9/10/2019

CELL
MR. LOUIE B. DASAS
UST SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

The Fundamental Units of Life

 All organisms are made of cells
 All cells are related by their descent from earlier cells
 Cells can differ substantially from one another but
share common features

40 μm

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Brief History
 Antoine van
Leeuwenhoek
(1600s)
Invention of the
Microscope
Observed
microorganisms,
called them
“Animalcules”

Brief History
 Robert Hooke, 1655
Observed empty,
honeycomb-like
boxes (Cell Wall)
Wrote the book
Micrographia

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Brief History
 Robert Hooke, 1655
Introduced the
term Cell
Examined thin
slices of cork from
the bark of an oak
tree

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Brief History
 Robert Brown, 1830
Identified a darkly
staining structure
at the center of
every cell
(Nucleus)

Nucleus

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Brief History
Matthias
Schleiden,
1838
All plants are
made up of
cells

Brief History
Theodor
Schwann
Animals are
made up of
cells

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Brief History
Rudolf
Virchow, 1858
Cells came
from
preexisting
cells

Cell Theory
All organisms are made up of
one or more cells.
The cell is the basic unit of life.
All cells come from other cells
all ready in existence.

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Concept 7.1: Biologists use microscopes and

the tools of biochemistry to study cells
 Cells are usually too small to be seen by the naked
eye
 Microscopes are used to visualize cells
 In a light microscope (LM), visible light is passed
through a specimen and then through glass lenses
 Lenses refract (bend) the light so that the image is
magnified

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Microscopy
 Three important parameters of
microscopy:
 Magnification, the ratio of an
object ’ s image
size to its real size
 Resolution, the measure of
the clarity of the image, or
the minimum distance of two
distinguishable points
 Contrast, visible differences
in brightness between parts
of the sample

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Figure 7.2c

Electron microscopy

Super-
Light microscopy resolution
microscopy

Unaided eye

Nucleus
Length Most Smallest Small
of some Most bacteria bacteria Proteins molecules
nerve plant
Viruses
and and
Human muscle Chicken Frog Human animal Mito- Ribo-
height cells egg egg egg cells chondrion somes Lipids Atoms

10 m 1m 0.1 m 1 cm 1 mm 100 μm 10 μm 1 μm 100 nm 10 nm 1 nm 0.1 nm

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Microscopy
 Light microscopes can magnify effectively to
about 1,000 times the size of the actual
specimen
 Various techniques enhance contrast and
enable cell components to be stained or
labeled
 The resolution of standard light microscopy is
too low to study organelles, the membrane-
enclosed structures in eukaryotic cells

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Figure 7.3

Brightfield Brightfield Phase-contrast Differential

(unstained 50 μm (stained specimen) interference contrast
specimen) (Nomarski)

50 μm

10 μm
Fluorescence Confocal Confocal (with)
10 μm (without)

1 μm Deconvolution

Super-resolution Super-resolution Scanning Transmission

2 μm 2 μm
(without) (with) electron electron
microscopy (SEM) microscopy (TEM)
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Figure 7.3a
Light Microscopy (LM)
50 µm

Brightfield Brightfield
(unstained specimen) (stained specimen)

Phase-contrast Differential
interference contrast
(Nomarski)
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Figure 7.3b

Light Microscopy (LM)

10 μm
Fluorescence 10 μm

Deconvolution

50 μm
Confocal (without) Confocal (with)
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Figure 7.3c
Light Microscopy (LM)
1 μm

Super-resolution (without) Super-resolution (with)

Electron Microscopy (EM)

Scanning 2 μm Transmission 2 μm
electron electron
microscopy (SEM) microscopy (TEM)
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Cell Fractionation
 Cell fractionation takes cells apart and
separates the major organelles from one another
 Centrifuges fractionate cells into their
component parts and determine the functions of
organelles

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Figure 7.4

Homogenization
Tissue
cells
Homogenate

Centrifugation
1,000 g Supernatant poured into next tube
10 min
20,000 g
20 min

80,000 g
Pellet rich in 60 min
nuclei and
cellular debris 150,000 g
3 hr
Pellet rich in
mitochondria
(and chloroplasts)

