Faculty Profile : Dr.

Ashutosh Bhardwaj
He is Scientist/Engineer-‘SF’ at Photogrammetry and Remote
Sensing Department, Indian Institute of Remote Sensing,
Dehradun. He is a graduate in Civil Engg. from M.R.E.C. (present
MNIT), Jaipur; M.Tech. (Remote Sensing) from BIT, Ranchi & PhD
from Civil Engg. Dept., IIT-Roorkee. He joined ISRO in 2001 after
a brief career as faculty at Dept. of Civil Engg., BITS, Pilani.
• He has been engaged in industry, teaching and research in Surveying,
Photogrammetry, GNSS, Cartography, Remote Sensing and topographic
modelling for the past 20 years. He has published over 50 research papers
in Journals and conferences. He has widely contributed to various
departmental projects on remote sensing and Mapping at NRSC and IIRS.
• He has received appreciation from the Ministry of Planning and National
Development (MPND), Republic of Maldives for rendering expert services
for GPS ground control survey in the National Mapping Project (Maldives).
ORCID iD: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9241-5427
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Satellite Navigation
Global Navigation Satellite System
&
GPS receivers, surveying
techniques, processing methods,
errors and accuracy
Dr. Ashutosh Bhardwaj
Scientist/Engineer-’SF’, PRSD (GT&OP Group)
[email protected]
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

History of Mapping and Surveying

• First Maps were mental maps used for navigation.
• Indus Valley civilization had a system of underground drainage.
• About 5000 years ago the Babylonians produced property descriptions and simple property maps
on stone tablets.
• First known surveying by ancient Egyptians- used to reestablish property corners destroyed by
flooding of R. Nile.
• About 2000-2500 years ago Greeks and Romans surveyed and mapped their new settlements
with a great degree of precision using methods that changed very little up to this century.
• Instruments: Chain, Tape, Theodolites, Compass, Levels, EDM, TS, GPS/GNSS
• Classical Methods- Triangulation/trilateration: 19th 20th Cen..
• Oct. / Nov. 1957: Launch of SPUTNIK-1 & -2
• Jan. 1958: Launch of Explorer-1:
• 1958: Earth’s Flattening from Satellite Data [f = (a-b)/a)=1/298.3]

Note: Line of sight requirement.

 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Brief History of Navigation

• Landmark based navigation: Stones-Trees-Monuments (local use)
• Celestial Navigation Ok for latitude, poor for longitude until accurate clock invented ~1760
• 13th Century: Magnetic Compass
• 1907: Gyrocompass
• 1912: Radio Direction Finding
• 1930’s: Radar and Inertial Nav
Receiver only 6cm Integrates eLoran, Chayka, GNSS
• 1940-60’s: #Loran-A/B (Very Low frequency Radio-based) How Well Does these Works?
• 1950-70’s: Loran-C/Chayka (High frequency Radio-based)
• 1960’s: Omega/Alpha*(Radio-based) &Transit
• 1980’s: Development of GPS
• 1993/95: GPS - IOC/FOC
• 1993/95: GLONASS-IOC/FOC
• 1994: International GPS Service IGS begins (now GNSS)
• 2006:GNSS conceptualization**
• 2000’s: eLoran (Enhanced Loran-20m)/eChayka
• 2010: GLONASS resumes
• 2010’s: conceptualization of integrated receivers with GNSS + eLoran + eChayka (Satellite+Terrestrial)
• 2013-16: IRNSS
(https://www.reelektronika.nl/technology/integrated-elorangps-receivers/) solar powered eDLoran.
• 2019/20: Beidou
#LORAN: LOng-RAnge Navigation *Alpha was used to determine positions of aircraft, ships, & submarines **beginning of combined receivers
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Global Loran Coverage

Xiaomi Mi8

Source: https://rntfnd.org/wp-content/uploads/eLoran-Definition-Document-0-1-Released.pdf
Source: https://www.geospatialworld.net/blogs/the-redmi-note-9-pro-with-navic-support-is-
here/#:~:text=The%20Redmi%20Note%209%20Pro%20with%20a%20Qualcomm%C2%AE%20Snapdragon,175)%20on%20the%20Mi%20Store.&text=The%20Navigation%20and%20positioning%20features,%2F%20Galileo%2F%20GLONASS%20%2F%20Beidou.
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Early Space-Based Radio Navigation System

• Launch of Sputnik – Tracking? -------------Doppler Shift. Altitude: 985km; revolution period: 98 min
• Frank McClure, of the Applied Physics Laboratory, made a suggestion: would it be possible to invert
this problem? – given rise to TRANSIT in late 1950’s (US- 6 sat; Altitude: 1100km; revolution
period: 108 min) / TSYKLON/Cyclone (USSR-10 sat; 6- PARUS: Military; 4- TSIKADA /
Cicada[1979]-commercial /civilian; Altitude: 1000km)
• The Navy Navigational Satellite System or TRANSIT, used observed measurements in Doppler shift
to calculate distance and position to satellites (till 31-12-96).
• A fix requires 40 minutes for a static user-2D.
• Development of basic methods for satellite observations (Sputnik onwards), and for the
computation & analysis of satellite orbits provided publication of the first Earth models such as:
• the Standard Earth models of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO SE I to SAO SE III), and
• the Goddard Earth Models (GEM) of the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.
• TRANSIT Doppler positioning helped in improving Earth geoid models (e.g. GEM 10, GRIM).
• Radio Navigation System assisted in crustal deformation studies globally.
• determination of connections between the most important geodetic datums (to ±50 m) by 1970s.
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

SATELLITE NAVIGATION
• A satellite navigation system is a system that uses satellites to
provide autonomous geo-spatial positioning. Example:

• GLOBAL
• NAVSTAR GPS
• GLONASS
• BEIDOU
Transition: As a direct result of the tragedy killing all 269
• GALILEO aboard Korean Air Lines Flight 007 which strayed into
Russian airspace accidentally & shot down by Soviet air-
to-air missiles on September 1, 1983, near Sakhalin
• REGIONAL Island, Russia, President Ronald Reagan announced on
September 16, 1983 that the GPS system that had
• IRNSS previously been intended for U.S. military use only
• QZSS would now be made available for everyone to use.
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

NAVSTAR Global Positioning System

• In 1973 the U.S. DOD decided to establish, develop, test, acquire, and deploy a
spaceborne Global Positioning System (GPS), resulting in the NAVSTARGPS
(NAVigation Satellite Timing And Ranging Global Positioning System). Wooden
(1985) defined: “It is an all-weather, space based navigation system
development by the U.S. DOD to satisfy the requirements for the military forces
to accurately determine their position, velocity, and time in a common
reference system, anywhere on or near the Earth on a continuous basis”.

Space- Vs. Ground-based Nav. Systems

High frequency (short wave-length) radio signals, necessary for optimal
atmospheric penetration, require line-of-sight transmission paths. Ground-based
systems are limited to objects above ground.
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

GPS/GLONASS/Galileo General Characteristics

• Developed by the US DOD/USSR/EU
• Provides
• Accurate
Parameter Navigation
NAVSTAR GPS GLONASS Galileo Beidou1/2

Position
• 1010-20m
- 20 m 10-20m ~10-20m ~10-20m
• Velocity ~ 10cm/s
Velocity 10cm/s 10cm/s currently)
20cm/s 20/40cm/s
• Time ~ 0.1 µs (15ns
• 6/3 0.1
Time orbits
µs (15ns) 20ns 20ns 20/50ns

1 •
st Worldwide
Satellite PRN 4 Coverage
Kosmos1413 *GIOVE-A Beidou-1A
• 24 hour access 12Oct.1982 28Dec,2005 30Oct.2000
22Feb.1978
Ellipsoid WGS84 PZ - 90.11 GTRF CGCS2000* *
• Common Coordinate System
# ##

• WGS84 :: Parametry Zemli 1990(PZ-90.11)

• Designed to replace existing navigation systems
• Accessible by Civil and Military

#Parametry Zemli 1990(PZ-90.11) ## Galileo Terrestrial Reference Frame

*Galileo-In Orbit Validation Element (GIOVE) * * China Geodetic Coordinate System 2000
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Space Segment
(Initial Operational Capability(IOC)-1993)
(Full Operational Capability(FOC)-1995)
Block I Block II/IIA
Two Launches: Dec. 23, 2018 and 22 August, 2019
Total IIIA Series: 10 planned; IIIF Series: 11th onwards
 Entirely new design
 new ground control system (known as OCX $500 million/ $6
billion : FOC by 2021 by Raytheon). OCX passed
cybersecurity tests.
 first GPS sent aboard on a SpaceX rocket
 M-Code: more powerful GPS 3 signal for military users &
First Launch: 22 Feb 78(78-85)# First Launch: 14 Apr 89(89-97) more secure against jamming or spoofing.
On-Orbit: None, Total=11 Total II Series: 27 (1+14+12+8)  S-Band serial telemetry link
Block IIIA/IIIF

GPS III will deliver three times

better accuracy and provide up to
eight times improved anti-jamming
Block IIR / IIR-M(L2C & code M on both capabilities.
L1& L2)
Block IIF
Source: www.gps.gov/systems/gps/space/
First Launch:22 Jul 1997/25Sep2005 First Launch: 2009 First Launch: 2018 www.globalsecurity.org/space/systems/gps_3.htm
Total=12/8 Acquiring up to 19 SV’s Acquiring up to 32 SV’s
(R: Replenishment; M: Modernized)
#Inclination=63°:- optimized for North American region. The last Block I/II satellite was deactivated end of
March 1996/March 2007.
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

NAVSTAR GPS Satellite Constellation

L1C is the fourth civilian GPS signal,

designed to enable interoperability
between GPS and international
satellite navigation systems.

The United States and Europe

originally developed L1C as a common
civil signal for GPS and Galileo. Japan's
QZSS and China's BeiDou system are Source: https://www.gps.gov/systems/gps/space/

also adopting L1C-like signals.

 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

GLONASS satellites

Source: https://www.glonass-iac.ru/en/guide/
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

NAVSTAR GPS Satellite Constellation

GLONASS Status • The GLONASS system time is based

on the Central Synchronizer within
the ground based control complex. It
is realized by hydrogen masers with a
daily stability of better than 5⋅10-14.
• On board time scales of GLONASS
satellites are based on Cesium clocks.
• The daily stability of the satellite
frequencies is better than 5⋅10-13.
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

GPS System Components

• Development costs estimate ~$12 billion
• Annual operating cost ~$750 million
• 3 Segments:
• Space: Satellites
• User: Receivers
• Control: Monitor & Control stations
• Prime Space Segment contractor: Rockwell International/ Boeing than Lockheed
Martin, Boeing and again Lockheed Martin…
• Coordinate Reference: WGS-84
• Operated by US Air Force Space Command (AFSC)
• Mission control center operations at Schriever (formerly Falcon) AFB,
Colorado Springs
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

GPS System Components

Space Segment
• 24 Satellites • 12 Hourly orbits
• 4 satellites in 6 Orbital Planes inclined at – In view for 4-5 hours
55 Degrees • Designed to last 7.5 years
• 20200 Km above the Earth • Different Classifications
• Every satellite is visible from minimum 2 – Block 1, 2, 2A, 2R, 2R-M, 2F, 3 & 3F
ground stations

55̊
Equator

Managed by the US National Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT)

Executive Committee
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Control Segment Monitor and Control Stations

Colorado
Springs

Ascension Kwajalein
Hawaii
Islands
Diego
Garcia

Master Control Station

Monitor Station
Ground Antenna
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Control Segment: Latest

The GPS network has 16 monitoring sites/stations that provide global coverage. Six (6) are owned
by the Air Force and 10 by the National Geospatial Intelligence Agency. They require sophisticated
receivers to track GPS satellites as they pass overhead. These collect signals, measurements, and
atmospheric data, and feed observations to the master control station.

