Local Self Government

ALAGAPPA UNIVERSITY
[Accredited with ‘A+’ Grade by NAAC (CGPA:3.64) in the Third Cycle

and Graded as Category–I University by MHRD-UGC]
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KARAIKUDI – 630 003
Directorate of Distance Education
B.A. (Public Administration)

VI - Semester
106 64
LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT

ADMINISTRATION IN INDIA
Authors:
Dr Monika Jain, Assistant Professor, IPEM College, Ghaziabad
Units: (1.2, 3.2)
Dr Pooja Kapoor, Assistant Professor, Symbiosis Law School, Noida
Units: (1.3, 5.2.1, 8)
Dr Abdul Rahman Ansari, Assistant Professor, School of Livelihoods and Development, TISS, Hyderabad
Units: (1.4, 3.3, 4, 13.0-13.2, 13.4-13.8)
Dr Madan Yadav, Assistant Professor, Maitreyi College, University of Delhi
Unit: (7)
Amitabh Chaudhary, Practicing Advocate, District Courts of Meerut
Units: (9, 10.0-10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4-10.8, 11, 13.3)
Vikas Publishing House, Units: (1.0-1.1, 1.5-1.9, 2, 3.0-3.1, 3.4-3.8, 5.0-5.1, 5.2, 5.3-5.7, 6, 12.0-12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4,
12.5-12.9, 14)
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SYLLABI-BOOK MAPPING TABLE
Local Self Government Administration In India
Syllabi Mapping in Book
BLOCK I: MEANING, SCOPE AND EVOLUTION OF LOCAL SELF

GOVERNMENT
Unit-I: Meaning, Scope and Importance - Evolution of Local Self Unit 1: Introduction to Local Self
Government in India Government in India (Pages 1-28)
Unit-II: Community Development Programmes-National Extension Unit 2: Community Development
Service-Balwantray Mehta Committee Report-Ashok Mehta Committee Programmes and Committee Reports
Report (Pages 29-46)
BLOCK II: ORGANISATION STRUCTURE AND ITS FUNCTIONS

Unit-III: Organisation and Functions of Three Tier Structure Panchayat Unit 3: Organization and Functions of
Raj Institutions-Gram Panchayat-Panchayat Ssmiti- Zila Parishad Three Tier Structure Panchayat Raj
Unit-IV: Organisations and Functions of Three Forms of Urban Institutions (Pages 47-61)
Institutions-Corporation-Municipality- Town Panchayat Unit 4: Organization and Functions of
Three Forms of Urban Institutions
(Pages 62-88)
BLOCK III: CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENT ACT AND ITS

IMPLEMENTATION Unit 5: Salient Features of 73rd
Unit-V: Salient Features of 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act of 1992- Constitutional Amendment Act
Key Features and its Implementation of 1992 (Pages 89-98)
Unit-VI: Salient Features of 74th Constitutional Amendment Act of 1992- Unit 6: Salient Features of 74th
Key Features and Its Implementation Constitutional Amendment Act
Unit-VII: State Election Commission-Electoral Process of Local Self of 1992 (Pages 99-109)
Government Institutions Unit 7: Elections in Local Self
Government Institutions
(Pages 110-120)
BLOCK IV: PERSONNELAND FINANCE IN LOCAL SELF

GOVERNMENT
Unit-VIII: Personnel in Panchayat Raj Institutions-Block Development Unit 8: Personnel in Panchayati Raj
Officer-Extension Officer Institutions (Pages 121-129)
Unit-IX: Municipal Personnel Administration-Central Council of Local Unit 9: Personnel Administration in
Government Municipal Governments
Unit-X: Sources of Income for Panchayat Raj in stitutions-State Control (Pages 130-138)
over Panchayat Raj institutions-Social Audit Unit 10: Panchayati Raj Institutions:
Unit-XI: Sources of Income for Urban Local Self Government-State Sources of Income and State Control
Control over Urban Local Self Government in stitutions (Pages 139-149)
Unit 11: Urban Local Self Government:
Sources of Income and State Control
(Pages 150-160)
BLOCK V: ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN LOCAL SELF Unit 12: Rural Development
GOVERNMENT (Pages 161-188)
Unit-XII: Rural Development Programmes -Challenges and Issues in India Unit 13: Panchayati Raj Institution
Unit-XIII: Panchayat Raj Institutions Issues and Challenges-Causes for Issues and Challenges
Failures of Panchayat Institutions (Pages 189-206)
Unit-XIV: Urbanisation Process - Challenges and Issues in India Unit 14: Urbanization Process
(Pages 207-220)
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
BLOCK I: MEANING, SCOPE AND EVOLUTION OF LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT IN INDIA 1-28
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Meaning, Scope and Importance of Local Self Government in India
1.3 Evolution of Local Self Government in India
1.4 Evolution of Urban Local Bodies
1.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
1.6 Summary
1.7 Key Words
1.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
1.9 Further Readings
UNIT 2 COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES AND
COMMITTEE REPORTS 29-46
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Community Development Programmes
2.2.1 National Extension Service
2.3 Committee Reports on Local Bodies
2.3.1 The Balwant Mehta Report
2.3.2 Ashok Mehta Committee Report
2.5 Summary
2.6 Key Words
BLOCK II: ORGANISATION STRUCTURE AND ITS FUNCTIONS
UNIT 3 ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONS OF THREE TIER
STRUCTURE PANCHAYAT RAJ INSTITUTIONS 47-61
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Gram Sabha and Panchayat
3.2.1 Constitutional Provisions Related to Panchayats
3.3 Panchayat Samiti and Zilla Parishad
3.5 Summary
3.6 Key Words
UNIT 4 ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONS OF THREE FORMS OF
URBAN INSTITUTIONS 62-88
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Municipal Corporations, Muncipality and Town Panchayat
4.2.1 Organization
4.2.2 Functions
4.3 Types of Administrative Structures for the City Governance
4.3.1 Indian Models of Metropolitan Urban Governance
4.4 District Planning Committee
4.5 Metropolitan Planning Committee (MPC)
4.7 Summary
4.8 Key Words
BLOCK III: CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENT ACT AND ITS IMPLEMENTATION
UNIT 5 SALIENT FEATURES OF 73RD CONSTITUTIONAL
AMENDMENT ACT OF 1992 89-98
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Key Features
5.2.1 Implementation
5.4 Summary
5.5 Key Words
UNIT 6 SALIENT FEATURES OF 74TH CONSTITUTIONAL
AMENDMENT ACT OF 1992 99-109
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Key Features
6.4 Summary
6.5 Key Words
UNIT 7 ELECTIONS IN LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS 110-120
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.2 State Election Commission: Historical Background and Functions
7.2.1 Electoral Process of Local Self Government Institutions
7.4 Summary
7.5 Key Words
BLOCK IV: PERSONNEL AND FINANCE IN LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT
UNIT 8 PERSONNEL IN PANCHAYATI RAJ INSTITUTIONS 121-129
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Block Development Officer
8.3 Role of Collector in the Panchayati Raj
8.4 Patwari
8.6 Summary
8.7 Key Words
UNIT 9 PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATION IN MUNICIPAL
GOVERNMENTS 130-138
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Municipal Personnel Administration
9.2.1 Provincialization of Municipal Services
9.2.2 Central Council of Local Government
9.4 Summary
9.5 Key Words
UNIT 10 PANCHAYATI RAJ INSTITUTIONS: SOURCES OF INCOME
AND STATE CONTROL 139-149
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Sources of Income for Panchayati Raj Institutions
10.3 State Control Over Panchayat Raj Institutions
10.3.1 Social Audits
10.5 Summary
10.6 Key Words
UNIT 11 URBAN LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT: SOURCES OF INCOME
AND STATE CONTROL 150-160
11.0 Introduction
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Sources of Income for Urban Local Self Government
11.3 State Control Over Urban Local Self Government Institutions
11.5 Summary
11.6 Key Words
BLOCK V: ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT
UNIT 12 RURAL DEVELOPMENT 161-188
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Rural Development: Meaning and Schemes
12.3 Major Central Government Programmes
12.3.1 Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY)
12.3.2 Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-National Urban Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NULM)
12.3.3 Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA)
12.3.4 Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY)
12.3.5 Prime Minister's Rozgar Yojana (PMRY)
12.3.6 Prime Minister Employment Generation Programme (PMEGP)
12.3.7 Pradhan Mantri Awaas Yojana - Gramin (PMAY-G)
12.3.8 Shyama Prasad Mukherji Rurban Mission (SPMRM)
12.3.9 National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP)
12.4 Challenges
12.6 Summary
12.7 Key Words
UNIT 13 PANCHAYATI RAJ INSTITUTION ISSUES AND CHALLENGES 189-206
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Issues and Challenges
13.3 Causes for Failure of Panchayat Institutions
13.5 Summary
13.6 Key Words
UNIT 14 URBANIZATION PROCESS 207-220
14.0 Introduction
14.1 Objectives
14.2 Meaning of Urbanization
14.2.1 Features of Urban Society
14.2.2 Causes of Urbanization
14.3 Urbanization in India
14.3.1 Issues and Challenges
14.5 Summary
14.6 Key Words
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
Local governance refers collectively to administrative authorities over areas that

NOTES are smaller than a state. Local administration generally acts within powers delegated
to it by legislation or directives of the higher level of government and each country
has some kind of local government which will differ from those of other countries.
In primitive societies the lowest level of local government is the village headman or
tribal chief. In modern nations, local administration usually has some of the same
kind of powers as national governments do. They usually have some power to
raise taxes, though these may be limited by central legislation. The question of
Municipal Autonomy—which powers the local government has, or should have,
and why—is a key question of public administration and governance. The institutions
of local government vary greatly between countries, and even where similar
arrangements exist, the terminology often varies.
In India, the local government is the third level of government apart from the
State and Central governments. There are two types of Local Government in
operation: Panchayats in rural areas and Municipalities in urban areas.
This book, Local Self Government Administration in India, has been
designed keeping in mind the self-instruction mode (SIM) format and follows a
simple pattern, wherein each unit of the book begins with the Introduction followed
by the Objectives for the topic. The content is then presented in a simple and
easy-to-understand manner and is interspersed with Check Your Progress questions
to reinforce the student’s understanding of the topic. A list of Self-Assessment
Questions and Exercises is also provided at the end of each unit. The Summary
and Key Words further act as useful tools for students and are meant for effective
recapitulation of the text.
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Introduction to Local Self
BLOCK - I Government in India
MEANING, SCOPE AND EVOLUTION OF LOCAL
SELF GOVERNMENT
NOTES
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO
LOCAL SELF
GOVERNMENT IN INDIA
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Meaning, Scope and Importance of Local Self Government in India
1.3 Evolution of Local Self Government in India
1.4 Evolution of Urban Local Bodies
1.6 Summary
1.7 Key Words
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Local administration is the lower-most level of self-government in India. The term

‘local administration’ is not new in India; it has been well known in India for many
centuries.
In India, a village is considered as the basic unit of social life in the local-
government system or the local administration. More than three-fourth of Indian
population still lives in villages. Great thinkers and leaders like Mahatma Gandhi,
Nehru and Narayan articulated that the major task of the Independent India would
be to take democracy to the grass-roots levels and to involve the rural masses in
the objective of national integration and reconstruction.
The nature, scope, importance and evolution of local administration in India
have been discussed in this unit.
1.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:

 Explain the meaning, scope and importance
 Discuss the evolution of local self-government in India
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Government in India 1.2 MEANING, SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF
LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT IN INDIA
NOTES Local administration deals with the powers of the administration to provide remedies
to the problems at the grass-roots level. The local administration also protects the
people when those powers are abused by these authorities.
In a welfare state, many progressive schemes and programmes are launched
by government. Their execution and implementation are the responsibilities of the
local administration.
Local administration is based upon making decisions regarding the demands
of the local people of an area and their implementation at the grass-roots level. Its
functions also include sending the advisories to the people at the grass-roots level.
S. K. Dey, in his book Panchayati Raj, says, ‘Modern science calls for an
advanced stage of organization and wider coordination of the thinking action than
is feasible in a single village. Whether or not we like it, there will be no room in the
wide world of tomorrow for pockets of poverty, ignorance or disease.
‘Infuse in minds of the rural people a spirit of self-help, self-dependency
and self-reliance and to obtain their goals.
‘Planners viewed the Panchayat Raj as units of administration and planning
and the government sought support form these units to help improve the
implementation of national plans for development.1’
Local participation was seen as an instrument for better implementation of
government policies. The five-year plans gave Panchayat Raj a role in performing
functions for development and the view that Panchayats were units of folded
democracy.
This is fact the Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRI) is considered as the grass-
roots level bodies servings various civic and developmental activities fort the rural
people. They are basically grass-roots political institutions involved in the upliftment
of rural masses in various dimensions. Most of the rural populations are under the
grip of poverty, malnutrition, illiteracy and degradation. The enlistment of such
destitute rural masses is the main goal of these local bodies.
Numbers of factors are influencing India’s grass-roots politics. These factors are
follows:
 Democratic consciousness welfare of the masses
 Participation in elections
 Affect of education
 Linkages between panchayat members and police and bureaucrats
 Caste domination
 Land holding
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 Loan property Introduction to Local Self
Government in India
 Wealth
 Groupism, regionalism, nepotism, favouritism and factionalism
 Affiliation of political leaders with different parties NOTES
 Socialization and politicization of rural masses
Features of Local Governance at Rural Level in India
The concept of Panchayati Raj (PR) is unquestionably Indian in origin. PR bodies,
which are genuine and effective democratic decentralized institutions, provide simple
opportunities for a large number of rural people to take genuine and effective
participation in the development and democratic decision–making process and to
infuse, in the minds of the rural people, a spirit of self-help, self-dependence and
self-reliance in order to obtain their goals. The concept a PR, since its inception,
faced various interpretations both from its protagonists and antagonists. On the
one hand, the emphasis was on maximum local autonomy and minimization of
supervision and control by the higher authorities, especially the state government.
On the other hand, some consider it to be ruination for the country. Another
controversy relates to the role of political parties in the PRI. The term PR came
into usage after the acceptance of recommendations on democratic decentralization
of the Balwant Rai Mehta study team. Previously, the terms used were Village
Panchayat, which was the self-governing body at the village level. PR implies the
creation of local government institution at the village, block and district levels.
These bodies play a vital role in rural administration, in the present age, when
more and more governments are working for the making of a welfare state. In
fact, the powers entrusted to these bodies really make a state democratic. India
comprises states and union territories. These states are divided into districts and,
in turn, sub-divided into tehsils for administrative convenience. The units of local
self-government in rural areas are village panchayat, Panchayat samities and Zila
Panchayat (ZP). The V.P. has been linked to the panchayat samiti at the block and
to the Z.P. at the district level.
Present panchayat system is a channel for popular participation. Panchayat
system is a political administrative arrangement. The system at PR is expected to
usher in a democratic setup when once it is established on the lines expected by its
promoters. It is PR that has brought about some degree of the social change. Its
increasing interest lies in activities such as agriculture, production, education,
cooperation and social and economical justice.
Importance
Local administration is important to understand the nature of leadership and
communication among the grass-roots level people. The behaviour of the masses,
the power addressee, is the cornerstone upon which the socio-political system in
India depends. Who do people vote for? The answer points towards the social
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Introduction to Local Self elites’ behaviour towards masses, in the field of political institution building at grass-
Government in India
roots level in a developing nation. According to NES community projects team,
instituted for such study in 1957, ‘So long as we do not discuss as create a repress
democratic institution which will supply the money upon local objects conforms
NOTES with the needs and wishes of the locality invest it with adequate power and assign
to it appropriate finances, we will never be able to evoke local interest and excite
local initiative in the field of development.’
Some relevant works also say that ‘It is not theory or dogma which is
impelling us to make these recommendations, but practical considerations.
Democracy has to function through certain executive, but democratic government
influences large areas though executive machinery cannot completely appreciate
local needs and circumstances. It is, therefore, necessary that there should be a
delegation of power and decentralization of machinery and that such power is
exercised, and such machinery is controlled by popular representatives of the
local area.’
Check Your Progress

1. What is the main task of local government?
2. Where did the concept of Panchayati Raj originate?
1.3 EVOLUTION OF LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT

IN INDIA
Mahatma Gandhi advocated that ‘India lives in her villages. Indian independence
must begin at the bottom, thus making every village a republic or panchayat, enjoying
full powers. His remarks say that true democracy cannot be worked by twenty
men sitting at the centre and has to be worked from below by the people of every
village’. These very dreams were responsible for the inclusion of Article 40 in the
Directive Principles of State Policy of the Constitution of India.
There has been socio-economic transformation in rural India. The grass-
root units of local self-government that have made this transformation possible are
the Panchayati Raj institutions. Local governments are able to respond better to
local needs not only because of their proximity to the people but also because
they are in a better position to make the best use of resources. As mentioned in the
previous section, in India, Panchayati Raj is seen as an institutional expression of
democratic decentralization. Power is decentralized to the panchayats to empower
people and involve them in decision-making processes at the ground level.
Panchayati Raj is another name for the system of decentralizing democratically.
Panchayati Raj is the tool that helps ensure democracy. It is also the tool that is
capable of transforming the socio-economic condition of a village/region.
Democracy can be ensured in a country only through mass participation in the
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country’s governance.
4 Material
The Government of India took a revolutionary step in 1993. It made Introduction to Local Self
Government in India
Panchayati Raj Institutions a part of the Constitution. Panchayati Raj has been
able to withstand several political changes and upheavals in the ancient and medieval
periods till the British Raj. Following colonial administration, the manner of
functioning of these local bodies changed drastically. NOTES
History of the Panchayati Raj System: Pre British Rule

In the Rig Veda and other scriptures, there is mention of the term ‘Panchayat’
which were composed over 1000 years before Christ. The word is derived from
Panch, which means five, referring to the five members of the Panchayat. These
five members of the village Panchayat were called Pancha Parameswar, or the
five Gods. The word is also said to be a derivative of pancha panchasvanusthitah.
The Panchayat was responsible for distributing land, collecting revenue and settling
disputes.
It would not be wrong to say that Panchayati Raj, as an institution, existed
since the time the Indian civilization has existed. Since ancient times, it has not only
been present but has been controlling and managing affairs, both judicial as well as
civil, in Indian villages. In addition to the Rig Veda, the Manusamhita,
Dharmashastras, Upanishads and Jatakas mention local administration extensively,
for instance, the panchayat system of administration is mentioned in the Manusmriti
while the Shantiparva is mentioned in the Mahabharata. Grama Sanghas or village
councils are also mentioned in the ancient scriptures.
These village councils are described in detail in Kautilya’s Arthashastra of
400 B.C. This work gives a detailed discussion of the village administration that
prevailed during that period under the supervision of the Adyaksha or headman
who controlled everything. He was of course supported by other officials, such as
Samkhyaka (accountant), Anikitsaka, (veterinary doctor), Jamghkarmika
(village couriers) and Chikitsaka (physician).
It was the responsibility of the headman of the village to collect the state
dues and also control the actions of criminals and offenders. In Valmiki’s Ramayana,
the village federation or Ganapada is mentioned, which was probably a type of
federation of village republics.
In India, there were self-governing village communities, which were primarily
agrarian economies, that were in existence since time immemorial. Even the Rig
Veda from approximately 200 BC mentions that the basic unit of administration
was the village during the Vedic era. The Sabha and the Samiti were the most
important features of the early Vedic polity. These were the popular assemblies of
the time.
 Samiti - This was the folk assembly of the Vedic period, and at times enjoyed
the right to elect a king.
 Sabha - This assembly also performed certain judicial functions.
Self-Instructional
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Introduction to Local Self Both the Samiti and the Sabha had the power and right to debate, unlike
Government in India
other popular assemblies of those times. The village headman held the office of
Gramani, indicating that the village emerged as a unit of administration. In the
later Vedic era, the Samiti slowly lost popularity and vanished while the Sabha
NOTES shrank to a narrow group or body corresponding to the king’s Privy Council only.
In due course of time, village bodies formed into panchayats that managed
village affairs. They had the powers to enforce law and order. They were also put
on a pedestal by various customs and religious norms that bestowed on them a
sacred position of authority. In addition, there also existed caste panchayats. This
was the pattern in the Indo-Gangetic plains. However, in the south, the village
panchayats generally had a village assembly where the executive body comprised
representatives of various groups and castes. These village bodies in northern and
southern India, had not only been the focus of administration but also the center of
the social life of the people and pivot of social solidarity.
During the reign of the Mauryas, the village was the basic unit of administration
wherein the disputes were settled by villagers; they also did work that was useful
for the public and organized recreational activities. They played the part of trustees
for property owned by minors. Regular councils had not come into being. The
village council appeared to have evolved into regular bodies in the Gupta period
where they were known as Panchamandalas in Central India, and
Gramajanapadas in Bihar. These bodies negotiated with the government for
concessions and settlement of disputes between the people. The inscription of the
Chola dynasty reflects the construction and functions of the village assembly and
their executive committees. The village administrations were performed by the
elected representatives that formed the village council.
Medieval Period: Village bodies formed the central point of administration
during the medieval and Mughal eras. During the Mughal era, particularly during
the reign of Sher Shah, the villages were governed by their own panchayats.
Every panchayat consisted of the elders of the village who ensured that the
interest of the people was protected and there was justice for all. They ensured
that the defaulters were punished. The village head was considered a semi
government official who coordinated between the village panchayat and the
administrative authority. Akbar not only favoured this system purely but also
accepted it as an integral part of civil administration. During this age, each village
had its own panchayat consisting of the elders. The Mughals came up with
elaborate administrative hierarchies of officials, particularly in the revenue
department. They had autonomy in local taxation, administrative control, justice
and punishment of the local administrative system of the Mughals for several
centuries. Following the fall of the Mughal empire, the British established their
foothold in India. The panchayat concept weakened later under the feudal and
Mughal rulers. There was a whole new class of feudal chiefs or zamindars, who
were the link between the king and the commoners.
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Panchayati Raj under the British Rule Introduction to Local Self
Government in India
Under the British rule, the Panchayats started losing their self-governing character
gradually and the authority of the state had direct control of the British rulers. In
the new judicial system, disputes arising in the village were carried to the courts NOTES
that were outside the village. Special programmes like construction, relief works,
maintenance of irrigation work and payment of grants-in-aid to schools were
implemented by the state under them. Hence, the age-old functions of the Panchayat
were carried by the external agencies.
The British arrived on Indian soil with the main objective of trading. They
did not have much to do with governance and development. Their first priority
was never the local government were not at all their first priority and before the
advent of the British rule in India, the local and rural republic had grown and
thrived. With the emergence of the British Raj in India, the panchayati raj institution
ceased to play the role that it had earlier. The truth remains that local self-government
as a representative institution came about during British rule.
In the beginning, the British were only interested in creating local bodies
comprising nominated members. These bodies were built around trading centres.
In 1687, a municipal corporation was formed in Chennai (Madras), based on the
British model of town council. This body possessed the power to levy taxes for
building guild halls and schools. With the passage of time, similar bodies came up
in other major towns and a model became prevalent to help the British to widen
their taxation power. This model continued to comprise nominated members without
any elected elements at all.
After the First War of Independence in 1857, local-self-government received
some more attention from the British Government and District Funds were set up
in several states with some power to levy a tax on land, education, revenue and
roads. With them, the District and Taluka local fund committees were set up, the
fate was such that the funds were small and the village was hardly touched by the
district committee.
Mayo Resolution of 1870
Lord Mayo, the then viceroy of India from 1869 to 1872, felt it was necessary to
decentralize powers to bring efficiency in administration. In 1870, he launched the
system of elected representatives in urban municipalities. Lord Mayo’s Resolution
of 1870 under the British Rule, is considered as a huge step in the history of
evolution of local self-government. It aimed at enlarging and increasing the powers
and responsibilities of the governments, ruling in the Provinces and the Presidencies.
Local public works, sanitation, health services and education had a chance to
receive more attention from them as well as the local-self-governments also.
The revolt of 1857 had put the finances of the Britishers under a lot of
pressure and it was necessary to finance local service by the way of local taxation.
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Introduction to Local Self Hence, Lord Mayo’s resolution on decentralization was adopted because of
Government in India
financial reasons.
The Bengal Chowkidar Act of 1870
NOTES The Bengal Chowkidar Act of 1870 was an initiative to re-introduce the age-old
tradition of village panchayati system in Bengal. The Chowkidar Act gave the
power to district magistrates for setting up panchayats. It comprised nominated
members, who were the residents of the villages, and their work included collecting
taxes for the purpose of paying the chowkidars (watchmen) hired doing this work.
Ripon Resolution (1882)
Lord Ripon is regarded as the father of local self-government in India because of
the resolution he made and passed in 1882. He turned into action the intention of
Lord Mayo. He gave importance to both administrative efficiency as well as political
education at the ground level of locals. The Ripon Resolution focused on towns
that provided for a majority of elected non-official members and a non-official
chairperson for the local board. It was resisted by the colonial administrators.
The contribution of Lord Ripon in the development of local Government is
great. The local boards were split into smaller units under his local self-government
plan so as to ensure higher levels of efficiency. He launched a system of election
aimed at ensuring popular participation, that was applicable to the local boards as
well. The government resolution of 18 May, 1882 is of great significance in the
structural evolution of local governments. It contained provisions for the local
boards comprising a large majority of elected non-official members presided over
by a non-official chairperson. Lord Ripon’s Resolution was said to be The Magna
Carta of local democracy in the country. This resolution proposed to establish
rural local boards with two third members being elected representatives. He
introduced the concept of self-government in urban municipalities as well. Hence,
he is also regarded as the founding father of urban local government.
After Ripon’s resolution, there was a series of Committees, Commissions
and Acts. The Royal Commission on Decentralization, set up in 1909, elaborated
some more principles of Ripon resolution but this was not implemented. Ripon’s
scheme could not be of great help in the development of local self-government
institutions.
Montague-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919
The Montague-Chelmsford Reforms were passed in 1919. This reform transferred
the subject of local government to the domain of provinces. The reform also
recommended that as far as possible there should be a complete control in local
bodies. By 1925, there were eight provinces which had panchayats but they only
had a few villages which were functioning well. It led to a lot of organizational and
fiscal constraints and because of this, the reform was unable to give great results
as far as democratization of panchayats was concerned.
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The Royal Commission on decentralization, which was chaired by C. E. H. Introduction to Local Self
Government in India
Hobhouse tried to bring back the old culture of panchayats by starting local-self-
government at the rural village level instead of the district level. The Commission
recommended granting some powers to the Panchayats to help them perform
their duties without depending on others. They were given some roles, such as the NOTES
control over the village ponds, sanitation in villages and management of schools. It
also provided for some finance for this. The village panchayats were introduced in
many provinces after the Montague-Chelmsford reforms. By 1925, about eight
provinces had already passed Panchayat Acts. By 1926, there were six native
states that also passed panchayat laws.
With the introduction of diarchy, ministers contributed a little to the
development of local government. In 1927, the Simon Commission was given the
work of looking into the working of local-self-government. It also suggested some
improvement in the system. Many drawbacks, such as the huge size of an average
district, lack of good spirit among voters, lack of funds and absence of control by
the provincial government were pointed out.
Government of India Act (1935)
The Government of India Act is said to have played a significant role in the evolution
of panchayats in British India. All the provinces had elected governments. Therefore,
it was natural for them to feel bound to enforce legislations promoting
democratization of local self-government institutions, including village panchayats.
Although the popular government in the provinces governed by the Congress let
go their office following the declaration of the World War II, 1939, the local
government institutions continued to remain powerful until August 1947, when
India finally became independent.
The British government was not at all interested in the village autonomy. Yet,
they were forced to bring it about because they wished to continue ruling the
country. In addition, it had to fulfil its financial necessities. The rural republic of
India thrived till the British arrived, but lost popularity during the British reign. The
panchayats of the ‘self-contained’ villages came to a stop, and soon gave way to
formally constituted institutions of village administration. In the highly centralized
system of British rule, village autonomy took a back seat.
In 1937, some popular ministries were formed that undertook legislation to
make the local bodies which were truly the representatives of the people.
Unfortunately, they decided to resign with the outbreak of the World War II in
1939. From 1939 to 1946, the provinces were ruled by one man — the Governor.
India finally got independence in 1947.
Panchayati Raj after Independence
The aim of the British rulers was not to decentralize democracy, but to facilitate
colonial administration. The Freedom Movement was concerned more with swaraj
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Introduction to Local Self for the country than with Gram Swaraj. Mahatma Gandhi, greatly advocated
Government in India
Gram Swaraj, but not all the leaders had the same viewpoint. For instance, Dr
Ambedkar, who made a significant contribution in drafting the Indian constitution
observed that ‘the village (was) a sink of localism, a den of ignorance, narrow-
NOTES mindedness and communalism.” He also said that: ‘I am glad the Draft Constitution
has discarded the village and adopted the individual as its unit.’
Therefore, when the Constitution was adopted on 26 January 1950, the
Panchayati Raj institutions were placed under the Directive Principles of State
Policy under Article 40. The Article says: ‘The state shall take steps to organize
village Panchayats and endow them with such powers and authority as may be
necessary to enable them to function as units of local self-government.’
As is well-known, the Directive Principles cannot be enforced in a court of
law. Thus, it was only expected of the state that it would foster the development of
Panchayati Raj. This constitutional weakness of the Panchayati Raj institutions
subsisted there for over four decades. The 73rd Amendment to the Constitution
had to be removed because of this. During these four decades, many committees
were set up at different times for making recommendations for strengthening
panchayats. Some of these committees are briefly discussed below.
The Balwant Rai Mehta Committee (1957)
The Balwant Rai Mehta Committee was set up to study the Community
Development projects and the National Extension Service and make
recommendations. The Committee strongly recommended the involvement of the
community in the decision-making, planning and implementation processes for the
success of the community development project. Some important recommendations
of the Committee were that there should be an early establishment of elected local
bodies and devolution to them of necessary resources, power and authority; the
basic unit of decentralization was the block/samiti; the body was to be constituted
for five years by indirect elections from the village Panchayats; the higher- level
body, zilla parishad was to be an advisory body only.
The Panchayati Raj system in India could not achieve the expected results
because there was resistance from politicians and administrators to share power
and resource with local-level bodies and domination of local politics by the local
strong people.
The Santhanam Committee (1963)
The Santhanam Committee was set up to see the financing of the Panchayati Raj
institutions. Some of the recommendations of the Committee were that the
panchayats should have powers to levy taxes like land revenue and home taxes;
all grants at the state level should be mobilized and sent in a consolidated form to
the Panchayati Raj institutions; a Panchayati Raj Finance Corporation should be
set up to take care of the financial needs of Panchayati Raj institutions. Some of
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the recommendations of the Committee are being taken up by the State Finance Introduction to Local Self
Government in India
Commissions now.
The Ashok Mehta Committee (1978)
The Ashok Mehta Committee was set up when the Janata Party government came NOTES
to power in1977. It was set up to suggest measures that will help strengthen the
Panchayati Raj institutions. The committee made some of the important
recommendations. The district is a viable administrative unit for planning,
coordination, resource allocation with the available technical expertise. Therefore,
a two-tier system is desirable with Mandal Panchayat at the bottom and Zilla
Parishad at the top. There should be a four-year term for the PRIs and political
parties should participate in elections. There should also be both functional and
financial devolution. The committee recommended to the Panchayati Raj
constitutional protection and further decentralization of power at all levels.
The G. V. K. Rao Committee (1985)
The G. V. K. Rao Committee was set up to look into the various aspects of
panchayats. Its recommendations were that the Panchayati Raj Institutions were
to be activated and provided with all necessary support; Panchayati Raj Institutions
at the district level and below should be given the task of planning, implementation
and monitoring of rural development programmes; and the block should be the
key level in the rural development process.
The L. M. Singhvi Committee (1986)
The two most important recommendations of the L. M. Singhvi Committee were
that the local-self-government should be constitutionally recognized, protected
and preserved by the inclusion of a new chapter in the Constitution; political parties
should not be involved in panchayat elections. Although there was a huge resistance
against these recommendations from various directions, finally the Constitution
was amended to make Panchayati Raj Institutions constitutional institutions.
It fell upon the post-Independence Indian government to strengthen the
Panchayati Raj System. It was important for the government to ensure that the
village panchayats were empowered so that the democracy could be strong.
Mahatma Gandhi who supported Grama Swaraj was all in favour of putting
power in the hands of the rural folk. He felt that the villages need to be self-
sufficient so that they can govern themselves via elected panchayats. However,
surprisingly, the draft Constitution created in 1948 had no provision for Panchayati
Raj Institutions, which drew a lot of criticism from Gandhiji. He demanded prompt
rectification and soon, panchayat was also added in the Directive Principles of the
State Policy.
According to Article 40 of the Directive Principles of State Policy, the states
shall take steps to organize village panchayats and provide them such powers and
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Introduction to Local Self authority as may be necessary to make them function as units of self-government.
Government in India
The most important aspect was the empowerment of democracy at the grass-root
level. However, this aspect did not receive as much attention as it should have
from the members of the drafting committee of the Constitution of India. They did
NOTES not make Directive Principle of State Policy legally binding on the governments. In
1952, efforts were made to tackle the problems, in the rural areas of India, by the
Community Development Programme. Similar efforts were made in 1953, by the
National Extension Service. The programme was founded on an integrated
approach to the various faces of rural development. The objectives the promotion
of self-help and self-reliance among rural folk, to be able to generate a process of
integrated social, economic and cultural change with the aim of transforming the
social and political life of the villagers. The Community Development Programme
was launched in fifty-five selected blocks. The basis of the programme was an
integrated approach to the various aspects of rural development. This programme,
aimed at bringing about socio-economic development of the rural masses in a
democratic way, introduced provisions to appoint Block Development Officers
(BDO) and Village Level Workers (VLW). However, the programme was not
successful and did not shape up the way it was expected to because of the absence
of an effective instrument for people’s participation.
A new chapter should be inserted in the Constitution defining their powers
and functions, and there should be free and fair election to be conducted via the
election commission. The Committee suggested appointing finance commission
and entrusting all the rural development programmes to the Panchayati Raj
Institutions through the amendment of Schedule VII of the Constitution.
73rd Amendment Act, 1992
Rajiv Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India was responsible for introducing the
64th Amendment bill on local government on 15 May 1989. However, it did not
receive the expected support. He attempted again, in September 1990 to have
the bill passed. However, in this second try, the bill was not even considered. In
September 1991, once again a bill on Panchayati Raj was introduced by the
Congress government under the Prime Minister P. V. Narasimha Rao. It was
passed in 1992 as the 73rd Amendment Act with slight modifications and enforced
on 24 April 1993.
The salient features of the Act
The 73rd Amendment Act had provisions for establishing Gram Sabha in every
village. It will be a body consisting of all the members registered as voters in the
panchayat area. It gave a three-tier shape to the Panchayati Raj system at the
village, intermediate and district levels. Smaller states with population less than 20
lakh will have no option but to have intermediate level panchayat.
Seats in the panchayats, at all three level, shall be filled via direct election. In
addition, the chairperson of the village panchayat can be made member of the
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panchayat at the intermediate level. MPs, MLAs and MLCs could also be member Introduction to Local Self
Government in India
of panchayat at the intermediate and the district level.
The 73rd Amendment towards decentralization
The 73rdAmendment created positive conditions for decentralization in India. NOTES
Although there is some disagreement about whether and to what extent the reforms
have been implemented, the general consensus within this school is that the
73rdAmendment was a positive step for Indian decentralization and that the only
factor preventing successful devolution is the failure to implement fully the terms
and conditions of the 73rdAmendment. A second school is even more critical of
decentralization in general and the 73rd Amendment in particular. A central assertion
that underlies this second school is that the reforms put in place in 1993 are largely
cosmetic, and that the ultimate distribution of power and resources in rural areas is
dependent on the pre-existing pattern of social inequalities created by caste, religion,
class, gender and other forms of rural domination.
Check Your Progress

