Chapter 3

Hydrodynamic Lubrication
Hydrodynamic lubrication means that the load-carrying surfaces of the bearing are
separated by a relatively thick film of lubricant, so as to prevent metal-to-metal contact. The film
pressure is created by the moving surface itself pulling the lubricant into a wedge-shaped zone at
a velocity sufficiently high to create the pressure necessary to separate the surfaces against the
load on the bearing. Hydrodynamic lubrication is also called full-film, or fluid, lubrication.

Frictional Torque and Power Losses in Lightly Loaded Journal Bearings (Petroffs
Equation)

Radial clearance W
Bearing

cr
r
d

L
Journal

Figure 1 Lightly loaded Journal Bearing

A lightly loaded journal bearing is one in which the eccentricity of journal relative to
bearing is very small and can be neglected. Then the journal is assumed to run concentrically
with bearing. This is possible when the load acting on the journal is light, speed of the journal is
high and viscosity of the lubricant is high.

Assumptions:

1. Bearing carries small load that can be neglected.

2. Leakage across the bearing be neglected.
3. Viscosity is constant throughout the oil film.
4. The oil film in the journal bearing is so thin that the curvature of the bearing may be
neglected.

The oil film may be taken as unwrapped straight and prismatic thickness equal to radial
clearance as shown in figure 2. Consider the journal surface AB moving with a velocity U with
respect to stationary bearing surface. Then the length of the journal will be 2r and width L.
 Moving Journal surface
A B
Velocity, U

h = cr

2πr
A B
Stationary Bearing surface

Figure 2 Unwrapped oil film

Frictional force (Fμ): -

Frictional force/shear force = Shear stress × cross-sectional area

𝐹𝜇 = 𝜏 × 𝐴 ------------------ (1)
𝑑𝑢 𝑈
From Newton’s law of Viscosity, 𝜏 = η𝑑𝑦 = η 𝑕 -------(a)

If the shaft rotates at n rev/s, then its surface velocity is U = 2rn

2rn 2rn
Then, 𝜏 = η =η --------(b)
𝑕 𝑐𝑟

Substituting (b) and Area A= 2rL in equation (1), we get

2rn
Frictional force 𝐹𝜇 = η × 2rL
𝑐𝑟

4𝜋 2 𝑟 2 𝑛𝐿 η
Frictional force 𝐹𝜇 = -----------(2)
𝑐𝑟

Frictional Torque Tμ: -

Frictional Torque Tμ = 𝐹𝜇 × 𝑟

4𝜋 2 𝑟 3 𝑛𝐿 η
Frictional Torque Tμ = -------------- (3)
𝑐𝑟

Expression for frictional torque is generally called Petroffs equation.

Coefficient of Friction μ: -
𝐹𝜇
Coefficient of Friction 𝜇 = where W = Load on the bearing
𝑊

4𝜋 2 𝑟 2 𝑛𝐿 η
Coefficient of Friction 𝜇 = -------------(4)
𝑐𝑟 𝑊

The above equation is called as Petroffs equation for coefficient of friction.

 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑊 𝑊
Note: - Bearing pressure P =𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 = =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑑 2𝑟 𝐿

∴ 𝑊 = 2𝑟𝐿 × 𝑃 ----------(i)

Also, Frictional Torque Tμ = 𝐹𝜇 × 𝑟 = 𝜇𝑊 𝑟 ------(ii)

Substituting the value of W from equation (i), we get

Frictional Torque Tμ = 𝜇 × 2𝑟𝐿𝑃 × 𝑟 = 2𝑟 2 𝜇𝐿𝑃 ----------(iii)

Equating the frictional torque from equations (3) and (iii),

4𝜋 2 𝑟 3 𝑛𝐿 η
= 2𝑟 2 𝜇𝐿𝑃
𝑐𝑟

ηn 𝑟
𝜇 = 2𝜋 2 ---------- (5)
𝑃 𝑐𝑟

The above expression can also be obtained by substituting the value of 𝑊 = 2𝑟𝐿 × 𝑃 in
equation (4).

The power loss due to friction can be found using,

𝜇 𝐹 𝑈
Pμ = 1000 in kW

𝒓
Radial clearance ratio : − It is the ratio of radius of the journal r to radial clearance 𝑐𝑟 .
𝒄𝒓

𝒅
Diametral clearance ratio : -It is the ratio of diameter of the journal to diametral clearance c.
𝒄

The diametral clearance c is the clearance measured over the diameter and hence, c = 2 𝑐𝑟 .
𝑑 2𝑟 𝑟 𝑑 𝑟
∴ 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = = , hence = = radial clearance ratio.
𝑐 2 𝑐𝑟 𝑐𝑟 𝑐 𝑐𝑟

Problem: - A full journal bearing has the following specifications:

• Journal diameter:45 mm
• Bearing length: 65 mm
• Radial clearance to radius ratio: 0.0015
• Speed : 2800 r/min
• Radial load: 800 N.
• Viscosity of the lubricant at the operating temperature: 8.274 cP
Considering the bearing as a lightly loaded bearing,
Determine (a) the friction torque (b) Coefficient of friction under given operating conditions
and (c) power loss in the bearing.
Solution: Since the bearing is assumed to be a lightly loaded bearing, Petroff’s equation for the
coefficient of friction can be used.
 Given: - d=45 mm = 45×10-3; L = 65 mm = 65×10-3 ; N=2800 rev/min = 2800/60 rev/s;
W=800 N; η = 8. 274×10-3 Pa-s; cr/r = 0.0015; Tμ =?; μ = ?; Pμ=?.

(a) Friction Torque Tμ

3 2800
4𝜋 2 𝑟 3 𝑛𝐿 η 4𝜋 2 2.25×10 −3 60 65×10
−3 8.274 ×10 −3
Frictional Torque Tμ = = = 0.3343 Nm Ans
𝑐𝑟 0.0015 × 2.25×10 −3

ηn 𝑟
(b) Coefficient of friction μ = 2𝜋 2 𝑃 𝑐𝑟

𝑊 800
Where P = 𝐿×𝑑 = = 273504.273 N/m2
65×10 −3 2.25×10 −3

8.274 ×10 −3 2800 60 1

∴ 𝜇 = 2𝜋 2 =0.018566 Ans
273504 .273 0.0015

(c) Power loss Pμ

Pμ = 𝐹𝜇 × 𝑈 = 2𝜋𝑛𝑇𝜇 = 2𝜋 2800 60 0.3343 = 98 Watts = 0.098 kW Ans

Comparison of bearing frictions

The Figure 3 shows a plot of Friction vs. Shaft speed for three bearings. It is observed that
for the lower shaft speeds the journal bearing have more friction than roller and ball bearing and
ball bearing friction being the lowest. For this reason, the ball bearings and roller bearings are
also called as anti friction bearings. However, with the increase of shaft speed the friction in the
ball and roller bearing phenomenally increases but the journal bearing friction is relatively lower
than both of them. Hence, it is advantageous to use ball bearing and roller bearing at low speeds.
Journal bearings are mostly suited for high speeds and high loads.