Source: https://spacenews.com/as-gps-3-launch-nears-air-force-keeps-watchful-eye-on-ground-controls/ [Screen-Shot-2018-09-09-at-5.09.56-PM-380x228]

 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Control Segment: Role

 Master Control Station
 Responsible for collecting tracking data from the monitoring stations and
calculating satellite orbits and clock parameters
 5 Monitoring Stations
 Responsible for measuring pseudorange data. This orbital tracking
network is used to determine the broadcast ephemeris and satellite clock
modeling
 Ground Control Stations with Antenna (S-band, uplink), Responsible for
upload of information to SV’s
 Routine maintenance
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

GLONASS signals
• The GLONASS satellite signal identifies the satellite and provides:
 position, velocity and acceleration vectors at a reference epoch to compute
satellite locations
 synchronization bits, data age and satellite health
 offset of GLONASS time from UTC (SU) (formerly Soviet Union and now Russia)
 almanacs of all other GLONASS satellites

Unlike GPS, all GLONASS satellites transmit the same code at different
frequencies. They derive signal timing and frequencies from one of three on-board
cesium atomic clocks operating at 5 MHz:
For example, L1 = 1602 MHz + (n x 0.5625) MHz where n = the frequency
channel number (n = 0, 1, 2 and so on)
L2= 1246 MHz + n × 0.4375 MHz
• The frequency ratio f2 /f1 is constant for all GLONASS satellites and amounts to
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Characteristics of GPS & GLONASS

The main difference

between GPS and
GLONASS is that in
GLONASS each satellite
has its own frequencies
but the same code
whereas in GPS all
satellites use the same
frequencies but have
different codes.
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

User Segment- Who uses it

 The most visible segment - Everyone!
 GPS receivers are found in many locations and applications
 Merchant, Navy, Coast Guard vessels
 Surveyors
 Has completely revolutionized surveying
 Hikers, Mountain Climbers, Backpackers
 Cars now being equipped
 Communications & Imaging Satellites
 Space-to-Space Navigation
 Any system requiring accurate timing
 Commercial Truckers, Commercial Airliners, Civil Pilots

The GNSS constellation system’s potential civil applications are many and mirror those of GPS.
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Why GPS?

• Weather Independent • Economical advantages

(Rain/fog/ snow have no effect • Common Coordinate System
on signals)
• Wide Range of Applications
• Does not require line of sight
• Competitively Priced
• Gives high Geodetic Accuracy • Quicker and requires less
manpower
• Can be operated day and night
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

How It Works (In 5 Easy Steps)

• GPS is a ranging system (triangulation)
• The “reference stations” are satellites moving at 4 km/s
1. A GPS receiver (“the user”) detects 1-way ranging signals from several
satellites
• Each transmission is time-tagged
• Each transmission/ephemeris contains the satellite’s position
2. The time-of-arrival is compared to time-of-transmission
3. The delta-T is multiplied by the speed of light to obtain the range:
P= [(Transmission time – Reception time) × Speed of light]
4. Each range puts the user on a sphere about the satellite
5. Intersecting several of these yields a user position
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Outline Principle : Range

Range = Time Taken x Speed of Light

SA: Selective
availability

Xll

Acc.: 10-100m
Vl

A receiver in autonomous mode provides navigation and positioning accuracy of

about 10 (SA off) to 100 m (SA on) due to the effects of GPS errors!!?
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Multi-Satellite Ranging

1 range puts Intersecting with A 3rd range

user on the a 2nd range constrains user to 1
spherical face restricts user to of the 2 points.
of the cone. the circular arcs.

Source: Trimble (free e-book): GPS The

Pictures courtesy http://giswww.pok.ibm.com/gps First GNSS
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Outline Principle : Position

 The satellites are like “Orbiting Control Stations”
 Ranges (distances) are measured to each satellite using time dependent
codes
 Typically GPS receivers use inexpensive clocks. They are much less accurate
than the clocks on board the satellites
 A radio wave travels at the speed of light
 (Distance = Velocity x Time)
 Consider an error in the receiver clock
 1/10 second error = 30,000 Km error
 1/1,000,000 second error = 300 m error
 1/1,000,000,000 second error = 0.3 m error
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Timing
• Accuracy of position is only as good as your clock
• To know where you are, you must know when you receive.
• Receiver clock must match SV clock to compute delta-T

• SVs carry atomic oscillators (2 rubidium, 2 cesium each)

• Not practical for hand-held receiver

• Accumulated drift of receiver clock is called clock bias

• The erroneously measured range is called a pseudorange

• To eliminate the bias, a 4th SV is tracked

• 4 equations, 4 unknowns
• Solution now generates X,Y,Z and b
• If Doppler also tracked, Velocity can be computed

• Each Galileo satellite has two master passive hydrogen maser atomic clocks and
two secondary rubidium atomic clocks which are independent of one other
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Interactive Session
• Which is the counterpart system of LORAN: • Which is the counterpart system of Alpha:
• Chyka • Chyka
• GLONASS • Omega
• GPS • GPS
• Alpha • GLONASS