3. In which year were the Panchayati Raj Institutions made part of the
Constitution?
4. From which word is the term ‘panchayat’ derived?
5. ‘The most important feature of the early Vedic polity was the institution of
two popular assemblies.’ Name them.
1.4 EVOLUTION OF URBAN LOCAL BODIES
As mentioned in the previous section the introduction of local government was

motivated by interests of the British. They first saw it as an instrument to ease
central and provincial finances and thus to sub serve imperial needs. A municipal
corporation was first set up in 1687 in Madras. It was based on the model of
British local institutions prevalent at that time. Its main purpose was to levy different
taxes. According to Maheshwari, ‘the municipal corporation was set up because
the East India Company believed that the people would willingly pay five shillings
for the public good, being taxed by themselves, than six pence raised by their
despotic power’ (Ibid: 14). In 1726, owing the opposition from the local population
for excessive taxation the municipal corporation in Madras was replaced by mayor’s
court. This reduced its administrative role and increased its judicial powers.
The persistence of Sir Josiah Child, who was the governor of Madras during
that time, resulted in the establishment of a municipal government, based on the
English pattern of governance. This was directed at resolving the difficult problems
pertaining to the conservancy of that town. The consequences of this were that in
1687, the East India Company was granted the authority to establish a corporation
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Introduction to Local Self and mayor’s court in Madras, through a charter. This authority was given to the
Government in India
East India Company by James II, King of England. The establishment of this new
civil government took place with complete support from the mayor, Aldermen and
Burgesses, who had the power to impose taxes for constructing a building to be
NOTES used for meeting and performances, a prison and a school with houses for its staff.
These taxes were also utilized for the development of other works of public utility
and civic services and for paying the salaries to members of the municipal staff,
including the teachers. The mayor and aldermen introduced a court of record for
running trials of civil and criminal cases. The attractive characteristics of municipal
operations were very similar to those in London and on significant occasions, the
mayor would carry with him, two staffs of silver, a layer of gold, for decoration,
which was not more than three and a half feet long. The robes worn by him and
the aldermen comprised of scarlet serge gowns. They travelled on expensively
decorated horses that were decked with different types of ornamental trinkets.
However, despite all the flamboyance related to the situation and occasion, there
was a firm opposition from the people against the direct taxes that were levied.
Hence, it was not possible to carry out the work related to the new corporation till
the mayor granted the permission to impose taxes for building up funds to carry
out the related development work. Subsequent to this, in the year 1796, a mayor’s
court with alderman and without burgesses was introduced by a Royal Charter.
Similar courts were established in each of the three presidency cities of Calcutta,
Madras and Bombay. However, the target of these courts was to put into effect
judicial, rather than administrative operations. Long after this, the Charter Act of
1793 made the first statutory enactment of real municipal administration. The British
parliament approved and agreed to pass this Act as soon as the East India Company
took charge of the political responsibilities in India. Through this Act, a governor-
general of India was appointed and was given the power to appoint justices to
keep up peace in the presidency cities. Along with their judicial responsibilities,
they had the authority to raise funds by gaining access of lands and houses in the
towns for scavenging, watching and maintaining the streets. Approximately fifty
years later (in the period of 1850-53), the municipal constitutions of the three
presidency cities were created and a restricted edition of the elective principle
was set up. However, soon after this, in the year 1856, a policy that looked like a
reaction to this, was introduced and operations of the municipality were limited to
a body corporate of three nominated and salaried members. It is an amusing fact
that since the year 1793, the practice of raising money for municipal related
development work has been done through lotteries. In Calcutta, the money thus
raised was used to reconstruct the Town Improvement Committee, which was
appointed by Lord Wellesley, in the year 1803.
The income earned from these lotteries was commendable. It was used to
carry out various public related works and services. The popularity of this method
was endorsed by the creation of a lottery almost committee in the year 1817. For,
20 years, this committee was involved in work related to utility and development
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till, the public opinion in England went strongly against this method of provision of Introduction to Local Self
Government in India
funds for municipal purposes. This resulted in the end of the committee in the year
1836. One of the most prominent evidence of the use of these funds was The
Town Hall of Calcutta.
NOTES
This was one of the great works of public service, built during those years
with the help of the funds collected through lotteries. The system of municipal
administration was restructured after the Council’s Act was legislated in the year
1861. This restructuring took place through provincial legislatures which were
then put into function and since then, there were augmented differences in the
history of the growth and development of municipal affairs in each of the three
presidency cities.
Through locally legislative procedures, in the years 1872, 1876 and 1878,
Bombay, Calcutta and Madras, respectively adopted the system of electing
representatives by the ratepayers for the first time. However, one cannot suppose
that any system, even remotely resembling a complete local self-government was
granted to them through those Acts. Almost fifty years later, the government framed
policies that were oriented to exercise a stringent and unreasonable control over
these municipalities through official chairmen and other different set-ups that were
calculated to deprive them of real popular control. With the help of different methods,
some even positively retrograde in character, those three municipalities have finally
obtained more or less developed real self-government. Practical autonomy was
achieved by the Corporation of Calcutta (III of 1993) and also by those of Bombay
(III of 1888) and Madras, (IV of 1919), although the extent of acceptance was
not that much.
Beyond presidency towns, there were no efforts directed to establish
municipalities, prior to the year 1842. The first province to experience the attempt
made by this act was Bengal. This was far in advance of the times. Due to these
factors, it was not successful in impressing the public mind. Just one town introduced
this and when it was time to realize the tax, the entire town not only refused to pay,
but it actually prosecuted the collector for trespassing, when he tried to levy it. In
1850, one more attempt was made by an Act for the whole of British India. This
was a more lenient Act, but its success was higher, as this Act levied taxes indirectly.
The application of this Act was widely carried out in the then North West Province
and in Bombay. It was feebly applied in Bengal and Madras, which were the areas
that had been subjected to other municipal efforts.
Subsequently, the report of the Royal Army Sanitary Commission was
published in 1863 and prime focus was given to the requirements of municipal
measures in the county territories, (Mofassils). Between the years, 1864 and 1868,
Acts for Bengal, Madras, Punjab and North-West Provinces were passed. After
incorporating changes, the Act of 1850, was adopted in Bombay and the central
provinces and the Punjab Act was adopted by Oudh. In the following series of
acts a very large number of municipalities were created. There have been a number
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Introduction to Local Self of cases where zeal overcame caution and unimportant rural geographies were
Government in India
loaded with municipalities that were later withdrawn. The Acts for Bengal,
Northwest Provinces and Punjab made the elective principle permissible, but in
almost all places the commissioners were nominated. Though from the point of
NOTES view of local self-government these acts did not achieve much success, still they
were definitely of great help in improving the conditions of sanitation in many
countries and cities.
Two important steps that were adopted by the great viceroys, i.e., Lord
Mayo and Lord Ripon, in the years that followed. These steps were highly motivating
to local self government in India. The system of provincial finance was introduced
by the resolution of Lord Mayo’s government. This resolution clearly aimed at
giving opportunities for the development of self government and also for the
association of Indians and Europeans in taking a large share in the administration
of local affairs. To carry out this advantageous policy, new acts were passed for
almost every province and they also got extended to Burma. The Acts gave a
broader spectrum to the sphere of municipal usefulness and also enhanced the
principle of election. The elective principle, however, could not be successfully
introduced in any province with the exception of the central provinces. This was
due to the objections raised by the people themselves. Approximately ten years
later, in 1881-82, the government of Lord Ripon issued orders which resulted in
further encouraging the development of local self government. Like a true statesman,
he showed a keen interest in the matter, as it was his belief that local self government
was a means of popular and political education.
The success of this would have been many times more if the bureaucracy
that was handling the actual organization had not been short sighted and had been
more like that of a statesman. However, Acts that were implemented in 1883-84,
greatly changed the constitution of the municipal bodies and also gave them more
power and responsibilities. It was decided for a wide extension to be given to the
elective system and some towns to be provided with elected chairmen instead of
executive officials. Lord Rippon made another major alteration, which was freeing
the municipalities from the burden of paying the costs of the town police on which
they had no control. To replace such costs, the support of the municipalities was
sought for education, medical aid and local public works and at the same time,
some parts of the provincial revenues were allocated to local self government,
with proportionate liability. It is not easy to thoroughly examine the growth of
municipal constitution in the different provinces of India.
The municipal government was vested in a body corporate and it comprised
of members, some of whom were elected by the ratepayers and others were
nominated by the government. Within the Acts, there was a chairman of the
municipality and in advanced provinces he was usually an elected member of the
body. The municipal funds and properties were vested in these bodies. A sizeable
part of the work was carried out in the form of committees. It was common to
have elections every three years and the rules for elections were framed by the
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respective provincial governments. It was mandatory for voters to have a certain Introduction to Local Self
Government in India
property or status qualification. The elections in larger bodies were held in general
by wards or classes of the community, or both. The enfranchisement of women
was rather an exception than a rule, but the popularity of it was being gradually
accepted. The history of government control over the municipalities was not a NOTES
pleasing scene.
Although, it was the policy of Lord Ripon to replace external control with
internal interference in municipal issues, still the desire of the bureaucracy to exercise
perpetual control on these local bodies was very prominent. This adverse situation
upset the growth of genuine local self government for about a third of a century
after Lord Ripon’s time. Nevertheless, this control was widely brought into effect
by the district magistrate and the divisional commissioner. Ever since the reforms
were introduced, the final control now came to the minister who was in charge of
local self government in different provinces. He was selected from the elected
members of the provincial legislative councils. Special control was exercised over
finance and important appointments and the government had to sanction the annual
budget. The area of operation of the municipalities was gradually widening and it
became either mandatory or discretionary to divide their duties, which were now
very elaborate. Every municipality was called upon to fulfil their duties as according
to their means. The Acts and by-laws framed by them provided them with various
powers to enforce demands related to sanitation or prevention of adulteration in
food, etc. by imposing fines and penalizing the offenders. Although, the municipalities
in British India were not that strong in terms of numbers, their improvement in
terms of effectiveness and constitutional progress was commendable, till 1920s.
The 1793 Charter Act made local government in India a statutory body for
the first time. It established municipal administration in three presidency towns of
Madras, Calcutta and Bombay. The highest authority in these municipal
administrations was called Justices of the Peace which was entitled to levy taxes in
exchange to the provisions of basic sanitation, security and transport facilities in
the towns. This act was further extended to other smaller towns in Bengal in 1842.
According to the 1842 Bengal Act, town committees could be formed on the
request of two-third householder of a town for the services quoted above. It has
been noted that none of the towns in India opted for this provision. In 1863, when
Royal Army Sanitary Commission expressed its concern about the filthy condition
of Indian towns different acts were passed to create municipal corporations in
different parts of India. In these acts provincial administrations were empowered
to create these corporations in order to provide basic sanitation, lighting and water
facilities in all the towns of the country (Maheshwari 1971).
In 1870, Lord Mayo, the then viceroy of India, proposed a resolution calling
for decentralization of authority in Indian administration and establishing a local
self government system in India with the active cooperation of natives. According
to the resolution, its operation in its full meaning and integrity ‘will afford
opportunities for the development of self government, for strengthening municipal
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Introduction to Local Self institutions and for the association of natives and Europeans to a greater extent
Government in India
than heretofore in the administration of affairs’ (as quoted in Maheshwari 1971:
15). Therefore, we can conclude that till 1870s most of the initiatives taken in the
field of local government in India were motivated by the objective of increasing
NOTES the revenue from towns or providing basic minimum facilities to the growing urban
population in India. Most of these local governments were dominated by the British
and almost all of them were nominated bodies. These features of the local
government in India establish the fact that till 1870s, it was unrepresentative. Role
of Indians was very limited and they were totally dependent on the British officers
and administrators.
The rise of the national consciousness among the people in the late 1870s
was very obvious for the British rulers in India. The successor of Lord Mayo Lord
Rippon was a liberal. He was more willing to accommodate the Indian views in
the administration and therefore he tried to pacify the rising Indian aspirations
through various administrative and political reforms. One of his most important
contributions in Indian political development was the introduction of the idea of
local self government in 1882. His idea of local self government for India was to
make it as an instrument of popular and political education (Maheshwari 1971:
16). According to Rippon’s proposals, most of the local bodies should have elected
non-government members, the should not control these bodies directly, these local
bodies should be given adequate financial autonomy, the officials concerned with
local issues should be controlled by these local bodies and it should be left for
provincial government to decide what should be the exact nature and context of
the working of these local bodies.
These proposals were very strong and far-reaching. However, most of these
proposals could not be implemented due to the strong objections by the
bureaucracy at that time. Nevertheless, in some provinces some of the provisions
of Rippon’s resolution were implemented. For example, it laid the foundation for
the local self government Acts in Bombay of 1901, Bengal of 1884, Madras of
1920, Punjab of 1911, United Provinces of 1916, Central Provinces of 1922 and
Burma of 1898. Despite the fact that most of these provincial regulations for local
self government were modified according to the time and context, they were all
based on the broader principles laid down by Lord Rippon. Government of India
established a Royal Commission on decentralization in 1906. This commission
submitted a report in 1909 in which the idea of local self government for both rural
and urban areas was accepted and it accepted most of the provisions of the
Rippon’s resolution. According to the recommendations of the Royal Commission,
there should be majority of elected members in the local bodies, every municipality
should elect its own president, the district magistrate should however remain the
head of the district local board and municipalities should be given enough financial
rights in order to make them financially independent. Government should also
provide certain grants to these local bodies for certain important projects. The
bodies should have control over local officers. They should be autonomous to a
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possible extent. However, these local bodies should take prior permission for any Introduction to Local Self
Government in India
selling and buying for their land. These local municipalities should be given the
primary responsibility to provide primary education. They should also provide
secondary education. In 1918, the government of India issued a resolution re-
affirming the objective of local self government in India. According to the resolution NOTES
the main purpose of the local self government in India was to train the people in the
management of their own local affairs and the political education. It further warned
that the political education must take precedence on consideration of departmental
efficiency. This resolution largely reiterated the principles prescribed by the Royal
Commission upon decentralization.
Till now, local self government in India presents three forms: that of
municipalities dealing with the affairs of towns; that of rural boards concerned with
the improvement of non-urban tracts; and that of villages in which authorities of
various kinds in varying degrees regulate the business of the smallest administrative
unit As might be expected, the needs of the presidency towns of Madras, Bombay
and Calcutta first obtruded themselves upon the notice of the East India Company
and attempts were made to adapt to them the machinery of corporations, mayors,
aldermen and Justices of the Peace. But outside these towns municipal legislation
of a general character was not attempted till 1850, or on any extensive scale till the
‘sixties. In rural areas local administration was of later and slower growth. For
practical purposes it was not until 1870 that the delegation of definite financial
resources and responsibilities by the Imperial to the provincial governments rendered
possible and encouraged the development of local taxation to be devoted to local
needs under the management of those immediately interested, but even then it was
not until the orders of Lord Ripon’s Government in 1881-82 that Acts of 1883-
34, in the case of municipalities and of 1883-35 in that of rural boards, established
the systems which, in their main outlines, have continued to the present day.
Since 1880s, there has been much legislation of an amending character, but
the framework on the whole has remained unchanged. In judging of results, therefore,
it is essential to remember that local self government in India is not an indigenous
nor even a long tried institution. In the first decade of Twentieth century,
municipalities in India were very small. Only around 5 per cent of the population of
India was living in some kinds of town, compared with 78 per cent in England and
Wales at that time. More than half of this urban population of India was found in
towns containing upwards of twenty thousand inhabitants; about one-fifth in towns
with from ten to twenty thousand and the same proportion in those from five to ten
thousand; the remainder, about one-fifth, lived in towns with less than five thousand
(Wheeler 1917: 155).
At the outset, with the laudable intention of extending local management,
municipalities were erected in localities which were not truly urban. The supervision
of the business of these towns was entrusted to 9,753 councilors (the significance
of the figure lies in its comparison with the total population), of whom 51 per cent
were elected. Out of these 10,000 odd councilors 81 per cent were non-officials
Self-Instructional
Material 19
Introduction to Local Self and 88 per cent were Indians by 1910. On the other hand, it is only in Madras,
Government in India
Bengal, the united provinces, Bihar and Orissa and the Central Provinces that
elected members were in a majority, while the two backward provinces of the
North-West Frontier and Baluchistan had no elective system and in Burma it was
NOTES rudimentary. The electoral franchise was very limited and the percentage of electors
to the aggregate municipal population was low. In all the municipalities, the
performance depended upon the personality of their chairman. Most of these
chairmen were elected (67%).
The functions of Indian municipalities after the recommendations of the Royal
Commission comprised the usual services essential for the health and convenience
of town dwellers. They covered the construction and upkeep of roads and public
buildings, the lighting and watering of roads, medical relief, vaccination, sanitation,
drainage, water supply, measures against epidemics and education. To meet these
responsibilities their resources were by no means as extensive as might be desired.
It may be said that British India was divided for administrative purposes into revenue
districts, sub-divisions and within them the smaller units of Talukas and Tehsils.
The efforts towards the establishment of local self government had by the 1910s
resulted in the creation of an appreciable number of local bodies–the total, however,
being still small in comparison with the population of the country. In the personnel
of these bodies the Indian non-official element predominates and while, judged by
the Western test of popular election, it was only partially representative, yet it
included a fair selection from the educated land holding and professional classes.
According of Wheeler, this condition was due to the fact that in the ranks of
only these sections of the Indian society, at that stage of Indian development,
administrative ability was most likely to be found (1917: 158). The functions
entrusted to these bodies covered as wide a field as was desirable and expedient
at that time and afforded ample scope for useful and important work, but the
funds at their disposal, especially in the case of municipalities and even in that of
rural boards, looking to the area to be covered, did not suffice for the general
initiation of expensive improvements. Due to the lack of funds administration had
to be conducted on simple and economical lines keeping it compatible with the
income available. Whereas in the West, the practice was rather to estimate the
cost of the necessary municipal services and then to fix the rates on a scale adequate
to meet the expenditure involved, the Indian method was, taking the total sum
likely to be produced by the prevailing modes of taxation, to arrange expenditure
to the extent only of which the anticipated revenue will permit. In the smaller
municipalities the biggest problem had always been the dearth of local revenues,
their inflexibility and the difficulty of formulating other forms of taxation. The tentative
reason for this was the weak economic state of the country, since the per capita
income was extremely low. This weak economy was endorsed by the fact that a
sizeable population were not even able to have a one full meal a day. Another
significant reason for this that is still existent throughout the country is the lack of
feelings and concern towards every form of public life. Beyond doubt, this came
Self-Instructional
20 Material
into effect because of apparent ignorance and illiteracy. Just 12 per cent of the Introduction to Local Self
Government in India
males and 2 per cent of the females were educated. Extreme poverty and deplorable
ignorance, emergence of strong and nasty associations, etc., were strong enough
to reinstate the appalling lack of sympathy for a long time to come. The third
prominent problem that existed, consisted in the fact that even literate Indians NOTES
belonging to the upper-class were usually not willing to help address the problem,
related to the trouble, expense and inconveniences of election. In this connection
the biggest problem arose from the fact that the superior classes of Indians, on the
whole, harboured a strong ill-feeling for door-to-door canvassing, simply because
it was regarded as disparaging to ones self-respect to go about to solicit for votes,
especially to the lower classes.
Another important class of difficulty arose from the fact that the sense of
responsibility in public affairs was not allowed to develop because of the policy of
the government to grow adequately. Unwarranted meddling with the executive of
the public bodies and inappropriate leniency in the issues related to evaluation and
realization of taxes were the deplorable highlights of this class. In addition to this,
there are other problems that may emerge as a result of ignorance of the laws of
public health and absence of the power to make intelligent anticipations of public
requirements. This list of problems, nevertheless, cannot be closed without the
mention of the most prominent problem that very often arises from extreme levels
of communal feelings and even most unjustifiable and protracted litigation over
elections (Mallik 1929). Various scholars at that time suggested ways to improve
the working of local self government in India.
According to Mallik, the remedy was to carry out programmes of large-
scale education. So far, it was quite evident, considering the figures that only 5 per
cent of the revenues of the government were spent on education. The basic
components of such educational programmes should be directed at resolving of
problems related to sanitation, public health cooperation and civic sense. Children
and the youth should be taught about important ideas and conceptions and a few
of the principles of election and public life. It was unfortunate that there was
absolutely no consideration for public property and there was gross misuse of
public funds. Private agencies and organizations had a very strong influence on
matters that affected the public. This was coupled with the effects of personal likes
and dislikes. To resolve these problems, it was important to consider a stringent
system of public audit and supervision of these local self government bodies. It
was also necessary to base the direction of education towards the basics of civic
life. This would work as a certain and only effective remedy, more importantly
against the mindset of forming groups and communal hatred. To counter such
problems, it is important to reconstruct the whole organization must be rebuilt
from village unions towards with larger electorates, with gradually lessening inner
control and interference. The local bodies should be empowered with more
authority and power to manage their expenses and exercise the function of
reorganizing funds.
Self-Instructional
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Introduction to Local Self A higher level of authority should be given to municipalities and boards so
Government in India
that they can impose taxes for sufficing their requirements. The rise of taxes is
always faced by a strong public opposition. However, this can be reduced by
gaining the confidence of the general public before levying such taxes. One can be
NOTES absolutely sure that the extreme poverty of the people as a whole was the main
cause of this problem and it was very difficult to suggest any remedy in that direction.
One more critical measure in this direction was the establishing of provincial training
institutions for those who have been newly employed in various departments of
the local self government. Such trainings should include practical sessions and the
creation of a distinct provincial service for them, with attractive prospects of
promotion to executive offices. Although such problems exist, the present system
of local self government was increasing in terms of popularity day by day. The
institutions were regularly attracting the intellectual people of the country and the
higher class of citizens.
Based on these and other suggestions the government of India in 1919
accepted the Montesquieu Chelmsford reforms. The pressure created by the rising
aspirations of the people of India for their independence also played a very crucial
role. The acceptance of the principle of dyarchy gave greater responsibilities to
the local governments with more autonomy. The Government of India Act 1919
abolished the need of having a civil servant as the head of the municipal bodies. It
also provided the scope of appointing elected heads for the local district boards.
This and the reforms of 1935 Government of India Act led to the more and more
democratization of the local bodies. People from urban areas had more and more
powers to elect their representatives in the local bodies. Nevertheless, most of
these bodies had very limited franchise based on education and wealth. The
government of India after independence had the responsibility to improve this
condition.
Urban Local Government in India after Independence
After independence first major reforms in the local self government were initiated
in 1948. The then local self government minister D.P. Mishra initiated a reform in
provinces where he abolished the dual structure of local self government one district
administration and another local government with its rural and urban local
governments. This initiative extended the sphere of activity of the district board to
the whole of the district administration and making the district collector the chief
executive officer of the district board and the district staff as its own. This reform
divided the powers into four classes of I, II, III and IV which ranged from full
powers to the district boards to the advisory powers. In all the cases, district
board were to be taken into confidence. This scheme though had advantages of
district boards having full sovereignty on certain matters and having full control
over the staff mate with severe criticism at the central levels. It was called as
Central Provinces and Berar Local Government Act 1948.
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22 Material
This scheme took Tehsil as the basic unit of government and therefore Introduction to Local Self
Government in India
considered to be the closest scheme till time which took it to the people. It was
also known as Janpada scheme. After the adoption of the new constitution, the
reforms in the rural local self government got tremendous attention unlike the urban
local self government. Since local government was a subject of state list, the Central NOTES
government did not took much notice to it till the Third Five Year Plan. In the Third
Five Year Plan (1961-66) it was accepted that ‘in the next phase of planning, as
many towns and cities as possible, at any rate those with a population of one lakh
or more, should come into the scheme of planning in an organic way; each state
mobilizing its own resources and helping to create conditions for a better life for its
citizens’ (Planning Commission, as quoted in Maheshwari 1971: 26). Till 1968,
the central government had appointed several committees in order to bring reforms
in the urban local government. Some of these committees were, Local Finance
Enquiry Committee 1951, Committee on the Training of Municipal Employees
1963, Committee of Ministers on Augmentation of Financial Resources of Urban
Local Bodies 1963, Rural-Urban Relationship Committee 1966 and Committee
on the Services Conditions of Municipal Employees 1968. As we can see most of
these committees were formed only after the 1960s, showing very clearly that it
was only then the central government realized the need to improve the condition of
local self government in India.
Since local government falls under the purview of state governments, there
are some variations in their nomenclature and structure. Every state has separate
departments for urban and rural local self government as has the centre. Most of
the urban local self governments in all the states however have similar structure
which we shall discuss further in the unit. Prior to the 1992 Amendment, the structure
and power of the urban local self government was very different from what we
perceive it to be today. After the 1992 Amendment many significant changes took
place which contributed to its present structure.
Till very recently, urban local government constituted the charge of the
Ministry of Works and Housing. Historically, local government in India had its
beginning in an urge to improve local sanitation and hence has continued as the
responsibility of the Ministry of Health. The Ministry of Health was looking after
both urban and rural local government until 1958, when the latter was separated
from it and came under the charge of the Ministry of Community Development. In
January 1966, apart of local government, namely urban development, was renamed
the Ministry of Works and Housing, which was again renamed in 1967 as the
Ministry of Works, Housing and Urban Development. Again, in the same year the
subject of urban development was transferred back to the Ministry of Health
which carried a rather longish name, the Ministry of Health, Family Planning and
Works, Housing and Urban Development.
In 1973, the subject of urban local government was retransferred to the
Ministry of Works and Housing. The Ministry deals with the following subjects
Self-Instructional
Material 23
Introduction to Local Self and organizations in the sphere of local government: Collection and collation of
Government in India
information with regard to the urban local government in the states, Central Council
of Local Self government, Town and Country Planning Organization, Urban
Community Development, Improvement Trusts, Training of Municipal Government
NOTES Personnel, All-India Mayors’Conference and Advising the Ministry of Home Affairs
on matters relating to local governments in the union territories. The name of the
Ministry was changed to Ministry of Urban Development in September, 1985 in
recognition of the importance of urban issues. With the creation of a separate
Department of Urban Employment & Poverty Alleviation on 8 March 1995, the
Ministry came to be known as the Ministry of Urban Affairs & Employment. The
Ministry had two Departments: Department of Urban Development & Department
of Urban Employment & Poverty Alleviation. The two Departments were again
merged on 9 April 1999 and in consequence thereto, the name has also been
restored to ‘The Ministry of Urban Development’. This Ministry was bifurcated
into two Ministries viz. (i) ‘Ministry of Urban Development’ and (ii) ‘Ministry of
Urban Employment and Poverty Alleviation’ with effect from 16 October, 1999.
These two Ministries were again merged into one Ministry on 27 May 2000 and
named as ‘Ministry of Urban Development and Poverty Alleviation’ with two
Departments. They are (i) Department of Urban Development and (ii) Department
of Urban Employment and Poverty Alleviation. From 27 May 2004, the Ministry
has again been bifurcated into two ministries viz.: (i) Ministry of Urban Development
and (ii) Ministry of Urban Employment and Poverty Alleviation (Now Known as
Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation).
The Central Council of Local Self Government, which was created in 1954,
was a c oordination body between the different state ministries of local government
and central Ministry of Health. Till 1958, it was concerned with both rural and
urban local governments. After that it was only concerned with the urban local self
government. This Council use to organize annual meetings of Mayors, State
Ministers of Town and Country planning, Housing Minister’s Conferences, etc.
These meetings were organized to evolve a greater uniformity and coordination of
urban local government institutions and bodies.
Urban local government till 1992 was the responsibility of the Department
of Local Self Government in the states. At the state level a number of departments
deal with subjects which are the direct concern of the urban government. In addition
to the Department of Local Self Government, the functional departments in the
secretariat administer the various components of urban development. Thus, water
supply, drainage and sewerage, road construction, land acquisition and
development, housing and slum clearance, etc. are being dealt with by respective
functional departments. As is to be expected under such a fragmentary arrangement,
the urban affairs do not get viewed as one integrated function. Consequently,
there is a haphazard and piecemeal development bearing an imprint of lack of
coordination. It is, therefore, not unusual to find the dwelling houses in a town fully
completed yet remaining unoccupied for, say, want of electricity of water supply
Self-Instructional
24 Material
or even both. This is an avoidable waste. Urban local self government needs greater Introduction to Local Self
Government in India
coordination between its different bodies. The structure of the urban local self
government is very complex.
NOTES
Check Your Progress
6. Who introduced the system of provincial finance?
7. Which Act made local government in India a statutory body for the first
time?
8. How was British India divided, for administrative purposes?
9. When did the Government of India accept the Montesquieu Chelmsford
reforms?
1.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS
1. In a welfare state, many progressive schemes and programmes are launched