Pellet rich in
Differential “microsomes” Pellet rich in
centrifugation ribosomes
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Figure 7.4a

Homogenization
Tissue
cells
Homogenate

Centrifugation

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Figure 7.4b

1,000 g Supernatant poured into next tube

10 min
20,000 g
20 min

80,000 g
Pellet rich in 60 min
nuclei and
cellular debris 150,000 g
3 hr
Pellet rich in
mitochondria
(and chloroplasts)

Pellet rich in
Differential “microsomes” Pellet rich in
centrifugation ribosomes
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Concept 7.2: Eukaryotic cells have

internal membranes that compartmentalize
their functions
 The basic structural and functional unit of every
organism is one of two types of cells: prokaryotic or
eukaryotic
 Only organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea
consist of prokaryotic cells
 Protists, fungi, animals, and plants all consist of
eukaryotic cells

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Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

ALL TYPES OF CELLS
• Plasma membrane
• Semifluid substance called cytosol
• Chromosomes (carry genes)
• Ribosomes (make proteins)

Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

• No nucleus • DNA in a nucleus that is
• DNA in an unbound bounded by a double
region called the membrane
nucleoid • Membrane-bound
• No membrane-bound organelles
organelles • Cytoplasm in the region
• Cytoplasm bound by the between the plasma
plasma membrane membrane and nucleus
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Figure 7.5

Fimbriae

Nucleoid

Ribosomes

Plasma membrane
Bacterial Cell wall
chromosome
Glycocalyx
0.5 μm
Flagella

(a) A typical rod-shaped (b) A thin section through the

bacterium bacterium Corynebacterium
diphtheriae (colorized TEM)

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Figure 7.6

Outside of cell (a) TEM of a plasma membrane

Inside
of cell 0.1 μm
Carbohydrate side chains
(cytoplasm)
Phospholipid

Hydrophilic
region

Hydrophobic
region
Hydrophilic
region Proteins

(b) Structure of the plasma membrane

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Figure 7.7
Surface area increases while
As a cell increases in size, total volume remains constant
its volume grows
proportionately more than
its surface area 5
1
1

Total surface area

[sum of the surface areas
(height × width) of all box 6 150 750
sides × number of boxes]

Total volume
[height × width × length 1 125 125
× number of boxes]

Surface-to-volume
(S-to-V) ratio 6 1.2 6
[surface area ÷ volume]
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A Panoramic View of the Eukaryotic Cell

A eukaryotic cell has internal

membranes that divide the cell into
compartments—the organelles
 The basic fabric of biological membranes
is a double layer of phospholipids and
other lipids
 Plant and animal cells have most of the
same organelles
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Figure 7.8a
ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM (ER)
Nuclear
Rough ER Smooth ER
envelope
Nucleolus NUCLEUS
Flagellum
Chromatin
Centrosome
Plasma
membrane

CYTOSKELETON:
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
Ribosomes
Microvilli

Golgi apparatus
Peroxisome
Lysosome
Mitochondrion
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BioFlix: Tour of an Animal Cell

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Figure 7.8b
Nuclear
envelope
NUCLEUS
Nucleolus
Rough ER
Chromatin
Smooth ER

Ribosomes

Golgi Central vacuole

apparatus
Microfilaments
CYTOSKELETON
Microtubules

Mitochondrion
Peroxisome
Plasma
membrane Chloroplast
Cell wall
Plasmodesmata
Wall of adjacent cell
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BioFlix: Tour of a Plant Cell

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Video: Chlamydomonas

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Concept 7.3: The eukaryotic cell’s genetic

instructions are housed in the nucleus and
carried out by the ribosomes
 The nucleus contains most of the DNA in a
eukaryotic cell
 Ribosomes use the information from the DNA to make
proteins (DNA → RNA → protein)

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The Nucleus: Information Central

 The nucleus contains
most of the cell’s genes
and is usually the most
conspicuous organelle
 The nuclear envelope
encloses the nucleus,
separating it from the
cytoplasm
 The nuclear envelope
is a double membrane;
each membrane
consists of a lipid
bilayer
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Figure 7.9
1 μm Nucleus
Nucleus
Nucleolus