Figure 3 Comparison of different bearing frictions

The ball and roller bearings require less axial space but more diametrical space during
installation and low maintenance cost compared to journal bearings. Ball bearings and roller
bearing are relatively costly compared to a journal bearing. The reliability of journal bearing is
more compared to that of ball and roller bearings.

WHEN TO USE FLUID FILM BEARINGS There are applications where anti-friction
bearings are the best choice. Commonly, smaller motors, pumps and blowers use rolling element
bearings. Paper mill rolls often use large specialized spherical roller bearings. Clearly, anti-
friction bearings are best for these applications. However, once the size of a pump (or fan or
motor, etc.) gets large enough and fast enough, a grey area is entered. Here rolling element
bearings are used successfully but as speeds increase and temperatures rise, rotor dynamics often
become a concern and critical speeds are encountered. This is when damping is required and
fluid film bearings become increasingly necessary. Hence turbo machinery designers are using
fluid film bearings if the speeds are above 3,000 RPM or the machine exceeds 500 HP.

ADVANTAGES OF FLUID FILM BEARINGS

The primary advantage of a fluid film bearing is the lack of contact between rotating
parts and thus, infinite life. During startup there is momentary metal-to-metal contact and foreign
material in the lubricant or excessive vibration can limit the life of a fluid film bearing. For these
reasons, special care must be taken when selecting and implementing a lubrication system and
special vibration monitoring techniques must be applied. The life of a fluid film bearing depends
on proper selection, proper installation, proper lubrication, and the alternating hydrodynamic
loads imposed on the bearing surface by relative shaft-to-bearing vibration.

Advantages of fluid film bearings are:

1. Provide damping. Damping is required in order to pass through a critical speed. Damping
is also required to suppress instabilities and sub synchronous vibration.
2. Able to withstand shock loads.
3. Reduce noise.
4. Reduce transmitted vibration.
5. Provide electrical isolation of rotor to ground.
6. Very long life under normal load conditions.
7. Wide variety of bearing types for specific applications.
8. Easy maintenance.

The lubricant used provides these functions to all bearings:

 Remove heat generated in the bearing.

 Flush debris from load area.

Disadvantages to fluid film bearings are:

1. Higher friction than rolling element type.

2. Susceptible to particulate contamination.
3. Cannot run for any length of time if starved for lubricant such as a lubrication system
failure.
4. Radial positioning of rotor less precise.

Use of journal bearings is also an advantage in many applications when it comes to

maintenance. Most fluid film bearings are split and rotor removal is not required to inspect and
replace. While split rolling element bearings are also available they are costly and not common.
Journal bearing fatigue damage is usually visible at an early stage and allows for better
diagnostics of failure modes so that corrective action can be taken to prevent recurrence.
TOWER’S EXPERIMENT

The present theory of hydrodynamic lubrication originated in the laboratory of Beauchamp

Tower in the early 1880s in England. Tower had been employed to study the friction in railroad
journal bearings and learn the best methods of lubricating them. It was an accident or error,
during the course of this investigation, that prompted Tower to look at the problem in more detail
and that resulted in a discovery that eventually led to the development of the theory.

Figure 4 is a schematic drawing of the journal bearing that Tower investigated. It is a partial
bearing, having a diameter of 4 inch, a length of 6 inch, and a bearing arc of 157o, and having
bath-type lubrication, as shown. The coefficients of friction obtained by Tower in his
investigations on this bearing were quite low, which is now not surprising. After testing this
bearing, Tower later drilled a 1/2 –inch diameter lubricator hole through the top. But when the
apparatus was set in motion, oil flowed out of this hole. In an effort to prevent this, a cork
stopper was used, but this popped out, and so it was necessary to drive a wooden plug into the
hole. When the wooden plug was pushed out too, Tower, at this point, undoubtedly realized that
he was on the verge of discovery. A pressure gauge connected to the hole indicated a pressure of
more than twice the unit bearing load. Finally, he investigated the bearing film pressures in detail
throughout the bearing width and length and reported a distribution similar to that of Figure 5.

Figure 4 Towers Experiment

Figure 5 Pressure distribution in oil film

Mechanism of development of hydrodynamic pressure

The film pressure is created by the moving surface itself pulling the lubricant into a wedge
shaped zone at a velocity sufficiently high to create the pressure necessary to separate the
surfaces against the load on the bearing.

One type occurs when the rate of shear across the oil film is a constant value and the line
representing the velocity distribution is a straight line. In the other type the velocity distribution
is represented by a curved line, so that the rate of shear in different layers across the oil film is
different. The first type takes place in the case of two parallel surfaces having a relative motion
parallel to each other as shown in Figure 6. There is no pressure development in this film. This
film cannot support an external Load.

Figure: 6 Velocity profile in a parallel-surface slider bearing (velocity induced flow)

The second type of velocity distribution across the oil film occurs if pressure exists in the
film. This pressure may be developed because of the change of volume between the surfaces so
that a lubricant is squeezed out from between the surfaces and the viscous resistance of flow
builds up the pressure in the film as shown in Figure 7 or the pressure may be developed by other
means that do not depend upon the motion of the surfaces or it may develop due to the
combination of factors. What is important to note here is the fact that pressure in the oil film is
always present if the velocity distribution across the oil film is represented by a curved line.

Figure 7 Flow between two parallel surfaces under normal load (pressure induced flow)

Plate AB is stationary while A’B’_ is moving perpendicular to AB. Note that the velocity
distribution is Curvilinear. This is a pressure induced flow. This film can support an External
load.
 Consider now the case of two non parallel planes in which one is stationary while the
other is in motion with a constant velocity in the direction shown in Figure 8. Now consider the
flow of lubricant through the rectangular areas in section AA’ and BB’ having a width equal to
unity in a direction perpendicular to the paper.

Figure 8 Velocity distribution only due to moving plate

The volume of the lubricant that the surface A’B’ tends to carry into the space between
the surfaces AB and A’B’ through section AA’ during unit time is AC’A’. The volume of the
lubricant that this surface tends to discharge from space through section BB’ during the same
period of time is BD’B’. Because the distance AA’ is greater than BB’ the volume AC’A’ is
greater than volume BC’B’ by a volume AEC’. Assuming that the fluid is incompressible and
that there is no flow in the direction perpendicular to the motion, the actual volume of oil carried
into the space must be equal to the discharge from this space. Therefore the excess volume of oil
is carried into these space is squeezed out through the section AA’ and BB’ producing a
constatnt pressure – induced flow through these sections.