by government. The task of the local government is to implement them.
2. The concept of Panchayati Raj is unquestionably Indian in origin.
3. In 1993, the Government of India made the Panchayati Raj Institutions a
part of the Constitution.
4. The word ‘panchayat’ is derived from ‘pancha panchasvanusthitah’.
5. The two popular assemblies were the Samiti and the Sabha.
6. The system of provincial finance was introduced by the resolution of Lord
Mayo’s Government.
7. The 1793 Charter Act made local government in India a statutory body for
the first time.
8. For administrative purposes, British India was divided into revenue districts,
sub-divisions and within them the smaller units of Talukas and Tehsils.
9. The Government of India accepted the Montesquieu Chelmsford reforms
in 1919.
1.6 SUMMARY
 Local administration is based upon rule-making and decision-making for

the welfare of the people and their implementation at the grass-roots level
(village level) in the country.
 The Panchayati Raj institution has originated in India. During its long span
of time, its format and practices have changed many a times.
Self-Instructional
Material 25
Introduction to Local Self  The institution of Panchayati Raj is as old as Indian civilization itself. It has
Government in India
been controlling civil as well as judicial matters of several Indian villages
since ancient times.
NOTES  Self-governing village communities which are characterized by agrarian

economies existed in India since the earliest times.
 The political units — the Samiti and Sabha had the right to debate. It is a
privilege that was unknown to the popular assemblies of other people of
that era.
 Under the British rule, the Panchayats started slowly losing their self-
governing character and the authority of the state had direct control over
the British rulers.
 Lord Mayo, the Viceroy of India from 1869 to 1872, felt the need to
decentralize powers to bring efficiency in administration. In 1870, he
launched the system of elected representatives in urban municipalities.
 Lord Mayo’s Resolution of 1870 under the British Rule is considered as a
huge step in the history of evolution of local self-government.
 The Bengal Chowkidar Act of 1870 was an initiative to re-introduce the
age-old tradition of village panchayati system in Bengal.
 The Government of India Act (1935) is considered as an important stage in
the evolution of panchayats in British India.
 The aim of the British rulers was not to decentralize democracy but to
facilitate colonial administration. The Freedom Movement was concerned
more with swaraj for the country than with Gram Swaraj.
 The burden of strengthening the Panchayati Raj system was on the Indian
government formed after Independence. India, which is a country of villages,
had to strengthen village panchayats to strengthen democracy.
 Rajiv Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India, introduced the 64th
Amendment bill on local government on 15 May 1989, but it failed to get
the required support.
 In September 1991, a bill on Panchayati Raj was again introduced by the
Congress government under the Prime Minister, P. V. Narasimha Rao. It
was passed in 1992 as the 73rd Amendment Act with minor modifications
and came into force on 24 April 1993.
 The 73rd Amendment Act provided for the establishment of Gram Sabha
in each village.
 The modern advent of the idea of local self government in India was due to
the needs of the British Government.
Self-Instructional
26 Material
 Personalities like Lord Rippon played a very important role in the Introduction to Local Self
Government in India
establishment of the elected urban local government in India.
 The Acts of 1919 and 1935 were important millstones in the history of the
urban local self government in India. NOTES
 After independence we have seen the rise in the urban population in India
which has necessitated the reforms in the urban local government.
1.7 KEY WORDS
 Panchayat: It is a village council in India which consists of five members.

 Five Year Plans: It is a policy adopted by some countries for the
development of the country economically and industrially, which specifies
the goals to be reached in five years.
 Municipal corporation: The legal term for a local governing body, including
(but not necessarily limited to) cities, counties, towns, townships, charter
townships, villages, and boroughs.
 Presidency towns: Provinces of British India, that were the administrative
units of the territories of India under the tenancy or the sovereignty of either
the English East India Company or the British Crown.
 Viceroys: A ruler exercising authority in a colony on behalf of a sovereign.
1.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES
Short-Answer Questions
1. List the factors which affect local governance in India.
2. Write a short note on the importance of local governance in India.
3. What do you know about the Mayo Resolution of 1870?
4. Why is Lord Ripon regarded as the father of local self-government in India?
5. Where and when was the first urban local government established in India?
6. When was the first election for urban local government held in India?
Long-Answer Questions
1. Give a history of the Panchayati Raj System in the pre-British rule.
2. Trace the evolution of urban government in India.
3. Give an account of the urban local government in India after independence.
Self-Instructional
Material 27
Government in India 1.9 FURTHER READINGS
Chakrabarty, B and R K Pandey. 2019. Local Governance in India. New

NOTES Delhi: SAGE Publications.
Jayal, Niraja Gopal, Amit Prakash, and Pradeep K. Sharma. 2007. Local
Governance in India: Decentralization and Beyond. New Delhi: Oxford
University Press.
Maheswari, Shriram. 2008. Public Administration in India. Agra: Laxmi Narayan
Agarwal.
Footnote
1. S.K. Dey Panchayati Raj Page-III
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28 Material
Community Development
UNIT 2 COMMUNITY Programmes and

Committee Reports
DEVELOPMENT
NOTES
PROGRAMMES AND
COMMITTEE REPORTS
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Community Development Programmes
2.3 Committee Reports on Local Bodies
2.5 Summary
2.6 Key Words
2.0 INTRODUCTION
For many decades, rural development work had been undertaken by different
branches of the administration in the states. Earlier, the expenditure on development
was meagre and rural development work was thought of largely in terms of particular
items of improvement in village life and in agricultural practice, and special attention
was given, for instance, to the number of wells sunk or repaired, for the supply of
irrigation or drinking water, the supply of seeds or fertilisers, or the number of
manure pits dug and starting of rural credit societies. These are essential items in
any rural programme, but there was no coordinated approach to village life as a
whole. To overcome these problems, the Community Development Programme
and the National Extension Service was launched in 1952-53. In this unit, you will
learn about the concepts of the Community Development Programmes and the
National Extension Service. These were crucial to also promote local governance
and participation. Further in the unit, you will study the major recommendations
by the Balwant Rai Mehta Committee and the Ashok Mehta Committee.
2.1 OBJECTIVES

 Examine the Community Development Programmes
 Describe the implementation of the National Extension Service Self-Instructional
Material 29
Community Development  Discuss the Balwant Rai Mehta Committee and Ashok Mehta Committee
Programmes and
Committee Reports Reports
NOTES
2.2 COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
PROGRAMMES
Community Development was the method and Rural Extension the agency through
which the Five-Year Plan sought to initiate a process of transformation of the
social and economic life of the villages. The Plan provided ¹ 90 crores for community
projects and proposed the establishment over a period of about ten years of a
network of extension workers throughout the country.
If one goes back to the study of the efforts made before World War II in individual
provinces and states and considers the experience gained in later years in Sevagram
in Madhya Pradesh, in the Firka Development scheme in Madras, in the Sarvodaya
centres in Mumbai, in Etawah and Gorakhpur in Uttar Pradesh and other centres
which are perhaps less well known, certain broad conclusions emerge. These are:
 When different departments of the government approach the villagers, each
from the aspect of its own work, the effect on the villagers is apt to be
confusing and no permanent impression is created. The peasant’s life is not
cut into segments in the way the Government’s activities are apt to be; the
approach to the villager has, therefore, to be a coordinated one and has to
comprehend his whole life. Such an approach has to be made, not through
a multiplicity of departmental officials, but through an agent common at
least to the principal departments engaged in rural work, whom it is now
customary to describe as the village level worker.
 Programmes which have been built on the cooperation of the people have
more chances of abiding success than those which are forced down on
them.
 While the official machinery has to guide and assist, the principal responsibility
for improving their own condition must rest with the people themselves.
Unless they feel that a programme is theirs and value it as a practical
contribution to their own welfare, no substantial results will be gained.
 Programmes largely dependent on expenditure by the government, in which
the elements of self-help and mutual cooperation on the part of villagers are
present only in a nominal degree are short lived. The essential idea should
be the reduction of chronic unemployment which is a feature of rural life—
through the practice of scientific agriculture and cottage and small-scale
industries.
 Advice and precept are of no avail unless they are backed by practical
aids—supplies of seed and fertiliser, finance and technical guidance for
solving the farmer’s immediate problems.
Self-Instructional
30 Material
 Whatever the measures of the effort which the government wishes to make, Community Development
Programmes and
the best results will be gained if the programmes are pursued intensively, Committee Reports
and practically every agriculturist family has its own contribution to make
through a village organization.
NOTES
 The approach to the villagers would be in terms of his own experience and
problems, conceived on the pattern of simplicity, avoiding elaborate
techniques and equipment until he is ready for them.
 There has to be a dominant purpose round which the enthusiasm of the
people can be aroused and sustained, a purpose which can draw forth from
the people and those who assist them on behalf of the government, the will
to work as well as a sense of urgency. The aim should be to create in the
rural population a burning desire for a higher standard of living—a will to
live better.
These lessons from the experience of the past were brought together in the
conception and concrete formulation of the Community Development Programme,
which was launched during the year 1952. While the concept was not a new one,
progress has in the past been hampered by insufficiency of available funds.
Size of the Unit
For each community project, as planned, there was to be approximately 300
villages with a total area of about 450 to 500 square miles, a cultivated area of
about 1,50,000 acres and a population of about 2,00,000. The project area was
conceived as being divided into 3 Development Blocks, each consisting of about
100 villages and a population of about 60,000 to 70,000. The development block
was, in turn, divided into groups of 5 villages each, each group being the field of
operation for a village level worker.
Location of Units
The initial programme had been started with approximately 55 projects of rural
development located in selected areas in the several states of India. A certain
degree of flexibility was allowed in the actual allotment of projects. Thus, while
many were complete projects of about 300 villages each, some were also
independent development blocks of about 100 villages each, depending upon the
needs and conditions of the particular areas chosen for development.
As increased agricultural production was the most urgent objective, one of
the basic criteria in the selection of this first set of project areas had been the
existence of irrigation facilities or assured rainfall. In assessing irrigation facilities
and the possibilities of development, irrigation from river valley projects, from
tube wells, as well as from minor irrigation works, had been taken into account. In
States like West Bengal and Punjab, with a large population of displaced persons,
the selection of project areas aimed also at helping the resettlement of these persons.
Seven areas were selected on the ground of their being inhabited predominantly
Self-Instructional
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Community Development by Scheduled Tribes. In every field of activity, whether social or economic, urban
Programmes and
Committee Reports and rural development are complementary, for neither towns nor villages can
advance alone. Where the existing urban facilities were inadequate or where large
numbers of displaced persons had to be rehabilitated, the intention was that the
NOTES urban development should take the form of new townships. Six such projects had
been proposed to be taken up under the programme.
Under such rural-CMW-urban development, new towns were to come
into existence to serve as centres which would draw sustenance from the
surrounding countryside and, in return, carry to it new amenities and the spirit of a
developing and changing economy. The creation of new centres of small-scale
industrial production, closely coordinated with rural development, is fundamental
to national development, for in no other way could the then occupational imbalance
between agriculture and industry, between village and town, be corrected. With
the development of power resources and of communications and the growth of
basic industries, the scope for establishing such centres was aimed to steadily
increase and, as the economy develops, this programme would gain in importance.
During the first few years, however, it was inevitable that by far the greatest stress
in community development, as indeed in national planning, would have been on
rural areas. The intensive development of agriculture, the extension of irrigation,
rural electrification and the revival of village industries, wherever possible, with the
help of improved techniques, accompanied by land reform and a revitalized
cooperative movement, were programmes closely related to one another, and
together calculated to change the face of the rural economy.
Main Lines of Activity
The main lines of activity which were to be undertaken in a community project,
could be briefly divided into the following:
(a) Agriculture and related matters
(b) Irrigation
(c) Communications
(d) EducatioI
(e) Health
(f) Supplementary employment
(g) Housing
(h) Training
(i) Social welfare
(a) Agriculture and Related Matters
The programme included reclamation of available virgin and waste land; provision
of commercial fertilizers and improved seeds; the promotion of fruit and vegetable
Self-Instructional
32 Material
cultivation, of improved agricultural technique and land utilization; supply of technical Community Development
Programmes and
information, improved agricultural implements, improved marketing and credit Committee Reports
facilities, provision of soil surveys and prevention of soil erosion, encouragement
of the use of natural and compost manures and improvement of livestock, the
principal emphasis here being on the establishment of key villages for breeding NOTES
pedigree stock and the provision of veterinary aid, as well as artificial insemination
centres. For attaining this objective, agricultural extension service was to be provided
at the rate of one agricultural extension worker for every 5 villages.
One of the important functions of the agricultural extension worker was to
encourage the growth of a healthy cooperative movement. The aim was to see
that there is at least one multi-purpose society in every village or group of villages
on which practically every agriculturist family is represented.
It was expected ‘that the cooperative principle, in its infinitely varying forms,
will be capable of adaptation for finding a solution to all problems of rural life.’
Multi-purpose societies would therefore have to be used for practically every
development activity in the community project area, including the encouragement
of rural arts and crafts.
(b) Irrigation
The programme visualised provision of water for agriculture through minor irrigation
works, e.g., tanks, canals, surface wells and tube wells, the intention being that at
least half of the agricultural land, if possible, be served with irrigation faciliIs.
(c) Communication
The road system on the countryside was to be so developed as to link every
village within the project area up to a maximum distance of half a mile from the
village, the latter distance being connected by feeder roads through voluntary labour
of the villagers themselves, only the main roads being provided for and maintained
by the state or other public agencies.
(d) Education
It had been realized that the full development of a community would not be achieved
without a strong educational base, similar for men and women. The community
projects were being planned to provide for social education, expansion and
improvement of primary and secondary education and its gradual conversion to
basic type, provision of educational facilities for working children and promotion
of youth welfare. Vocational and technical training were to be emphasised in all the
stages of the educational programme. Training facilities was to be provided for
imparting improved techniques to existing artisans and technicians, both in urban
and rural areas. Training centres which already existed in any area, were to be
strengthened and developed, and new ones established to meet the requirements
of the projeIarea.
Self-Instructional
Material 33
Community Development (e) Health
Programmes and
Committee Reports
The Health Organization of the project area was to consist of 3 primary health
units in the development blocks and a secondary health unit equipped with a hospital
NOTES and a mobile dispensary at the headquarters of the project area and serving the
area as a whole. It was aimed at the improvement of environmental hygiene,
including provision and protection of water supply; proper disposal of human and
animal wastes; control of epidemic diseases such as malaria, cholera, small-pox,
tuberculosis. Provision of medical aid along with appropriate preventive measures,
and education of the population in hygienic living and in improved nutrition.
(f) Supplementary Employment
The unemployed and the under-employed persons in the village community were
to be provided with gainful employment to such extent as is possible, by the
development of cottage and small-scale industries, construction of brick kilns and
saw mills and encouragement of employment through participation in the tertiary
sector of the economy.
(g) Housing
Apart from the provision of housing for community projects personnel, steps were
taken, wherever possible, to provide demonstration and training in improved
techniques and designs for rural housing. In congested villages, action in the direction
of development of new sites, opening of village parks and playgrounds and
assistance in the supply of building materials, were also deemed to be necessary.
(h) Training
The training of village level workers, project supervisors and other personnel for
the Community Development Programme was aimed to be carried out in 30 training
centres which were set up with the assistance of the Ford Foundation of America.
Each training centre was to have facilities for about 70 trainees. Each centre was
aimed to have double training staff so that the trainees could be divided into two
groups. One group was to get practical and supervisory work experience, while
the other group was to be utilizing the centres’ facilities for lectures, demonstrations
and discussions. In view of the great demand on the training centres to turn out
people quickly for the opening of new projects, the training period was, in the first
instance, to be limited to six months. In addition to the training of village level
workers and supervisors, the agricultural extension service workers in the project
areas was to take steps for the training of the agriculturists, panchs and village
leaders.
(i) Social Welfare
There was to be provision for audio-visual aid for instruction and recreation, for
organizations of community entertainment, sports activities and Melas.
Self-Instructional
34 Material
Organization Community Development
Programmes and
Committee Reports
 Centre: For the implementation of the Community Development Programme
as indicated above, the Central Organization consisted of a Central
Committee (the Planning Commission has been designated as the Central NOTES
Committee) to lay down the broad policies and provide general supervision,
and an administrator of Community Projects under the Central Committee.
The administrator was responsible for planning, directing and co-ordinating
the Community Projects throughout India under the general supervision of
the Central Committee and in consultation with appropriate authorities in
the various states. He was to be assisted by a highly qualified executive staff
to advise him on administration, finance, personnel, community planning
and other matters.
 State: At the state level, there was a State Development Committee or a
similar body consisting of the chief minister and such other ministers as he
may consider necessary. There was also a State Development
Commissioner or a similar official who was to act as the secretary to the
State Development Committee and responsible for directing community
projects in the state. Where the work justified it, there was, in addition, a
Deputy Development Commissioner specifically in charge of community
projects.
 District: At the district level, there were, wherever necessary, a District
Development Officer responsible for the Community Development
Programme in the district. This officer had the status of an additional collector
and operated under the directions of the development commissioner. He
was to be advised by a District Development Board consisting of the officers
of the various departments concerned with community development, with
the collector as chairman and the District Development Officer as executive
secretary
 Project: At the project level, each individual project unit (consisting of a
full project or one or more development blocks where there is not a full
project) was in charge of a Project Executive Officer. In the selection of
Project Executive Officers, special regard was paid to experience, general
outlook, understanding of the needs and methods of community
development, capacity for leadership and ability to secure both official
and non-official co-operation. Each Project Executive Officer in charge
of a full project, had on his staff approximately 125 supervisors and village
level workers, who were to be responsible for the successful operation of
all activities at the project level.
It was also recommended that the organizational pattern will have be adapted
to suit local conditions and needs as may be deemed necessary by the administrator
and the respective state governments.
Self-Instructional
Material 35
Community Development People’s Participation—The Crux of the Programme
Programmes and
Committee Reports
While on the subject of organization, it is necessary to stress the importance of
ensuring, right from the start, the people’s participation, not merely in the execution
NOTES of the Community Development Project but also in its planning. This in fact was
the very essence of the programme.
The Community Development Programme aimed at the establishment of a
suitable organ to ensure participation of the villagers at the planning stage. It
contained provisions for the setting up of a Project Advisory Committee. It intended
that the Project Advisory Committee should be as representative as possible of all
the non-official elements within the project area. In securing participation of the
villagers in the execution of the programme, the Community Projects Organization
was to avail of all non-official local voluntary organizations and especially the
Bharat Sevak Samaj, which was likely to be set up in the project area on the lines
indicated in the pamphlet recently circulated by the Planning Commission.
Villager’s Contribution to the Programme
The pattern of the project, as drawn up, included major items of works normally
implemented through government agencies. This was bound to involve higher
expenditure through elaborate administrative staff, middlemen’s fees and possibly
in certain cases, questionable practices. If the people are to be trained to be the
builders of the future, the works had to be entrusted, even at certain risks, to the
people themselves through their representative agencies, the governmental
organization furnishing the technical assistance and the essential finance. It was
intended that a qualifying scale of voluntary contribution, either in the form of
money or of labour, should be laid down and this contribution would be a condition
precedent to development schemes being undertaken under the Community
Development Programme.
In all these cases, contributions were to be in the form, either of voluntary
labour or of cash. In respect of backward areas and areas predominantly populated
by Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes it was not always possible for the
villagers to make any financial contribution. In these areas, the villagers were to be
asked to contribute by way of labour effort required for executing the works
programme under various heads. The agency of the Bharat Sevak Samaj was
hoped to become a major avenue for the organization of the voluntary effort on
the part of the villagers.
Finance
The estimated expenditure on a basic type of a rural community project, i.e., a
project without the provision for an urban unit, was 65 lakh over a period of
3 years. Of this amount, about 5.8-47 lakhs was estimated to be the expenditure,
and 6-53 lakhs was the dollar expenditure.
Self-Instructional
36 Material
In order to enable expansion of the programme in future years, the Central Community Development
Programmes and
Committee felt that some reduction in the estimated cost of a rural community Committee Reports
project, basic type, should be made and, after examination of the question, and it
was decided that oil community projects were operated on the basis of a reduced
total of 45 lakh per project. NOTES
The Community Development Programme imposed financial obligations on
the centre as well as on the state governments. Broadly, the proportions which
were fixed were 75 per cent for the centre and 25 per cent for the state in respect
of non-recurring expenditure, and 50 per cent each for centre and states in respect
of recurring expenditure. This applied to ‘grants-in-aid’. Loan amount was totally
funded by the centre. After the three-year period, the Community Project areas
were intended to become development blocks on the lines recommended for
adoption in Chapter VI of the Grow More Food Enquiry Committee’s Report. It
was expected that in so far as the Community Project areas are concerned, the
expenses of such development blocks would be borne entirely by state governments
after the third year. The expenditure, mostly recurring, was likely to be about
3 lakh per project.
Supporting Projects
The Community Development Programme was related to and supported in part
by most of the other projects under the Indo-American Technical Cooperation
Programme. The fertiliser required by the Community Development Programmes
were to be acquired and distributed in accordance with the Operational Agreement
No. I which dealt with the ‘Project for Acquisition and Distribution of Fertilizer’.
Similarly, the iron and steel needed for farm implements and tools were acquired
and distributed in accordance with the ‘Project for the Acquisition and Distribution
of Iron and Steel for Agricultural purposes’. The tube-wells to be constructed in
the project areas were to allocated from the ‘Project for Ground Water Irrigation’.
Information and services with respect to soils and fertilizer application were to be
made available from the ‘Project for distribution of soil fertility and fertiliser use’.
Assistance in Malaria control in the project areas was to be forthcoming from the
‘Project for malaria control planned under the Technical Cooperation Programme’.
The training, of Village Level Workers and Project Supervisors was to be carried
out under the ‘Village Workers Training Programme’.
Evaluation
A systematic evaluation of the methods and results of the Community Development
Programme no doubt, made a significant contribution by pointing out those methods
which were proving effective, and those which were not; and furnishing an insight
into the impact of the Community Development Programme upon the economy
and culture of India. In order that it may be useful to those administering the
Community Development Projects and serve as a basis for informed public opinion
regarding the programme, the evaluation work was also arranged to be conducted
Self-Instructional
Material 37
Community Development by the Planning Commission in close cooperation with the Ford Foundation and
Programmes and
Committee Reports the Technical Cooperation Administration.
Many committee reports like that of the Balwant Rai Committee suggested
the reorientation of such programmes and these were accepted later on.
NOTES
With the aim to expand the community development practices in the entire country,
the National Extension Service was launched in 1953. It ran concurrently with the
Community Development Programmes. It was launched to cover areas which
were note yet covered under the CDP. It was constituted within the same central
agency as in case of Community Development Programmes and had the divisions
on similar lines as well, but all the community projects were not a focus of
development together, only those blocks were focused on which showed better
progress and development. Post 1958, it was merged with the CDP and the all
the development blocks under the NES became community development blocks
under the CDP.
The Grow More Food Enquiry Committee proposed the establishment of
a National Extension Organization for intensive rural work which could reach
every farmer and assist in the coordinated development of rural life as a whole.
The programme envisaged by the Committee, for which the necessary provision
had been made in the plan, was that the central government should assist state
governments in establishing extension organizations so as to bring their entire area
under extensive development within a period of about ten years. During the period
of the plan, about 1,20,000 villages were to be brought within the operations of
the extension, that is, nearly one-fourth of the rural population. The central and the
various state governments were expected to frame detailed programmes for
reorganizing the existing extension services, arranging for further recruitment and
preparing training programmes.
In drawing up these programmes, the central and state governments were
tasked to examine the necessity for providing the basic training in agriculture and
animal husbandry to the village level workers and the various supervisory subject
matter specialists. Where existing facilities were inadequate, steps were to be
taken to augment them with a view to ensuring an adequate supply of extension
workers for each major linguistic region. The proposals were aimed to give a new
and powerful momentum to all rural work and, in particular, to the programme for
increased agricultural production.
The organization of extension services with the object of securing increased
production and raising the standard of village life was a new undertaking. Extension
was a continuous process designed to make the rural people aware of their problems
and indicating to them ways and means by which they can solve them. It thus
involved not only education of the rural people in determining their problems and
the methods of solving them, but also inspiring them towards positive action in
Self-Instructional
38 Material
doing so. It was, therefore, of the highest importance that for this task, personnel Community Development
Programmes and
of the right type were obtained who would take to their work with zeal and Committee Reports
enthusiasm. The qualities required were not only the ability to acquire knowledge
but also dedication to the task of serving the rural people and the development of
a will to find solutions for their problems. People from village surroundings with NOTES
experience of practical farming were likely to prove of special value as extension
workers.
The training of extension workers required the closest attention to be paid
to the services that they will have to perform. They were expected to understand
rural problems, the psychology of the farmer, and owner’s solutions to his various
difficulties. They were to try and find out the felt needs of the people, and the
solutions that they offer were expected to be demonstrated by acting in close
cooperation with the farmers. They were expected to discover leadership and
stimulate it to action. Their success would depend on the extent to which they gain
the confidence of the farmers. Their duties were thus to be educative and
demonstrative. Their training was to have many facets.. If the period of extension
training is to be shortened, so as to be able to cover a larger area than may be
otherwise possible, care was to be taken to see that it was preceded by adequate
opportunities for basic training in all aspects of rural development. Their conditions
of service were also to be such as are calculated to keep up their zeal and enthusiasm
and ensure the continuous maintenance of high standards of performance. There
was to be considerable scope for promotion for men who start at the bottom. In
order to develop the true extension approach much might be gained if all extension
workers, whether graduates or field level workers, were to start at the field level
and only those who proved their worth, would receive promotions to higher positions.
A fair proportion of these positions were also be open to village workers who
display the necessary qualities of leadership and ability. For this purpose, courses
should be provided at different levels to enable the promising extension workers
who start at the field level to reach positions of greater responsibility
It was important to secure that the extension service retains its character of
continued utility to the rural areas which they serve. This factor should, therefore,
be particularly borne in mind in judging the work of officials who mans this service.
Local opinion on the extent to which an extension worker has made himself useful
should be an important criterion in assessing his ability.
The confidence of the villager is to be gained with difficulty and lost easily. It
was, therefore, of the essence of extension that the initial start was made with
items whose usefulness to the cultivator in increasing agricultural production had
been well established. It was only after sufficient confidence was gained that
comparatively untried measures could be put forward, and even these could be
held out as experiments until the people have found the answer for themselves.
The immediate effect of the first impact of an extension organization was to
increase the demands of the cultivator for credit, supplies and implements. The
Self-Instructional
Material 39
Community Development satisfaction of these demands was a necessary consequence of extension activities
Programmes and
Committee Reports and they would succeed to the extent this responsibility was handled efficiently.
Extension activities were adversely affected if arrangements could not be made
for supplying the needs which they generate.
NOTES
Finally, it may be pointed out that extension workers had to be supported
effectively by research workers to whom they could bring their problems and
whose results they could to the people. Special arrangements were, therefore,
needed to ensure the closest cooperation between extension and research.
Both these projects were succeeded by the Intensive Agriculture District
Programme post 1960.
Check Your Progress

1. How did the Five-Year Plan sought to initiate a process of transformation
of the social and economic life of the villages?
2. What was the size and division of community project under the Community
Development programme?
3. What was the organization of Community Development programme at the
state level?
4. When was the National Extension Service launched?
2.3 COMMITTEE REPORTS ON LOCAL BODIES
In this section, you will learn about two most important early committees set up
after independence on the evaluation of local bodies.
Balwant Rai Mehta Committee was appointed by the India Government in January
1957 to look into the working of the Community Development Programme (1952)
and the National Extension Service (1953) and to propose measures for their
better working. The Chairman of this committee was Balwant Rai G. Mehta. The
committee submitted its report in November 1957 and recommended the institution
of the scheme of ‘democratic decentralization’ which finally came to be known as
Panchayati Raj.
The specific recommendations of the committee are as follows:
 Establishment of a 3-tier Panchayati Raj system-Gram Panchayat at the
village level, Panchayat Samiti at the block level and Zila Parishad at the
district level. These tiers should be organically linked through a tool of indirect
elections.
 The village Panchayat should be constituted with directly elected
representatives, whereas the Panchayat Samiti and Zila Parishad should be
Self-Instructional constituted with indirectly elected members.
40 Material
 All planning and developmental activities should be entrusted to these units. Community Development
Programmes and
 The Panchayat Samiti should be the decision-making body while the Zila Committee Reports
Parishad should be the advisory, coordinating and supervisory body.
 The District Collector should be the Chairman of the Zila Parishad. NOTES
 There should be an authentic transfer of power and responsibility to these
democratic bodies.
 Enough resources should be transferred to these bodies to enable them to
discharge their functions and fulfil their responsibilities.
 A system should be developed to affect more devolution of authority in
future.
These recommendations were accepted by the National Development
Council in January 1958.
In December 1977, the Janata Government established a committee on Panchayati
Raj institutions under the leadership of Ashok Mehta. The committee submitted its
report in August 1978 and made 132 recommendations to revitalize and strengthen
the declining Panchayati Raj system. Due to this report, the Indian states of
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal passed new legislation. However,
the state-level politics did not allow the institutions to develop their own political
dynamics.
The main recommendations of the committee are as follows:
 The three-tier system of Panchayati Raj should be changed by the two-tier
system: Zila Parishad at the district level, and below it, the Mandal Panchayat
consisting of a group of villages covering a population of 15000 to 20000.
 A district should be the first point for decentralization under accepted
supervision below the state level.
 Zila Parishad should be the decision-making body and made responsible
for planning at the district level.
 There should be an official involvement of political parties at all levels of
Panchayat elections.
 The Panchayat Raj institutions should have obligatory powers of taxation to
mobilize their own financial resources.
 There should be a customary social audit by a district level agency and by a
committee of legislators to check whether the funds allotted for the vulnerable
social and economic groups are in fact spent on them.
 The state government should not succeed the Panchayat Raj institutions. In
case of an imperative supersession, election should be held within 6 months
from the date of supersession.
Self-Instructional
Material 41
Community Development  The Nyaya Panchayats should be kept as separate bodies from that of
Programmes and
Committee Reports development Panchayats. They should be presided over by a qualified judge.
 The Chief Electoral Officer of the state in consultation with the Chief Election
Commissioner should organize and conduct the Panchayati Raj elections.
NOTES
 Development functions should be transferred to the Zila Parishad and all
development staff should work under its control and direction.
 The voluntary agencies should play an important role in mobilizing the support
of the people for Panchayati Raj.
 A minister for Panchayati Raj should be appointed in the state council of
ministers to take care of the affairs of the Panchayati Raj institutions.
 Seats for SCs and STs should be reserved on the basis of their population
Check Your Progress

5. Who was the Chairman of the Balwant Rai Committee?
6. Name the scheme whose institution was recommended by the Balwant
Rai Committee.
7. What change did the Ashok Mehta Committee suggest to the three-tier
panchayati raj system?