Chromatin
Nuclear envelope:
Outer membrane
Inner membrane
Nuclear pore

Rough
ER
Pore
Surface of complex
nuclear envelope Ribosome
(TEM)

Close-up
0.25 μm

Chromatin
of nuclear
envelope
0.5 μm

Pore complexes (TEM) Nuclear lamina (TEM)

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NUCLEUS

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Figure 7.9a

Nucleus
Nucleolus

Chromatin

Nuclear envelope:
Outer membrane
Inner membrane
Nuclear pore

Rough ER

Pore
complex
Ribosome

Close-up
of nuclear Chromatin
envelope
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Figure 7.9c
0.25 μm

Pore complexes (TEM)

Pores, lined with a structure

called a pore complex, regulate
the entry and exit of molecules
from the nucleus

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Figure 7.9d

0.5 μm
Nuclear lamina (TEM)

The nuclear size of the envelope is lined

by the nuclear lamina, which is
composed of proteins and maintains the
shape of the nucleus
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 In the nucleus, DNA is organized into discrete units

called chromosomes
 Each chromosome contains one DNA molecule
associated with proteins, called chromatin
 Chromatin condenses to form discrete chromosomes
as a cell prepares to divide
 The nucleolus is located within the nucleus and is
the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis

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Packing , folding, coiling

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Ribosomes: Protein Factories

 Ribosomes are complexes made of ribosomal RNA
and protein; Carry out Protein Synthesis
 In the cytosol (free ribosomes)
 In nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)

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Figure 7.10

0.25 μm Free ribosomes in cytosol

Ribosomes
ER Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Ribosomes
bound to ER

TEM showing ER
and ribosomes
Large
subunit
Small
subunit
Diagram of Computer model
a ribosome of a ribosome

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Concept 7.4: The endomembrane system

regulates protein traffic and performs
metabolic functions in the cell
 The endomembrane system consists of
 Nuclear envelope
 Endoplasmic reticulum
 Golgi apparatus
 Lysosomes
 Vacuoles
 Plasma membrane
 These components are either continuous or
connected via transfer by vesicles
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The Endoplasmic Reticulum:

Biosynthetic Factory
 The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) accounts for
more than half of the total membrane in many
eukaryotic cells
 The ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear
envelope
 There are two distinct regions of ER:
 Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes
 Rough ER, whose surface is studded with ribosomes

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Figure 7.11

Smooth ER

Rough ER Nuclear
envelope
Smooth ER Rough ER 0.2 μm

ER lumen
Cisternae
Ribosomes Transitional
ER
Transport vesicle

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Video: ER and Mitochondria in Leaf Cells

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Video: Staining of Endoplasmic Reticulum

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Functions of Smooth ER
 The smooth ER
 Synthesizes lipids
 Metabolizes carbohydrates
 Detoxifies drugs and poisons
 Stores calcium ions

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Functions of Rough ER
 The rough ER
 Has bound ribosomes, which secrete glycoproteins
(proteins covalently bonded to carbohydrates)
 Distributes transport vesicles, secretory proteins
surrounded by membranes
 Is a membrane factory for the cell

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The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and

Receiving Center
 The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened
membranous sacs called cisternae
 The Golgi apparatus
 Modifies products of the ER
 Manufactures certain macromolecules
 Sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles

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Figure 7.12

Golgi
apparatus

cis face
(“receiving” side of 0.1 μm
Golgi apparatus) Cisternae

trans face
(“shipping” side of TEM of Golgi apparatus
Golgi apparatus)
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Figure 7.12a

0.1 μm

TEM of Golgi apparatus

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Video: Golgi Complex in 3-D

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Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments

 A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic
enzymes that can digest macromolecules
 Lysosomal enzymes work best in the acidic
environment inside the lysosome
 Hydrolytic enzymes and lysosomal membranes are
made by rough ER and then transferred to the Golgi
apparatus for further processing