• Galileo is from:
• Beidou is from:
• Russia
• Russia
• European Union
• European Union
• USA
• USA
• Japan
• China

• GPS is based on:

• 1-way ranging • Accumulated drift of receiver clock is called:
• 2-way ranging • clock bias
• 3-way ranging • Pseudorange
• None • triangulation
• Trilateration
• GLONASS use following signals:
• FDMA • Positioning requires minimum…… number of satellites:
• CDMA • 3
• Both of the above • 4
• TDMA • 5
• 6
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Position Equations
P1  ( X  X 1 ) 2  (Y  Y1 ) 2  ( Z  Z 1 ) 2  b
P2  ( X  X 2 ) 2  (Y  Y2 ) 2  ( Z  Z 2 ) 2  b
P3  ( X  X 3 ) 2  (Y  Y3 ) 2  ( Z  Z 3 ) 2  b
P4  ( X  X 4 ) 2  (Y  Y4 ) 2  ( Z  Z 4 ) 2  b
Where: Pi = Measured PseudoRange (Biased ranges) to the ith SV
Xi , Yi , Zi = Position of the ith SV, Cartesian Coordinates
X , Y , Z = User position, Cartesian Coordinates, to be solved-for
b = User clock bias (in distance units), to be solved-for
• The above nonlinear equations are solved iteratively using an initial estimate of the user
position, XYZ, and b- same for all satellites.
• To solve the user position equations, one must know where the SV is:
• The navigation and time code provides this
• 50 Hz signal modulated on L1 and L2
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

GPS Time
• GPS time is referenced to 6 January 1980, 00:00:00
• Jan 6 = First Sunday in 1980

• GPS satellite clocks are essentially synched to International Atomic Time (TAI)
(and therefore to UTC/zulu time since Jan. 1, 1972 for global civil time)
• TAI, maintained at Lab., France, is the basis for Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), used for
most civil timekeeping
• GPS time = TAI + 13s
• Since 13 leapseconds existed on 1/6/1980

• GPS time drifts ahead of UTC as the latter is “held” (leapseconds) to

accommodate earth’s slowing
• Delta between GPS SV time & UTC is included in nav/timing message
• SV clocks good to about 1 part in 1013
• Effectively, GPS time starts with zero at the beginning of each week.
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

GPS Signal Structure

 Each GPS satellite transmits a number of signals
 The signal comprises two UHF carrier waves (L1-19cm and L2-23cm) and two
codes as low power radio signals (C/A on L1 and P or Y on both L1 and L2) as
well as a satellite orbit message. [L5
 Bandwidth allocated for L1-24 MHz, L2-22 MHz, & L5-28 MHz
Fundamental
Frequency
10.23 MHz ÷ 10

L1 C/A Code P (Y)-Code

x 154 1575.42 MHz 1.023 MHz 10.23 MHz
GLONASS fundamental x 120 L2 P (Y)-Code
frequency is 5.0MHz 1227.60 MHz 10.23 MHz

50 BPS Satellite Message (Almanac & Ephemeris)

L3(1381.05MHz); L4 (1379.913MHz): used only for a atomic flash detection; Nudet (Nuclear Detection) System
(NDS). L5: 1176.45 MHz (25.5 cm, In-door apps., anti-jamming). L2C: 1227.60MHz (in pre-operational testing
and available on 24 satellites since May, 2017). L1C:1575.42MHz (III series onwards)
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Modernized GPS – New Signals

• Second civil signal (“L2C”)
•Began with GPS Block IIR-M in Sep 2005
•Designed to meet commercial needs
•Higher accuracy through ionospheric correction
• Third civil signal (“L5”)
•Begins with GPS Block IIF
•First launch: ~2008 (GPS IIR-M Demo); ~2009 (GPS IIF)
•Designed to meet requirements for transportation safety (safety-of-life)
•in-phase code (I5-code) & quadrature-phase code (Q5-code). Both codes are 10,230
bits long and transmitted at 10.23 MHz (1ms repetition).
• Fourth civil signal (“L1C”)
•Begins with GPS Block III; First launch: 23rd Dec. 2018; 32 satellites
•Designed with international partners to enable GNSS interoperability
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Precise (P) Code

• P-code rate is the fundamental frequency (provides the basis for all others), e.g.:
• P-Code (10.23 MHz) X 115 = 1.176 MHz (Carrier L5).

• Generally encrypted into the Y-code (A.S.)

• Requires special chip to decode
• Modulates both L1 & L2
• Also modulated by Nav/Time data message
• Chipping rate=10.23/5.11 MHz (λ=29.30m) i.e. 10 times faster than C/A code
ensuring improved time measurement. Therefore, the accuracy is approx. 10
times higher than for the C/A-code.
• Sequence Length = 2.35*1014 /5.11*106 bits (Period = 266 days).
• The total code is partitioned into 37 one–week segments. One segment is
assigned to each satellite
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Coarse Acquisition (C/A) Code