QUESTIONS
1. Community Development was the method and Rural Extension the agency
through which the Five-Year Plan sought to initiate a process of
transformation of the social and economic life of the villages.
2. For each community project, as planned, there was to be approximately
300 villages with a total area of about 450 to 500 square miles, a cultivated
area of about 1,50,000 acres and a population of about 2,00,000. The
project area was conceived as being divided into 3 Development Blocks,
each consisting of about 100 villages and a population of about 60,000 to
70,000. The development block was, in turn, divided into groups of 5 villages
each, each group being the field of operation for a village level worker
3. At the state level, there was a State Development Committee or a similar
body consisting of the chief minister and such other ministers as he may
consider necessary. There was also a State Development Commissioner or
a similar official who was to act as the secretary to the State Development
Committee and responsible for directing community projects in the state.
Where the work justified it, there was, in addition, a Deputy Development
Commissioner specifically in charge of community projects.
Self-Instructional
42 Material
4. With the aim to expand the community development practices in the entire Community Development
Programmes and
country, the National Extension Service was launched in 1953. Committee Reports
5. The Chairman of the Balwant Rai Committee was Balwant Rai G. Mehta.
6. The Balwant Rai committee submitted its report in November 1957 and NOTES
recommended the institution of the scheme of ‘democratic decentralization’
which finally came to be known as Panchayati Raj.
7. The Ashok Mehta Committee recommended that the three-tier system of
Panchayati Raj should be changed by the two-tier system: Zila Parishad at
the district level, and below it, the Mandal Panchayat consisting of a group
of villages covering a population of 15000 to 20000.
2.5 SUMMARY
 Community Development was the method and Rural Extension the agency
through which the Five-Year Plan sought to initiate a process of
transformation of the social and economic life of the villages.
 The Plan provided 90 crores for community projects and proposed the
establishment over a period of about ten years of a network of extension
workers throughout the country.
 If one goes back to the study of the efforts made before World War II in
individual provinces and states and considers the experience gained in later
years in Sevagram in Madhya Pradesh, in the Firka Development scheme
in Madras, in the Sarvodaya centres in Mumbai, in Etawah and Gorakhpur
in Uttar Pradesh and other centres which are perhaps less well known,
certain broad conclusions emerge.
 These lessons from the experience of the past were brought together in the
conception and concrete formulation of the Community Development
Programme, which was launched during the year 1952.
 For each community project, as planned, there was to be approximately
300 villages with a total area of about 450 to 500 square miles, a cultivated
area of about 1,50,000 acres and a population of about 2,00,000. The
project area was conceived as being divided into 3 Development Blocks,
each consisting of about 100 villages and a population of about 60,000 to
70,000. The development block was, in turn, divided into groups of
5 villages each, each group being the field of operation for a village level
worker.
 The initial programme had been started with approximately 55 projects of
rural development located in selected areas in the several states of India.
 The main lines of activity which were to be undertaken in a community
project, could be briefly divided into the following: (a) Agriculture and
related matters, (b) Irrigation, (c) Communications, (d) Iucation,
Self-Instructional
Material 43
Community Development (e) Health, (f) Supplementary employment, (g) Housing, (h) Training and
Programmes and
Committee Reports (i) Social welfare.
 For the implementation of the Community Development Programme as
indicated above, the Central Organization consisted of a Central Committee
NOTES
(the Planning Commission has been designated as the Central Committee)
to lay down the broad policies and provide general supervision, and an
administrator of Community Projects under the Central Committee. Further
structures were made at the State, District and Project level.
 The Community Development Programme aimed at the establishment of a
suitable organ to ensure participation of the villagers at the planning stage. It
contained provisions for the setting up of a Project Advisory Committee.
 The estimated expenditure on a basic type of a rural community project,
i.e., a project without the provision for an urban unit, was 65 lakh over a
period of 3 years. Of this amount, about 5.8-47 lakhs was estimated to
be the expenditure, and 6-53 lakhs was the dollar expenditure.
 The Grow More Food Enquiry Committee proposed the establishment of
a National Extension Organization for intensive rural work which could
reach every farmer and assist in the coordinated development of rural life
as a whole.
 In drawing up these programmes, the central and state governments were
tasked to examine the necessity for providing the basic training in agriculture
and animal husbandry to the village level workers and the various supervisory
subject matter specialists.
 The immediate effect of the first impact of an extension organization was to
increase the demands of the cultivator for credit, supplies and implements.
The satisfaction of these demands was a necessary consequence of extension
activities and they would succeed to the extent this responsibility was handled
efficiently.
 Balwant Rai Mehta Committee was appointed by the India Government in
January 1957 to look into the working of the Community Development
Programme (1952) and the National Extension Service (1953) and to
propose measures for their better working. The Chairman of this committee
was Balwant Rai G. Mehta. The committee submitted its report in November
1957 and recommended the institution of the scheme of ‘democratic
decentralization’ which finally came to be known as Panchayati Raj.
 In December 1977, the Janata Government established a committee on
Panchayati Raj institutions under the leadership of Ashok Mehta. The
committee submitted its report in August 1978 and made 132
recommendations to revitalize and strengthen the declining Panchayati Raj
system. Due to this report, the Indian states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh
Self-Instructional
44 Material
and West Bengal passed new legislation. However, the state-level politics Community Development
Programmes and
did not allow the institutions to develop their own political dynamics. Committee Reports
2.6 KEY WORDS NOTES

 Community Development Programme: It was multi-faceted programme
launched in 1952 for the development of rural areas.
 National Extension Service: It was launched in the year 1953 as the
supporting agency working for the extension of education and community
development programmes.
 Ford Foundation: It is a private American foundation founded by Henry
Ford and his son which is devoted to the human welfare, and in India, it
worked closely with the government to provide technical and financial
support for developmental projects in the newly independent India.

EXERCISES
1. Write a short note on the location of units under the Community Development
Programme.
2. Briefly explain people’s participation as being the crux of Community
Development projects.
3. How was the finance arranged and planned for Community Development
Programmes?
4. What were the main recommendations of the Balwant Rai Mehta Committee?
5. List the major recommendations of the Ashok Mehta Committee Report.
1. What were the lessons learnt from the experience of the past which led to
the conception and concrete formulation of the Community Development
Programme?
2. Describe the main lines of activity which were to be undertaken in a
community project.
3. Examine the organization of powers and structures for the implementation
of the Community Development Programme.
4. Explain the qualities that were expected of and to be instilled in the training
of extension workers under the National Extension Programme.
Self-Instructional
Material 45
Community Development
Programmes and 2.8 FURTHER READINGS
Committee Reports

University Press.
Agarwal.
Self-Instructional
46 Material
Organization and
BLOCK - II Functions of Three Tier
Structure Panchayat Raj
ORGANISATION STRUCTURE AND ITS FUNCTIONS Institutions
NOTES
UNIT 3 ORGANIZATION AND
FUNCTIONS OF THREE
TIER STRUCTURE
PANCHAYAT RAJ
INSTITUTIONS
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Gram Sabha and Panchayat
3.3 Panchayat Samiti and Zilla Parishad
3.5 Summary
3.6 Key Words
3.0 INTRODUCTION
As you have learnt in Unit 1, local government refers to the administrative

authorities over areas that are smaller than a state. At the rural local governance
level, the Panchayati Raj System is functioning in India. Panchayati Raj system
of India is a three-tier system, which has elected bodies at the village, Taluk and
district levels. The system ensures greater participation of people and an effective
implementation of rural development programmes. It helps in making self-
sufficient and self-governing village communities. In this unit, you will learn about
the organisation and functions of the three-tier structure of the Panchayati Raj
Institution.
Panchayati Raj institutions (PRIS) in India comprise the following:
 Gram Sabha and Panchayat
 Panchayat Samiti
 Zilla Parishad
Self-Instructional
Material 47
Organization and
Functions of Three Tier 3.1 OBJECTIVES
Institutions
NOTES  Discuss the organization and functions of gram sabhas and panchayats
 Explain the composition of a panchayat samiti
 Describe the organization of Zilla parishads and its functions
3.2 GRAM SABHA AND PANCHAYAT
The base of the Panchayati Raj structure lies in the Gram Sabha or village
assembly consisting of all the adult citizens who are eligible to cast vote. Most of
the state legislations provide that Gram Sabha should be called at least twice a
year, usually after Rabi and Kharif crops are harvested. In Orissa and Jammu and
Kashmir it meets only once a year. Some State legislation requires that a meeting
of Gram Sabha should be called if it is requisitioned by a certain proportion at the
votes constituting it say one-fifth.
The Gram Sabha is expected to play the role of a present body to which
the village Panchayat should owe responsibility. In Bengal, Punjab, Gujrat and
Assam village Panchayat is elected by Gram Sabha. In Bihar Gram Sabha elects
50 members as its executive council and a mukhia.
The Gram Sabha has rather been a strong body. There are proposals for
strengthening the working of Gram Sabha so that it can function as an effective
organ for the control of Panchayat leadership.
The Diwakar Committee (1963) recommended a consultative and
deliberative role for these institutions. The danger apprehended from well-funded
observation was that a large majority of adult citizens did not attend the meetings
of Gram Sabha and that if decisions of the Gram Sabha were made a binding a
small minority could ransom Panchayat prgramme. The committee wanted only
broad framework and plans and policies to be approved of by the Gram Sabha
leaving full discretion to the Panchayat in day to day matters.
The relationship between Gram Sabha, Panchayat and Samiti is a delicate
matter. Panchayat must heed to the advice of the Gram Sabha because any other
causes would be suicidal, but the Panchayat as a body of representatives cannot
be relegated to the role of a mere executive body.
Composition of the Gram Panchayat
The Panchayat is the primary tier of rural local govt. Its structure and composition
vary from state to state. It is set up in villages with minimum population of 300.
Sometimes two or more villages are clubbed together to form group-Gram
Panchayat when the population of the individual villages is less than 300.
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48 Material
Its membership ranges from 5 to 31 the average being 15. U.P. and Orissa, Organization and
Functions of Three Tier
belong to high membership group. In U.P. the Panchayat membership ranges from Structure Panchayat Raj
16 to 31. The rest of the states prescribe a member ship range of the 5 to 15; Institutions
depending upon the size of the Panchayat. The state statutes also provide for the
reservation of seats for S.C., S.T. and female citizens. NOTES
Sarpanch
The Sarpanch or Chairperson is the head of the Gram Panchayat. The elected
members of the Gram Panchayat elect from amongst themselves a Sarpanch
and a Deputy Sarpanch for a term of five years. In some places, the Panchayat
president is directly elected by village people. The Sarpanch presides over the
meetings of the Gram Panchayat and supervises its working. He implements the
development schemes of the village. The Deputy Sarpanch, who has the power
to make his own decisions, assists the Sarpanch in his work.
There are two methods of electing a Sarpanch, namely, the direct method
and the indirect method. In Bihar, Assam and U.P., the Sarpanch is directly elected
either by the Gram Sabha through the show of hands or by the elaborate secret
ballot. In other states the panchayat themselves elect the President from amongst
themselves. The decisions must be taken by a majority, the Panchs can succeed
in immobilizing the action which can only be remedied either through the election
of the Sarpanch in whom the majority of Panchayat have confidence or, dissolution
and fresh election of the Panchayat so that persons of more homogeneous persuasion
are elected.
The office of a Sarpanch combines the function of a chairman representative,
executive and chief judge. He presides over the Panchayat meeting and acts as a
spokesman of the Panchayat. He takes decision on behalf of the Panchayat and is
responsible for the safeguard of Panchayat and has to take care of all the accounts
and receipts and payments of the controls. He supervises the work of Panchayat
servant and does any other work that the State Government may authorize him to
do. He is usually selected as the head of the Panchayat by virtue.
A Sarpanch has the following responsibilities:
 Looking after street lights, construction and repair work of the roads in the
villages and also the village markets, fairs, festivals and celebrations
 Keeping a record of births, deaths and marriages in the village
 Looking after public health and hygiene by providing facilities for sanitation
and drinking water
 Providing for education
The major functions of the Panchayat are as follows:
 Municipal functions:
o Public health
o Safety Self-Instructional
Material 49
Organization and o Construction
Structure Panchayat Raj o Educations
Institutions
 Physical planning of village
NOTES o Control the common land
o Site land of others
 Development and production planning
o Construction of amenities
o Preparing village plans
o Development of agriculture
o Animal husbandry
o Cottage industry
o Social culture
o Civil defence
 House keeping
o Electing Sarpanch
o Collecting reverences
o Budgeting, records
The income resources of the Panchayat come from the following sources:
 Taxes
o House tax
o Land cess
o Sanitary cess
o Electricity
o Vehicle tax
o Pilgrim tax
o Grazing tax
o Octopi tax
o Labour tax
o Water tax
o Marriage tax
o Commercial crops.
 Fees and fines
o Registration of animals
o Registration of cattle pond
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50 Material
 Other revenues Organization and
o Management of common land Structure Panchayat Raj
Institutions
o Disposal of Panchayat property
o Fruits NOTES
o Fisheries
o Panchayat tanks
 Grant received from the State Government in proportion of land revenue
 Grants received from the Zilla Parishad
Nyaya Panchayat
Nyaya Panchayat in ancient India is truly a body of local government. It is created
to deal with urgent issues. It is as a method of settling local disputers in a fair way.
The Nyaya Panchayat brings justice within the access at the economic means of
the rural citizens. It bears upon the decisions with the intimate knowledge of local
circumstances without which justice is reduced to a gambling exercise.
Decentralization of judicial functions and judicial processes become a central issue
in the process of carrying Panchayati Raj to the countryside. The Panchayat in
fact can also be defined as small courts in the rural areas. The judicial character of
the Panchayat is its new role which has been assigned top priority.
The Nyaya Panchayat constitutes a jurisdiction of five to seven Panchayati
circles. The collector has the authority of acting as the officer in charge. He is
usually assisted by the Tehsildars and Vikas adhikaries in discharging his duties.
Each Panchayat within the jurisdiction of the Nyaya Panchayat elects a member
to the Nyaya Panchayat. It is not necessary for a member so elected to be a
member of the Vikas Panchayat as well but he must be a registered voter in the
Panchayat jurisdiction. The member must not be below 30 years of age and he
should be able to read and write the state language fluently, freely and legibly and
must not suffer from any disqualification.
A disqualified Panch cannot hold an office of Sarpanch or that of a member
in Samiti, Parishad State legislature or Union parliament. The election of Nyaya
Panchayat and appeals are regulated by the same rules as those of the elections
of Vikas Panchayat. The members take on other to be faithful to the constitution
of India as by law established. They elect from amongst themselves a chairman of
the Nyaya Panchayat.
The chairman elected proceeds to constitute benches of three members;
each for dealing with the civil and criminal cases that come before the Panchayat.
Powers: Criminal and civil jurisdiction
The criminal jurisdiction of Nyaya Panchayat extends only till minor offences
under the IPC. It acts under the orders of a public servant. The amount of fine a
Nyaya Panchayat can impose varies between 25 and 100. In civil cases
jurisdiction fees range between 100 to 500.
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Material 51
Organization and Dr S B Sen committee, a committee appointed by the Government of Kerala in
Structure Panchayat Raj 1996, had suggested the following principles, which were later adopted by the
Institutions Second Administrative Reforms Commission, for local governance:
 Subsidiary democratic decentralization
NOTES
 Delineation of functions
 Devolution of functions in real terms
 Convergence
 Citizen centricity
Let’s have a look at some of the important constitutional provisions with regards
to the organization and functioning of the Panchayats.
243-D Reservation of seats
Seats shall be resumed for the following:
 The scheduled castes.
 The Scheduled tribes
In every Panchayat the number of seats is reserved in proportion to the
total number of seats. These seats are to be filled by direct election in that Panchayat
as the population of the S.C. and S.T. in that Panchayat area.
Following points can lead to disqualifications:
 A person shall be disqualified from being chosen as and for being, a member
of a Panchayat:
o If he is disqualified by or under any law for the time being in force for the
purposes of elections to the legislature of the state concerned
o If he is less than 25 years of age
o If he is disqualified by or under any law made by the legislature of the
state.
 Not less than 1/3rd of the total number of seats reserved under clause
(i) shall be reserved for women belonging to the S.C. or S.T and these
seats may be allotted by rotation to different constituencies in a Panchayat.
243-E Duration of Panchayats
Panchayat one elected will work for five year continually.
243-G Power’s authority and reparability in Panchayats
 The preparation of plans for economic development and social justice.
 The implementation of schemes for economic development and social justice
as may be entrusted to them including those in relation to the matters listed
in the Eleventh schedule
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 Subject to the provision of any law made by the legislature of a state
52 Material
243-H powers to impose taxes and funds of the Panchayats Organization and
 Authorize Panchayat to collect and appropriate taxes, duties, tolls and fees Institutions
in accordance with such procedure and subject to such limit
 Assign Panchayat taxes, duties, tolls and fees levied and collected by the NOTES
Gram Sabha
 Provide for making grant-in aid to the Panchayat from the consolidated
fund of the state
243-K Elections to the Panchayats
The Governor of a state, when so requested by the state election commission,
make available the state election commission; such staff as may be necessary for
the discharge of the functions conferred on the SEC by clause (1).
Subject to the provisions of this constitution, the legislature of a state may
by law, make provision with respect to all matters relating to, or in connection with
elections to the Panchayats.
243-L Application to Union territories: (U.T)
The provision of this part shall apply to the U.T. and shall, in their application to a
U.T. have effect as if the references to the Governor of a state were references to
the administrator of vol. appointed under article 239 and references to the legislature
or legislative assembly of a state were references, in relation to a U.T. having a
legislative Assembly, to that legislative assembly.
Provided that the president may, by public notification, direct that the
provision of this part shall apply to any U.T. or part thereof subject to such
exceptions and modifications as he may specify in the notification.
243M Part does not apply to certain cases
 Nothing in this part shall apply to the scheduled areas referred to in clause
(1) and the tribal areas referred to in clause (2) of article 244.
 Nothing in this part shall apply to:
o The states of Nagaland, Meghalaya and Mizoram.
o The hill areas in the state of Manipur for which District councils exist
under any law for the time being in farce.
 Nothing in this part:
o Relates to Panchayats at the district level shall apply to the hill areas of
the district of Darjeeling in the state of West Bengal for which Darjeeling
Gorkha Hill Council exists under any law for the time being in farce.
o Shall be constructed to affect the functions and powers of the Darjeeling
Gorkha Hill Council constituted under such law.
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Material 53
Organization and  (3A) Nothing in article 243D relating to reservation of seats for the SC.
Structure Panchayat Raj  Notwithstanding anything in this constitution:
Institutions
o The legislature of a state passes a resolution to that effect by a majority
NOTES of the total membership of that house and by a majority of not less than
2/3rd of the members of that house present and voting.
o Parliament may by law, extend the provisions of this part to the scheduled
areas and the tribal areas referred to in clause (I) subject to such exception
and modification as may be specified in such law, and no such law shall
be deemed to be an amendment of this constitution for the purpose of
article 368.
243-N Continuance of existing laws and Panchayats
Notwithstanding anything in this part, any provision of any law relating to
Panchayats in force in a state immediately before the commencement of the
constitution (73rd Amendment) Act 1992, which is inconsistent with the provisions
of this part, shall continue to be in force until amended or repealed by a competent
legislature or other competent authority or until the expiration of one year from
such commencement, which is earlier.
Provided that all the Panchayats exist immediately before such
commencement shall continue till the expiration of their duration, unless sooner
dissolved by a resolution passed to that effect by the legislature assembly of that
state or, in the case of a state having a legislative council, by each house of the
legislature of that state
243-O: Bar to interference by courts in electoral matters
Notwithstanding anything in this constitution:
 The validity of any law relating to the delimitation of constituencies or the
allotment of seats to such constitute made, or purporting to be made under
243-K shall not be called in quntion in any court.
 No election to any Panchayat shall be called in quntion except by an election
petition presented to such authority and in such manner as is provided for
or under any law made by the legislature of a state.
Functions of local administration 243-G (Eleventh Schedule)
 Agriculture, including agricultural extension
 Land improvement, implementation of land reforms, land consolidation and
soil conservation.
 Minor irrigation, water management and watershed development
 Animal husbandry, dairying and poultry
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54 Material
 Fisheries Organization and
 Social forestry and farm forest Structure Panchayat Raj
Institutions
 Minor forest produce
 Small scale industries, including food processing industries NOTES
 Khadi village and cottage industries
 Rural housing
 Drinking water
 Fuel and fodder
 Roads, culverts, bridges, ferries waterways and other means of
communication
 Rural electrification, including distribution of electricity
 Non-conventional energy sources
 Poverty alleviation programme
 Education, including primary and secondary schools
 Technical training and vocational education
 Adult and non-formal education
 Libraries
 Cultural activities
 Markets and fairs
 Health and sanitation, including hospitals, primary health centres and
dispensaries
 Family welfare
 Women and child development
 Social welfare, including welfare of the handicapped and mentally retarded
 Welfare of the weaker sections, and in particular, of the SC.
 Maintenance of community assets
Check Your Progress

1. What is the relationship between the Gram Sabha, Panchayat and Samiti?
2. How often should a Gram Sabha be called in most states as per legislations?
3. Mention the methods of electing a Sarpanch.
4. What is the jurisdiction of a Nyaya Panchayat? Who is the officer in-
charge?
5. State the duration of panchayats as per Section 243E.
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Material 55
Organization and
Functions of Three Tier 3.3 PANCHAYAT SAMITI AND ZILLA PARISHAD
Institutions
In this section, you will learn about the second and first tiers of the Panchayat raj
NOTES system in India. Let’s begin with Panchayat samiti.
Panchayat Samiti
It is the second tier of the rural local self government under the Panchayati Raj
system. According to the ministry of the Panchayati Raj, there are 6312
Panchayat Samitis in India today. It works at the block level. In a Panchayat
Samiti, all the heads of the Gram Panchayats in the area are ex-officio members.
All state council members who reside in the block and are not in the ministry, all
the elected representatives from the region provided they are not ministers and
three members, elected by each Gram Sabha in the region, are also parts of the
Panchayat Samiti. The block development officer, appointed by the government,
is the ex-officio executive head of the Panchayat Samiti. Members of the Samiti
elect their head, called the chairman, from among themselves. The chairman
presides over the meetings. The term of the Samiti is five years. The Samiti is
generally divided into various sub-committees or departments that are headed
by members of the Samiti. Some of the most important departments are finance
and general administration.
The main function of the Panchayat Samiti is to execute the plans made by
the Zila Parishad. It is the real implementation agency in all matters. It generally
runs schools, water supply, sanitation, communication and other facilities and it
also executes special programs for the development of scheduled castes, scheduled
tribes and other deprived sections of the society in the area. It runs special hostels
for the children from these sections. It grants permissions or has the right to revoke
the permissions for a particular trade. The Panchayat Samiti regulates the common
market places in the region and provides grants to schools and other public welfare
institutions. It has the right to grant funds for the schemes and programs initiated
by the Gram Panchayats and it monitors their functioning. Every development
work under the area is coordinated by the Panchayat Samiti.
The main sources of income of the Panchayat Samiti are the annual grants
provided by the state governments, Zila Parishads and other local authorities,
government or private loans mobilized by the Samiti, levies, taxes and fines collected
from the area, fees for different services and from registration of vehicles and
licenses and shops and market places, etc.
Zila Parishad
According to the Ministry of Panchayati Raj there are a total 584 Zila Parishads in
India, in both, states and union territories. The highest numbers of Zila Parishads
are in the state of Uttar Pradesh (72). Zila Parishad is the highest local government
body in the Panchayati Raj system. It is formed at the district level. It mainly looks
Self-Instructional
56 Material
after the administration of all the Panchayats of the district. Its office is located at Organization and
the district headquarters. Members of the Zila Parishad are elected from the district Structure Panchayat Raj
on the basis of adult franchise, for a term of five years. Zila Parishad has minimum Institutions
of 50 and maximum of 75 members. There are seats reserved for scheduled
castes, scheduled tribes, backward classes and women. The chairmen of all NOTES
Panchayat Samitis become members of the Zila Parishad. The Parishad is headed
by a president and a vice-president, elected from the members of the Zila Parishad.
The Chief Executive Officer (CEO), who is an IAS officer, heads the administrative
machinery of the Zila Parishad. The CEO supervises the divisions of the Parishad
and executes its development schemes.
The main functions of the Zila Parishad are to supervise the working of
the Panchayat Samiti and coordinate between rural and urban local self
governments in the district. It does provide essential services and facilities to
the rural population through Panchayat Samiti. It is the main planning and
executive body for all development programs for the district. It has the
responsibility to help in the improvement of the agriculture in the district.
Therefore, it supplies improved seeds to farmers. It also informs them of new
techniques of farming and gives them adequate training. It has the responsibility
to undertake construction of small-scale irrigation projects and percolation
tanks. Recently, it has taken the responsibility of maintaining common property
resources such as pastures and grazing lands. Though Gram Panchayat or
Panchayat Samiti has the main responsibility of maintaining primary educational
institutions, even Zila Parishad does set up and runs schools in certain villages.
It executes programs for adult literacy in the district or supervises these
programs undertaken by other bodies. In certain areas it runs libraries too.
Zila Parishad runs primary health centres and hospitals in different villages. It
has the responsibility to maintain the basic sanitation in the district and therefore,
it runs the programs of cleanliness and health awareness. It also runs mobile
hospitals for remote hamlets. It carries various vaccination drives against
epidemics and family welfare campaigns. Zila Parishad constructs and maintains
small bridges and roads connecting villages in the district. It is responsible for
the execution of plans for the development of the scheduled castes and tribes
in the district and runs shelter homes and hostels for tribal and schedule caste
children and students.
The main source of the income for the Zila Parishad is the collection of
taxes on various facilities and services that it provides to the local residents,
such as, supply of water, sanitation, roads, irrigation projects, etc. It collects
taxes from commercial activities happening within its jurisdiction such as common
market places, fair, exhibition and so on. According to the Seventy-Third
constitutional amendment, it has the right to get fixed annual grant from the state
government in proportion with the land revenue and money for works and schemes
assigned to it.
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Material 57
Organization and
Structure Panchayat Raj Check Your Progress
Institutions
6. What is the term of a Panchayat Samiti?
NOTES 7. Mention the main sources of income of the Panchayat Samiti.
8. Who heads the Zila Parishad?

QUESTIONS
1. The relationship between a Gram Sabha, Panchayat and Samiti is a

delicate matter. Panchayat must heed to the advice of the Gram Sabha
because any other causes would be suicidal, but the Panchayat as a
body of representatives cannot be relegated to the role of a mere
executive body.
2. Most of the state legislations provide that Gram Sabha should be called at
least twice a year, usually after Rabi and Kharif crops are harvested.
3. There are two methods of electing a Sarpanch, namely, the direct method
and the indirect method. In Bihar, Assam and U.P., the Sarpanch is directly
elected either by the Gram Sabha through the show of hands or by the
elaborate secret ballot. In other states the panchayat themselves elect the
President from amongst themselves.
4. The Nyaya Panchayat constitutes a jurisdiction of five to seven Panchayati
circles. The collector has the authority of acting as the officer in charge. He
is usually assisted by the Tehsildars and Vikas adhikaries in discharging
his duties.
5. As per Section 243-E-Duration of Panchayats, Panchayat one elected will
work for five year continually.
6. The term of the Panchayat Samiti is five years.
7. The main sources of income of the Panchayat Samiti are the annual grants
provided by the state governments, Zila Parishads and other local authorities,
government or private loans mobilized by the Samiti, levies, taxes and fines
collected from the area, fees for different services and from registration of
vehicles and licenses and shops and market places, etc.
8. The Zila Parishad is headed by a president and a vice-president, elected
from the members of the Zila Parishad. The Chief Executive Officer (CEO),
who is an IAS officer, heads the administrative machinery of the Zila
Parishad. The CEO supervises the divisions of the Parishad and executes
its development schemes.
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58 Material
Organization and
3.5 SUMMARY Functions of Three Tier
Institutions
 The base of the Panchayati Raj structure lies in the Gram Sabha or village
assembly consisting of all the adult citizens who are eligible to cast vote. NOTES
Most of the state legislations provide that Gram Sabha should be called at
least twice a year, usually after Rabi and Kharif crops are harvested.
 The Gram Sabha is expected to play the role of a present body to which
the village Panchayat should owe responsibility.
 The Panchayat is the primary tier of rural local govt. Its structure and
composition vary from state to state. It is set up in villages with minimum
population of 300. Sometimes two or more villages are clubbed together to
form group-Gram Panchayat when the population of the individual villages
is less than 300.
 The Sarpanch or Chairperson is the head of the Gram Panchayat. The
elected members of the Gram Panchayat elect from amongst themselves
a Sarpanch and a Deputy Sarpanch for a term of five years.
 There are two methods of electing a Sarpanch, namely, the direct method
and the indirect method.
 The office of a Sarpanch combines the function of a chairman representative,
executive and chief judge.
 The income resources of the Panchayat come from the following sources:
Taxes, fees and fines, other revenues, grants received from Zilla Parishad
and State Governments
 Nyaya Panchayat in ancient India is truly a body of local government. It is
created to deal with urgent issues. It is as a method of settling local disputers
in a fair way. The Nyaya Panchayat brings justice within the access at the
economic means of the rural citizens.
 The Nyaya Panchayat constitutes a jurisdiction of five to seven Panchayati
circles. The collector has the authority of acting as the officer in charge. He
is usually assisted by the Tehsildars and Vikas adhikaries in discharging
his duties. Each Panchayat within the jurisdiction of the Nyaya Panchayat
elects a member to the Nyaya Panchayat.
 Panchayat Samiti is the second tier of the rural local self government under
the Panchayati Raj system.
 In a Panchayat Samiti, all the heads of the Gram Panchayats in the area are
ex-officio members. All state council members who reside in the block and
are not in the ministry, all the elected representatives from the region provided
they are not ministers and three members, elected by each Gram Sabha in
the region, are also parts of the Panchayat Samiti.
 The main function of the Panchayat Samiti is to execute the plans made by
the Zila Parishad.
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Material 59
Organization and  The main sources of income of the Panchayat Samiti are the annual grants
Structure Panchayat Raj provided by the state governments, Zila Parishads and other local authorities,
Institutions government or private loans mobilized by the Samiti, levies, taxes and fines
collected from the area, fees for different services and from registration of
NOTES vehicles and licenses and shops and market places, etc.
 Zila Parishad is the highest local government body in the Panchayati Raj
system. It is formed at the district level. It mainly looks after the administration
of all the Panchayats of the district.
 Members of the Zila Parishad are elected from the district on the basis of
adult franchise, for a term of five years. Zila Parishad has minimum of 50
and maximum of 75 members. There are seats reserved for scheduled
castes, scheduled tribes, backward classes and women.
 The main functions of the Zila Parishad are to supervise the working of the
Panchayat Samiti and coordinate between rural and urban local self
governments in the district.
 The main source of the income for the Zila Parishad is the collection of
taxes on various facilities and services that it provides to the local residents,
such as, supply of water, sanitation, roads, irrigation projects, etc.
3.6 KEY WORDS
 Gram sabha: It refers to the base of the Panchayati Raj which refers to the
village assembly consisting of all the adult citizens who are eligible to cast
vote.
 Sarpanch: The Sarpanch or Chairperson is the head of the Gram Panchayat.
 Nyaya Panchayat: It is a method of settling local disputers in a fair way.
The Nyaya Panchayat brings justice within the access at the economic means
of the rural citizens.
 Panchayat samiti: It constitutes as the second tier of the Panchayati Raj
system in India working at the tehsil and development block levels.
 Zilla Parishad: It is the topmost tier of the Panchayati raj system working
at the district level.