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Figure 7.13

Vesicle containing
Nucleus 1 μm two damaged
1 μm
organelles

Mitochondrion
fragment

Peroxisome
fragment

Lysosome
Digestive Lysosome
enzymes Lysosome

Plasma Peroxisome
membrane Digestion
Food Mitochondrion Digestion
vacuole Vesicle
(a) Phagocytosis (b) Autophagy

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Figure 7.13a
Nucleus 1 μm

• Some types of cell can

engulf another cell by
phagocytosis; this forms
a food vacuole
• A lysosome fuses with the
Lysosome
food vacuole and digests
the molecules
Digestive
enzymes

Lysosome
Plasma
membrane Digestion

Food vacuole

(a) Phagocytosis
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Figure 7.13b
Vesicle containing two 1 μm
damaged organelles

Mitochondrion Lysosomes also

fragment
use enzymes to
Peroxisome recycle the
fragment
cell’s own
organelles and
macromolecules,
a process called
autophagy
Lysosome

Peroxisome

Mitochondrion Digestion
Vesicle

(b) Autophagy
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Animation: Lysosome Formation

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Video: Phagocytosis in Action

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Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance Compartments

 Vacuoles are large vesicles derived from the ER

and Golgi apparatus
 Vacuoles perform a variety of functions in different
kinds of cells
 Food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis
 Contractile vacuoles, found in many freshwater
protists, pump excess water out of cells
 Central vacuoles, found in many mature plant cells,
hold organic compounds and water

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Figure 7.14

Central vacuole

Cytosol

Central
Nucleus vacuole

Cell wall

Chloroplast

5 μm

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Video: Paramecium Vacuole

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TURGOR PRESSURE
or turgidity is the main pressure of
the cell contents against the cell
wall in plant cells and bacteria
cells, determined by the water
content of the vacuole, resulting
from osmotic pressure, i.e. the
hydrostatic pressure produced by a
solution in a space divided by a
semipermeable membrane due to a
differential in the concentration of
solute.

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The Endomembrane System: A Review

 The endomembrane system is a complex and

dynamic player in the cell ’ s compartmental
organization

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Figure 7.15

Nucleus
Nuclear
envelope

Rough ER
Smooth ER
cis Golgi

Plasma
membrane
trans Golgi

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Video: ER to Golgi Traffic

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Video: Secretion from the Golgi

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Concept 7.5: Mitochondria and chloroplasts

change energy from one form to another
 The Evolutionary Origins of Mitochondria and
Chloroplasts
 Mitochondria and chloroplasts have similarities
with bacteria:
 Enveloped by a double membrane
 Contain free ribosomes and circular DNA molecules
 Grow and reproduce somewhat independently
in cells
 These similarities led to the endosymbiont theory

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The Evolutionary Origins of

Mitochondria and Chloroplasts
 The endosymbiont theory suggests that an early
ancestor of eukaryotes engulfed an oxygen-using
nonphotosynthetic prokaryotic cell
 The engulfed cell formed a relationship with the host
cell, becoming an endosymbiont
 The endosymbionts evolved into mitochondria
 At least one of these cells may have then taken up a
photosynthetic prokaryote, which evolved into a
chloroplast

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Figure 7.16
Endoplasmic Nucleus
reticulum

Nuclear
envelope Engulfing of oxygen-
using nonphotosynthetic
prokaryote, which
becomes a mitochondrion
Ancestor of
eukaryotic cells (host cell)

Mitochondrion
Engulfing of
photosynthetic
prokaryote Chloroplast
At least
Mitochondrion one cell
Nonphotosynthetic
eukaryote

Photosynthetic eukaryote
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Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion

 Mitochondria are found in nearly all eukaryotic cells
 They have a smooth outer membrane and an inner
membrane folded into cristae
 The inner membrane creates two compartments:
intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix
 Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are
catalyzed in the mitochondrial matrix

Cristae present a large

surface area for
enzymes that
synthesize ATP

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Figure 7.17a

Mitochondrion

Intermembrane space
Outer
membrane

DNA

Inner
Free membrane
ribosomes
in the Cristae
mitochondrial
matrix Matrix
0.1 μm
(a) Diagram and TEM of mitochondrion