The actual velocity distribution in section AA’ and BB’ is the result of the combined flow
of lubricant due to viscous drag and due to pressure –induced flow. The resultant velocity
distributions across these sections are as shown in Figure 9.
 Figure 9 Resultant velocity distribution

The curve A’NB’ shows the general character of the pressure distribution in the oil film
and the line LM shows the mean pressure in the oil film. Because of the pressure developed in
the oil film the, plane A’B’ is able to support the vertical load W applied to this plane, preventing
metal to metal contact between the surfaces AB and A’B’. This load is equal to the product of
projected area of the surface AB and mean pressure in the oil film.

Conditions to form hydrodynamic lubrication

 There must be a wedge-shaped space between two relative moving plates;

 There must be a relative sliding velocity between two plates, and the lubricant must flow
from big entrance to small exit in the direction of the moving plate;
 The lubricant should have sufficient viscosity, and the supply of the lubricant is
abundant.

Formation of oil film in a Journal bearing

Figure 10 Formation of hydrodynamic oil film in a journal bearing

Imagine a journal bearing with a downward load on the shaft that is initially at rest and
then brought up to operating speed. At rest (or at slow shaft speeds), the journal will contact the
lower face of the bearing as shown in the figure 10. This condition is known as boundary
lubrication and considerable wear can occur. As shaft speed increases, oil dragged around by the
shaft penetrates the gap between the shaft and the bearing so that the shaft begins to “float” on a
film of oil. This is the transition region and is known as thin-film lubrication. The journal may
occasionally contact the bearing particularly when shock radial load occur. Moderate wear may
occur at these times. At high speed, the oil film thickness increases until there comes a point
where the journal does not contact the bearing at all. This is known as thick film lubrication and
no wear occurs because there is no contact between the journal and the bearing. The various
stages of formation of a hydrodynamic film is shown in figure 10.

Stable lubrication
The difference between boundary and hydrodynamic lubrication can be explained by
reference to Figure 11. This plot of the change in the coefficient of friction versus the bearing
characteristic ηN/P was obtained by the McKee brothers in an actual test of friction The plot is
important because it defines stability of lubrication and helps us to understand hydrodynamic and
boundary, or thin-film, lubrication.

Figure 11 Stable and Unstable lubrication zones

If the bearing operates to the right of line BA and lubricant temperature is increased, this
results in a lower viscosity and hence a smaller value of ηN/P.

The coefficient of friction decreases, not as much heat is generated in shearing the
lubricant and consequently the lubricant temperature drops. Thus the region to the right of line
BA defines stable lubrication because variations are self correcting.

To the left of line BA, a decrease in viscosity would increase the friction. A temperature
rise would ensue and viscosity would be reduced still more. The result would be compounded.
Thus the region to the left of line BA represents unstable lubrication. In this zone variations are
not self correcting. Point C represents the beginning of metal-to-metal contact as ηN/P becomes
smaller.

A design constraint to keep thick film lubrication is to be sure that

𝜂𝑁
≥ 1.7 10−6
𝑃

The experimental investigations by Petroff and Tower form the background of the
hydrodynamic theory. Later on Osborne Reynolds conducted experiments and published the
findings in the form of present day hydrodynamic theory of lubrication and the corresponding
mathematical equation is known as Reynolds’ equation.
Reynolds equation for hydrodynamic bearing
Assumptions

1 The lubricant obeys Newton’s law of viscosity.

2 The forces due to the inertia of the lubricant are neglected.

3 The lubricant is assumed to be incompressible.

4 The viscosity is assumed to be constant throughout the film.

5 The pressure does not vary in the axial direction.

6. No slip occurs between lubricant and bearing surface.

7 There is no flow in the direction perpendicular to the motion i.e. there is no leakage.

8 The clearance between bearing and journal surface is so small that change in pressure across
the clearance can be neglected.

Figure 12

Consider the converging oil film as shown in figure. The surface B is fixed while surface
A is moving with constant velocity U in x-direction. The surface A is loaded with a vertical force
W. since there is no flow in z-direction, pressure along the z-direction is constant. Consider an
infinitesimal element of lubricant between the surfaces. The positive directions of velocity
components u, v and w are shown in figure.
Consider the equilibrium of forces,
∂P ∂τ y
Pdydz - P + ∂x dx dydz + τy dxdz - τy + dy dxdz = 0
∂y

∂P ∂τ y
Pdydz – Pdydz − dxdydz + τy dxdz -τy dxdz − dxdydz = 0
∂x ∂y

∂P ∂τ y
+ dxdydz = 0
∂x ∂y

∂P ∂τ y
Since dxdydz ≠ 0 ∴ + =0
∂x ∂y

∂P ∂τ y
Or ∂x = − ∂y

𝑑𝑢
Applying Newton’s law of viscosity, 𝜏 = −𝜂 𝑑𝑦 -ve sign because the velocity u decreases
with increase in y.
𝑑𝑢
∂P ∂ −𝜂 ∂2 𝑢
𝑑𝑦
Hence, ∂x = − = 𝜂 ∂y 2
∂y

𝑑𝑃 d2𝑢
= 𝜂 dy 2
𝑑𝑥

d2𝑢 1 𝑑𝑃
=
dy 2 𝜂 𝑑𝑥

Integrating the above expression with respect to y

𝑑𝑢 1 𝑑𝑃
= y + 𝐶1
𝑑𝑦 𝜂 𝑑𝑥

Integrating again with respect to y

1 𝑑𝑃
u= y + 𝐶1 𝑑𝑦
𝜂 𝑑𝑥

1 𝑑𝑃 𝑦 2
u= + 𝐶1 𝑦 + 𝐶2 ---------(1)
𝜂 𝑑𝑥 2

𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are constants of integration and can be determined by applying boundary conditions.

(i) at y =0, u =U

U = 0 + 0 + 𝐶2

 𝐶2 = U

(ii) at y = h, u = 0

1 𝑑𝑃 𝑕 2
0= + 𝐶1 𝑕 + 𝑈
𝜂 𝑑𝑥 2

1 𝑑𝑃 𝑕 2 1
𝐶1 = - 𝑈 + 𝜂 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑕
 𝑈 𝑕 𝑑𝑃
𝐶1 = - +
𝑕 2𝜂 𝑑𝑥

Substituting the values of 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 in equation (1)

1 𝑑𝑃 𝑦 2 𝑈 𝑕 𝑑𝑃
u=𝜂 + 𝑦 − + + 𝑈
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑕 2𝜂 𝑑𝑥

1 𝑑𝑃 𝑦
u = 2𝜂 𝑦 2 − 𝑕𝑦 + U 1 − ------------- (2)
𝑑𝑥 𝑕

Figure 13 Velocity distribution

This equation gives the velocity distribution of the lubricant in the film as a function of
the coordinate y and the pressure gradient dp/dx. The equation shows that the velocity
distribution across the film (from y = 0 to y = h) is obtained by superposing a parabolic
distribution onto a linear distribution. Figure 13 shows the superposition of these distributions to
obtain the velocity for particular values of x and dp/dx. In general, the parabolic term may be
additive or subtractive to the linear term, depending upon the sign of the pressure gradient.