EXERCISES
1. What is the membership of Gram Sabha?
2. Write a short note on the election and duties of the Sarpanch.
3. Briefly explain the concept and functions of the Nyaya panchayat.
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60 Material
4. Write a short note on the membership of the Panchayat Samiti. Organization and
5. What are the main functions of the Panchayat Samiti? Structure Panchayat Raj
Institutions
6. Mention the sources of income of Zila Parishad.
7. What are the functions of the Zila Parishad? NOTES
1. Describe the major functions of the Panchayat as well as its income sources.
2. Discuss the constitutional provisions related to panchayats.
3.8 FURTHER READINGS

Delhi: SAGE Publications.
University Press.
Agarwal.
Self-Instructional
Material 61
Organization and
Functions of Three
Forms of Urban UNIT 4 ORGANIZATION AND
Institutions
FUNCTIONS OF THREE
NOTES
FORMS OF URBAN
INSTITUTIONS
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Municipal Corporations, Muncipality and Town Panchayat
4.2.1 Organization
4.2.2 Functions
4.3 Types of Administrative Structures for the City Governance
4.4 District Planning Committee
4.5 Metropolitan Planning Committee (MPC)
4.7 Summary
4.8 Key Words
4.0 INTRODUCTION
During the period of their domination in developing countries, the colonial

governments developed several statutory institutions. The urban local self
government is the most significant among them. Ever since the establishment of the
Madras (now Chennai) Municipal Corporation in India, there has been an increase
in the number of municipal bodies to manage the towns and cities. In this unit, you
will learn about the evolution and structure of urban local self government in India,
urban local government of India after its independence, the functions, power and
authority of municipal corporations and councils, various district planning
committees of India, etc.
According to 2011 census, the urban population in India is now above
30 crores. It is around 30 per cent of its total population. This population is
growing at the pace of 2.4 per cent every year. This means out of every 3
Indians, 1 is living in urban areas. This creates a great need of a functioning
urban planning and administration. The people in urban areas need basic facilities
like public transport, roads, water supply, electricity, health facilities and several
such services. The role of the urban local government in India is therefore
very crucial. Growing urban population is a sign of overall shift in the basic
economic structure of the society. It shows that economy is changing from an
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62 Material
agrarian to industrial or even post-industrial phase. Rising population in urban Organization and
Functions of Three
areas and rise of big and small cities and towns have increased the number of Forms of Urban
local government bodies in country as well. Today, India has more than twenty- Institutions
seven million plus cities and more than 4378 different urban areas. There are
109 municipal corporation cities, 1432 municipal councils and 2100 city rural NOTES
bodies (they are some kind of notified area committees and so on). In this
unit, you will learn about the organization and functions of three forms of urban
institutions.
4.1 OBJECTIVES

 Discuss the organization and functions of municipal corporation
 Describe the functions of municipality
 Explain the functions of town panchayats
 Examine the problems and prospects of urban government in India
4.2 MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS, MUNCIPALITY

AND TOWN PANCHAYAT
In this section, you will learn about the organization and functions of the urban
local governance bodies in India.
4.2.1 Organization
Municipal Corporation is the topmost of urban local government. Unlike rural
government, urban local government in India is not hierarchical. Municipal
corporations are usually found in big cities. Large population creates complex civil
problems and therefore to solve these problems we need municipal corporations.
In different states of India generally municipal corporations are created by special
statute in the state legislations and these corporations are directly controlled by the
state governments. All the municipal corporations consist of elected representatives
of the people and some state elected officials. All the municipal areas are divided
into wards which are generally electoral constituencies. These municipal
corporations in all the states, except for the state of West Bengal, consist of
Corporation Council, the Mayor, the commissioner and a number of Standing
Committees.
The post of the mayor is the highest post in a municipal corporation and
generally he is elected for one year term from the councillors elected from different
wards. The mayor chairs the meetings of the council. Most of the administrative
powers are however with the Commissioner who is generally appointed by the
state government and is an Indian Administrative Service cadre. Different standing
Self-Instructional
Material 63
Organization and committees are made to deal with a particular issue and these standing
Functions of Three
Forms of Urban committees deal with their own issues. Some of the most important standing
Institutions committees are related to the budget and finance and establishment and personnel
etc. The state of West Bengal has a slightly different set up. It has a system of
NOTES Mayor in Council. Once the mayor is elected he recommends the name of the
other members in the council and they form a cabinet like structure. Each of the
members of the Mayor’s council is responsible for one particular subject and
commissioner unlike in other states is under the council and follows the decisions
taken by the mayor’s council.
Municipalities or Municipal Council
In the smaller towns and cities municipalities or municipal councils manage their
civic affairs collectively through the municipal board and committees. In all the
municipal bodies sub-committees are created to deal with the subjects like water
supply, sanitation and public works. Unlike in the big cities municipalities head is
called chairman and he/she is elected for one year term from among the elected
members of the municipality. Just like in municipal corporations the chairman’s
post is there to chair the meetings of the council. Real administrative powers are
with executive officer appointed by the state government. In some of the states
like Kerala and Tamil Nadu most of the officers appointed for the duties in the
municipalities are given separate charges for a particular are like health and
sanitation. In most of these local bodies the lower level staff is appointed from the
local population.
Notified and Town Area Committees
Another form of governance at the local level exists in the form of Notified
Area Committee. This can be described as committees that exist as municipal
governments of newly-developing towns or areas which are unable to fulfill
the statutory conditions of the constitution of a municipality or in which new
industries have been or are being established. The Notified Area Committee
is an entirely nominated body and such provisions of the State Municipal Act
apply to it as are specified by the state through a ‘notification.’ Therefore,
they are known as Notified Area Committee. According to the 74th
Amendment in the Indian Constitution, the notified area committees have been
abolished since 1993. Apart from Notified Area Committees, there also exists
Town Area Committees which are meant for smaller towns. These committees
are governed through special state enactments with membership, i.e., either
wholly elected, wholly nominated or a combination of both these elements
with restrictive powers.
Constitutional Provisions
Articles 243-Q to W relates to the urban local bodies. In this section, you will
only briefly discuss in this section. These will be taken up in detail in Unit 6.
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64 Material
Act 243-Q provides for the establishment of the following three types of municipal Organization and
Functions of Three
corporations in urban areas: Forms of Urban
Institutions
1. A Nagar Panchayat for a transitional area, that is to say, an area undergoing
transition from a rural area to an urban area
NOTES
2. A municipal council for smaller urban area
3. A municipal corporation for a larger urban area
In this article, ‘a transitional area’, ‘a smaller urban area’ or ‘a larger urban
area’ refers to such an area as the governor may possess with regard to the
population of the area, the density of the population in that area, the revenue
generated for local administration, the percentage of employment in non-agricultural
activities, the economic or such other factors as he may consider fit, etc. A
municipality means an institution of self government constituted under Act-243a.
Composition of municipalities
Article 243-R provides that all the seats in a municipality shall be filled by the
persons chosen by direct elections from territorial constituencies in the municipal
area. For this purpose, each municipal area is divided into territorial constituencies
to be known as wards.
Constitution and composition of wards committees
Article 243-S provides for the constitution of wards committees comprising of
one or more wards, within the territorial area of a municipality having a population
of three lakhs or more.
Reservation of seats in municipalities
Article 243-T has made the provision for the reservation of seats for the members
of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in every municipality. The member and
seats reserved for them shall be in same proportion to the total numbers of seats to
be filled by directed election in that municipality.
Duration of municipalities
Article 243-U provides that every municipality, unless sooner dissolved under any
law for the time being, shall exist for 5 years from the date appointed for its first
meeting. No amendment of any law for the time being shall have the effect of
causing dissolution of a municipality, at any level, till the expiration of its normal
duration of 5 years.
Election
An election conducted for the municipality shall be completed before the expiration
of its duration and before the expiration of a period of 6 months from the date of
its dissolution in case it had been dissolved earlier.
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Material 65
Organization and 4.2.2 Functions
Functions of Three
Forms of Urban
Institutions Most of the municipalities or municipal corporations have two basic functions;
legislative and executive. All the elected members of the council in all these bodies
NOTES are considered as the legislators and they collectively debate and deliberate over
the policies and planning about the area. They have the right to approve the budget
for the body and deciding on the subjects of taxation and provisions of services in
the area. The council held different officials and committees accountable. The
executive jobs in the municipal corporation and councils are done by the state
appointed officers or municipal commissioner and local officers. Most of the works
of the municipal corporations and councils are divided into two parts; obligatory
and discretionary. Obligatory works are related to the basic sanitation and services
in the cities such as supply of water, maintenance of roads etc. Discretionary
functions, such as the building of houses for the poor and organizing the events are
subject to the availability of funds and other resources.
It is up to state governments to decide the extent and subjects of taxation by
the municipal corporations and councils. However, in most of the states it has been
generally fond that municipal corporations or councils collect housing taxes and several
user charges along with the collections from the special services such as organization
of an event. In general their source of income is divided into three parts; Taxes, Fees
and Fines and earning from its enterprises such as market places and other such
resources. Municipal Corporation and Municipal councils put taxes on property
and charge for their services. They are also provided with one time grants from the
state governments. After the 74th amendment, as we will study them later, there is a
provision of the establishment of finance commission after every five years through
which state has to allocate funds to these local bodies.
Check Your Progress

1. Is the structure of the urban local government in India hierarchical?
2. List the three types of municipal corporations in urban areas as per Article
243.
3. What are the two parts in which most of the works of the municipal
corporations and councils is divided into?
4.3 TYPES OF ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURES

FOR THE CITY GOVERNANCE
It is held in literature that four major types of administration structures could be

found in the context of cities with respect to the division of responsibilities (Pinto
2000) which are discussed briefly as under:
1. Weak Mayor-Council Structure
Self-Instructional 2. Strong Mayor Council Structure
66 Material
3. Commission System Organization and
Functions of Three
4. Council – Manager System Forms of Urban
Institutions
1. The Weak Mayor Council Structure
NOTES
The Weak Mayor Council Structure is one of the first types of administrative structure
of modern industrial era as shown in Figure 4.1. In this structure, the Mayor can
suggest legislation and is empowered with policy making functions while administrative
functions are vested in a Council through an elaborate committee system. Both the
Mayor and Council as well as local officials are elected. This brings in both the
political legitimacy and the scope for professional performance.
Electorate
Council
Mayor Other Heads of Departments
Departments
Fig. 4.1 The Weak Mayor-Council Structure
2. THE STRONG MAYOR COUNCIL STRUCTURE
This has similarity to the earlier structure but in this case, the Mayor and the Council
are directly elected. Here, the Mayor commands supreme control over the
administration and goes synonymous with presidential form of political governance.
The Mayor is powerful as he combines political as well as administrative leadership
and the Council becomes an examining body of his/her actions, policies and
programmes.
Electorate
Mayor
Council
Other Heads of Departments
Departments
Self-Instructional
Fig. 4.2 The Strong Mayor Council System
Material 67
Organization and An alternative of this model is the Mayor-Manager or Mayor-Chief
Functions of Three
Forms of Urban Administrative Officer type, under which the Mayor appoints an officer to assist
Institutions him in the administration of departments. The Manager/ Chief Administrative Officer
is the chief of the department heads.
NOTES
3. The Commission System
This type of administrative structure as shown in Figure 4.3 was borne out of the
experience of city of Galveston, Texas, USA. A commission is given the
responsibility of city affairs with the Commissioners acting as full-time paid
administrators and legislators. It works competently in a small city, but is not
considered appropriate for large cities, given the weaknesses of inability to cope
with pressures as well as complexities in development and administration.
Electorate
Commissioners
Departments
Fig. 4.3 The Commission System
4. The Council-Manager System

The Council-Manager System (Figure 4.4) makes the elected Council responsible
for policy making as well as administration, under a professional manager, who is
responsible to the council. The Manager is appointed by the Council and serves
during his tenure with the elected body being the deliberative, reviewing, annulling
and monitoring body.
Electorate
Council
City Manager
Heads of Departments
Departments
Self-Instructional Fig. 4.4 The Council Manager System

68 Material
The above models present the different structures for the administration of Organization and
Functions of Three
urban areas, which particularly find support in the case of cities up to a certain size Forms of Urban
of population and area. The choice of the model is ascertained to a great extent by Institutions
the historical past of political values and preferences. These structures are guided
by some amount of inputs of representatives of citizens, intelligentsia and NOTES
professionals in shaping the outcomes.
But, much of the outcomes on city space are a result of the interactions of
administrative structure, organization, principles, values and efficiency. In practice,
there are not many types of administrative structures found in India. Mumbai,
Delhi and Chennai are the three major metropolitan cities in India which are
following a Commissioner led administrative system with the Council as the political
wing. Many other cities in India are also following this system except Kolkata,
which has adopted Mayor in Council administration system.
The Commissioner led administrative system started by Mumbai is based
on the principle of division of functions into (a) policy and regulation functions
delegated to the deliberative wing of elected councilors and (b) administration and
executive powers to the Commissioner and the heads of departments. This design
led to several conflicts although it appeared to be convincing. The Mayor Council
System in Kolkata seems to be working fine but yet it has to face the test of
political clashes. Mumbai has had Mayor Council system for a very short period
and reverted to the Commissioner led city administration. Delhi and Chennai also
have more or less similar administrative structures like that of Mumbai.
With the population accumulating in urban areas outside the limits of the
municipality, the physical and functional associations become important at the
metropolitan region level and so do the establishment and governance of
metropolitan authorities. Metropolitan urban governance has to implement the
existing models of urban governance in agreement with the metropolitan spatial
structure and also form coordinating institutional mechanisms for both planning
and service delivery in place. The Indian models of metropolitan urban governance
have been discussed in detail below.
Let us discuss some important models of metropolitan urban governance in India.
1. Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority Constitution
Kolkata Metropolitan Development Authority (KMDA), originally formed under
a Presidential Ordinance in 1970, is currently the statutory planning and development
authority for the Kolkata Metropolitan Area (KMA) under the provision of the
West Bengal Town and Country (Planning & Development) Act, 1979. KMA is
the oldest and second largest metropolis in India that now extends over 1,854 sq
km area with a population of more than million; it has 41 contiguous urban local
bodies and 100 odd rural local bodies. KMA has always demonstrated a multitude
Self-Instructional
Material 69
Organization and of developmental challenges and yet has shown some innovations. Kolkata
Functions of Three
Forms of Urban Metropolitan Planning Committee (KMPC) in West Bengal, constituted on 19th
Institutions October, 2001 under Metropolitan Planning Committee Act 1994, has been the
first Metropolitan Planning Committee (MPC) in India following the 74th
NOTES Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992. KMDA is the Technical Secretariat to
KMPC, being the first of its kind in India, composed under West Bengal
Metropolitan Planning Committee Act, 1994.
Profile
Kolkata City, with 41 adjoining urban local bodies and 100 or so rural local
bodies, has some of the planning interventions and physical infrastructure
development cut across the boundaries of local bodies. Such a planning exercise
required a metropolitan wide planning body to administer it. The state government
passed the West Bengal Metropolitan Planning Committee Act, 1994 for the
purpose of decentralized spatial and socio-economic planning in Kolkata. The
Act provided for the constitution of Kolkata Metropolitan Planning Committee
(KMPC) in order to prepare the draft development plan for the metropolitan area
as a whole by combining the development plans of its constituent municipalities
and village councils.
In the Kolkata Metropolitan Area (KMA), two-thirds of the committee is
elected from among the elected members of the 41 Municipalities and around 100
Chairpersons of the village councils. Another one-third of the committee is
comprised of nominated representatives of the Government of India, the state
government and the organizations and institutions relating to urban development
and infrastructure. After the enactment of the Act, it took seven years for the
KMPC to be formed and start operating. The KMPC is made up of 60 members
which includes 40 elected and 20 nominated members. KMDA has been confirmed
as the Secretariat of KMPC and the Secretary of KMDA has been appointed as
the Secretary of the KMPC.
Functions
The KMPC gives a participatory and democratic platform for metropolitan planning
which till now was the realm for experts and administrators only. West Bengal’s
attempt is praiseworthy as it has tried to include representatives of every area in
KMPC, which will deal with crucial matters such as formulation of metropolitan
vision, capital investment and metropolitan level advocacy. The Kolkata MPC is
responsible for preparing: (a) Perspective plan (25 years) (b) Draft Development
Plan (Five yearly) (c) Annual Plan for Implementation.
Structure
The structure representing the administration and governance of KMA is outlined
in Figure 4.5.
Self-Instructional
70 Material
Organization and
Urban Development Department
Functions of Three
Forms of Urban
Institutions
Kolkata Metropolitan Planning Committee Metropolitan Level
Chairperson-
NOTES
Elected member
Kolkata Metropolitan
Development
Authority Secretary
(Secretary of KMDA)
Members 60 members
-40 elected and 20 nominated
Fig.4.5 Structure of Administration of Kolkata Metropolitan Area
2. Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority (MMRDA)

Constitution
The Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority (MMRDA) was
established on 26 January 1975 (earlier known as Bombay Metropolitan Region
Development Authority) under the Bombay Metropolitan Region Development
Authority Act, 1974 by the Government of Maharashtra. The MMRDA is an
apex body responsible for planning and coordinating all development activities
(including the provisioning of major physical infrastructure) in Mumbai Metropolitan
Region (MMR). It vigorously works in coordination with the local (Bombay) and
State governments, and other quasi-government agencies.
Jurisdiction and mandate
The MMR jurisdiction spreads over 4355 sq km covering the city of Greater
Mumbai and its hinterland comprising mostly parts of Thane and Raigadh districts.
It contains:
(i) five municipal corporations
(ii) fifteen municipal councils
(iii) several gaothans/villages
The MMRDA plays the central role in steering the development of region in the
form of:
 preparing perspective development plan for the region encompassing all
major aspects
 modulating the development of the region through zoning and development
controls
 supporting the development of the region through infrastructure creation,
expansion and strengthening
 organizing the development activities of all organizations related with
development or management of any aspect or sub-region
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Material 71
Organization and Organization and governing principles
Functions of Three
Forms of Urban
Institutions The organization/structure of MMRDA comprises three bodies:
 The highest policy making body is the Authority consisting of 17 members
NOTES and is chaired by the Minister for Urban Development, Government of
Maharashtra
 The Executive Committee provides technical guidance and supervision. It
contains 6 state government members and three expert members, and is
chaired by the Chief Secretary of the state government
 The Metropolitan Commissioner is appointed by the state government and
heads the office of the MMRDA which includes 6 functional divisions with
their own divisional chiefs
MMRDA is regarded as an apex institution responsible for planning and
administering the city and its environment. It functions on the following guiding
principles:
 It identifies the distinction between policy-making and policy-execution
 It assigns the policy-making function to the council and policy-execution to
a single individual, i.e., the commissioner
 It makes the commissioner more or less independent of the Corporation
though the two have to work in close cooperation
Strategy and funding
MMRDA aims to attain the goal of a balanced development of the region through
the following strategies:
 Preparation of perspective plans
 Promotion of alternative growth centres
 Strengthening of infrastructure facilities
 Provision of development finance
The MMRDA, for the purpose of implementing these strategies, prepares
plans, formulates policies and programmes and helps in directing investments in
the region. In particular, it envisages, promotes and supervises the key projects
for developing new growth centres and boosting improvement in sectors like
transport, housing, water supply and environment in the region. It also reproduces
information pertaining to socio-economic profile of households, patterns of
economic development and transport through surveys and commences projects
that give a regional overview in the strategic areas. Additionally, if a project is of
specific importance, the MMRDA takes up the responsibility for its
implementation. One such project undertaken by it is developing the Bandra-
Kurla Complex.
Self-Instructional
72 Material
Authority Organization and
(17 members, Chaired by U.D. Minister.) Functions of Three
Forms of Urban
Institutions
Executive committee
(9 members chaired – Chief Secretary)
NOTES
Metropolitan Commissioner
Administration Land Cell

Planning Engineering
Town and Country Planning Finance and Accounts
Transport and Communications Project Management Unit for

MUTP
Fig.4.6 Structure of MMRDA, Mumbai
The MMRDA has generated a master plan for developments in the region
till the year 2011. It has also undertaken some of the major infrastructure creation/
expansion projects with the financial assistance of external agencies. A huge chunk
of its revenue comes from the disposal of land in the Bandra-Kurla complex. It
regulates a reserve fund for financing infrastructure projects and also provides
loan facilities for such projects.
MMRDA also decided to prepare a Comprehensive Transport Strategy
for the entire metropolitan region in order to emphasize its investments in
infrastructure projects and improve the metropolitan transport.
An important aspect of the MMRDA is that it not only functions as a
metropolitan planning agency but also embarks on development projects either
independently on its own or in association with other concerning organizations. It
seeks funding support from state government, multilateral agencies and development
agencies. It has been executing the mega projects to develop physical infrastructure,
transport and commercial or recreational activities with the support of agencies.
3. Bangalore Metropolitan Regional Development Authority
Bangalore Metropolitan Region Development Authority (BMRDA) is a self-
governing body formed by the Government of Karnataka under the BMRDAAct
1985 for the purpose of planning, coordinating and supervising the proper and
orderly development of the areas within the Bangalore Metropolitan Region (BMR)
which consists of Bangalore urban district, Bangalore rural district and Malur
taluk of Kolar district.
Structure
The Chief Minister heads the BMRDA as Chairman and the Minister of Urban
Development functions as Vice-Chairman and the other members are the Chairmen
Self-Instructional
Material 73
Organization and of various development agencies in Bangalore, senior officers and heads of
Functions of Three
Forms of Urban departments. The member secretary is the Metropolitan Commissioner. BMRDA
Institutions contributes primarily in the evolution of urban development polices in the Bangalore
Metropolitan Region (BMR) and it acts as an umbrella organization for the planning
NOTES authorities setup in the region (see figure 4.7 for structure).
BMRDA is responsible to coordinate the activities of various concerned
bodies such as Bangalore Mahanagar Palika, Bangalore Development Authority,
the Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board, the Karnataka Slum Clearance
Board, the Karnataka Power Transmission Corporation Ltd., the Karnataka
Industrial Areas Development Board, the Karnataka State Road Transportation
Corporation and such other bodies as or connected with developmental activities
in BMR.
The entire Bangalore Metropolitan Region (BMR), as per the structure
plan, is divided into five Area Planning Zones (APZ) and six Interstitial Zones
(IZ). The proposed APZs are Bangalore – Bidadi, Bangalore – Nelamangala,
Bangalore – Devanahalli, Bangalore – Whitefield, Hoskote, Bangalore – Anekal,
Sarjapur – Hosur.
Fig. 4.7 Structure of BMRDA
4. Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority
Constitution and jurisdiction

The Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority (CMDA) is a statutory body
set up under Town & Country Planning Act 1971. In 2001, the population of the
city of Chennai had crossed 42 lakhs and it became one of the megacities in India.
The city’s population is expected to reach the 48 lakh mark in 2011.
The Chennai Metropolitan Area includes the city and its adjoining urbanized
area covering 1177 sq km. The Chennai City, 8 Municipalities, 10 Panchayat
Self-Instructional
74 Material
Unions come under its purview. These challenges must be overcome through the Organization and
Functions of Three
policy of Metropolitan Development of Chennai and appropriate solutions must Forms of Urban
be found. The CMDA, in its effort, to transform the policies of Government into Institutions
reality has recommended a number of measures to improve traffic and
transportation, to create infrastructure and to upgrade existing civic services. NOTES
Function and structure

The function of CMDA is to supervise the overall planning and coordination in
CMA and it is dedicated to deliver services to the citizens. The structure of CMA
(shown in figure 4.8) consists of the Chairman (political head), Vice Chairman,
Member Secretary and CEO (all of them being in civil service) and a Board of
Directors comprising departments, municipal corporations, parastatals and elected
representatives.
Fig. 4.8 Structure of CMDA, Chennai
Check Your Progress

4. What is the commission system of administrative structure?
5. Which city in India has adopted the Mayor in council administration system?
6. In the BMRDA, who acts as the Chairman and vice-chairman?
7. When was the CMDA set up?
4.4 DISTRICT PLANNING COMMITTEE
The constitution of District Planning Committees (DPCs) is mandatory under