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Figure 7.17b

10 μm

Mitochondria

Mitochondrial
DNA

Nuclear DNA

(b) Network of mitochondria in Euglena (LM)

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Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy

 Chloroplasts contain the green pigment
chlorophyll, as well as enzymes and other
molecules that function in photosynthesis
 Chloroplasts are found in leaves and other green
organs of plants and in algae
Chloroplast
Stroma

Ribosomes 50 μm
Inner and outer
membranes
Granum

Chloroplasts
DNA
(red)
Thylakoid Intermembrane space 1 μm
(a) Diagram and TEM of chloroplast (b) Chloroplasts in an algal
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cell

Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy

 Chloroplast structure includes
 Thylakoids, membranous sacs, stacked to form a
granum
 Stroma, the internal fluid
 The chloroplast is one of a group of plant organelles,
called plastids

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Peroxisomes: Oxidation
 Peroxisomes are specialized metabolic
compartments bounded by a single membrane
 Peroxisomes produce hydrogen peroxide and convert
it to water
Peroxisome
How peroxisomes Mitochon-
are related to drion

other organelles is
still unknown!

Chloroplasts
1 μm
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PLASTIDS
Specialized organelles in plants and algae

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pigment
storage

chromo
storage
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chromo
leuco

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Concept 7.6: The cytoskeleton is a

network of fibers that organizes
structures and activities in the cell
 The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers extending throughout
the cytoplasm
 It organizes the cell’s structures and activities, anchoring
many organelles
 It is composed of three types of molecular structures
 Microtubules
 Microfilaments
 Intermediate filaments

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Video: The Cytoskeleton in Neuron Growth Cone

Video: Interphase Microtubule Dynamics

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Video: Microtubule Dynamics

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Video: Actin Visualization in Dendrites

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Video: Cytoskeletal Protein Dynamics

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Roles of the Cytoskeleton: Support and Motility

 The cytoskeleton helps to support the cell and
maintain its shape
 It interacts with motor proteins to produce cell
motility
 Inside the cell, vesicles can travel along tracks
provided by the cytoskeleton

Movement of Organelles In Vitro Movement of Organelles In Vivo

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Figure 7.21
Vesicle
ATP
Receptor for
motor protein

Microtubule Motor protein

of cytoskeleton (ATP powered)
(a) Motor proteins “walk” vesicles along
cytoskeletal fibers.
Microtubule Vesicles 0.25 μm

(b) Two vesicles move along a microtubule toward

the tip of an axon (SEM).

Video: Transport Along Microtubules

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Components of the Cytoskeleton

 Three main types of fibers make up the cytoskeleton

 Microtubules are the thickest of the three
components of the cytoskeleton
 Microfilaments, also called actin filaments, are the
thinnest components
 Intermediate filaments are fibers with diameters in a
middle range

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Components of the Cytoskeleton

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Components of the Cytoskeleton

Microtubules (Tubulin Polymers) 10 µm
Hollow tubes
25 nm with 15-nm lumen
Tubulin, a dimer consisting of
α-tubulin and β-tubulin
Maintenance of cell shape
(compression-resisting “girder”);
cell motility (as in cilia or flagella);
chromosome movements in cell
division; organelle movements

Column of tubulin dimers

25 nm

α β Tubulin dimer

Components of the Cytoskeleton

Microfilaments (Actin Filaments) 10 µm
Two intertwined strands of actin
7 nm
Actin

Maintenance of cell shape (tension-

bearing elements); changes in
cell shape; muscle contraction;
cytoplasmic streaming in plant
cells; cell motility (as in amoeboid
movement); division of animal cells

Actin subunit

7 nm

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Components of the Cytoskeleton

Intermediate Filaments 5 µm
Fibrous proteins coiled into cables
8–12 nm
One of several different proteins
(such as keratins)
Maintenance of cell shape (tension-
bearing elements); anchorage of
nucleus and certain other organ-
elles; formation of nuclear lamina

Keratin proteins
Fibrous subunit (keratins
coiled together)