• Also known as Clear-Access code
• 1023/511-bit Gold Code (GPS/GLONASS); L1C is 10230-bit Weil Code
• Originally intended as simply an acquisition code for P-code receivers
• Modulates the L1 only
• Chipping rate = 1.023 / 0.511 MHz (λ=290 meter)
• Sequence Length = 1023 / 511 bits, (Period = 1 millisec). The time interval
between two subsequent bits (≈ 10−6 s) approx. corresponds to 300m.
• Provides the data for Standard Positioning Service (SPS)
• The usual position generated for most civilian receivers
• Modulated by the Navigation/Timing Message code
• M-Code frequency is 5.115MHz (ion both L1 & L2).
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Navigation Message
n In order to solve the user position equations, one must know where the SV is:
n The navigation and time code provides this
u 50 Hz signal modulated on L1 and L2
n The SV’s own position information is transmitted in a 1500-bit data frame
u Pseudo-Keplerian orbital elements
F Determined by control center via ground tracking
u Receiver implements orbit-to-position algorithm
n Also includes clock data and satellite status
n And ionospheric / tropospheric corrections
n International Telecommunication Union (ITU) has reserved 1559-1610MHz band for satellite
based navigation through World Radio Communication (WRC) conferences, held every three
year.
n GPS bands (US Federal Communication Commission): (1215-1240MHz, 1559-1610 MHz, L5-
1164-1188MHz)
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Navigation Message

Structure of Navigation data

DB I: Appears in the I subframe & contains the clock coefficient/bias.

DB II: Appears in the II and III subframes and contains all necessary parameters
for the computations of the satellite co-ordinates (Broadcast Ephemeris).
DB III: Appears in the IV and V subframes and contains the almanac data with
clock, ephemeris parameters, special information for all available GPS satellites.
The 5 frames take 6 sec. each to broadcast; so 30 sec. to get complete message
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

The Almanac
• In addition to its own nav data, each
SV also broadcasts info about ALL the
other SV’s
• In a reduced-accuracy format
• Known as the Almanac
• Permits receiver to predict, from a
cold start, “where to look” for SV’s
when powered up
• GPS orbits are so predictable, an
almanac may be valid for months
• Almanac data is large
• 12.5 minutes to transfer in entirety

Source:www.glonass-iac.ru/en/GLONASS/ephemeris.php
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Range Determination from Code Observations

 Pseudoranges (Code) Received Code
 PRN uniquely identifies each satellite.
from Satellite
 PRN provides timing coordination for GPS.
Generated
 PRN enable amplification of signals.
Code from
 Each satellite sends a unique signal which repeats itself approx. 1
msec. Receiver
 Receiver compares self generated signal with received signal dT
(correlation process) for synchronization of Receiver clock with D = V (dT)
the satellite clock.
 From the time difference (dT) a range observation can be
determined.

Receiver/Signal Code Comparison

PRN: sequence of on & off
pulses (period: 1 millisec.)
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Range Determination from Phase Observations

 Phase Observations
Received Satellite
 Wavelength of the signal is 19 cm on L1 and 24 cm
on L2 Phase
 Receiver compares self-generated phase with
received phase Generated
 Number of wavelengths is not known at the time Phase from
the receiver is switched on (carrier phase ambiguity) Receiver
 As long as you track the satellite, the change in
dT
distance can be observed (the carrier phase
ambiguity remains constant)
D = c .dT + N λ

If longer PRN code is used, receiver becomes more resistive to Jamming signal. But, signal
processing is more complex
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Satellite Geometry

Satellite geometry can affect the quality of signals and accuracy of receiver
trilateration.
Positional Dilution of Precision (PDOP) reflects each satellite’s position relative to
the other satellites being accessed by a receiver.
PDOP can be used as an indicator of the quality of a receiver’s triangulated
position.
It’s usually up to the GPS receiver to pick satellites which provide the best
position trilateration.
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Dilution of Precision (DOP)

Satellite geometry can affect the quality of signals and accuracy of receiver trilateration.
• A description of purely geometrical contribution to the uncertainty in a position fix.
• It is an indicator as to the geometrical strength of the satellites being tracked at the time
of measurement
– GDOP (Geometrical) Good GDOP Poor DOP
• Includes Lat, Lon, Height & Time
– PDOP (Positional)
• Includes Lat, Lon & Height
– HDOP (Horizontal)
• Includes Lat & Lon QUALITY DOP
Very Good 1-3
– VDOP (Vertical) Good 4-5
• Includes Height Fair 6
Suspect >6
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Satellite Geometries
Ideal Satellite Geometry Good Satellite Geometry

Skewed Satellite Geometry Poor Satellite Geometry

 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

GNSS
Systems
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Advantages of GNSS
• The use of GLONASS in addition to GPS provides very significant
advantages:
 increased availability of satellites & signals.
 markedly increased spatial distribution of visible satellites
 reduced HDOP and VDOP (DOP) factors
 Better atmospheric correction
 decreased occupation times means faster RTK results
 A larger satellite constellation also improves real-time carrier phase differential
positioning performance.
 accurate, robust & reliable services even in bad conditions
 Less expensive high-end services

Source: https://www.novatel.com/assets/Documents/Papers/GLONASSOverview.pdf
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

STEPS IN PHOTOGRAMMETRY
Aerial Photo
/ satellite image Input

Ground Control survey Photo Processing /

scanning (N/A to sat.)