Since the fluid is assumed to be incompressible, hence by continuity equation, we have

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
+ 𝜕𝑦 + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑤
Also flow in z-direction is neglected, i.e. =0
𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
 𝜕𝑦 = − 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑢
𝑑𝑣 = − 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥
Integrating between y =0 to y = h
𝑦 =𝑕 𝑦 =𝑕
𝜕𝑢
𝑑𝑣 = − 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥
𝑦=0 𝑦=0

𝑦 =𝑕 𝜕𝑢
0=− 𝑦=0 𝜕𝑥
𝑑𝑦
𝑑 𝑕
0
𝑢 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥

Substituting the value of u from equation (2)

𝑕
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑃 2 𝑕−𝑦
𝑦 − 𝑕𝑦 + U 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2𝜂 𝑑𝑥 𝑕
0

𝑕
𝑦2
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑃 𝑦 3
𝑕𝑦 2 𝑕𝑦 − 2
− + 𝑈 =0
𝑑𝑥 2𝜂 𝑑𝑥 3 2 𝑕
0

𝑕2
𝑑 1 𝑑𝑃 𝑕3 𝑕3 𝑕2 − 2
− + 𝑈 =0
𝑑𝑥 2𝜂 𝑑𝑥 3 2 𝑕

𝑑 1 𝑑𝑃 𝑕3 𝑕2
− + 𝑈 2𝑕 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2𝜂 𝑑𝑥 6

𝑑 −𝑕3 𝑑𝑃 𝑈𝑕
+ =0
𝑑𝑥 12𝜂 𝑑𝑥 2

−1 𝑑 𝑑𝑃 𝑈 𝑑𝑕
𝑕3 + =0
12𝜂 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

−1 𝑑 𝑑𝑃 𝑈 𝑑𝑕
𝑕3 = −
12𝜂 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑕
𝑕3 = 6𝜂𝑈 − − − − − − − − − − − (3)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
This equation is called Reynolds equation in 2-dimensions.

Note: - Reynolds equation can be derived in 3-dimensions where this equation considers flow of
lubricant in a direction perpendicular to the motion of the journal.

𝑑 𝑕3 𝑑𝑝 𝑑 𝑕3 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑕
+ = 6𝑈 − − − − − −(4)
𝑑𝑥 𝜂 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧 𝜂 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥

Terms used in Hydrodynamic Journal Bearing

The following terms used in hydrodynamic journal bearing are important from the subject point
of view:

1. Diametral clearance. It is the difference between the diameters of the bearing and the journal.
Mathematically, diametral clearance,

C=D–d
2. Radial clearance. It is the difference between the radii of the bearing and the journal.
Mathematically, radial clearance,
𝐷 𝑑 𝐷−𝑑 𝐶
Cr = R – r = 2 − = =2
2 2

Figure 14 Terms used in journal bearing - Bearing Nomenclature

3. Diametral clearance ratio. It is the ratio of the diametral clearance to the diameter of the
journal. Mathematically, diametral clearance ratio

𝐶 𝐷−𝑑
𝜓= =
𝑑 𝑑
4. Eccentricity. It is the radial distance between the centre (O) of the bearing and the displaced
centre (O′) of the bearing under load. It is denoted by e. Generally, 0 < e < Cr.

5. Minimum oil film thickness. It is the minimum distance between the bearing and the journal,
under complete lubrication condition. It is denoted by h0 and occurs at the line of centers as
shown in Figure 14. Its value may be assumed as c / 4.

From the figure 14,

Radius of bearing, R=Minimum oil film thickness, hmin+ radius of journal, r + eccentricity, e.

i.e. R = hmin+ r + e

𝑅 − 𝑟 = 𝑕𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝑒 or 𝐶𝑟 = 𝑕𝑚𝑖𝑛 + 𝑒

 eccentricity, e = Cr –hmin

6. Attitude or eccentricity ratio or relative eccentricity (𝜖): - It is the ratio of the eccentricity to
the radial clearance. Mathematically, attitude or eccentricity ratio,
𝑒 2𝑒 𝐶𝑟 −𝑕 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑕 𝑚𝑖𝑛 2𝑕 𝑚𝑖𝑛 2𝑕 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝜖=𝐶 = = =1− =1− =1−
𝑟 𝐶 𝐶𝑟 𝐶𝑟 𝐶 𝑑𝜓
 𝐶
𝑕𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 1−𝜖
2
If 𝜖 = 0, then there is no load or the bearing is lightly loaded.

If 𝜖 = 1, then the shaft touches the bearing surface under externally applied large loads.

7. Attitude Angle: - It is the angle from Y- axis (vertical axis) to line of Centers and is denoted
by 𝜙. Attitude angle locates the position of minimum film thickness with respect to load line.

If L/d is > 1, the bearing is said to be a long bearing.

If L/d is < 1, the bearing is said to be a short bearing.

If L/d is = 1, the bearing is said to be a Square bearing.

If the length of the bearing is very large compared to its diameter, L/d= ∞, such a bearing is said
to be an idealized bearing with no side leakage.

Design parameters of journal bearing

The first step for journal bearing design is determination of bearing pressure for the given
design parameters,

 Operating conditions (temperature, speed and load)

 Geometrical parameters ( length and diameter)
 Type of lubricant ( viscosity)

The design parameters, mentioned above, are to be selected for initiation of the design. The
bearing pressure is known from the given load capacity and preliminary choice of bearing
dimensions. After the bearing pressure is determined, a check for proper selection of design zone
is required. The selection of design zone is explained below.

The Figure 14 shows the results of test of friction by McKee brothers. Figure shows a plot of
variation of coefficient of friction with bearing characteristic number. Bearing characteristic
number is defined as,
ηn
Bearing characteristic number =
P

Figure 15 Results of test of friction ( McKee brothers )

 It is a non-dimensional number, where η is the viscosity, n is the speed of the journal and
P is the bearing pressure given by P = W/Ld, d and L being diameter and length of the journal
respectively.

The plot shows that from B with the increase in bearing characteristic number the friction
increases and from B to A with reduction in bearing characteristic number the friction again
increases. So B is the limit and the zone between A to B is known as boundary lubrication or
sometimes termed as imperfect lubrication. Imperfect lubrication means that metal – metal
contact is possible or some form of oiliness will be present. The portion from B to D is known as
the hydrodynamic lubrication .The calculated value of bearing characteristic number should be
somewhere in the zone of C to D. This zone is characterized as design zone.