8–12 nm

Microtubules
 Microtubules are hollow rods about 25 nm in
diameter and about 200 nm to 25 microns long
 Microtubules are constructed of dimers of tubulin
 Functions of microtubules:
 Shaping the cell
 Guiding movement of organelles
 Separating chromosomes during cell division

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Centrosomes and Centrioles

Centrosome

In animal In animal cells,

cells, the microtubules
centrosome Microtubule grow out from a
has a pair of centrosome
Centrioles near the nucleus
centrioles,
each with 0.25 μm
nine triplets
of
microtubules
arranged in a
ring

Longitudinal section Microtubules Cross section

of one centriole of the other centriole

Figure 7.22a

0.25 μm

Longitudinal section Microtubules Cross section

of one centriole of the other centriole

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Cilia and Flagella

 Microtubules control the beating of flagella and cilia,
microtubule-containing extensions that project from some
cells
 Many unicellular eukaryotes are propelled through water
by cilia or flagella
 Cilia and flagella differ in their beating patterns
 Cilia and flagella share a common structure
 A group of microtubules sheathed by an extension of the
plasma membrane
 A basal body that anchors the cilium or flagellum
 A motor protein called dynein, which drives the bending
movements of a cilium or flagellum
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Figure 7.23of flagella

(a) Motion

Direction of swimming

5 μm

(b) Motion of cilia

Direction of organism’s movement

Power Recovery
stroke stroke

15 μm

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Video: Flagellum Movement in Swimming

Sperm

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Video: Motion of Isolated Flagellum

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Video: Paramecium Cilia

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Video: Ciliary Motion

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Figure 7.24b
Outer microtubule Plasma
0.1 μm doublet membrane

Motor proteins
(dyneins)
Central
microtubule
Radial spoke

Cross-linking
(b) Cross section of protein between
motile cilium outer doublets

Figure 7.24c

0.1 μm
Triplet

(c) Cross section of

basal body

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Animation: Cilia and Flagella

• Dynein has two “feet” that “walk” along microtubules

• One foot maintains contact, while the other releases and
reattaches one step farther along
• Movements of the feet cause the microtubules to bend, rather
than slide, because the microtubules are held in place
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Video: Microtubule Sliding in Flagellum

Movement

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Microfilaments (Actin Filaments)

 Microfilaments are solid rods about 7 nm in

diameter, built as a twisted double chain of
actin subunits
 A network of microfilaments helps support the cell’s
shape
 They form a cortex just inside the plasma membrane
to help support the cell’s shape
 Bundles of microfilaments make up the core of
microvilli of intestinal cells

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

Figure 7.25
0.25 µm

Microvillus

Plasma membrane

Microfilaments (actin
filaments)

Intermediate filaments

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Figure 7.26a

Muscle cell
0.5 μm

Actin
filament
Myosin
filament
Myosin
head

(a) Myosin motors in muscle cell contraction

Microfilaments that function in cellular motility contain the

protein myosin in addition to actin

Video: Actin Network in Crawling Cells

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Figure 7.26b

Cortex (outer cytoplasm):

gel with actin network
100 μm

Inner cytoplasm
(more fluid)

Extending
pseudopodium
(b) Amoeboid movement

Cells crawl along a surface by extending pseudopodia

(cellular extensions) and moving toward them

Figure 7.26c

30 μm
Organelles

(c) Cytoplasmic streaming in plant cells

Cytoplasmic streaming is a circular flow of cytoplasm

within cells, driven by actin-myosin interactions

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Video: Chloroplast Movement

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Video: Cytoplasmic Streaming

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Intermediate Filaments

 Intermediate filaments range in diameter from

8 to 12 nanometers, larger than microfilaments
but smaller than microtubules
 Intermediate filaments are more permanent
cytoskeleton fixtures than the other two classes
 They support cell shape and fix organelles
in place

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

Concept 7.7: Extracellular components and

connections between cells help coordinate
cellular activities
 Most cells synthesize and secrete materials that are
external to the plasma membrane
 These extracellular materials and structures are
involved in a great many cellular functions

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Cell Walls of Plants

 The cell wall is an extracellular structure that
distinguishes plant cells from animal cells
 The cell wall protects the plant cell, maintains its
shape, and prevents excessive uptake of water