article 243ZD of the Constitution and is a common item for both Panchayats
and Municipalities. The District Planning Committees are to take up integrated
planning for urban and rural areas in the District. As urbanization increases,
the need for such an integrated planning will become more important. Town
Self-Instructional
Material 75
Organization and and the county have to share the various physical and economic resources of
Functions of Three
Forms of Urban the district such as communications, water resources and marketplaces.
Institutions Allocation of water for irrigation, drinking or industry is already a contentious
issue in many districts. Dealing with each other’s wastes is another serious
NOTES problem. The sugar mill and distillery wastes of numerous small, medium and
large units in western Uttar Pradesh, or the textile and dyeing units in Rajasthan,
Gujarat or Andhra Pradesh fouling and poisoning water courses are a well-
known phenomenon. Municipal solid wastes-be they chemicals, plastics,
hospital wastes or other debris-spill over into the countryside and find their
way into neighbouring streams. Agricultural lands at the fringe of towns, large
or small, are increasingly prone to conversion. These are problems that need
understanding and response, not in a distant State headquarter but within the
local area. The district needs a platform to umpire and resolve these issues.
The Zila Parishad and District Planning are an important process for this
purpose. Planning should be an obligatory function of Panchayats and
municipalities. Such plans at the local level are the building blocks for a district
plan. District planning itself should be an integrating process.
Composition
While the composition of the DPC and the manner in which the seats are to be
filled have been left to the States, article 243ZD stipulates that four-fifths of the
total number of members of DPC will be elected by, and from amongst, the elected
members of the Panchayat at the district level and of the municipalities in the
district in proportion to the ratio between the population of the rural areas and of
the urban areas in the district. The rest are to be nominated.
While most States have made enabling acts to constitute District Planning
Committees, very few have actually constituted them. This is because of both
political apprehensions and bureaucratic problems. First is the fact that the
provisions on District Planning are to be found in the 74th rather than in the
73rd Constitutional Amendment. Rural Development departments in the various
State Governments have traditionally regarded district level planning as falling
in their domain but since they find that the provisions for the DPC are now a
part of the 74th Constitutional Amendment, under the Part IXA relating to
Municipalities, their reaction sometimes has been that these Committees are
the concern of the Urban Development or Municipal Affairs department in the
State. These departments, on the other hand, do not have a clue about the
objectives and purposes of the District Planning Committee and expect that
some other department like Planning, will take care of it. The result is that the
item often became orphaned between disinterested departments. The political
apprehension is about the DPC emerging as a dominant body deciding on
public investments and thus reducing the influence and patronage of State
level political leaders.
Self-Instructional
76 Material
DPC and Zila Parishad Organization and
Functions of Three
Forms of Urban
A second unresolved issue has been the relationship between the Zila Parishad Institutions
and the DPC. The amended Constitution envisages the DPC as a standalone
entity. While article 243ZD provides for members of a DPC to be elected by and NOTES
from amongst the elected members of the Zila Parishad and of the municipalities in
the district, it does not specify the relationship between the Zila Parishad and the
DPC. It is pertinent to mention here that this aspect was well understood and
specifically addressed in the 65th Amendment Bill, 1989. Article 243Y proposed
in that Bill stipulated that the DPC should be constituted ‘in every Panchayat at the
District level’. Proposed clause (3) of the article also laid down that the “Chairperson
of the Panchayat at the district level shall be the chairperson of the Committee”.
The locus and stewardship of the DPC as part of the district Panchayat or Zila
Parishad was thus established beyond doubt. Unfortunately, article 243ZD of the
Constitution as enacted has allowed serious ambiguities to persist.
The State Governments have, therefore, been left to draw their own
interpretations. In Assam, Karnataka. Kerala, Rajasthan and West Bengal the
State laws envisage the DPC as a part of the Zila Parishad. The Chairperson of
the Parishad is also designated as Chairperson of the DPC. In Madhya Pradesh,
a Minister of the State Government is the Chairperson of the DPC and is expected
to lead and guide district planning with the help of the district administration. The
Chairperson of the Zila Parishad is a Vice-Chairman. Gujarat and Maharashtra
have long had District Planning and Development Committees with a minister of
the State Government as the Chairperson. The view of these two Governments
has been that these district committees are an adequate substitute for the DPCs.
The table below indicates the varied arrangements in different States.
The designation of a Minister as the President of the DPC virtually makes it
an extension of the State Government and goes against the intent of the Constitution.
It also defeats the principle of decentralization. Even before independence District
Boards were perceived and set up as important centres of decentralization. In
Karnataka, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Rajasthan, the Zila Parishads set up during
the first initiatives of decentralization enjoyed considerable autonomy and powers.
The District is the first major level where the demand for local autonomy and the
desire for State control are likely to come into conflict. Similar fears surfaced
during the 1970s when the Zila Parishad became prominent and powerful in
Karnataka, Gujarat and Rajasthan. These fears and apprehensions continue to
hold sway and if the highly varied arrangements in the different States continue to
prevail, the Constitutional intent in establishing district level Panchayats and district
planning process will be defeated. To quote ‘Panchayati Raj without district planning
might be a somewhat hollow shell, even as district planning without Panchayati
Raj would be unrepresentative’. This observation of Late Rajiv Gandhi was only
a reflection of the consensus held by stalwarts of the Panchayat movement like
Ashok Mehta, Abdul Nazir Sab, Ramkrishna Hegde or Nirmal Mukherji.
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Material 77
Organization and In the case of Madhya Pradesh it has been claimed that the District Planning
Functions of Three
Forms of Urban Committee is really a step forward towards the establishment of a district
Institutions government. The DPC has been given the powers to supervise and monitor district
level schemes undertaken by different departments of the Government. Amended
NOTES in 1999, the DPC Act of 1995 has also given to it the powers of administrative
approval and financial sanctions subject to some limits. The DPCs have also been
entrusted some other functions previously performed by the State Government in
respect of urban areas such as delimitation of municipal wards, land acquisition,
etc. However, in keeping a Minister of the Government as the Chairman of the
DPC and the District Collector as the Secretary, the DPC has emerged as a body
distinct from the Zila Parishad exercising more powers on behalf of the State
Government. It is not the intent of the Constitution that the DPC should emerge as
a super body at the district level dominating even the Zila Parishad. To that extent
the intent and working of the DPC in MP needs careful watching.
District planning process
The extensive arrangements for decentralized planning which have been made in
Kerala particularly in the case of Panchayats at different levels have been well
documented and discussed in various sources. So far as the DPC is concerned
the State Planning Board and the NGOs have also helped to identify and provide
district level resource persons with the required professional background. The
DPCs guide the intermediate and village level Panchayats in the preparation of
their own plans and the approval of the plan is the responsibility of the DPC
though it cannot change the priorities determined by the PRIs in the district.
In October 1998, Maharashtra enacted a separate District Planning
Committee Act. The Act provides for a Minister of the State Government to be
the Chairperson of the DPC with the President of the Zila Parishad, its CEO, the
Divisional Commissioner and the Collector of the District as ex-officio members.
The Act also stipulates that the Collector shall be the Member Secretary. The
Maharashtra Government has thus confirmed its past approach prior to the
Constitutional Amendment, of treating Zila Parishads as just one of the local bodies
rather than a body which should take the lead in district planning.
In West Bengal, the organizational arrangements are similar to those in Kerala
though there has been no supporting programme for identifying resource persons
and training PRI and Municipal staff in planning. West Bengal has also revived a
previous practice of District Planning and Development Coordination Committee
(DPDCC) presided over by a Minister of the State Government. Though the
President of the Zila Parishad continues to be the Chairman of the DPC, the DPC
is expected to consult the DPDCC. Here again, the arrangement appears to be a
dilution of the position of the Zila Parishad.
In Rajasthan, DPCs have been formed in all the districts with the President
of the Zila Parishad as the Chairperson and the Chief Planning Officer of the
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78 Material
district who is a functionary of the Zila Parishad as the Secretary. In UP and Organization and
Functions of Three
Karnataka, the DPCs have been set up but they are not functional. In Tamil Nadu Forms of Urban
until recently the DPC was perceived and operated as a non-PRI body with the Institutions
Collector as the Chairman and the Zila Parishad President as the Vice Chairman.
Recently, the position has been changed with the President of the District Panchayat NOTES
designated as the Chairman of the DPC.
The highly varied organizational and operational arrangements for the DPC
confirm the fact that the provisions of the Constitution have remained very poorly
understood and very badly implemented. Where the DPC has not been located
within a Zila Parishad the ownership of the process itself has been left to doubt.
The induction of a State Government Minister appears to be a deliberate attempt
to dilute the position of the district level Panchayat and forestall possible attempts
of that Panchayat to assert its pre-eminence as a distinct body of elected
representatives. The operational arrangements for the preparation of a district
development plan and merely forwarding it to the State Government also reduces
it to a paper exercise. If, on the other hand, district level planning becomes multi
sectoral and inter-departmental and also covers project allocation, monitoring and
supervision and if that district level planning becomes a part of the Zila Parishad’s
responsibilities it would undoubtedly enhance the Parishad’s power and influence.
As presently worked, the Panchayat at the District level or the Zila Parishad
is construed as a Zila Rural Parishad. The reality is that a District is an important
administrative entity and its jurisdiction covers both the rural and the urban. Its
composition should reflect the character of the district as a whole. Its territorial
constituencies should, therefore, comprise all parts of the district. Such a Parishad
will truly be a Panchayat representing the district as a whole. District Planning has
to be one of its firm and continuing responsibilities.
The Panchayats at the district level, in other words, the Zila Parishad is to
be composed principally of representatives elected from territorial constituencies.
As suggested above these territorial constituencies should cover the district as a
whole. The basic electoral unit will, therefore, be the territorial wards which elect
representatives to the village Panchayat. A certain number of these Panchayat
wards can then be grouped into wards for intermediate level Panchayats i.e.
Panchayat samitis. For urban areas, we have urged earlier, the formation of Wards
Committees for each municipal ward or groups of wards to comprise
representatives elected from territorial constituencies into which a municipal ward
area will be devised. This will be the basic building block. A certain number of
these blocks can then be grouped into a municipal ward. If there are no Wards
Committees comprise of representatives elected for this purpose, then the municipal
ward itself becomes the building block. The territorial constituencies of the Zila
Parishad will then be a grouping of Panchayat samiti as well as municipal wards. In
delimiting the Panchayat samiti wards the State laws should provide that any given
village Panchayat should form part of a Panchayat samiti wholly and not be split.
Self-Instructional
Material 79
Organization and Similarly, the constituencies for Wards Committees will be grouped in their entirety
Functions of Three
Forms of Urban within a given municipal ward. By the same principle a Panchayat samiti ward or
Institutions a municipal ward should form part of a Zila Parishad constituency wholly and not
be split.
NOTES
MPs/MLAs and DPC
The representation of MPs and MLAs is a related item. Both the 73rd and the
74th Amendments specifically enable State Legislatures to provide for their
representation in Municipalities and Panchayats. It makes far more sense and can
be of much more value if the participation of MLAs and MPs is secured in District
Planning. Two alternatives can be considered in this regard. One is for the MPs
and MLAs to be the honoured invitees of the DPC and contribute to its deliberations
without having to be its formal members. The alternative is to provide for their
representation in the DPC by specifying its composition.
At present under article 243ZD, four-fifths of the total number of members
of DPC are to be elected by, and from amongst, the elected members of the
Panchayat at the district level (the Zila Parishad in other words) and of the
Municipalities in proportion to the ratio of the rural and urban populations. This
component can be changed to three fifth of the total number. One fifth can be
elected by and from amongst the MLAs and MPs from the district. Out of these
the number of MPs can be fixed as two. The participation of the MPs and MLAs
should be in person and not through agents as allowed in M.P. The remaining one
fifth of the DPC members should be the representatives of such organizations and
institutions as the State Government may consider necessary for carrying out the
functions assigned to the DPC. This is important because within a district there
will be important institutions representing industry, trade and commerce, NGOs,
professionals, etc., who will be in a position to make valuable contributions to the
process of district planning. At present, article 243ZD does not contain a provision
for this purpose. So far as officials of the Government and Government’s agencies
are concerned, they should be nominated by the State Government, ex-officio, to
participate in the DPC but without being formal members.
Legal changes suggested by the National Commission to Review the
Working of the Constitution (NCRWC)
The NCRWC has suggested the following legal changes:
(a) As per the definitions given in Article 243, ‘district’ means a district in a
State while ‘Panchayat area’ means the territorial area of a Panchayat. The
Panchayat at the district level should, therefore, be for the district as a
whole instead of the rural areas only. The definitions under Article 243
should be amended accordingly. Clause (1) of Article 243 ZD should be
amended to stipulate that the District Planning Committee shall be constituted
within the Panchayat at the district level or Zila Parishad.
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80 Material
(b) Sub-clause (d) of clause (2) of Article 243 ZD should be amended to provide Organization and
Functions of Three
for the Chairperson of the Panchayat at the district level to be the Chairperson Forms of Urban
of the District Planning Committee. The Chairperson of the largest Institutions
Municipality in the District should be the Vice-chairman.
NOTES
(c) In clause (1) of 243ZD, the words ‘consolidate the plans prepared by the
Panchayats and Municipalities in the district’ should be omitted so that the
DPC’s main task of preparing a draft development plan for the district is
not contingent or dependent on individual plans prepared by the Panchayats
and the Municipalities. However, clause (3) of article 243ZD can provide
that in preparing the development plan the DPC will have regard to such
plans as are prepared by the Panchayats and the Municipalities. Zila Parishad
should help Panchayats and municipalities to prepare these plans which will
serve as building blocks for preparation of Development Plan for the district.
(d) Article 243ZD should also contain a provision to enable the State laws and
State Governments to entrust additional responsibilities as monitoring of
development schemes and programmes in the district, coordination of their
implementation including powers to modify sanctions to ongoing schemes
subject to limits.
(e) The Zila Parishad should be the technical and administrative secretariat for
the DPC independent of and distinct from the District Collector or the District
Magistrate.
(f) The State laws should provide for association and involvement of government
and non-government agencies and professionals in the DPCs. MPs, MLAs
and Ministers desiring to participant in the District Planning Committee should
be welcome as invitees.
(g) State agencies, district agencies and district administration should assist the
DPC with data and technical know-how in preparation of the development
plan for the district. State laws should provide for this.
(h) Where Metropolitan Planning Committees (MPCs) are required to be set
up, State laws and regulations should determine the functional and territorial
jurisdiction of the DPCs as distinct from the MPCs. Where Metropolitan
Planning Committees exist for predominantly urban districts, they should be
deemed as DPCs, as no separate DPC is necessary.
Check Your Progress

8. Under which article is the Constitution of the District planning Committees
mandatory for both panchayats and municipalities?
9. Which amendment to the constitution created the district planning
committees?
10. What does Article 243 ZD days about the composition of the DPC?
Self-Instructional
Material 81
Organization and
Functions of Three 4.5 METROPOLITAN PLANNING COMMITTEE
Forms of Urban
Institutions (MPC)
NOTES Metropolitan areas are agglomerations administered by several municipalities. Even

Greater Mumbai though it is called by that name does not cover all of the Mumbai
Metropolitan area. Thane, Bhiwandi, Ulhas Nagar or Navi Mumbai are all different
corporations. These multi-municipal urban agglomerations have reached their
present dimension and configuration over a period of time. Growth has overrun
traditional boundaries. Initially the boundaries of the central city could be extended
two or three times as in the case of Mumbai but after that, such extensions were
resisted. Surrounding municipalities were not prepared to give up their jurisdictions.
The Calcutta Metropolitan area now comprises three corporations, thirty-four
municipalities and numerous non-municipal urban localities. The metropolitan areas
of Chennai, Bangalore, Mumbai and Hyderabad cover ten to thirty municipal
jurisdictions. In Delhi. Nominally, there are only three-the Cantonment, the NDMC
and the Delhi Municipal Corporation (MCD). But the MCD itself is a leviathan
covering nearly 1600 sq. km and stretching across vastly different localities such
as Shakur Basti, Rohini and Greater Kailash. World experience has shown that
devising a system of governance reconciling local autonomy with a metropolitan
perspective has not been easy. Their size, the scale and complexity of problems,
are formidable. Because the tasks are numerous, multiple organizations for their
discharge become inevitable. Besides many of these mega cities are also the seat
of Central or State Governments and their presence is conspicuous.
While the municipal corporations or the municipalities comprised in these
agglomerations may be zealous of their respective domain, the agglomeration itself
needs a metropolitan wide perspective, planning, advocacy and action, Sources
of water, disposal of waste, traffic and transport, drainage, abatement of air pollution,
etc., are examples of items where one city corporation or the municipality alone
cannot achieve much in isolation. The B.E.S.T which is part of the BMC for
instance, however, competent it may be, cannot do much about public transport in
Mumbai if the Ministry of Railways handling the suburban system does not subscribe
to a common plan. The Government of India’s Ministry of Environment or
Maharashtra’s State Pollution Control Board cannot do much to mitigate pollution
without BMC’s active collaboration. Above all, the maintenance of the infrastructure
to keep the mighty economic machine of Mumbai going is a task requiring much
interaction and collaboration between the Central, State and local governments,
the public and the private sector, industry, commerce and the citizenry. The
Metropolitan Planning Committee was envisaged as an inter-institutional platform
for similar purposes.
Metropolitan areas are also the main engines of growth and economy in the
country—Urban transport, Water-supply, waste management, police, public health,
etc., require metropolitan level planning, implementation and coordination. Besides
Self-Instructional
82 Material
the scale of services needed in these metropolitan areas is huge and it is not possible Organization and
Functions of Three
for City corporations or Municipalities to address all of them. The suburban railways Forms of Urban
or metropolitan transport systems as in Calcutta. Mumbai or Chennai are handled Institutions
by the Ministry of Railways. The ports in these cities have a separate set-up.
Metropolitan Development Authorities or Departments of Metropolitan NOTES
Development in the State Government cannot be an adequate answer for these
multi-municipal problems. Since the 74th Constitution Amendment, Mayors and
Municipal Chairpersons are moving increasingly to assume executive leadership
for managing their respective areas. A bureaucratic set up cannot bring these elected
representatives and leaders together at the metropolitan level.
The reasons for this sorry state of affairs are a mixture of bureaucratic
confusion about the purpose and role of the MPC, lack of political interest and.
most importantly, the fear of the Development Authorities, which exist in most of
these twenty-three cities that their domain will be undermined. While the Calcutta
Metropolitan Development Authority itself was brought about in special
circumstances-more for mobilizing funds and coordinating implementation-most
of the development authorities in the other cities were inspired by the Delhi
Development Authority model of large scale land acquisition, real estate
development and housing construction. Eventually these bodies became conspicuous
empires of public works and patronage as in Bangalore, Hyderabad or Jaipur.
The creation of these authorities was no doubt facilitated by the fact that most of
the city corporations concerned were under super cession as was the case in
Chennai and Calcutta. In the case of greater Bombay consistent opposition from
the Corporation limited the BMRDA mandate to some broad areas of planning
control and coordination and selected real e-State activities. The Calcutta Authority
also eventually became a huge amalgam of public works. State Governments have
been rather apprehensive about the large staff which these development authorities
have acquired over a period of time, which would become surplus in the event
separate Metropolitan Planning Committees are established. This is a totally mistaken
perception. The Metropolitan Planning Committee is expected to be a high level,
democratically set up body, which will bring a constitutional mandate to the whole
exercise of metropolitan development planning. The development authorities could
serve these Metropolitan Planning Committees as their technical secretariat.
Another misconception is about the possible conflict of jurisdiction between
MPCs and DPCs. Since metropolitan areas are predominantly urban, the rural or
the Panchayat component in the MPCs would be rather small. Where the urban
areas are coterminous with revenue districts, such as Bangalore, Chennai or the
Calcutta urban district, the problem does not arise at all. In such cases, a DPC is
not necessary. Where a part of a revenue district is included in a metropolitan
area, State Governments can suitably redefine the boundaries for the purpose of
DPC and MPC work. Alternatively, a functional delineation is also possible. The
Tamil Nadu Government attempted to do this by providing that the MPC for the
Chennai metropolitan area will be deemed to be a DPC for those portions of the
Self-Instructional
Material 83
Organization and revenue districts which are included in the metropolitan area. Under the Constitution
Functions of Three
Forms of Urban it is up to the State Governments to determine the jurisdiction of the DPC and the
Institutions MPC to avoid conflicts, if any.
In the composition for MPC it is envisaged that one-third of its members
NOTES
are to be elected by and from amongst the elected representatives of urban and
rural local bodies in the metropolitan areas. The others are to be nominated,
representing Central Government agencies and various State Government agencies,
other organizations and institutions responsible for various services in the
metropolitan areas. More importantly, the nomination also enables representatives
of the private sector and community at large to be mobilized. The manner of
choosing the Chairperson of the MPC, and the planning and coordination functions
to be entrusted to it is left to the State Legislature. In preparing the draft development
plan the MPC should have due regard to the plan prepared by the Municipalities
and the Panchayat, matters of common interest to them, objectives and priorities
of the Government of India and the State Government, available financial and
other resources for integrated development of infrastructure, environmental
conservation, etc. The MPC is expected to hold wider consultations with different
institutions and organizations. The Metropolitan Planning Committee is envisaged
as an inter-governmental and inter-organizational forum for providing a vision, a
strategy and a metropolitan wide development plan.
Legal changes suggested by the National Commission to Review the
Working of the Constitution (NCRWC)
The NCRWC has suggested the following legal changes:
(a) Metropolitan Planning Committees should be limited to metropolitan areas
with 20 lakh population or more. Clause (c) in article 243P may be amended
accordingly.
(b) State laws should specify the organization which will function as the technical
and administrative secretariat of the MPC under its control.
(c) Where MPCs exist, their functional and territorial jurisdiction should be
distinct and separate from the DPC.
Check Your Progress

11. What has been envisaged regarding the composition of the MPC?
12. List the reasons that states have not set up an MPC.

QUESTIONS
1. Municipal Corporation is the topmost of urban local government. Unlike

rural government, urban local government in India is not hierarchical.
Self-Instructional
84 Material
2. Act 243-Q provides for the establishment of the following three types of Organization and
Functions of Three
municipal corporations in urban areas: Forms of Urban
Institutions
 A Nagar Panchayat for a transitional area, that is to say, an area
undergoing transition from a rural area to an urban area
NOTES
 A municipal council for smaller urban area
 A municipal corporation for a larger urban area
3. Most of the works of the municipal corporations and councils are divided
into two parts; obligatory and discretionary. Obligatory works are related
to the basic sanitation and services in the cities such as supply of water,
maintenance of roads etc. Discretionary functions, such as the building of
houses for the poor and organizing the events are subject to the availability
of funds and other resources.
4. A commission is given the responsibility of city affairs with the Commissioners
acting as full-time paid administrators and legislators. It works competently
in a small city, but is not considered appropriate for large cities, given the
weaknesses of inability to cope with pressures as well as complexities in
development and administration.
5. Kolkata has adopted Mayor in Council administration system.
6. The Chief Minister heads the BMRDA as Chairman and the Minister of
Urban Development functions as Vice-Chairman and the other members
are the Chairmen of various development agencies in Bangalore, senior
officers and heads of departments. The member secretary is the Metropolitan
Commissioner.
7. The Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority (CMDA) is a statutory
body set up under Town & Country Planning Act 1971.
8. The Constitution of District Planning Committees (DPCs) is mandatory under
and Municipalities.
9. District planning committees are created after the 74th amendment.
10. While the composition of the DPC and the manner in which the seats are to
be filled have been left to the States, Article 243ZD stipulates that four-
fifths of the total number of members of DPC will be elected by, and from
amongst, the elected members of the Panchayat at the district level and of
the municipalities in the district in proportion to the ratio between the
population of the rural areas and of the urban areas in the district. The rest
are to be nominated.
11. In the composition for the MPC it is envisaged that one-third of its members
are to be elected by and from amongst the elected representatives of urban
and rural local bodies in the metropolitan areas. The others are to be
nominated, representing Central Government agencies and various State
Self-Instructional
Material 85
Organization and Government agencies, other organizations and institutions responsible for
Functions of Three
Forms of Urban various services in the metropolitan areas.
Institutions
12. Not a single state in India has set up an MPC so far. The reasons for this
sorry state of affairs are a mixture of bureaucratic confusion about the
NOTES
purpose and role of the MPC, lack of political interest and most importantly,
the fear of the Development Authorities, which exist in most of these twenty-
three cities that their domain will be undermined.
4.7 SUMMARY
 Municipal Corporation is the topmost of urban local government. Unlike

rural government, urban local government in India is not hierarchical.
Municipal corporations are usually found in big cities.
 All the municipal areas are divided into wards which are generally electoral
constituencies. These municipal corporations in all the states, except for the
state of West Bengal, consist of Corporation Council, the Mayor, the
commissioner and a number of Standing Committees.
 The post of the mayor is the highest post in a municipal corporation and
generally he is elected for one year term from the councilors elected from
different wards.
 In the smaller towns and cities municipalities or municipal councils manage
their civic affairs collectively through the municipal board and committees.
 There also exists Town Area Committees which are meant for smaller towns.
These committees are governed through special state enactments with
membership, i.e., either wholly elected, wholly nominated or a combination
of both these elements with restrictive powers.
 Act 243-Q provides for the establishment of the following three types of
municipal corporations in urban areas:
1. A Nagar Panchayat for a transitional area, that is to say, an area
2. A municipal council for smaller urban area
3. A municipal corporation for a larger urban area
 Article 243-U provides that every municipality, unless sooner dissolved
under any law for the time being, shall exist for 5 years from the date
appointed for its first meeting.
 Most of the municipalities or municipal corporations have two basic
functions; legislative and executive. Most of the works of the municipal
corporations and councils are divided into two parts; obligatory and
discretionary.
Self-Instructional
86 Material
 It is held in literature that four major types of administration structures could Organization and
Functions of Three
be found in the context of cities with respect to the division of responsibilities Forms of Urban
(Pinto 2000): Weak Mayor-Council Structure, Strong Mayor Council Institutions
Structure, Commission System and Council – Manager System.
NOTES
 In practice, there are not many types of administrative structures found in
India. Mumbai, Delhi and Chennai are the three major metropolitan cities in
India which are following a Commissioner led administrative system with
the Council as the political wing. Many other cities in India are also following
this system except Kolkata, which has adopted Mayor in Council
administration system.
 The constitution of District Planning Committees (DPCs) is mandatory under
and Municipalities. The District Planning Committees are to take up
integrated planning for urban and rural areas in the District.
 While the composition of the DPC and the manner in which the seats are to
be filled have been left to the States, article 243ZD stipulates that four-fifths
of the total number of members of DPC will be elected by, and from
amongst, the elected members of the Panchayat at the district level and of
the municipalities in the district in proportion to the ratio between the
population of the rural areas and of the urban areas in the district. The rest
are to be nominated.
 While the municipal corporations or the municipalities comprised in these
agglomerations may be zealous of their respective domain, the agglomeration
itself needs a metropolitan wide perspective, planning, advocacy and action,
Sources of water, disposal of waste, traffic and transport, drainage,
abatement of air pollution, etc., are examples of items where one city
corporation or the municipality alone cannot achieve much in isolation. The
Metropolitan Planning Committee was envisaged as an inter-institutional
platform for similar purposes.
 In the composition for MPC it is envisaged that one-third of its members
are to be elected by and from amongst the elected representatives of urban
and rural local bodies in the metropolitan areas.
4.8 KEY WORDS
 Municipal Corporation: It is the topmost of urban local government for

large urban area.
 Mayor: It is the highest post in a municipal corporation.
 Municipal council: It is the urban local government for smaller urban area.
 District Planning Committees (DPCs): It is mandatory under article
243ZD of the Constitution and is a common item for both Panchayats and
Self-Instructional
Material 87
Organization and Municipalities to take up integrated planning for urban and rural areas in the
Functions of Three
Forms of Urban District.
Institutions
 Metropolitan Planning Committee (MPCs): It is expected to be a high
level, democratically set up body to bring a constitutional mandate to the
NOTES
whole exercise of metropolitan development planning.

EXERCISES
1. Why do municipal corporations in most states exit in India except for the
state of West Bengal?
2. Write a short note on the post of the mayor.
3. What are the functions of municipal corporations in India?
4. Briefly explain the composition of DPC.
5. What has been envisaged with regards to the composition and members of
the MPC?
6. What has the National Commission to Review the Working of the
Constitution (NCRWC) suggested with regards to MPC?
1. Explain the four major types of administration structures that can be found
in the context of cities with respect to the division of responsibilities.
2. Describe the Indian Models of Metropolitan Urban Governance.
3. Examine the relationship between DPC and Zila Parishad.
4. Assess why there has been problems related to the establishment of MPCs.

University Press.
Agarwal.
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88 Material
Salient Features of
BLOCK - III 73rd Constitutional
Amendment Act of 1992
CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENT ACT AND ITS
IMPLEMENTATION
NOTES
UNIT 5 SALIENT FEATURES OF

73RD CONSTITUTIONAL
AMENDMENT ACT OF 1992
Structure
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Key Features
5.4 Summary
5.5 Key Words
5.0 INTRODUCTION
One of the most important aspects of the development process, whether at micro-
level or macro-level, is planning. Planning is of two kinds – centralized and
decentralized. While attaining higher growth rate of national income is at the core
of centralized planning, people development forms the main focus of decentralized
planning. Power, authority and governance are the essential factors that are
important in ruling a country. In all the countries, power is created, then structured,
maintained and changed from time to time. However, depending on the size, area
and geography of a big country, power cannot be vested in one’s hands. Hence, it
has to be divided to such an extent that the governance of the country can be
made efficient. The key to achieving the goal of efficient governance is
decentralization. India made a landmark decision by amending the Constitution in
1992 through two amendments related to local governance at the rural and urban
levels. In this unit, you will learn about features and implementation of the 73rd
constitutional amendment acts.
5.1 OBJECTIVES

 Discuss the key features of the 73rd amendment to the Constitution
 Examine the implementation of the 73rd amendment to the Constitution Self-Instructional
Material 89
Salient Features of
73rd Constitutional 5.2 KEY FEATURES
The Constitution (73rd Amendment) Act, 1992 added a new Part IX consisting
NOTES of 16 Articles and the Eleventh Schedule to the Constitution. The 73rd Amendment
Act envisages the Gram Sabha as the foundation of the Panchayat Raj System
(PRS) to perform functions and powers entrusted to it by the state legislatures.
The amendment provides for a three-tier PRS at the village, intermediate and
district levels. Small States with population below twenty lacs have been given the
opinion not to constitute the Panchayats at the intermediate level. The Act provides
that the Panchayat bodies will have an assured duration of five years, with elections
mandatory after this period. However, one thing is to be noted that under the
Amendment Act, the establishment of Panchayats and the devolution of necessary
powers and authority on the PRI are vested in the hands of the State Governments.
In view of this, it may be said that the success of the PRI as a unit of democracy
and thereby ushering an all-round development of rural areas will much depend
on the intention of support of the State Governments. These institutions would be
misused by rural rich and the poor and illiterate masses will remain mute supporters
as it is happening in Parliamentary and State Assembly elections in the country.
Criminalization of politics is threatening the very foundation of democracy. The
Government should ensure that these evils should not affect the functioning of
PRI. Some of these provisions were discussed in Unit 3 as well.
Gram Sabha: Article, 243A provides that the Gram Sabha may exercise such
powers and perform such functions at the village level as the legislature of a state
may by law provide. The 73rd amendment thus envisages the Gram Sabha as the
foundation of PRS. ‘Gram Sabha’ means a body consisting of persons registered
in the electoral rolls relating to a village comprised within the area of Panchayat at
the village level.
Constitution of Panchayats: Article 243B visualises a three-tier PRS. It provides
that in every State, there shall be constituted Panchayats at the village, intermediate
and district levels. Small States having a population not exceeding twenty lacs
have been given an option not to constitute the Panchayats at the intermediate
level.
Composition of Panchayats: Article 243C provides that, subject to the
provisions of this part, the legislature of a State may by law make provisions with
respect to the composition of Panchayats. However, the ratio between the
population of the territorial area of a Panchayat at any level and the number of
seats in such Panchayats to be filled by election shall, so far as practicable, be the
same throughout the State.
All the seats in a Panchayat shall be filled by the persons chosen by direct
election from territorial constituencies in the Panchayat area. For this purpose,
each Panchayat’s area shall be divided into territorial constituencies in such manner
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that the ratio between the population of each constituencies and the number of Salient Features of
73rd Constitutional
seats allotted to it, so far as practicable, be the same throughout the Panchayat Amendment Act of 1992
area.
The legislature of a state may by law provide for representation of following persons
NOTES
in Panchayats:
(a) The Chairpersons of the Panchayats at the village level, in the Panchayats at
the intermediate level or in the case of a State not having Panchayats at the
intermediate level and in the Panchayats at the district level.
(b) The Chairpersons of the Panchayats at the intermediate level and in the
Panchayats at the district level;
(c) The members of the Lok Sabha and the Legislative Assembly of the State
representing constituencies which comprise wholly or partly a Panchayat
area at the level other than the village level, in such Panchayats;
(d) The members of the Rajya Sabha and Legislative Council of the State where
they are registered as lectors;
(e) A Panchayat area at the intermediate level, in Panchayat at the intermediate
level;
(f) A Panchayat area at the level, in Panchayat at the district level.
The Chairpersons of a panchayat and other members of a Panchayat whether
or not chosen by direct election from territorial constituencies in the Panchayat
area shall have the right to vote in the meetings of Panchayat.
The Chairperson of a Panchayat at the village level shall be elected in such
a manner as the legislature of a State may by law, provide. The Chairpersons of a
Panchayat at the intermediate level or district level shall be elected by, and amongst,
elected men.
Disqualification for membership: A person shall be disqualified for being a
member or Panchayats:
(a) If he is so disqualified by or under any law for the time being force for the
purpose of elections to the legislature of the state concerned.
(b) If he is so disqualified by or under any law made by the legislature of the
State.
If any question arises as to whether a member of a Panchayat has become
subject to any of the qualifications mentioned in clause (1) the questions shall be
referred for the decision of such authority and in such manner as the legislature of
a State may, by law, Provide clause (2).
Reservation of seats in panchayats: Article 243D provides that in every
Panchayat seats shall be reserved for the SC and STs in that Panchayat area bears
to the total population of that area and such seats may be allotted by rotation to
different constituencies in a Panchayat.
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Salient Features of Out of total number of seats reserved under Clause (1), not less than 1/3
73rd Constitutional
Amendment Act of 1992 seats shall be reserved for women belonging to the SC and ST (2). Out of total
number of seats to be filled by direct election in every Panchayat, not less than 1/
3 (including the number of seats reserved for SC and ST women) seats shall be
NOTES served for women.
Reservation for backward classes: The legislature of a state is empowered
under clause (6) to make provision or reservation of seats in any Panchayat or
office of chairperson in the Panchayat at any level in favour of backward classes
of citizens.
Duration of panchayats: According to Article 243E every Panchayat, unless
sooner dissolved under any law for the time being in force, shall continue for five
years form the date appointed for its first meeting.
An election to constitute a Panchayat must be completed:
(i) Before the expiry of duration;
(ii) Before the expiration of a period of six months from the date of its dissolution.
(Clause 3)
Powers, authority and responsibility of panchayat: Article 243G provides
that subject to the provisions of this Constitution, the legislature of a state may, by
laws, endow the Panchayats with such powers and authority as may be necessary
to enable them to function as an institution of self government. Such conditions as
may be specified therein with respect to:
(a) The preparation of plans for economic development and social justice;
(b) The implementation of schemes for social development and social justice
as may be entrusted to them including those in relation to the matters listed
in the Eleventh Schedule.
The matters listed in the Eleventh schedule are as follows:
(1) Agriculture, including agricultural extension, (2) Land improvement,
implementation of land reforms, land consolidation and soil conservation, (3) Minor
irrigation, water management and watershed development, (4) Animal husbandry,
dairying and poultry, (5) Fisheries, (6) Social forestry and farm forestry, (7) Minor
forest produce, (8) Khadi, village and cottage industries, (10) Rural housing, (11)
Drinking water, (12) Fuel and fodder, (13) Roads, culverts, bridges, ferries,
waterways and other means of communication, (14) Rural electrification including
distribution of electricity, (15) Non-conventional energy sources, (16) Poverty
alleviation programme, (17) Education, including primary and secondary schools,
(18) Technical training and vocational education, (19) Adult and non-formal
education, (20) Libraries, (21) Cultural activities, (22) Markets and fairs, (23)
Health and sanitation including hospitals, primary health centres and dispensaries,
(24) Family welfare, (25) Women and child development, (26) Social welfare,
including welfare of the handicapped and mentally retarded, (27) Welfare of the
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sections, and in particular, of the scheduled Castes and the ST, (28) Public Salient Features of
73rd Constitutional
distribution system and (29) Maintenance of community assets. Amendment Act of 1992
Power to improve taxes and funds of Panchayats: Article 243H empowers a
State legislature to make by law provision for imposing taxes etc. by the Panchayats.
NOTES
Such a law:
(a) Authorize a Panchayat to levy, collect and appropriate such taxes, duties,
tolls and fees in accordance with such procedure and subject to such limits;
(b) Assign to panchayat such taxes, duties, tolls and fees levied and collected
by the state Government for such proposed and subject to such conditions
and limits;
(c) Provide for making such grants-in-and to the panchayats from the
consolidated fund for the state; and
(d) Provide for Constitution of such finds for crediting all moneys received, by
or behalf of the panchayats and also for the withdrawal of much money
thereform.
Finance commission: Article 243 I provides for the establishment of a finance
commission for reviewing financial position of the panchayats. The Governor of a
state shall within a one year form the commencement of the Constitution (73rd
Amendment) Act, 1992 and thereafter at the expiration of every fifth year, constitute
a finance commission. To make recommendations to the Governor as to:
(a) The principles which should Govern:
(i) The distribution between the state and panchayats of the net proceeds
of the taxes, duties, tolls and fees leviable by the state, which may be
divided between them under this part and the allocation between the
panchayats at the all levels of their respective shares of such proceeds
(ii) The determination of the taxes, duties, tolls and fees may be assigned
to, or appropriated by, the panchayats;
(iii) The grant-in-aid to the panchayats from the consolidated fund of the
state;
(b) The measures needed to improve the financial position of the panchayats;
(c) Any other matter referred to the finance commission by the Governor in the
interests of sound finance of the Panchayats.
Audit of accounts of Panchayats: The legislature of a State may, by law, make
provision with respect to the maintenance of accounts by the panchayats and the
auditing of such accounts (Article 243J).
Elections to the Panchayats: Under Article 243K the superintendence, direction
and control of the preparation of electoral rolls and conduct of all elections to the
panchayats shall be vested in a state election commission consisting of the state
election commissioner to be appointed by the Governor. Subject to the provisions
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Material 93
Salient Features of of any made by the State legislature, the conditions of service and tenure of office
73rd Constitutional
Amendment Act of 1992 of the state election commissioner shall be such as the Government may be rule
determine. The state election commissioner shall not be removed from his office
except in like manner and on like grounds as a Judge of a High Court. The conditions
NOTES of service of the state election commissioner shall not be varied to his disadvantage
after his appointment (Clause 2 proviso).
The Governor of State shall when so requested by the state election
commissioner, make available to commission such staff as may be necessary for
the discharge of its duties.
The Parliament passed the 73rd Amendment Act in 1992 in order to get rid of the
defects of the Panchayati Raj. Its purpose was to strengthen and improve the
Panchayati Raj. It made a good attempt to secure a more active, regular and
efficient working of Panchayati Raj. On 23 April 1994, all the States of India
completed enacting new laws for strengthening the Panchayati Raj System
according to the rules laid down by the 73rd Amendment. Thereafter, an amended
and reformed Panchayati Raj System came into existence and after the passing of
the 73rd Amendment Act, 1992, a reformed Panchayati Raj has come into force
in all parts of India.
The enforcement of the 73rd Act marked the beginning of an era. It granted
a bigger power to the panchayats and other rural institutions. Thus, an important
and strong drive towards the strengthening of its democratic development process
in the rural areas of India got initiated. The 73rd Amendment Act made provisions
for reservation to SC/STs in proportion to their populations, reservation of the
posts of chairpersons for the SCs and STs is in state, and reservation of not less
than one third of the elected seats in each panchayat for women and reservation of
one third of the posts of chairpersons for rural women. It also directs elections of
panchayats and chairpersons of panchayats. This act provides for the representation
of MPs and MLAs in the Panchayati Raj institution.
Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 (or PESA
Act, 1996)
The PESA Act, 1996 is regarded as a corrective legal measure to the
73rd Amendment (Panchayati Raj Act) in order to extend the provisions of the
Panchayati Raj to the Scheduled and Tribal areas that fall under the Schedule Five
areas of the nine States, viz., Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Gujarat,
Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Rajasthan. The
PESA Act, 1996 came into force on 24 December 1996. It gave many radical
governance powers to the tribal community and recognized its traditional community
rights over local natural resources.
This Act not only accepts the validity of ‘customary law, religious and social
practices, and traditional management practices of community resources’, but also
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directs the state governments not to make any law which is inconsistent with these. Salient Features of
73rd Constitutional
The PESA Act accepts a clear-cut role of the community as it gives wide ranging Amendment Act of 1992
powers to Gram Sabhas, which had otherwise been denied by the lawmakers of
the country. The State Governments were told to enact their legislation in
accordance with the Provisions of the Act before the expiry of one year, i.e., 23 NOTES
December 1997.
Poor Implementation of the PESA Act, 1996
PESA was implemented to empower tribal people which will further help deepen
grass-root democracy. The Act provided the tribal people with certain powers
that will make it possible to govern themselves. However, it still has some problems
and the following solutions are needed:
 There is little awareness about the Gram Sabha being designated as a self-
governing body or having legal jurisdiction over the natural resources and
forests. There is no support mechanism for the Gram Sabhas to play any
significant role.
 There is a clear indication that sincere implementation of PESA has not
been seriously attempted by the state governments.
 There is an urgent need to amend the Indian Forest Act, Land Acquisition
Act, and other related Acts so that the ownership on minor forest produce,
water bodies and land resources are explicitly handed over to the Gram
Sabhas of PESA areas.
 No State Government officer should have the power to over-rule any
recommendation of a Gram Sabha, because this legacy of British Raj is
anti-democratic and must be abolished immediately.
 In order to sensitize the officers, an immediate extensive training-cum-
awareness campaign for all relevant officials of various ministries should be
initiated.
 The administrative structure and machinery should be provided for making
the Gram Sabha an effective body of district administration.
 Special attention should be paid to the construction of culverts, bridges,
check dams and compound walls for schools.
 All community resource-based schemes should involve Gram Sabhas in
planning and implementation.
Achievements of Panchayati Raj Institutions
After the implementation of the 73rd Amendment Act, the following numbers of
panchayats were constituted:
 Village level (2,32,378 panchayats)
 Intermediate level (6,022 panchayats)
 District level (535 panchayats) Self-Instructional
Material 95
Salient Features of These Panchayats have 2.92 lakh representatives at all levels. This is the
73rd Constitutional
Amendment Act of 1992 broadest representative base decentralization example that exists in any country
of the world – developed or underdeveloped.
NOTES Issues in implementation of the Panchayati Raj Act