Aero/Sat. Triangulation/
Control extension and Block
Adjustment

Stereo data capture

DEM Generation Photogrammetric for Planimetric
Contour Generation features

Digital Topographic
maps

Ortho Image
/ Mosaic Generation

Hard copy & softcopy of digital Maps GIS and Engineering

and Ortho Photo/image Maps Applications
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Assessment of the MERIT DEM and EarthEnv DEM90 DEMs using GCPs
Table 1: Vertical accuracy measures computed for the experimental sites
Experimetnal ME MAE RMSE St. Dev. LE90
Sites (m) (m) (m) (m) (m)
Jaipur Site 1.37 4.03 3.27 2.97 4.91
Kendrapara -3.33 3.33 4.00 2.21 3.65
site
Dehradun Site 3.17 4.79 7.82 7.15 11.79
Chandigarh 0.27 4.79 5.59 5.58 9.20
Site
Kalka Site -0.19 12.82 16.61 16.58 27.36
Delhi Site -11.19 10.07 13.14 6.90 11.38

FUSED DEMs

Elevation extraction at
GCP locations

Datum Conversion
Figure 1: Location map of the MERIT experimental sites with DEMs
GCPs
Table 2: Comparison of vertical accuracy for the MERIT DEM & EarthEnv DEM90
Experimetnal Sites ME (m) MAE (m) RMSE (m) Statistics generation
DEMs-90m MERIT EarthEnv MERIT EarthEnv MERIT EarthEnv
Jaipur Site 1.37 0.70 4.03 2.28 3.27 3.05
Kendrapara site -3.33 -3.64 3.33 3.64 4.00 4.22 Quality Assessment
Dehradun Site 3.17 0.57 4.79 5.42 7.82 6.55
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Mapping of Republic of Maldives

https://www.gim-international.com/files/0812346fc5116deee99fe6f235d260dc.doc
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Global Geodesy Applied and Plane Geodesy

− general shape of Earth’s figure and gravity field, − detailed plane surveying (land register, urban and rural
− dimensions of a mean Earth ellipsoid, surveying, geographic information systems (GIS), town
− establishment of a global terrestrial reference frame, planning, boundary demarcation etc.),
− detailed geoid as a reference surface on land and at sea, − installation of special networks & control for engg. tasks,
− connection between different existing geodetic datums, − terrestrial control points in photogrammetry & remote
and sensing,
− connection of national datums with a global geodetic − position and orientation of airborne sensors like
datum. photogrammetric cameras,
Geodetic Control − control and position information at different accuracy levels
− establishment of geodetic control for national networks, in forestry, agriculture, archaeology, expedition cartography
− installation of three-dimensional homogeneous networks, Navigation and Marine Geodesy
− analysis and improvement of existing terrestrial − precise navigation of land-, sea-, and air-vehicles,
networks, − precise positioning for marine mapping, exploration,
− establishment of geodetic connections between islands hydrography, oceanography, marine geology, geophysics,
or with the mainland, − connection and control of tide gauges (unification of height
− densification of existing networks up to short interstation systems).
distances. Related Fields
Geodynamics − position and velocity determination for geophysical
− control points for crustal motion, observations (gravimetric, magnetic, seismic surveys), also
− permanent arrays for 3D-control in active areas, at sea and in the air,
− polar motion, Earth rotation, and − determination of ice motion (glaciology/ Antarctica/ oceans)
− solid Earth tides. − determination of satellite orbits, and
− tomography of the atmosphere (ionosphere, troposphere).
source: Satellite Geodesy by Günter Seeber, Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG,10785 Berlin 2003
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Services
NAVSTAR GPS:
• Standard Positioning Service(SPS)
• Precise Positioning Service(PPS)

GLONASS:
• Standard Precision Service(SPS)
• High Precision Service(HPS)

Galileo:
• The Open source (OS) ECEF
• The Safety of life (SoL)
• The Commercial Service (CS) by Galileo Operating Concessionaire (GOC)
• The Public Regulated services(PRS): European Police/Antifraud offices.
• The Search & Rescue(SAR-L6) Service:+ to COSPAS-SARSAT system
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Receivers
Single Frequency Dual Frequency
• Baseline Accuracy 1cm/5mm + 2/1ppm (rms) • The “high end” of the GPS Market
• Uses Post process L1 carrier phase • Baseline Accuracy ranging from 5/3/3.5mm +
1/0.4ppm (rms)
• Used for all Surveying tasks with baselines up
to 15Km • Used in all GPS Surveying tasks :-
• Network Densification, Detail Surveys • Geodetic Control Networks, Tectonic Plate
• Real Time Monitoring, Photogrammetric Control,
• Smaller Occupation time Network Densification, Detail Surveys, etc.
• Less expensive alternative to Dual frequency • Real Time
• Most unsophisticated receivers track only L1 • Smaller Occupation time
and use a simplified correction model • New applications are found on a daily basis
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

3 Classes of GPS receivers

• Geodetic class
• capable of sub-centimeter accuracy
• high-precision mapping, surveying, & geodetic applications
• Relatively bulky, expensive (Choke ring antenna for multipath)

• Mapping grade
• capable of <3 meters accuracy
• portable, less expensive
• accurate mapping for integration with GIS

• Navigation
• capable of 10 meters accuracy
• light weight, cheap
• basic navigation, limited data storage
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

GPS Surveying Techniques

 Static
 For long baselines (>20Km), where the highest possible accuracy is required
 This is the traditional technique for providing Geodetic Networks and the only
solution for large areas
 Rapid Static / Fast Static
 For baselines up to 20Km
 Short Occupation times/high production
 Stop and Go
 Detail Surveys. Any application where many points close together have to be
surveyed
 Fast, economical & Ideal for open areas
 Kinematic
 Used to track the trajectory of a moving object (continuous measurements)
 Can be used to profile roadways, stockpiles, etc.
 Differential GPS/GNSS
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Sources of error
1. [Selective availability]

2. Clock errors

3. Ephemeris errors

4. Atmospheric delays

5. Multipath effects

6. Receiver errors
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Error Budget
 User Range Errors (URE) consists of System Errors (Ephemeris Data, & Satellite
Clocks) and atmospheric Errors (Ionospheric/Tropospheric: 90% Dry delay due
to dry gases; 10% Wet delay due to WV & condensed clouds).
 User Equipment Errors (UEE) consist of Receiver Noise and Multipath error.
 PDOP of 2 means that in the worst case, a 1m URE will result in 2m positional
error.
Typical Error in Meters (per satellite)
Standard GPS Differential GPS
Satellite Clocks 1.5 0
Orbit Errors 2.5 0
Ionosphere 5 0.4
Troposphere 0.5 0.2
Receiver Noise 0.3 0.3
Multipath 0.6 0.6
SA 30 0

Typical Position Accuracy

Horizontal 50 1.3
Vertical 78 2
3-D 93 2.8
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Satellite Mask Angle

• Atmospheric Refraction is greater for satellites at angles that are low to the
receiver because the signal must pass through more atmosphere.
• There is a trade off between mask angle and atmospheric refraction. Setting
high angles will decrease atmospheric refraction, but it will also decrease the
possibility of tracking the necessary four satellites.

