologies, multiple
materials systems, use what is best for your
application
– Successful applications include
• Sensors and microphones
• Optical switching and displays
• Microfluidic drop ejection
• Fabrication process and materials systems are
application dependent
– Many MEMS components can be integrated with IC
technology
• Failure analysis of MEMS components requires
“access” to the device
– Failure analysis techniques used in the IC industry
can be leveraged to work on MEMS

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