Some problems like setting up of State Election Commission and State Finance
Commissions holding regular Panchayat elections and providing reservation for
SCs/STs/Women in Panchayats are being faced under the Constitution
(73rd Amendment) Act, 1992.
 Although the political decentralization is clearly seen in the regular panchayat
elections with a fairly good number of participation of people, the fiscal and
administrative decentralization have remained somewhat limited. The State
Governments still have failed their control on matters of local administration
and finance.
 Panchayats only have limited functional autonomy because they have not
been granted enough powers for revenue generation.
 Recommendations of State Finance Commissions (SFCs) are not taken
seriously by panchayats.
 Powers dealing with all the matters relating to panchayat elections for
example, delimitation of constituencies, finalization of electoral rolls, rotation
of reserved seats in panchayats, etc., should be given to the panchayats.
 Gram Sabhas have not been empowered and strengthened to ensure greater
people’s participation and transparency in functioning of panchayats as
mentioned in the Panchayat Act.
Check Your Progress

1. What does the success of the PRI as a unit of democracy depends on?
2. What does Article 243I says about the PRI?
3. Why was the PESA Act 1996 passed?
4. What does the PESA Act accepts and validates?

QUESTIONS
1. The success of the PRI as a unit of democracy and thereby ushering an all-
round development of rural areas will much depend on the intention of
support of the State Governments.
2. Article 243 I provides for the establishment of a finance commission for
reviewing financial position of the panchayats. The Governor of a state shall
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96 Material
within a one year form the commencement of the Constitution (73rd Salient Features of
73rd Constitutional
Amendment) Act, 1992 and there after at the expiration of every fifth year, Amendment Act of 1992
constitute a finance commission.
3. The PESA Act, 1996 is regarded as a corrective legal measure to the
NOTES
73rd Amendment (Panchayati Raj Act) in order to extend the provisions of
the Panchayati Raj to the Scheduled and Tribal areas that fall under the
Schedule Five areas of the nine States, viz., Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Jharkhand, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Orissa and Rajasthan.
4. The PESA Act not only accepts the validity of ‘customary law, religious
and social practices, and traditional management practices of community
resources’, but also directs the state governments not to make any law
which is inconsistent with these.
5.4 SUMMARY
 The Constitution (73rd Amendment) Act, 1992 added a new Part IX

consisting of 16 Articles and the Eleventh Schedule to the Constitution. The
73rd Amendment Act envisages the Gram Sabha as the foundation of the
Panchayat Raj System (PRS) to perform functions and powers entrusted
to it by the state legislatures.
 The amendment provides for a three-tier PRS at the village, intermediate
and district levels. Small States with population below twenty lacs have
been given the opinion not to constitute the Panchayats at the intermediate
level
 The Amendment contains Articles dealing with provisions related to the
organization, constitution, composition, disqualification, reservation, duration,
power, responsibilities, authorities, resources, audit and elections related to
the Panchayati raj systems.
 The enforcement of the 73rd Act marked the beginning of an era. It granted
a bigger power to the panchayats and other rural institutions.
 The PESA Act, 1996 is regarded as a corrective legal measure to the
73rd Amendment (Panchayati Raj Act) in order to extend the provisions of
the Panchayati Raj to the Scheduled and Tribal areas that fall under the
Schedule Five areas of the nine States.
5.5 KEY WORDS
 Gram Sabha: It means a body consisting of persons registered in the

electoral rolls relating to a village comprised within the area of Panchayat at
the village level.
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Salient Features of  Eleventh schedule: It was added with the 73rd Constitutional Amendment
73rd Constitutional
Amendment Act of 1992 and contains subjects within the purview of the Panchayats.
 PESA Act: It refers to the Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas)
Act, 1996 which was a corrective legal measure to the 73rd Amendment
NOTES
(Panchayati Raj Act) in order to extend the provisions of the Panchayati
Raj to the Scheduled and Tribal areas that fall under the Schedule Five
areas of the nine States.

EXERCISES
1. Who does the 73rd amendment to the Constitution give power and authority
to in relation to the establishment of Panchayats?
2. What is the condition as per which it has been opined that Panchayats at
the intermediate level are not required?
3. Write a short note on the elections to the panchayats.
4. Briefly explain the constitution and role of Finance Commission as per the
73rd Constitutional Amendment.
1. Explain the provisions related to 73rd Amendment to the Constitution in
relation to the composition, disqualification and reservation of seats.
2. Describe the various powers to the Panchayats as provided through the
73rd Amendment to the Constitution.
3. Discuss the implementation and issues related to the 73rd amendment to
the Constitution.

University Press.
Agarwal.
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98 Material
Salient Features of
UNIT 6 SALIENT FEATURES OF 74th Constitutional

74TH CONSTITUTIONAL
NOTES
AMENDMENT ACT OF 1992
Structure
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Key Features
6.4 Summary
6.5 Key Words
6.0 INTRODUCTION
Decentralization affects governance, particularly political competition. It improves

public accountability, and reduces political instability. It imposes incentive-
compatible limits on government power but also threatens fiscal sustainability. It
has also become easier than before because of technological changes and provides
public services relatively more efficiently. Also, the lower levels of government
have a much better ability to handle certain risks. Decentralization or devolution is
also regarded as a way of diffusing political and social tensions and ensuring political
and local cultural autonomy in a world of rampant separatists’ movement and
ethnic conflicts. In the previous unit it was mentioned that two constitutional
amendments related to local governance was made in the year 1992. In this unit,
you will learn about the 74th Constitutional Amendment pertaining to the urban
local governance.
6.1 OBJECTIVES

 Explain the features of the 74th constitutional amendment
 Discuss the implementation of the 74th constitutional amendment
6.2 KEY FEATURES
The Constitution 74th amendment Act 1992 added Part IX-A to the
constitution. This amendment has included 18 new articles and a new schedule
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Material 99
Salient Features of known as the twelfth schedule relating to urban local bodies in the constitution.
74th Constitutional
Amendment Act of 1992 Just as Panchayati Raj amendment, the 74th amendment approves
constitutional sanction to the urban self-governing institutions assuring regular
elections and enabling them to play a greater role in the development of urban
NOTES areas. This provides three types of municipal corporations and reservation of
seats in every municipality for SC, ST and women. The Amendment gives
authority to the state legislature to assign necessary powers and responsibilities
upon the municipalities with regard to the preparation of plan for economic
development, allotment of taxes and duties by municipalities. Let’s discuss
some of the constitutional provisions inserted through the 74th Constitutional
Amendment. Bear in mind, you have already learnt some of these provisions
in Unit 4.
Constitution of Municipalities
Article 243-Q provides for the establishment of the following three types of
(a) A Nagar panchayat for a transitional area, that is to say, an area undergoing
transition from a rural area to an urban area
(b) A municipal council for smaller urban area
(c) A municipal corporation for a larger urban area
In this article, ‘a transitional area’, ‘a smaller urban area’ or ‘a larger urban
area’ refers to such an area as the Governor may possess with regard to the
population of the area, the density of the population in that area, the revenue
generated for local administration, the percentage of employment in non-agricultural
activities, the economic or such other factors as he may consider fit etc. A
‘Municipality’ means an institution of self government constituted under Act-243a.
Composition of Municipalities
Article 243-R provides that all the seats in a municipality shall be filled by the
persons chosen by direct elections from territorial constituencies in the municipal
area. For this purpose, each municipal area shall be divided into territorial
constituencies to be known as wards.
Constitution and Composition of Wards Committees
Article 243-S provides for the constitution of wards committees comprising of
one or more wards, within the territorial area of a municipality having a population
of three lakhs or more.
The legislature of the state may make provisions with respect to:
(a) The composition and the territorial area of a wards committee
(b) The manner in which the seats in a wards committee shall be filled
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A member of a municipality constituting a ward within the territorial area of Salient Features of
74th Constitutional
the wards committee shall be a member of that committee. Where a wards Amendment Act of 1992
committee consist of one ward, the member representing that ward in the
municipality shall be the chairperson of the committee.
NOTES
Where a wards committee consists of two or more wards, one of
members representing such wards in the municipality elected by the members
of the wards committee shall be the chairperson of that committee [clause
(4)].Nothing in this Article shall stop the legislature of a state from making
provisions for the constitution of committees in addition to the wards committees
[(Clause (5)].
Reservation of seats in Municipalities
Article 243-T has made the provision for the reservation of seats for the members
of SC and ST in every municipality. The member and seats reserved for them shall
be in same proportion to the total numbers of seats to be filled by directed election
in that municipality.
Out of the total numbers of seats reserved under clause (1), 113 seats shall
be reserved for the women belonging to SC and ST. The office of chairpersons in
the municipalities shall be reserved for SC, ST and women in such manner as the
legislature of a state may by law provide.
Reservation of seats for backward class of citizens
Under clause (b), the legislature is empowered to make provisions for reservations
of seats in any municipality of office chairpersons in the municipalities in favour of
backward class of citizens. All kinds of reservation of seats shall cease to have
effect on the expiration of the period specified in Act 334 that is (upto 50 years
from the commencement of the constitution).
Duration of Municipalities
Article 243-U provides that every municipality, unless sooner dissolved under any
law for the time being, shall exist for 5 years from the date appointed for its first
meeting. No amendment of any law for the time being shall have the effect of
causing dissolution of a municipality, at any level, till the expiration of its normal
duration of 5 years.
Election
An election conducted for the municipality shall be completed before the expiration
of its duration and before the expiration of a period of 6 months from the date of
its dissolution in case it had been dissolved earlier.
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Salient Features of Disqualifications for Membership
74th Constitutional
Article 243-V states that a person shall be disqualified for being chosen as and for
being a member at a municipality under the following conditions:
NOTES (a) If he is so disqualified by or under any law for the time being for the purposes
of elections to the legislature of the state concerned
(b) If he is so disqualified by or under any law made by the legislature of the
state
However, a person shall not be disqualified on the ground that he is less
than 25 years of age or if he has attained the age of 21 years. Thus, a person
who is already 21 years old is eligible for being chosen as a member of a
municipality.
The municipal corporation – organizational structures
Under Article 243-W, the legislature of a state, subject to the provisions of this
constitution, is directed by law to endow:
(a) The municipalities with such powers and authority as may be necessary to
enable them to function as institution of self government and such law may
contain provisions for the devolution of powers and responsibilities upon
municipalities, subject to such conditions as may be specified therein, with
respect to:
(i) The preparation of plans for economic, political social development
(ii) The performance of function and implementation of programmers and
schemes as per law
(b) The committees with such powers and authority as may be necessary to
enable them to carry out the responsibilities conferred upon them including
those in relation to the matter listed in the twelfth schedule.
Before 1992, Indian local governments did not have a constitutional status. They
were granted only a statutory status under state law. Hence, the governance of
urban areas came directly under the purview of the state government. However,
the enactment of the 74th Constitution Amendment Act, 1992 changed the situation.
For the first time, urban local bodies (ULBs) were given a constitutional position
as the third tier of government. ULBs were provided with a constitutional outline
to conduct regular elections, powers and financial devolution. The Amendment
assigned local bodies with the responsibility to provide basic services in urban
areas.
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Based on the population, ULBs are segregated as follows: Salient Features of
74th Constitutional
1. Nagar panchayats for ‘urban’ areas Amendment Act of 1992
2. Municipal councils for smaller urban areas

3. Municipal corporations for metropolitan areas NOTES
According to the Constitution Amendment Act, 1992, ‘In many States
local bodies have become weak and ineffective on account of a variety of
reasons, including the failure to hold regular elections, prolonged supersessions
and inadequate devolution of powers and functions. As a result of this, ULBs
are not able to perform effectively as vibrant democratic units of self-
government.’
Today, there are nearly 4,000 ULBs with over 100 municipal corporations,
1,500 municipal councils and 2,000 Nagar Panchayats, besides 50 plus cantonment
boards.
A study by a well-known research institute in Delhi evaluated the effect of
the 74th Constitution Amendment Act in twenty-seven states and one Union
Territory. It concluded: ‘…municipalities in India are confronted with a number of
problems, such as inefficiency in the conduct of business, ineffective participation
by the weaker sections of the population in local governance, weak financial
condition, lack of transparency in the planning and implementation of projects,
etc., which affect their performance adversely.’
Division of powers— elected, nominated and administrative
The 74th Constitution Amendment Act as you have seen in the previous section
provides the details of the elected and nominated councillors. The number of elected
councillors is dependent on the population of an area. Nominated councillors are
selected by the elected councillors on the basis of their expertise in municipal
administration. However, they lack the voting rights.
The municipal corporation – organizational structures
The organizational structure of municipal administration in India differs from state
to state. The 74th Constitution Amendment Act does not mention any particular
organizational structure for municipal administration in the country. This issue comes
under the purview of state legislation.
In 2003, the Ministry of Urban Development drafted a Model Municipal
Law, which was distributed to state governments. The justification for the absence
of a centrally-administered Municipal Model is that local bodies should be flexible
to respond better to local requirements.
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Salient Features of Commissioner system
74th Constitutional
Let us discuss the commissioner system in detail.
The mayor
NOTES
The Mayor in the Municipal Corporation is generally elected through indirect
elections by the councillors among themselves for a term of one year which is
renewable. The Mayor lacks executive authority. Councillors and committee
councillors operate as a committee. The standing committee is the most dominant
committee which acts as the steering board and exercises executive, supervisory,
financial and personnel powers. It constitutes elected members differing in number
between seven and sixteen through a system of proportional representation of
councillors.
The Executive
The Municipal Commissioner acts as the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) and head
of the executive wing of the municipal corporation. He/she exercises all executive
powers. He derives his powers and authorities by the statute and assigned by the
standing committee.
Mayor in council model
This type of governance of a city is like a cabinet government. It follows the
framework of state and national governments. This model comprises a mayor and
a cabinet, with individual portfolios, chosen from among the elected councillors.
In this system, the municipal commissioner acts as the principal under the
supervision of the Mayor, who is the CEO.
This model structure may seem to be relatively simple. However, in actual
practice, urban governance is a perplexing mix of multiple agencies. Some are
new, while others are legacies of older regimes; some are accountable to local
government, while others to state level or even national government.
Local Administration of Metropolitan Towns
Population and demographic changes have been taking place in India after its
Independence. This has been followed by urbanization and urban population
growth. In our country, urban population has risen from about 30 million in 1901
to 300 million in 2011. The level of urbanization has also undergone steady rise
from less than 11 per cent of total population to about 28 per cent. The country
has witnessed an outstanding growing tendency towards ‘metropolitanization’ of
its cities recently. According to Census 2011, the number of metropolitan cities
(cities with more than 10 million population, which are also referred to as
megacities) is 3, while the number of metros (cities with population more than 1
million) stand at 27.
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As various cities join the league of metropolitan cities, the administrative structures Salient Features of
74th Constitutional
with respect to their management and service delivery, especially of basic civic Amendment Act of 1992
amenities, become an issue. Most of the metropolitan cities in the country are
under the regulatory of municipal corporations having their own jurisdiction.
However, their urban agglomerations are spreading much beyond the municipal/ NOTES
city limits. The areas within agglomeration may fall under either neighbouring
municipality or municipal corporation or transitional area. In such circumstances, a
metropolitan agency is required for coordinating the development of jurisdictions
and for setting out a larger vision for regional development. Thus, the metropolitan
areas should develop appropriate model for their governance by making essential
institutional arrangements with respect to:
 Coordination/cooperation
 Conflict resolution
 Power sharing between the jurisdictions (municipal or transitional urban
areas) and the agencies
In India, municipalities were developed as local self governments to supervise
the city development and the condition of infrastructure services, and municipal
corporations were created in large cities for a similar purpose. Since they were
established under the legislations of State government, the State government
exercises immense control over them and exerts pressure on their operations through
several mechanisms such as giving sanction to all major fiscal decisions.
The municipal institutions, over a period of time, lost the authority to deliver
services in a productive manner and began to ignore their responsibility to provide
service to urban areas beyond their jurisdiction. This led to the establishment of
Urban Development Authorities (UDAs) in India that spread rapidly during the
1980s and which eventually led to the confrontation between municipal authority
and UDA. The UDAs were created as Special Purpose Vehicle with a different
governance structure and mandate that made it possible for them to perform the
function efficiently.
The 74th Constitutional Amendment Act (CAA), 1992 has brought several marked
changes to urban governance in the country. It sought to bring about an important
change by strengthening the existing municipal institutions with respect to:
 Autonomy of municipal/urban local bodies
 Promotion of decentralization of power, finances and political structure
 Formation of appropriate structures, guidelines and functions
One of its prescribed remedial solutions was to establish Metropolitan
Planning Committees (MPC) for preparing development plans at metropolitan
level. This necessitated the formation of metropolitan authority first through significant
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Salient Features of legislative changes so that the plans could be prepared and the MPC could decide
74th Constitutional
Amendment Act of 1992 upon the same.
However, as you have learnt in Unit 4, many Indian cities have not
NOTES responded confidently to create, constitute and function the MPCs to the spirit
of CAA, 1992. Only some of the cities have been able to create such entities
such as Kolkata. Therefore, possibility exists for improving metropolitan urban
governance by establishing MPCs and by forming metropolitan authorities
(either creating new metropolitan authorities or by expanding the jurisdiction
of already existing urban development authorities and making clear of their
role).
Because of the strategic relevance and the constitutional provisions,
metropolitan cities in India are required to form new governance structure with
well-laid institutional arrangements. This demands the assessment of the currently
existing operational models in India and internationally.
Check Your Progress

1. What is the demarcation of areas such as ‘transitional area’ or ‘a smaller
urban area’ dependent on?
2. What is the condition for the constitution of wards committees?
3. When is an election for the municipality to be completed as per the 74th
Constitutional amendment?
4. Who was responsible for the governance of urban areas before 74th
constitutional amendment?

QUESTIONS
1. Under Article 243-Q, ‘a transitional area’, ‘a smaller urban area’ or ‘a

larger urban area’ refers to such an area as the Governor may possess with
regard to the population of the area, the density of the population in that
area, the revenue generated for local administration, the percentage of
employment in non-agricultural activities, the economic or such other factors
as he may consider fit etc.
2. Article 243-S provides for the constitution of wards committees comprising
of one or more wards, within the territorial area of a municipality having a
population of three lakhs or more.
3. An election conducted for the municipality shall be completed before the
expiration of its duration and before the expiration of a period of 6 months
from the date of its dissolution in case it had been dissolved earlier.
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4. Before 1992, Indian local governments did not have a constitutional status. Salient Features of
74th Constitutional
They were granted only a statutory status under state law. Hence, the Amendment Act of 1992
governance of urban areas came directly under the purview of the state
government.
NOTES
6.4 SUMMARY
 The Constitution 74th amendment Act 1992 added Part IX-A to the
constitution. This amendment has included 18 new articles and a new
schedule known as the twelfth schedule relating to urban local bodies in
the constitution.
 The 74th amendment approves constitutional sanction to the urban self-
governing institutions assuring regular elections and enabling them to play a
greater role in the development of urban areas. This provides three types of
municipal corporations and reservation of seats in every municipality for
SC, ST and women.
 Act 243-Q provides for the establishment of the following three types of
(a) A Nagar panchayat for a transitional area, that is to say, an area
(b) A municipal council for smaller urban area
(c) A municipal corporation for a larger urban area
 Article 243-S provides for the constitution of wards committees comprising
of one or more wards, within the territorial area of a municipality having a
population of three lakhs or more.
 Article 243-U provides that every municipality, unless sooner dissolved
under any law for the time being, shall exist for 5 years from the date
appointed for its first meeting.
 Under Article 243-W, the legislature of a state, subject to the provisions
of this constitution, is directed by law to endow specified powers and
duties.
 Before 1992, Indian local governments did not have a constitutional status.
They were granted only a statutory status under state law.
 The organizational structure of municipal administration in India differs from
state to state. The 74th Constitution Amendment Act does not mention any
particular organizational structure for municipal administration in the country.
This issue comes under the purview of state legislation.
 The 74th Constitutional Amendment Act (CAA), 1992 has brought several
marked changes to urban governance in the country. It sought to bring about
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Salient Features of an important change by strengthening the existing municipal institutions with
74th Constitutional
Amendment Act of 1992 respect to:
(i) Autonomy of municipal/urban local bodies
NOTES (ii) Promotion of decentralization of power, finances and political structure
(iii) Formation of appropriate structures, guidelines and functions
 One of its prescribed remedial solutions was to establish Metropolitan
Planning Committees (MPC) for preparing development plans at
metropolitan level. This necessitated the formation of metropolitan authority
first through significant legislative changes so that the plans could be prepared
and the MPC could decide upon the same. However, many Indian cities
have not responded confidently to create, constitute and function the MPCs
to the spirit of CAA, 1992.
6.5 KEY WORDS
 74th amendment: It was the amendment which was brought in the year
1992 which approves constitutional sanction to the urban self-governing
institutions assuring regular elections and enabling them to play a greater
role in the development of urban areas.
 Twelfth schedule: It is a schedule added by the 73rd amendment to the
constitution mentioning the subjects under the purview of urban local bodies
in the constitution.
 Urban local bodies: These refer to the local bodies with the responsibility
to provide basic services in urban areas.