For any operating point between C and D due to fluid friction certain amount of
temperature generation takes place. Due to the rise in temperature the viscosity of the lubricant
will decrease, thereby, the bearing characteristic number also decreases. Hence, the operating
point will shift towards C, resulting in lowering of the friction and the temperature. As a
consequence, the viscosity will again increase and will pull the bearing characteristic number
towards the initial operating point. Thus a self control phenomenon always exists. For this reason
the design zone is considered between C and D. The lower limit of design zone is roughly five
times the value at B. On the contrary, if the bearing characteristic number decreases beyond B
then friction goes on increasing and temperature also increases and the operation becomes
unstable.

Therefore, it is observed that, bearing characteristic number controls the design of journal
bearing and it is dependent of design parameters like, operating conditions (temperature, speed
and load), geometrical parameters ( length and diameter) and viscosity of the lubricant.

Methods for journal bearing design

Broadly there are two methods for journal bearing design, they are,

 First Method: developed by M. D. Hersey

 Second Method: developed by A. A. Raimondi and J. Boyd

(i) Method developed by M. D. Hersey

This method is based on dimensional analysis, applied to an infinitely long bearing.

Analysis incorporates a side-flow correction factor obtained from the experiment of S. A. McKee
and T. R. McKee (McKee Brothers).

McKee equation for coefficient of friction, for full bearing is given by,
ηn 𝑑
Coefficient of friction, μ = 𝐾1 10−10 + 𝐾2
𝑃 𝑐

Where,

P = bearing pressure (on projected area) = P/Ld

L = length of bearing
 d = diameter of journal

N = speed of the journal

η = absolute viscosity of the lubricant

c = diametral clearance

K2 = side flow factor = 0.002 for L/d = 0.75-2.8

K1 = a constant which depends on the system of units. In SI units, K1 = 1.95× 1011

where η in Pa s, n in rps, and P in N/m2

The steps to be followed are,

Basic design parameters are provided by the designer from the operating conditions. These are,

(i) Bearing load (W), (ii) Journal diameter (d), (iii) Journal speed (n)

Depending upon type of application, selected design parameters are obtained from a design
handbook, these are,

L/d ratio, Bearing pressure (P), C/d ratio, Proper lubricant and an operating temperature

The heat generation in the bearing is given by,

Heat generated, Hg = fWv = 2nTf

Where f = coefficient of friction

W = Load in N
𝑑 𝑑
v = rubbing velocity in m/s = 𝜔 × 2 = 2 𝑛 × 2 = 𝑑𝑛

Tf = frictional torque in N − m

n = speed in rps

The heat dissipation is given by,

𝐻𝑑 = 𝐾𝐴(𝑡𝑏 − 𝑡𝑎 )

Where K = heat dissipation coefficient

A = projected bearing area

𝑡𝑏 = bearing surface temperature

𝑡𝑎 = temperature of the surrounding = ambient temperature.

Next steps are as follows,

𝛈𝐧
 Value of should be within the design zone
𝐏
  Compute coefficient friction, f from McKee equation or Petroffs equation in case of
lightly loaded journal bearing.
 Heat generation and heat dissipation are computed to check for thermal equilibrium.
 Iteration with selected parameters is required if thermal equilibrium is not established.
 Provision for external cooling is required if it is difficult to achieve thermal equilibrium.

The method described here is relatively old. The second method is more popular and is described
below.

Table: - 1 Journal design practices

Sommerfeld number: -

There is no general analytical solution to Reynolds equation. Hence approximate

solutions have been obtained by using electrical analogies, mathematical summations, relaxation
methods, and numerical and graphical methods. One of the important solutions is due to
Sommerfeld and may be expressed in the form

𝑟 𝑟 2 𝜂𝑛
𝑓=𝜑
𝑐 𝐶𝑟 𝑃

Where φ indicates a functional relationship. Sommerfeld found the functions for half bearings
and full bearings by using the assumption of no side leakage.

Assuming no side flow, Sommerfeld (1904) proposed a solution and defined a parameter,
known as Sommerfeld number. The bearing characteristic number, or the Sommerfeld number, is
defined by

𝑟 2 𝜂𝑛 𝑑 2 𝜂𝑛
Sommerfeld number S = = S is a dimensionless number.
𝐶𝑟 𝑃 𝐶 𝑃

The Sommerfeld number is very important in lubrication analysis because it contains

many of the parameters that are specified by the designer. The Sommerfeld number is very
important in lubrication analysis because it contains many of the parameters that are specified by
the designer.

Figure: 16 Attitude as a function of Sommerfeld number for lightly and heavily loaded bearings

If S=0.15 or greater than 0.15, the bearing is a Lightly loaded bearing.

If S is lesser than 0.15, the bearing is a Heavily loaded bearing.

ii) Method developed by Raimondi and Boyd

This method is based on hydrodynamic theory. The Reynolds equation does not have any
general solution. Raimondi and Boyd, used an iteration technique to solve Reynolds’ equation on
the digital computer. This is the first time such extensive data have been available for use by
designers, and consequently most designers employ them in the design of bearings.
 Raimondi and Boyd have obtained computerized solutions for Reynolds equation and
reduced them to chart form which provides accurate solutions for bearings of all proportions.
Selected charts are shown in Figures 2.8 to 2.15. All these charts are plots of non-dimensional
bearing parameters as functions of the bearing characteristic number, or the Sommerfeld variable
S which itself is a dimensionless parameter.

From Petroffs equation we know that,

ηn 𝑟
𝑓 = 2𝜋 2 where f = coefficient of friction
𝑃 𝑐𝑟

𝑟
Multiplying both sides by 𝑐𝑟

𝑟 ηn 𝑟 2
𝑓 = 2𝜋 2
𝑐𝑟 𝑃 𝑐𝑟

𝑟 ηn 𝑟 2
𝑓 = 2𝜋 2 = 2𝜋 2 𝑆
𝑐𝑟 𝑃 𝑐𝑟

(r/c)f is a dimensionless variable called Coefficient of friction variable. Figure 7.28 shows the
variation coefficient of friction variable with respect to Sommerfeld number.

𝑟
Figure 17 Friction Variable 𝑓 versus - Sommerfeld Number S
𝑐𝑟

hmin/c is a dimensionless variable and is known as Minimum Film Thickness variable.

Figure 7.29 shows the variation Minimum film thickness variable with respect to Sommerfeld
number. The left boundary of the zone defines the optimal h0 for minimum friction; the right
boundary is optimum h0 (hmin) for load.
 𝐡𝐨 𝐡𝐦𝐢𝐧
Figure 18 Minimum film-thickness variable versus Sommerfeld Number S
𝐜 𝐜

Dimensionless Flow Variable is given by:

Q
Flow variable = Where Q= Total Flow through the bearing
rcnL

Figure 19 shows the variation flow variable with respect to Sommerfeld number.