Elevation and Mask Angle

 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Selective Availability (SA)

• To deny high-accuracy real-time positioning to potential enemies, DoD reserves
the right to deliberately degrade GPS performance
• Only on the C/A code
• In theory a point position can be accurate to 10 - 30m based on the C/A Code
• By far the largest GPS error source
100m

30m
• Accomplished by:
• “Dithering” the clock data
• Results in erroneous pseudoranges
• Truncating the nav message data
P
• Erroneous SV positions used to compute user pos.
• Degrades SPS solution by a factor of 4 or more
• Long-term averaging is only effective SA compensator
• Positional accuracy 50m(1sigma), 100m (95%) +/- 100m (95%)

ON 1 MAY 2000: SA WAS DISABLED BY DIRECTIVE P = True Position

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Atmospheric Delay
GPS signals are delayed as they
pass through the atmosphere (a.
layer of charged ions and free
electrons known as ionosphere and
b. the troposphere)

< 10 km > 10 km
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Tropospheric Refraction
• Troposphere is the lowest layer of atmosphere varying from (ground to) 7 to
14kms.

• Pseudo range errors varies from 2m if the satellite is at zenith to 30m for a
5° elevation satellite.

• The delay depends on temperature, pressure, humidity, and elevation of

satellite.

• Hydrostatic delay occurs due to presence of dry gases: about 2 meters in the
zenith direction to 10 meters for lower elevations.

• Wet delay occurs due to water vapor and condensed clouds: only some tens
of centimetres.
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Atmospheric Refraction
Ionsospheric Refraction Depends on:
•Sun’s activity (11 years sunspot cycle),
•Ionospheric thickness & proportions/concentration of ionized particles,
•Season,
•Actual path (i.e. relative position of satellite & receiver) of the wave i.e. signal
•Pseudo range errors vary from 0 to 15m at zenithal incidence to as much as 45m
for low incidence signals.
•delay is proportional to the integral no. of free electrons along the transmission
path and inversely proportional to the square of the transmission frequency.

Note: Two measurements at two different frequencies(P-code) can remove

ionospheric error.
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Multipath Error
SV1
Choke Ring
antenna

SV2

Caused by local reflections of the GPS/GNSS signals that mix with the desired signals
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Signal Obstruction
SV1 SV2

SV3
 When something blocks the GPS signal.
 Areas of Great Elevation Differences
 Canyons
 Mountain Obstruction
 Urban Environments
 Indoors
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Sources of Signal Interference

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Human Error
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

GPS Surveying Techniques

 Static
 For long baselines (>20Km), where the highest possible accuracy is required
 This is the traditional technique for providing Geodetic Networks and the only
solution for large areas
 Rapid Static / Fast Static
 For baselines up to 20Km
 Short Occupation times/high production
 Stop and Go
 Detail Surveys. Any application where many points close together have to be
surveyed
 Fast, economical & Ideal for open areas
 Kinematic
 Used to track the trajectory of a moving object (continuous measurements)
 Can be used to profile roadways, stockpiles, etc.
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

GPS Processing Techniques

Standalone: providing 10-20 m accuracy to meter level of accuracies depending
on DOP.
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Principle of Differential- GPS/GNSS

• the Reference Station may compute the errors Δx,
Δy and Δz given by
Δx = x – x’, Δy = y – y’, Δz = z – z’
• where x, y, z are the correct known positions of the
Reference Station and x’, y’, z’ are the computed
positions of the Reference Stations using 4 satellites.

• This can be transmitted to the User Receiver in real

time.

• The user receiver computes his position using the

Pseudoranges obtained from the same 4 GPS
satellites and apply the corrections Δx, Δy and Δz.

• This also provides improved position estimate

 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Quiz Time
• DGNSS requires minimum…. GNSS receivers: • Beidou use following reference coordinate system:
• 2 • CGCS
• 3 • GTRF
• 4 • ITRF
• 5 • WGS 84

• DGNSS cannot remove following errors: • Beidou uses following orbits:

• Receiver Noise • GSO
• Multipath • IGSO
• Both of the above • MEO
• Clock errors • All of the above

• GPS is based on following reference coordinate system:

• Ionsospheric Refraction Depends on:
• ECEF
• Sun’s activity
• GRS-80
• Ionospheric thickness & proportions of ionized particles
• Everest ellipsoid
• Season
• None
• All of the above
• GLONASS use following ellipsoid:
• Precise Point Positioning requires …… receiver:
• PZ-90
• 1
• WGS-84
• 3
• GRS-80
• 4
• WGS72
• 5
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

How to improve the positional

accuracy ?

Use
Differential GPS/GNSS
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Differential GPS Survey: What it serves?