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

Cell Walls of Plants

 Plant cell walls may have
multiple layers:
 Primary cell wall:
Relatively thin and
flexible
 Middle lamella: Thin
layer between primary
walls of adjacent cells
 Secondary cell wall (in
some cells): Added
between the plasma
membrane and the
primary cell wall

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Figure 7.27 Central vacuole

Cytosol
Plasma membrane

Plant cell walls

Plasmodesmata

Secondary
cell wall
Primary
cell wall

Middle
lamella

1 μm

The Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of Animal Cells

 Animal cells lack cell walls
but are covered by an
elaborate extracellular
matrix (ECM)
 The ECM is made up of
glycoproteins such as
collagen,
proteoglycans, and
fibronectin
 ECM proteins bind to
receptor proteins in the
plasma membrane called
integrins
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Figure 7.28

EXTRACELLULAR FLUID A proteoglycan

complex:

Collagen Polysaccharide
molecule
Carbo-
hydrates
Fibronectin Core
protein

Plasma
membrane
Proteoglycan
molecule
Microfilaments
Integrins
CYTOPLASM

Figure 7.28a
Polysaccharide
molecule

Carbo-
hydrates

Core
protein

Proteoglycan
molecule

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Video: Cartoon Model of a Collagen Triple Helix

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

Video: Fibronectin Fibrils

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The Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of Animal Cells

 The ECM has an influential role in the lives of cells
 ECM can regulate a cell’s behavior by communicating
with a cell through integrins
 The ECM around a cell can influence the activity of
gene in the nucleus
 Mechanical signaling may occur through cytoskeletal
changes that trigger chemical signals in the cell

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

Cell Junctions
 Neighboring cells in tissues, organs, or organ
systems often adhere, interact, and communicate
through direct physical contact

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Plasmodesmata in Plant Cells

 Plasmodesmata are channels that perforate plant

cell walls
 Through plasmodesmata, water and small solutes
(and sometimes proteins and RNA) can pass from cell
to cell
Cell walls

Interior
of cell

Interior
of adja-
cent cell
0.5 μm Plasmodesmata Plasma membranes
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

Tight Junctions, Desmosomes, and Gap

Junctions in Animal Cells
 Three types of cell junctions are common in
epithelial tissues
 At tight junctions, membranes of neighboring cells are
pressed together, preventing leakage of extracellular
fluid
 Desmosomes (anchoring junctions) fasten cells
together into strong sheets
 Gap junctions (communicating junctions) provide
cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells

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Figure 7.30 Tight junctions prevent

fluid from moving Tight junction
across a layer of cells.

TEM
0.5 μm

Tight junction

Intermediate
filaments

Desmosome

Desmosome
(TEM) 1 μm
Gap
junction

Ions or small
molecules

TEM
Extracellular
matrix
Plasma membranes Space 0.1 μm
of adjacent cells between cells Gap junctions

FigureTight
7.30a
junctions
prevent fluid from
moving across a
layer of cells

Tight
junction
Intermediate
filaments
Desmosome

Gap
junction

Space Ions or small

between cells molecules

Plasma
membranes of Extracellular
adjacent cells matrix

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Figure 7.30b

Tight
junction

TEM
0.5 μm

Figure 7.30c

Desmosome
(TEM) 1 μm

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Figure 7.30d

TEM
0.1 μm
Gap junction

Animation: Desmosomes

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Animation: Gap Junctions

© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

Animation: Tight Junctions

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Concept 7.8: A cell is greater than the sum of its

parts
 Cells rely on the integration of structures and
organelles in order to function

Macrophage

Bacteria

Filopodium (extension
of the macrophage)
engulfing bacteria

10 μm
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.

Figure 7.32a

Plasma Scale within cell

membrane 25 nm
Cell
wall

Chloroplast

Membrane Photo-
Mitochondrion
proteins synthesis

Cellular
respiration

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Figure 7.32b

Nucleus

Transcription Nuclear
pore

Endoplasmic
Nuclear reticulum
envelope Translation
Cytoskeleton
Scale within cell
Motor proteins 25 nm

74