Q
Figure 19 Flow variable rcnL versus Sommerfeld Number S
 Figure 20 can be used to find the side flow / end leakage of oil from the bearing by using
𝑄𝑠
non-dimensional parameter .
𝑄

𝑄𝑠
Figure 20 Flow ratio versus Sommerfeld Number S
𝑄

𝑃
The Maximum pressure Pmax developed can be determined from the ratio shown in figure 21
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑃
Figure 21 Maximum film pressure ratio 𝑃 versus Sommerfeld Number S
𝑚𝑎𝑥
The position of minimum oil film thickness can be determined from Figure 22.

Figure 22 Position of minimum film thickness (ϕ) versus Sommerfeld number S

The locations where the terminating and maximum pressures occur, as defined in Fig 12–
15, are determined from Fig. 12–22.

Figure 23 Film pressure distribution showing the notion

 Figure 24 Chart for finding the terminating position of the lubricant film and the position of
maximum film pressure

Viscosity of different grade lubricants under different temperatures can be found from Figure 25.

Figure 25 Viscosity versus temperature for different graded lubricating oils

Bearing and Journal Configurations

Bearing Geometries

A wide range of bearing configurations are available to the journal bearing designer.
Figure 26 depicts several of these bearings. The configurations range from the very simple plain
journal bearing to the very complex tilting-pad bearing. The choice of bearing configuration
depends on several factors. Among the more important are cost, load, power loss, dynamic
properties, ease of construction, and difficulty of installation.

Journal bearings are termed full bearings [Figure 26(a)] when the bearing surface
completely surrounds the journal. Because they are easy to make and do not cost much, full
bearings are the most commonly used bearing in rotating machinery. Full bearings become
distorted during installation, and so they are generally not perfectly circular.

Journal bearings are called partial bearings when the bearing surface extends over only a
segment of the circumference, generally 180° or less [Figure 26(b)]. Partial bearings are used in
situations where the load is mainly unidirectional. Partial journal bearings have been found to
reduce frictional torque on the journal and provide convenient accessibility, and they do not, in
many instances, require strict manufacturing tolerance. Partial journal bearings in which the
bearing radius exceeds the journal radius are called clearance bearings, whereas partial journal
bearings in which the bearing and the journal radii are equal are termed fitted bearings.

Geometries in which two circular sectors are employed are called elliptical, or lemon,
bearings [Figure 26(c)]. These bearings are really not elliptical at all but are fabricated by uniting
two halves of a circular bearing which have had their mating faces machined so that the bearing
has an approximately elliptical appearance. Lemon bearings are probably the most widely used
bearing at low and moderate speeds. They are extensively used in turbine applications.

Elliptical bearings in which the two cylindrical halves are laterally displaced along the
major axis are termed offset bearings [Figure 26(d)]. The relative displacement of the center of
each half of the bearing is called the preset. When the upper half of the bearing is displaced
horizontally in the direction of rotation, the bearing has negative preset. It is found that load
capacity increases with preset. Offset bearings have relatively high horizontal stiffness, which
helps prevent dynamic instability. Further, offset bearings allow greater lubricant flow and so run
cooler.

Novel offset journal bearing designs for reducing power loss and wear in duty cycles
which combine non reversing loading with limited journal angular oscillation or in steady
operation with counter rotation of journal and bearing under a constant load have been studied.
In these applications, conventional journal bearings are found to develop extremely thin lubricant
films, which in turn results in high friction and wear. Figure 26(e) depicts a journal bearing in
which both the journal and the bearing are divided axially into segments with offset centerlines.
This arrangement produces a dynamic rocking motion which promotes a thicker lubricating film.
Accordingly the assembly has been called a rocking journal bearing.

When a step is milled from the surface of the bearing [Figure 26(f)], the resulting bearing
is called a pressure dam, or step, bearing. The purpose of the step is to create additional
hydrodynamic pressure on the top of the journal as the lubricant is rotated into the step. In turn,
this pressure buildup enhances the load on the journal and therefore diminishes its susceptibility
to vibration problems. Pressure dam bearings are very popular in the petrochemical industry.

Bearing geometries consisting of three or more sectors [Figure 26(g) and (h)] are termed
lobed, or multi lobed, bearings. Generally, bearings with more than three lobes are used only in
gas bearing applications. Multi lobe bearings act as a number of partial bearings in series. The
cost of multi lobed bearings is considered moderate.

The multi leaf journal bearing [Figure 26(i)] is a variant of a multi lobe bearing. It
consists of a number of identical circular arcs, or leaves, whose centers are equally spaced
around the generating circle. The operating characteristics of a multi leaf bearing are practically
independent of the direction of loading for bearings with eight or more leaves.

In & floating-ring journal bearing [Figure 26(j)], the lubricating film is divided in two by
the addition of a "floating" ring between the journal and the bearing. Floating ring bearings have
lower frictional losses and reduced heat generation and provide better stability.

Hydrodynamic journal bearings may be distinguished as to whether the bearing surface

can pivot. The basic advantage of pivoting, or tilting-pad, journal bearings [Figure 26(k)] over
fixed-pad journal bearings is that they can accommodate, with little loss in performance, any
shaft deflection or misalignment.

A foil journal bearing [Figure 26(l)] consists of a very thin compliant bearing surface
resting atop a series of corrugations. When it is compared to a conventional gas bearing, the foil
bearing has a thicker film, higher load capacity, lower power loss, better stability, and superior
endurance to high operating temperatures.
Problem: -1 A journal of a stationary oil engine is 80 mm in diameter and 40 mm long. The
radial clearance is 0.060mm. It supports a load of 9 kN when the shaft is rotating at 3600 rpm.
The bearing is lubricated with SAE 40 oil supplied at atmospheric pressure and average
operating temperature is about 65o C. Using Raimondi-Boyd charts analyze the bearing assuming
that it is working under steady state condition.

Solution: - Given d=80 mm; L=40 mm; L/d = 0.5; Cr = 0.060 mm; W =9 kN = 9000 N;
N=3600rpm; n=60 rps; SAE 40; t avg = 65o C.

Steps in the analysis of Journal Bearing

𝑊 9000
1. Bearing pressure P= = = 2.813 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 =2.813×106 Pa
𝐿𝑑 40×80

2. Viscosity of SAE 40 oil can be determined from Figure P1-1 (Viscosity versus Temperature –
Figure 25). Viscosity of SAE 40 at 65o C, η = 30 mPa-s = 𝟑𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 Pa-s.