High Accuracy
(Receiver position, satellite position, frequency-ionospheric
corrections, time-ambiguity of carrier phase measurements)
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Differential Positioning
• It is possible to determine the position of Rover ‘B’ in relation to
Reference ‘A’ provided
– The coordinates of the Reference
Station (A) are known

– Satellites are tracked simultaneously

• Differential Positioning
– eliminates errors in the sat. and
receiver clocks
– minimizes atmospheric delays
– Accuracy 0.5 cm - 5 m A B
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

DGPS Method
Method to remove errors from GPS measurements

Uses a GPS receiver at a fixed, surveyed location i.e. base station, to measure
error in pseudo range

Base station receives the same GPS signals as the roving receiver and instead
of using timing signal to calculate its position, it uses its known position to
calculate timing.

Pseudorange error for each satellite is subtracted from rover before calculating
position during RTK mode or post processing

Signal time at reference location is compared to time at remote location. Time

difference represents error in satellite’s signal; clock bias
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Differential GPS Correction

Post - Processed
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Differential GPS Correction Signal-RTK

n In a scientific sense Real Time can be defined as any action undertaken that
results in an instantaneous response.
n All processing took place in Real Time.
• Uses standardized output: RTCM-104
• Binary code, not directly readable
• Receivers often provide RTCM-104 on
a RS-232 serial port

Real - Time
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Example: Field Work- Static

R1 R2
R8

R3
R7
Base

R4
R6

R5
Case1: Survey with Two GNSS Geodetic Receivers
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Example: Field Work- Static

R1 R2
R2/8

R1/3
R1/7
Base

R2/4
R2/6

R1/5

Case2: Survey with Three or more GNSS Geodetic Receivers

 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

The Technique and Processing

• In the post processing, some of the errors between the base
station and rover data can be recognized, & corrected.

• Requires post-processing of field data.

(1) download the rover data

(2) download the base station data

(3) use software to make the corrections

• Remove or reduce all errors except multipath.

 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

GPS Errors Diff. Corrected

Atmospheric partial

Clock and Ephemeris yes

Multipath no

Receiver noise no
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Advantage of Differential GPS

X Improved accuracy has a profound effect on

the importance of GPS as a resource.
X It becomes more and more useful for
applications where cm accuracies are
required, like:
1. Urban mapping.
2. Alignment: Road, Railways, canal.
3. Cartography,etc.
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Continuously Operating Reference System

 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Precise Point Positioning

• PPP methods are similar to DGNSS positioning methods, however it use permanent
reference stations to quantify systematic errors. It can also be in post-mission or real
time mode.
• Limitation: long observation requirements…
• The RTX (Real Time eXtended) positioning solution is the technology resulting from
statistical techniques providing users with cm-level or sub-meter real time position
accuracy anywhere on or near the earth’s surface using precise satellite corrections,
either through a satellite link [RTX(SV)]or the internet [RTX(Internet).
Examples of PPP Service Providers:
• The Automatic Precise Positioning
Service(APPS) of the Global Differential GPS
(GDGPS) System [http://apps.gdgps.net/].
• RTX Services by Trimble.
• Leica [(SmartLink (worldwide correction service)]
• OmniStar (Satellite Differential service)
• AUSPOS by Geoscience Australia
• CSRS-PPP by Natural Resources Canada (NRCan)
• magicGNSS, by GMV Aerospace and Defense
Company, Spain
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Which equipment & antenna-receiver

combination bests suits my needs?
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

A GPS View of GIS Features

• Used for Geocoding of features and images.
• Point features are one or more positions averaged into a point
• Mapping Grade Receivers : Called “Points”
• Recreational Grade Receivers : Called “Waypoints”

Point
Line Area

– String of positions converted into a line / area

• Mapping Grade Receivers: Collected directly in the field as a line /
area feature
• Recreational Grade Receivers: Collected as a “TrackLog” then
converted back in the office
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

Integration with latest technologies

• GPS Juno ST GPS Handheld
Headset connector
Stylus holder
• Mobile
GPS
• Camera antenna
Reset
button
connector
• GIS s/w
• TS + GPS Power
button
SD card
slot
Lock
switch

Calendar Contacts

Today Messaging
screen

Directional
MIO Power/USB socket button
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

GNSS Data Processing Software

• Scientific • Commercial
 BERNESE from University of Berne,  SKIPRO from LEICA
Switzerland
 Leica Geo Office (LGO) from LEICA
 GAMIT from MIT, USA  GPSURVEY/TBC from TRIMBLE
 GIPSY from Jet Propulsion Laboratory, USA
 GPSS from ASHTECH
 DIPOP from University of Brunswick,
 SPECTRUM SURVEY from SOKKIA
Canada
 GrafNav from Novatel
 GEONAP from University of Hannover,
Germany  Mostly use standard Atmosphere models:
Saastamoinen, Hopfield(Ski-pro)
 RTKlab, Tokyo University
 glab, Universitat Politechnica de Catalunya
(UPC) for ESA..
 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF REMOTE SENSING, DEHRADUN

References
 http://www.glonass-ianc.rsa.ru/pls/htmldb/f?p=202:1:15000421459964108253
 http://igscb.jpl.nasa.gov/
 http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/gps/precise/default.htm
 https://rntfnd.org/wp-content/uploads/eLoran-Definition-Document-0-1-Released.pdf
Interface Control Documents:
 http://www.navcen.uscg.gov
 http://www.Glonass-ianc.ras.ru
 http://www.Galileoju.com
Links:
 UNAVCO http://archive.unavco.ucar.edu/cgi-bin/dmg/pss
 CDDIS http://cddisa.gsfc.nasa.gov/cddis.html
 NGS/CORS http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/CORS/ Contact Details of the Faculty:
 SOPAC http://sopac.ucsd.edu/
Email- [email protected]
Tel- 0135-2524117