Figure P1-1

𝑑 2 𝜂𝑛 40 2 30×10 −3 ×60
3. Calculate the Sommerfeld number, S = = = 0.284
𝐶 𝑃 0.06 2.813 ×10 6

4. For Sommerfeld number S = 0.284 and L/d = ½, Minimum film thickness variable can be
determined from Figure P1-2 (minimum film thickness variable versus Sommerfeld number
𝑕𝑜 𝑕 𝑚𝑖𝑛
Figure 18), = = 0.38
𝐶 𝐶𝑟

𝑕 𝑚𝑖𝑛
∴ = 0.38
0.06

Minimum film thickness 𝒉𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝒎𝒎 = 𝟐𝟑 𝝁𝒎

𝑒
Also from the same chart (Figure P1-2), eccentricity ratio, 𝜀 = 𝐶 = o.62

Eccentricity e = 0.62×0.06 = 0.037 mm

 Figure P1-2

5. Find coefficient of friction, f from the chart coefficient of friction variable versus Sommerfeld
number (Figure 17), Figure P1-3.
𝑟 𝑑
Coefficient of friction variable 𝐶 𝑓 = 𝐶 𝑓 = 7.5 for S = 0.284 and L/2 = ½
𝑟

40
𝑓 = 7.5
0.06
Coefficient of friction f = 0.0113.

Figure P1-3

6. The position of the minimum film thickness ϕ can be determined from the chart position of
minimum film thickness versus Sommerfeld number (Figure 22), Figure P1-3.

For S = 0.284 and L/d = ½, ϕ = 46o

Position of the minimum film thickness ϕ = 46o

7. Flow of lubricating oil can be determined from the chart of Flow variable versus Sommerfeld
number (Figure 19), Figure P1-4.
𝑄
For S=0.284 and L/d = ½, 𝑟𝐶 = 4.9
𝑟 𝑛𝐿

Q = 4.9 rCrnL = 4.9×0.04×0.06×10-3×60×0.04 = 2.82×10-5 m3/s

Flow of lubricating oil Q = 2.82×10-5 m3/s

Figure P1-4

8. Oil flow through sides can be determined from the chart of flow ratio versus Sommerfeld
number, (Figure 20) Figure P1-5.

Figure P1-5
𝑄𝑠
For S=0.284 and L/d = ½, = 0.75
𝑄

Qs = 0.75×2.82×10-5 = 2.12×10-5 m3/s

Side flow of lubricating oil Qs = 2.12×10-5 m3/s
9. Maximum pressure can be determined from the chart of pressure ratio versus Sommerfeld
number, (Figure 20) Figure P1-6.
𝑃
For S=0.284 and L/d = ½, 𝑃 = 0.36
𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑃 2.813 × 106
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 7.8 × 106 𝑃𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑁/𝑚2
0.36 0.36

Maximum pressure Pmax = 𝟕. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑵/𝒎𝟐

Figure P1-6

10. Terminating position of oil film and location of maximum oil film pressure can be
determined from the chart for finding the terminating position of the lubricant film and the
position of maximum film pressure, (Figure 24) Figure P1-7.

Figure P1-7

For S=0.284 and L/d = ½

𝜽𝑷𝟎 = 61.5o and 𝜽𝑷𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 17.5o

 Figure p1-8 Solution to problem 1-pictorial

HEAT DISSIPATION AND EQUILIBRIUM OIL TEMPERATURE

In hydrodynamic lubrication thermal aspect of design plays an important role. The heat
generated in the bearing should be effectively dissipated so that the equilibrium conditions are
reached in a short time. Further, the average or equilibrium temperature of the oil should not
exceed 93 to 123oC to prevent quick deterioration of the oil.

The frictional heat generated can be found from the load (W) coefficient of friction (f), and the
journal speed (n).

Frictional power loss or heat generated, Hg = fWv -----------(1)

Where f = coefficient of friction

W = Load
𝑑 𝑑
v = rubbing velocity = 𝜔 × 2 = 2 𝑛 × 2 = 𝑑𝑛

d =diameter of journal

n = speed in rps

Generally Hg is expressed in Watts or Nm/s.

The oil temperature rise can be estimated from chart in Figure 27 devised by Raimondi
and Boyd or from the heat balance equation in the case of self contained bearings as in the case
of ring, collar or oil bath lubrication. Industrial applications of self contained bearings can be
seen in fans, blowers, pumps, motors and so on.
∆𝑇
Temperature rise of the lubrication film variable, λT = 𝛾𝐶𝑠𝑝 -------------(2)
𝑃
Where 𝛾 is the density of the oil 860 kg /m3

𝐶𝐻 is the specific heat of the oil, an average value of 1760 J/ kg. oC may be taken.

ΔT is the temperature rise oC and P is the film pressure in Pa.

Figure 27 Variation of temperature rise of the lubrication film variable λT with Sommerfeld
number S

The Raimondi and Boyd chart for temperature rise variable with respect to Sommerfeld
number is shown in Figure 28.

Figure 28 Variation of temperature rise of the lubrication film variable λ T with

Sommerfeld number S
Problem – 2

A journal of a stationary oil engine is 80 mm in diameter and 40 mm long. The radial clearance
is 0.060mm. It supports a load of 9 kN when the shaft is rotating at 3600 rpm with SAE 40 oil
supplied at atmospheric pressure and assume average operating temperature is about 65oC as
first trial for inlet oil temperature of 45oC. Using Raimondi-Boyd charts analyze the bearing
temperature under steady state operating condition.

Data: d = 80 mm; L =40 mm; Cr = 0.06 mm ⇒ C=0.12 mm; W = 9 kN =9000 N; n = 3600rpm =

60 rps; SAE 40 oil; to = 65oC; ta=45oC.

Analysis:
𝑊 9000
1. Bearing pressure P= = = 2.813 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 =2.813×106 Pa
𝐿𝑑 40×80

2. Viscosity of SAE 40 oil can be determined from Figure P2-1 (Viscosity versus Temperature –
Figure 25). Viscosity of SAE 40 at 65o C, η = 30 mPa-s = 𝟑𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 Pa-s.

𝑑 2 𝜂𝑛 40 2 30×10 −3 ×60
3. Calculate the Sommerfeld number, S = = = 0.284
𝐶 𝑃 0.06 2.813 ×10 6

Figure P2-1

4. For S = 0.284 and L/d = ½, Tvar = 25 from Figure P2-2.

 Figure P2-2
∆𝑇
5. Rewriting the equation 2.23, Tvar = 𝛾𝐶𝐻 𝑃

T var P 25×2.813 ×10 6

∆T = = =46oC
γC H 861 ×1760

6. Tav = Ti + 0.5 ∆T =45+0.5×46 =68oC

7. At Tav = 68oC, η=26 Pa-s from Figure P2-3.

Figure P2-3

𝑑 2 𝜂𝑛 40 2 26×10 −3 ×60
8. Recalculate Sommerfeld number S = = = 0.246
𝐶 𝑃 0.06 2.813 ×10 6
 Figure P2-4

9. For the new Sommerfeld number S=0.246, find T var from Figure P2-4. Thus we get Tvar=22.5.

T var P 22.5×2.813 ×10 6

Calculate ∆T = = =41.4oC
γC H 861 ×1760

10. Tav = Ti + 0.5 ∆T =45+0.5×41.4 =65.7oC

Hence equilibrium temperature will be about 66 oC.

Problem - 3

Following data are given for a 360º hydrodynamic bearing:

Radial load=3.2 kN; Journal speed=1490 rpm; Journal diameter=50 mm; Bearing length=50mm;
Radial clearance=0.05 mm; Viscosity of the lubricant= 25 cP.

Assuming that the total heat generated in the bearing is carried by the total oil flow in the
bearing, calculate:

1) Power lost in friction; 2) The coefficient of friction; 3) Minimum oil film thickness; 4) Flow
requirement in 1/min 5) Temperature rise.

Solution: W = 3.2 kN=3200 N; N=1490 rpm ⇒ n=1490/60 = 24.834 rps; d=50 mm; L=50mm;
Cr=0.05 mm ⇒ C = 0.1 mm; η=25 cP = 25×10-3Pa-s.
𝑊 3200
Bearing pressure P= = 50×50 = 1.28 𝑁/mm2=1.28 MPa
𝐿𝑑

2
𝑑 2 𝜂𝑛 50×10 −3 25×10 −3 ×24.83
Sommerfeld number S = = = 0.121
𝐶 𝑃 0.1 1.28×10 6

Find coefficient of friction, f from the chart coefficient of friction variable versus Sommerfeld
number (Figure 17), Figure P3-1.
For S= 0.121 & L/d=1, Friction variable from the graph= (r/Cr) f= 3.22

f = (0.05/ 0.025)×3.22

 Coefficient of friction f = 0.0064

Frictional torque, Tf = Frictional force ×journal radius=f×W×r =0.0064×3200×0.025=0.512 N-m

Frictional power loss=Heat generated=2nT f = 2×24.83×0.512 = 80 W

Figure P3-1

For Sommerfeld number S = 0.121 and L/d = 1, Minimum film thickness variable can be
determined from Figure P3-2 (minimum film thickness variable versus Sommerfeld number
𝑕𝑜 𝑕 𝑚𝑖𝑛
Figure 18), = = 0.4
𝐶 𝐶𝑟

𝑕 𝑚𝑖𝑛
∴ = 0.4
0.05

Minimum film thickness 𝒉𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝒎𝒎 = 𝟐𝟎 𝝁𝒎

 Figure P3-2

Figure P2-3
Flow of lubricating oil can be determined from the chart of Flow variable versus Sommerfeld
number (Figure 19), Figure P2-3.
𝑄
For S=0.121 and L/d = 1, 𝑟𝐶 = 4.33
𝑟 𝑛𝐿

Q = 4.3 rCrnL = 4.33×0.025×0.05×10-3×24.83×0.05 = 6.72×10-6 m3/s

Flow requirement in l/min = 6.72×10-5 m3/s 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 × 𝟔𝟎 = 0.403 l/min.
Given that all the heat generated due to friction is carried away by the lubricating oil.
Heat generated = 80 watt = heat dissipated = mCH ∆T
Where,
m= mass flow rate of lubricating oil= 𝛾Q in kg/sec
CH= Specific heat of the oil= 1760 J/kg ºC
∆T= temperature rise of the oil
𝛾= 860 kg/m3
Substituting the above values, 80 = 860 × 6.72 × 10−6 × 1760 × ∆T
∆T= 7.9 ºC
The Average temperature of the oil, Tavg= Ti + ∆T/2 = 27+ ‹7.9/2›=30.85 ºC.
Problem – 4

A 50 mm diameter hardened and ground steel journal rotates at 1440 r/min in a lathe turned
bronze bushing which is 50 mm long. For hydrodynamic lubrication, the minimum oil film
thickness should be five times the sum of surface roughness of journal bearing. The data about
machining methods are given below:
Machining method surface Roughness
Shaft grinding 1.6 micron
Bearing turning/boring 0.8 micron

The class of fit is H8d8 for which diametral clearance = 0.119 mm and the viscosity of the
lubricant is 18 cP. Determine the maximum radial load that the journal can carry and still operate
under hydrodynamic conditions.
Solution: - d=50 mm=0.05 m; L=50 mm=0.05 m; N=1440 rpm=1440/60=24 rps; hmin= 5 [
0.8+1.6] = 12 micron = 0.012 mm; C=0.119 mm; Cr=0.0595 mm; η=18 cP = 18×10-3 Pas.
From the chart of minimum film thickness variable versus Sommerfeld number Figure P4-1( Fig.
18)
hmin /Cr= 0.012/ 0.0595 = 0.2 and L/d = 50/50= 1
From the graph, Sommerfeld number, S= 0.045.
2
𝑑 2 𝜂𝑛 50×10 −3 18×10 −3 ×24
But Sommerfeld number S = = =0.045
𝐶 𝑃 0.119 𝑃

 Bearing pressure P = 1.71x106 Pa = 1.71 MPa = 1.71 N/mm2

𝑊
The maximum radial load that the journal can carry, W=PLd = 1.71×50×50 = 4275 N P = 𝐿𝑑

W = 4275 N

Figure P4-1

Problem: - 5

The following data are given for a full hydrodynamic journal bearing:

Radial load=25 kN; Journal speed=900 r/min; Unit bearing pressure= 2.5 MPa; L/d = 1:1;
Viscosity of the lubricant=20cP; Class of fit=H7e7, for which diametral clearance = 0.107 mm;
Calculate:

1. Dimensions of bearing; 2. Minimum film thickness and 3. Requirement of oil flow.

Solution: - W=25 kN=25000 N; N=900 rpm=15 rps; P=2.5 MPa = 2.5 N/mm2 ; L/d = 1; η=20 cP
= 20×10-3 Pa-s; C=0.107 mm ⇒ Cr=0.0535 mm.
𝑊 25000
Bearing pressure P= = = 2.5 (since d=L)
𝐿𝑑 𝐿×𝐿

 Dimensions of the bearing are L=d= 100 mm

𝑑 2 𝜂𝑛 100 2 20×10 −3 ×15
But Sommerfeld number S = = = 0.12
𝐶 𝑃 0.107 2.5×10 6

For S=0.12 and L/d=1, from chart of minimum film thickness variable versus Sommerfeld
number (Figure 18), Figure P5-1,
 𝑕𝑜 𝑕𝑚𝑖𝑛
= = 0.4
𝐶𝑟 𝐶𝑟

 Minimum film thickness 𝒉𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 0.0535×0.4 = 0.0214 mm

Figure P5-1

Flow of lubricating oil can be determined from the chart of Flow variable versus Sommerfeld
number (Figure 19), Figure P5-2.
𝑄
For S=0.12 and L/d = 1, 𝑟𝐶 = 4.33
𝑟 𝑛𝐿

Q = 4.33 rCrnL = 4.33×0.05×0.0535×10-3×15×0.1 = 1.737×10-5 m3/s

Figure P5-2