EXERCISES
1. What are the powers, authority and responsibilities of municipalities as per
the 74th Constitutional amendment?
2. What was the status of urban local bodies before and after the 74th
Constitutional amendment?
3. Write a short note on Urban Development Authorities.
4. What are the ways by which the 74th Constitutional Amendment has
strengthened the existing municipal institutions?
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Long-Answer Questions Salient Features of
74th Constitutional
1. Discuss the composition, election, membership and disqualification of
municipalities.
2. Explain the basic municipal corporation organizational structures. NOTES

University Press.
Agarwal.
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Elections in Local Self
UNIT 7 ELECTIONS IN LOCAL
SELF GOVERNMENT
NOTES
INSTITUTIONS
Structure
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.2 State Election Commission: Historical Background and Functions
7.2.1 Electoral Process of Local Self Government Institutions
7.4 Summary
7.5 Key Words
7.0 INTRODUCTION
We feel proud to be part of the largest democracy in the world society in the 21st
century. Our election process has witnessed peaceful regime changes at national
as well as local level since declaring a republic. Democracy is not limited to just a
process of election, but also fulfilling the aspiration of people of our country.
Abraham Lincoln stated that ‘democracy is a government of the people, for the
people and by the people’ and ‘Elections belong to the people’. Former American
President Barack Obama once said that ‘There is no such thing as a vote that
does not matter’. He also famously said, ‘The Ballot is stronger than the bullet’.
Plato had also said ‘One of the penalties for refusing to participate in politics is
that you end up being governed by your inferiors.’ Voting is not only our right, it is
our power.
India is an asymmetric federal country in the world, which has three layers
of government: National, state and local. The Constitutional provisions has permitted
distribution of the power structure through elections from national to local levels.
Local governance is part of the authority of state/Union territory. Each state has its
own local government legislation for rural and urban governance.
The Election Commission is the most important pillar of strengthening the
process of democratization in India. It is also a constitutional institution. It plays a
significant role in the political system of our country. The Election Commission is
emerging as fourth constitutional pillar after the executive, the legislative and judiciary
in the context of separation of powers.
Free and fair elections provide the foundation of a democratic state in the
world community in the era of globalisation. Free and autonomous ‘Election
Commission’ is necessary to help India into the institutional functioning of
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parliamentary democracy in the 21st century. It explores the new identity of the Elections in Local Self
largest democracy in world politics after it gained independence from the British in
1947. India’s Election Commission is the most trusted public institution and inspiring
electoral regulatory body in the world. The Election Commission provides the
platform for asserting political and civil rights as well as ensuring justice and equality NOTES
in democracy.
The Election Commission of India (ECI) is an autonomous constitutional
body. The Election Commission of India is constituted under Article 324 of Indian
constitution which contains provisions related to the commission of powers of
superintendence, direction and control of the election to both Houses of Parliament
as well as the various electoral process of office of President, Vice President,
Assemblies election and other local bodies election in India. Detailed provisions
are made under the “Representation of the People Act” 19511. Article 324(2)
empowered the President of India to appoint the Chief Election Commissioner
and the Election Commissioners.
The Preamble of Indian Constitution declares India as a sovereign socialist
and democratic republic. The supreme court also remark that democracy is one
of the in inalienable feature of the constitution. The system of electoral process
recognizes the principle of democracy. Recent assembly election in Bihar in
November 2020 was one of the serious issues for conducting a successful poll in
the time of pandemic “COVID19”.
This unit will analyse the importance of the constitutional and autonomous
body like Election Commission of India as well the functions of the State Election
Commission in the electoral roots of democracy in India in the 21st century.
7.1 OBJECTIVES

 Discuss the historical background of election commissions
 Describe the powers of the State Election Commission
 Explain the electoral process and challenges of conducting local elections
for local self government institutions
7.2 STATE ELECTION COMMISSION:

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND
FUNCTIONS
The spirit of Viceroy Lord Ripon’s resolution of 1882 reflected the idea of local
self-governing institutions in the context of establishment of liberal democratic
system in the British rule in India. Ripon’s hopes preceded and contributed to the
establishment of electoral representations in Indian society.
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Elections in Local Self The electoral theory of representation has been embedded as inherent features
of democratic political system in the country. The makers of modern India ensured
free, periodic and secret election to the legislature on basis of adult franchise. The
establishment of the constitutional institutions like Election commission was important
NOTES for the election process.
The first non-official attempt to introduce the “The Constitution of India Bill
1895” clearly discussed citizen rights to take part in public affairs through election.
The “Nehru Report of 1928” also affirmed the democratic ethos for public
accountability during the phase of freedom struggle. The electoral process was
started with the process of provincial government acts of 1919 and 1935. The
makers of modern India also adopted the system of universal adult suffrage without
any debate in constituent assembly and showed faith in the wisdom of common
people of this country to elect their representatives since the first election in 1952.
There were various important committee formed for the electoral reform in India
including Tarkunde Committee (1974) on the proposal of Jaiprakash Narayan,
Dinesh Goswami Committee (1990) on the recommendation of late Prime Minister
V P Singh, Vohra Committee (1993) on the recommendation of Government of
India for curbing nexus between criminal gang, police, bureaucracy and politician
in this country, Indrajit Gupta Committee on state Funding of Election (1998),
Election Commission of India and the Proposed Electoral Reforms (2004) etc2.
The Election Commission was constituted a day before the first Republic
Day of India. India has been celebrating this foundation day as a special day
“National Voters Day” since 2011. This day is a symbol of aspiration to
strengthen the voice of the people and representation through universal adult
suffrage.3
National Election Commission
Part XV of the Indian constitution refers to article 324 that specifies that the power
and control of elections is vested in the National Election Commission. The Election
Commission consists of the Chief Election Commissioner and other Election
Commissioners with recommendation of President of India. The Chief Election
Commission shall act as Chairman of the Election Commission. The Chief Election
Commission shall not be removed from office except such as grounds like that for
the judges of the Supreme Court of India. It has complete directional control over
any electoral process in India including local elections.
The structure of the present National Election Commission as mentioned
above consists of a Chief Election Commission and other two election
commissioners, which is appointed by the President of India. There was only a
single Chief Election Commissioner until 1989. Then there were appointed two
election commissioners, but they were removed again in January 1990. Parliament
passed a law for additional appointment of two election commissioners in 1991.
This law was amended to decide the new term and conditions of services of chief
election commission and other two election commissioners in 1993, which is known
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as “Election Commission Amendment Act 1993”. The National Election Elections in Local Self
Commission has its main headquarters at New Delhi.
State Election Commission and its Functions
Each and every state has an established state election commission as per the NOTES
constitutional provision under National Election Commission and also “Panchayat
Raj Act ‘’ 1993. The 73rd and 74th amendment of the constitution were landmark
achievements for democratic decentralisation of administration to ensure free and
fair election to the local levels in all states and Union Territory of India since 1993.
A State Election Commission is a body working under direction of National
Election Commission of India in different states. The provisions of Article 243K of
the constitution, which provides for setting up of SECs are almost identical to the
Article 324 for the establishment of the National Election Commission.4
Article 243K of the Constitution grants the functions of ‘superintendence,
direction and control of the preparation of electoral rolls for, and the conduct of,
all elections to the Panchayats shall be vested in a State Election Commission
consisting of a State Election Commissioner to be appointed by the Governor’.
Similarly, Article 243 ZA grants the functions of ‘superintendence, direction
and control of the preparation of electoral rolls for, and the conduct of, all elections
to the Municipalities shall be vested in State Election Commission referred to in
Article 243-K’.
As per the Election Commission of India website, ‘The Election Commission
prepares, maintains and periodically updates the Electoral Rolls, which show who
is entitled to vote, supervises the nomination of candidates, registers political parties,
monitors the election campaign, including the funding and exponential by candidates.
It also facilitates the coverage of the election process by the media, organises the
polling booths where voting takes place, and looks after the counting of votes and
the declaration of results. All this is done to ensure that elections can take place in
an orderly and fair manner.’ Similar functions are performed by State Election
Commissions at the State Level for the conduct of polls at the Panchayat and
Municipal levels. You will learn about this further in this section.
The Representation of People Act 1951 (earlier 1950) was enacted to
provide for the allocation of seats and delimitations of constituency, qualifications
of voters, election rolls etc. This act is divided into XI parts with 171 sections5.
This act has been amended many times, with the latest change in 2017. This new
amendment to the Act makes it possible to exercise their franchise from abroad
subject to certain conditions.
The Constitution of India grants reservations of seats for representation
from various sections of Indian society. It is also provision for seats reserved for
the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe in Parliament election as well as in the
various assemblies of the state. There are also women reservation seats in the
local electoral process especially Panchayat to municipalities elections.
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Elections in Local Self 7.2.1 Electoral Process of Local Self Government Institutions
Local electoral process is an important part of the regulatory authorities of the
state election commission. The constitutional amendments of 73rd and 74th
NOTES recognised and protected the rural and urban local government respectively. In
other words, as mentioned earlier, we can say that 243K and 243ZA are
responsible for conducting elections to municipalities and panchayats. Local
government is part of the state function and is under supervision of state election
authority in India.
The MoHUA and Ministry of Panchayati Raj are responsible for the local
government in India. The 73rd amendment provides the main structure of rural
governance. As you have learnt in earlier units, rural governance is known as
Panchayati raj institutions (PRIs), which came into effect on 24th April 1993. It
has been classified into three categories: a) Zila Parishad at district level, b)
Panchayat Samiti at Block level and c) panchayat (gram sabha) at village level.
Panchayat election is conducted by the State Election Commission. It
empowers the people of villages to participate in the developmental process of
the Panchayat. It is conducted every five years. This act provides the three-tier
system of panchayat raj for all states in India. It also facilitates the seat reservation
for scheduled caste, scheduled tribe and women6. The model of Panchayat Election
Rules 2011 was drafted by the Ministry of Panchayati Raj, Government of India.
It has details of the local election process and functions of the administrative
machinery of the state7. Similarly, the conduct of election in municipalities is also
under the preview of the State Election of Commission.
State election authority is involved in the following different electoral activities
phase wise at time of election:
1. Preparing Voter List: This is the first step for beginning of the upcoming
local or national elections in the state. The state poll panel holds a series of
meetings with local government officials on the basis of booth. The SEC
uses the recent past poll data for updating, adding a list of voters at each
booth level in a particular constituency in each district.
2. Model of Conduct: The State Election Commission (SEC) conducts
meetings with representatives of regional and national parties for it. The
Model of Code of Conduct has been revised from time to time and added
new norms in guidelines for upcoming elections. The Election Commission
of India introduced a Model of Conduct in 1971. Then it is applicable with
revised and updated guidelines for each and every poll in the all states and
Union territories. New provisions are announced by the Chief Election
Commission or its direction with the local authority in state. The leader of
the ruling party in the assembly cannot pass any order to transfer or any
appointment after announcement of code of conduct. Chief minister, cabinet
minister, council of Prime minister or Prime minister can make promises to
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influence voters for poll gains under code of conduct during the election Elections in Local Self
process. State machinery cannot misuse for political gains by any political
leaders. In case of violation of code of conduct, it can lead to postponement
of polls or cancellation of nomination of candidate in ongoing election
process. Government officials cannot use mass media for partisan coverage. NOTES
3. Nomination and Campaign: It is an important phase for candidates who
are contesting elections. This is an important period for all political parties
and their respective candidates forwarded their election manifesto pamphlets,
holding meetings for star campaigners in its constituency and hope to
persuade people to vote for them.
4. Ballot Papers & Symbols: Allocations of Ballot papers and symbols for
all valid candidates is a crucial process for voting in election. Candidates of
recognised political parties are allotted their party symbol while the rest of
the symbols of independent candidates are decided by local poll officials.
5. Electronic Voting Machine (EVM): The EVM is a new technological
based machine for electoral polls. It brings improvements in the election
procedures with advancement of technology. It is also a replacement of
ballot box in the all electoral process in India. First time use of EVM was in
the general election process in Kerala in 1982. The design and technological
application of EVM in the electoral process is one of the landmark
achievements in the context of accessing global democracy. It brings more
transparency, is less time consuming and has greater acceptability in the
electoral process. The use of the machine is to save the cost of paper,
printing and time to declare results within two three hours on the day of
declaring poll results8. The Election Commission also introduced ‘Voter
Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) after consultation of the all parties
meeting in October 2010. It is an independent system attached with EVM
that allows voters to verify that their votes are cast. Recently, recently some
technological and digital fraud has put some question marks on the credibility
of EVM in electoral democracy in India. The use of EVM may be under a
cloud in India. Many opposition parties also raised a finger on the credibility
of the Election Commission and its function during the last general elections
in 2019. Election Commission refused such allegations against tampering of
EVM in the election process in the favour of the ruling party.
6. Affidavit of Candidates: The judgment of the Supreme Court of India
dated 13 September 2013 stated that Returning Officer must check the
information filling in the affidavit disclosing their qualification, criminal
antecedents, assets, liabilities etc with the nomination paper.
7. Security Concerns: Impartial Security concerns are a compulsory part
for the peaceful conduct of the election process in any poll. It is a major
consideration for the free and fair election process especially in disturbed/
militancy area of our country. The security management includes the security
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Elections in Local Self of polling personnel, polling station, polling materials, and also voting without
fear in the context of use of money, mussel etc powers in the election.
8. Declaring Results of Poll: When the counting of the each EVM start
then returning officers declare the updates of counting of votes in the favour
NOTES
of each candidate before final declaration of the result. This is part of the
rules of the procedure of the election process. It stated that section 64 of
the Representation People Act 19519, votes are counted under the
supervision/ direction of the Returning officers of the constituency.
The Challenges of Conducting Local Election Process in India
As mentioned earlier, the National Election Commission ensures free and fair
elections and also monitors the action and activities of political parties and
candidates. The State Election is also an independent constitutional body under
monitoring of the National Election Commission. Every state has passed an
amendment for the formation of a state election commission in respective legislative
assembly after 1993. SEC is responsible for free and fair elections. It regulates
parties and registration for contesting elections. It proposes the limit of campaign
expenditure of every candidate and monitors their economic and social activities
during the election process. It also motivates political parties for greater participation
in elections. The conduct of free and fair election is still a major concern for the
Election Commission of India. The Credentials of the election commission is still
under the scanner of legality and has some fear in the common people of this
country. Things have also taken a different turn due to the pandemic. Recent
assembly election in Bihar has been one of the major challenges for Election
Commission at time of “Corona”. The pandemic makes the situation very challenging
for the election commission as well as voters to cast their vote. Public life as we
witnessed during the pandemic gets disturbed. It is extremely challenging to hold
democratic election in the time of spreading infectious disease like “COVID19”,
because election process requires public interaction, mass communication, public
gathering etc.
Check Your Progress

1. Mention the Acts with which the electoral process started in India.
2. When is National Voters Day celebrated?
3. State the Article which mandates the setting up of State Election
Commissions.
4. What is the first step for the beginning of upcoming local or national
elections?
5. What is VVPAT?
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Elections in Local Self
7.3 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Government Institutions
QUESTIONS
1. The electoral process was started with the process of provincial government NOTES
acts of 1919 and 1935.
2. The Election Commission was constituted a day before the first Republic
Day of India. India has been celebrating this foundation day as a special
day ”National Voters Day” since 2011.
3. The provisions of Article 243K of the constitution provides for setting up of
SECs.
4. Preparing the voter list is the first step for beginning of the upcoming local or
national elections in the state.
5. A Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) is an independent system
attached with EVM that allows voters to verify that their votes are cast.
7.4 SUMMARY
 The spirit of Viceroy lord Ripon’s resolution of 1882 preceded and

contributed to the establishment of electoral representations in Indian society.
 The electoral theory of representation has been embedded as inherent features
of democratic political system in the country.
 First non-official attempt to introduce the “The Constitution of India Bill
1895” clearly discussed citizen rights to take part in public affairs through
election. The “Nehru Report of 1928” also affirmed the democratic ethos
for public accountability during the phase of freedom struggle. The electoral
process was started with the process of provincial government acts of 1919
and 1935.
 There were various important committee formed for electoral reforms in
India.
 The Election Commission was constituted a day before the first Republic
Day of India. India has been celebrating this foundation day as a special
day “National Voters Day” since 2011. This day is a symbol of aspiration to
strengthen the voice of the people and representation through universal adult
suffrage.
 Part XV of the Indian constitution refers to article 324 that specifies that
the power and control of elections is vested in the National Election
Commission. The Election Commission consists of the Chief Election
Commissioner and other Election Commissioners with recommendation
of President of India.
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Elections in Local Self  Each and every state has an established state election commission as per
the constitutional provision under National Election Commission and also
“Panchayat Raj Act ‘’ 1993.
 State Election Commission is a body working under direction of National
NOTES
Election Commission of India in different states. The provisions of Article
243K of the constitution, which provides for setting up of SECs are almost
identical to the Article 324 for the establishment of the National Election
Commission.
 As per the Election Commission of India website, ‘The Election Commission
prepares, maintains and periodically updates the Electoral Rolls, which show
who is entitled to vote, supervises the nomination of candidates, registers
political parties, monitors the election campaign, including the funding and
exponential by candidates. It also facilitates the coverage of the election
process by the media, organises the polling booths where voting takes place,
and looks after the counting of votes and the declaration of results. All this
is done to ensure that elections can take place in an orderly and fair manner.’
 The Representation of People Act 1951 (earlier 1950) was enacted to
provide for the allocation of seats and delimitations of constituency,
qualifications of voters, election rolls etc.
 State election authority is involved in the following different electoral activities
phase wise at time of election: preparing voter list, model of conduct,
nomination and campaign, ballot papers & symbols, Electronic Voting
Machine (EVM), affidavit of candidates, security concerns, and declaring
results of poll.
 SEC is responsible for free and fair elections. It regulates parties and
registration for contesting elections. It proposes the limit of campaign
expenditure of every candidate and monitors their economic and social
activities during the election process.
 The Credentials of the election commission is still under the scanner of
legality and has some fear in the common people of this country. Things
have also taken a different turn due to the pandemic.
7.5 KEY WORDS
 Representative democracy: It is a type of indirect democracy in which

the citizens select their representatives for working in the government.
 Universal Franchise: It refers to the universal rights to vote for all adult
citizens irrespective of any discrimination.
 Election Commission: It is an autonomous constitutional authority
responsible for administering election processes in India.
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 Returning Officer: It is the official in each constituency or electorate who Elections in Local Self
conducts an election and announces the result.
7.6 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND NOTES

EXERCISES
1. What did Viceroy Lord Ripon’s resolution of 1882 reflect?
2. Mention some of the important committees formed for electoral reforms in
India.
3. What did the Election Commission Amendment Act 1993 provide?
4. What does Article 243ZA of the Constitution say?
5. Write a short note on the provisions of the Representation Of People Act
1951.
1. Discuss the constitution and functions of the National and State Election
Commissions.
2. Describe the different electoral activities in which the state election authority
is involved.

University Press.
Agarwal.
Footnotes
1. Election Commision of India (ECI)- Election Machinery - Election
Machinery-Election Commission of India (eci.gov.in)
2. R Ramesh (2011), historical Perspectives of the Electoral Reforms in India,
proceedings of the Indian History Congress, URL: HISTORICAL
PERSPECTIVES OF THE ELECTORAL REFORMS IN INDIA on
JSTOR
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Elections in Local Self 3. Quraishi, S. Y ( 2019) The Great March of Democracy : Seven Decades
of India’s elections, Delhi:Penguin
4. Legal Services in India, URL: Election Commission of India
(legalservicesindia.com)
NOTES
5. Kaul, R.L and Meenakshi , Amity law School, URL: 4178Article-VIII (Page
54-62).pdf (amity.edu)
6. TOI , New Delhi, URL: Panchayat elections: Latest News, Videos and
Panchayat elections Photos | Times of India (indiatimes.com)
7. Ministry of Panchayati Raj, GOI, Model Panchayat Election Rules, 2011,
Volume 1, URL: e042dc0c-258c-b751-a76b-8740a2c4237b
(panchayat.gov.in)
8. History of EVM, ECI, URL: History of EVM - Election Commission of
India (eci.gov.in)
9. Election Commission of Commission, URL: ttps://eci.gov.in/faqs/elections/
counting-declaration-of-result/faqs-counting-declaration-of-result-r3/
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Personnel in Panchayati
BLOCK - IV Raj Institutions
PERSONNEL AND FINANCE IN LOCAL
SELF GOVERNMENT
NOTES
UNIT 8 PERSONNEL IN
PANCHAYATI RAJ
INSTITUTIONS
Structure
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Block Development Officer
8.3 Role of Collector in the Panchayati Raj
8.4 Patwari
8.6 Summary
8.7 Key Words
8.0 INTRODUCTION
Up till now you have learnt about the organization and functions of the local self
governments in India. You have also studied the important constitutional
amendments in this regard. But the functioning of these local self government whether
in the rural or urban areas are intimately related and dependent on the personnel
who actually implement, supervise and operationalise the plans taken, issues raised
and solutions proposed. Without the proper division of work, and suitable allocation
of responsibilities, the personnel will not be able to contribute their skills and work
as a team for the administration of these local self-government. In this unit, we are
going to study the important personnel involved in the functioning of Panchayati raj
institutions.
8.1 OBJECTIVES

 Discuss the role of a block development officer
 Examine the role of collectors with respect to PRIs
 Describe a Patwar’s role at the village levels
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Raj Institutions 8.2 BLOCK DEVELOPMENT OFFICER
The Block Development Officer (BDO) is the Secretary and officer-in-charge of

NOTES the Panchayat Samiti. In most of the states, he belongs to the state amenities and
is deputed to the Panchayat Samiti. In other states, these are stimulated officers,
formerly from the subsidiary services in the state. Moreover, in certain states, a
post of BDO is reserved for partisan sufferers and public workers. The BDO’s
role in the PRIs is characterized by multi-functionality, such as:
1. BDO as in-charge of Panchayat Samiti Office (PSO)
The BDO receives as well as attends to the post as the Panchayat Samiti Officer
(PSO). He maintains administrative control over the Panchayat Samiti personnel
and can appoint class four employees in his office. He sanctions tour programmes
and travelling allowances of the staff along with certifying the manuscript of the
Panchayat Samiti. He is expected to inspect the PSO at least twice a year.
Furthermore, he is in charge of all arrangements like boarding and provision of
jeep for higher officials commute within the block. Notably, a BDO helps the
Panchayat Samiti acknowledge that revenues are being acquired on time and that
the disbursement conforms to the budgetary provisions. Besides, he gives a detailed
account of the income and disbursement in front of the Panchayat Samiti. The
BDO confirms maintenance of the list of people who have been given loans by the
Samiti through the Panchayat, VLW’s and the extension officers. Besides, he ensures
that the funds are applied for the welfare of the Samiti.
2. BDO as the Captain Extension Officers Team
In almost every Panchayat Samiti area, there are about four to eight extension
officers, working on deputation from the state government. They are mostly posted
to junior positions in various government departments as they are subject specialist
in areas such as agriculture, education and health. They provide technical advice
and assistance to Panchayat Samitis. They all work under the supervision and
control of the BDO who has to coordinate the activities of these officers and act
as the link between them and the district administration. It also prepares the
confidential reports of the extension officer’s sanction or cancels their leave, gives
them necessary guidelines and conveys government instructions to the respective
district levels officers.
The Control or authority of the BDO over extension officers has resulted in
a problem which could cause a deadlock at the Samiti level. The administrative
control of these officers is under the supervision of the BDO. However, regarding
technical matters, the extension personnel continue to function under the control
of their respective district level department. The extension officers have to serve
different sets of orders issued by the BDO and by the ‘parent’ department which
might lead to ambiguity and delay. Therefore, it is imperative for the BDO to meet
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the extension offices regularly, and as far possible, refrain from giving them orders Personnel in Panchayati
Raj Institutions
which are inconsistent which those issued by the technical departments.
3. BDO as Managers of Development Programmes
At the central, state, district and block levels, the various government departments NOTES
and agencies formulate plans and programmes for the socio-economic upliftment
of the rural population. It is the BDO’s responsibility to check that the tasks
delegated to the Panchayat Samiti in this regard are completed on time.
Furthermore, he is expected to ensure that the constitution activities
undertaken by the Samiti are completed within the stipulated period. Moreover,
he keeps an eye on disbursement incurred on these programmes and reports to
the Panchayat Samitis, Zilla Parishads, DRDA, Collector and fretful district level
officers on the delay in the activities.
4. BDO as the secretary of the Panchayat Samiti
The BDO is also the clerk and chief policy making general of the Samiti. He issues
notices for the meeting of the Samiti as well as its committees and prepares their
agenda. He participates in these meetings and answers queries. He also maintains
a record of the proceedings of the Samiti meetings. Besides, the maintenance of
all-important records regarding the salaries and growth of the Samiti to the Pradhan
is also his responsibility. He draws and distributes money from the Samiti funds
and helps the Panchayat draw up enlargement plans and programmes.
8.3 ROLE OF COLLECTOR IN THE PANCHAYATI

RAJ
Democratic decentralization, with its three-tier pattern of popular administration,

was the result of efforts made by the Balwant Rai Mehta Committee (1957). The
acceptance of these recommendations and consequent introduction of the system
of Panchayati Raj gave a strong foothold to a trend which had started well before
1929 and turned into a recognizable set up in 1952. The varying forms of
decentralization efforts in different states resulted in a change in the fundamental
character of district administration. The most obvious change was in the approach
and style of his office from the position of authority to a people-friendly and
development-oriented top official functionary at the district level. Though the Mehta
Committee had already advocated retention of the traditional position of the
Collector in the Panchayati Raj framework, at least two states decided to have an
independent IAS officer to take care of the Panchayat set up at the Zilla Parishad
level.
One common pattern that has emerged in all the states is that the executive
agencies are eventually controlled by the government, and with increased
decentralization and delegation of powers, the need for agency to coordinate the
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Personnel in Panchayati work of the agencies has increased. There have been different opinions on the
Raj Institutions
executive agency which can best deal with the programmes of democratic institutions
at the base.
Panchayati Raj is the backbone of administration and is a means of
NOTES
decentralization of the authority of implementation of development programmes in
the field. As the area of operation of a Collector clashed with the area of the Zilla
Parishad, he automatically came into the picture as the informer of the government.
What needs to be seen is whether there is a purposeful utilization of the Collector
in the administration of the district. One argument is that with the increasing
concentration on development in district administration, the Collector cannot find
time to look after the ever increasing development activities adequately, and that
his association with development in addition to his traditional duties may lead to
the neglect of or inadequate attention to both. Therefore, it is argued that district
administration would be better served if the Collector was left free to look after
regulatory aspects of administration and a separate officer of the same rank is
made available to attend to development functions exclusively.
In most of the states, a Chief Executive Officer has been appointed
exclusively to deal with developmental functions, while the Collector continues to
be in charge of law and order, land revenue, excise, registration, etc. At the same
time, the Collector continues to be intimately associated with development
programmes through his positions in agencies such as DRDA. In most states, the
Collector is ex-officio chairman of DRDA. He is also connected with the Zilla
Parishad and District Planning Committee in some form or the other. Recent
measures to merge DRDA with the Zilla Parishads in some states have, however,
hardly affected his authority. However, there are states such as West Bengal where
the District Magistrate stays to practice a larger share of responsibility in facilitating
the functioning of Panchayati Raj Institutions, ensuring coordination at the district
level between the Zilla Parishad and the technical officers, ensuring close links
between the second and the block level as well as controlling from branches at the
state level.
A study of the government statutes related to the Panchayati Raj would
show that the Collector, in view of his special position status, may curb the
efflorescence of the autonomous spirit. There is a line of thought which argues that
the Collector is laden with multiplicity of works along with physical margins of
time and energy, and thus, would be not be able to do justice to the mammoth
tasks of Zilla Parishad. Therefore, it is suggested that he may be kept out of it. In
terms of status of the Collector vis-à-vis the Panchayati Raj, some basic
arrangements are observed across the states. Some people think that the Zilla
Parishad needs practice and guidance from the Collector, who could, as Chairman,
give fillip to the intact programme and promote matched efforts of the official and
elected agents. In some states, they have employed a full-term officer from the
Indian Administrative Service as Chief Executive Officer to entirely deal with anti-
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poverty programmes as well as changing schemes of the state. In such states, the Personnel in Panchayati
Raj Institutions
Collector is left with merely adjusting with imperious powers.
The pattern of relationship between the Collector and PRIs can be conveniently
studied in four heads, namely:
NOTES
 Control over the staff of PRIs
 Powers to suspend the resolutions of Panchayati Raj bodies
 Powers to remove office bearers
 Powers to suspend and dissolve the PRIs
1. Control over the staff of PRIs
It may be cited that the intermediate tier and Zilla Parishad have two groupings of
staff at their disposal. Firstly, they have the Chief Executive Colonel and various
extension officers whose services are placed at their approval by the parent
department. Secondly, they have the members of the block (intermediate tier)
Panchayat and Zilla Panchayat package. The control and movements for enquiry
would automatically be different in case of these two categories. The question of
control, in the present context, would relate only to the executive officers, as the
control over the staff of Panchayati Raj Institutions is mostly implemented by their
chief management officers or by the right heads of sectors from which they are on
deputation.
The disciplinary controller over the executive officers of the Panchayati Raj bodies
might take the form of:
(a) Writing of personal report
(b) Authority to inflict various punishments
In Maharashtra (in the case of Zilla Parishads), the Divisional Representative
has the power to inflict minor retributions on the executive officers. In Maharashtra,
the power to suspend the resolutions of a Panchayat rests with the Commissioner,
whereas this power is used by the Director of Panchayats in Kerala and the State
government in West Bengal. The powers are also drilled by the Collector in
Maharashtra. Thus, it is clear that there is a general disposition in the direction of
granting powers of suspending a resolution of Panchayats or Panchayat Samiti to
the Collector, whereas the power of the authorities suspending a resolution of the
Zilla Parishad largely depends on the State Government.
2. Powers to suspend and dissolve the PRIs
In the case of Panchayats, these powers rest with the state governments in Kerala
and Maharashtra. In case of a Panchayat Samiti, the state advisers have the powers
to split it up Maharashtra. The powers to thaw a Zilla Parishad rest with the state
direction in Maharashtra. One can state that the Collector is freestanding the Zilla
Parishad.
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Personnel in Panchayati 3. Power to remove office-bearers of PRIs
Raj Institutions
In the case of Panchayats, these powers rest with the state governments in Kerala
(for Sarpanch and Upa-Sarpanch) and Zilla Parishads in Maharashtra. The powers
NOTES to remove the Chairman in the Zilla Parishad ideally should be assigned to the
state government. Appeals against the orders of authorities below the state level
should be given to the next higher authority.
4. Power to suspend and dissolve PRIs
A number of State Panchayati Raj Acts have made the Collector the key officer to
take decisions with regard to the suspension and conclusion of PRIs. Though the
number of such states may not be very high, but the fact that the Collectors have
been designated to take such far-reaching judgements on behalf of the government
only affirms his position in the overall organizational set up at the district level.
8.4 PATWARI
The village level revenue officer or Patwari is the most significant functionary of
the state at the village level. No proficient revenue administration of a district is
feasible if the Patwari staff is not strong or appropriately trained and austerely
supervised. In simple terms, he is regarded as the village accountant. He is known
as Talati in Mahatrashtra, Lekhpal in Uttar Pradesh and Karnam in Tamil Nadu.
He usually has one or two villages under his charge. Patwari is the custodian of the
record of ownership of the village’s land called “Shazra Kishtwar” Mutation
Register, Village Statistics Book (Lal Kitab) and other records of the village.
The patwar system was first initiated during the reign of Sher Shah Suri and was
further enhanced by Emperor Akbar. With slight amendments, the British Colonial
system retained the system.
A Patwari has the following duties:
(i) Maintenance of land record and documentation of the crop grown at every
harvest.
(ii) Keeping the record of rights up-to-date by the punctual record of mutations
and other changes related to possession or ownership of land including the
record relating to land recoveries.
(iii) Preparation of statistical returns, embodying the information derived from
the harvest inspections, register of mutation and record of rights.
(iv) It is the responsibility of the Patwari to immediately inform about severe
natural calamities affecting people, property, land or the crops.
(v) The Patwaris are responsible for safe custody of all records and maps
along with measuring equipments of their respective circles. He assists in
carrying out the orders related to spot partitions of land between interested
parties.
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Patwari is not only the principal revenue official at the village level but is also Personnel in Panchayati
Raj Institutions
the government’s informant at the village level. It can easily be understood that in
a county where land is the principal source of livelihood of nearly 75 per cent the
population, the work outlay for management and administration of land records is
perhaps the most important government function from the public’s point of view. NOTES
Check Your Progress

1. How often is the BDO expected to inspect the Panchayati Samiti Office?
2. Who does the BDO report to about disbursements and delay in
development projects in rural areas?
3. In most states, who has been appointed to exclusively deal with
developmental functions in panchayat areas?
4. When was the patwar system first initiated?
5. Mention some examples of documents who custodianship is with the
patwar.

QUESTIONS
1. The BDO is expected to inspect the PSO at least twice a year.

2. The BDO keeps an eye on disbursement incurred on these programmes
and reports to the Panchayat Samitis, Zilla Parishads, DRDA, Collector
and fretful district level officers on the delay in the activities.
3. In most of the states, a Chief Executive Officer has been appointed
exclusively to deal with developmental functions, while the Collector continues
to be in charge of law and order, land revenue, excise, registration, etc.
4. The patwar system was first initiated during the reign of Sher Shah Suri and
was further enhanced by Emperor Akbar.
5. Patwari is the custodian of the record of ownership of the village’s land
called “Shazra Kishtwar” Mutation Register, Village Statistics Book
(Lal Kitab) and other records of the village.
8.6 SUMMARY
 The Block Development Officer (BDO) is the Secretary and officer-in-

charge of the Panchayat Samiti. In most of the states, he belongs to the
state amenities and is deputed to the Panchayat Samiti. In other states,
these are stimulated officers, formerly from the subsidiary services in the
state.
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Personnel in Panchayati  The BDO’s role in the PRIs is characterized by multi-functionality, such as:
Raj Institutions
in-charge of Panchayat Samiti Office (PSO), as the Captain Extension
Officers Team, as Managers of Development Programmes, and as the
secretary of the Panchayat Samiti.
NOTES
 Though the Mehta Committee had already advocated retention of the
traditional position of the Collector in the Panchayati Raj framework, at
least two states decided to have an independent IAS officer to take care of
the Panchayat set up at the Zilla Parishad level.
 Panchayati Raj is the backbone of administration and is a means of
decentralization of the authority of implementation of development
programmes in the field. As the area of operation of a Collector clashed
with the area of the Zilla Parishad, he automatically came into the picture
as the informer of the government. What needs to be seen is whether
there is a purposeful utilization of the Collector in the administration of the
district.
 In most of the states, a Chief Executive Officer has been appointed
exclusively to deal with developmental functions, while the Collector
continues to be in charge of law and order, land revenue, excise, registration,
etc. At the same time, the Collector continues to be intimately associated
with development programmes through his positions in agencies such as
DRDA.
 A study of the government statutes related to the Panchayati Raj would
show that the Collector, in view of his special position status, may curb the
efflorescence of the autonomous spirit. There is a line of thought which
argues that the Collector is laden with multiplicity of works along with
physical margins of time and energy, and thus, would be not be able to do
justice to the mammoth tasks of Zilla Parishad. Therefore, it is suggested
that he may be kept out of it.
 The pattern of relationship between the Collector and PRIs can be
conveniently studied in four heads, namely:
(i) Control over the staff of PRIs
(ii) Powers to suspend the resolutions of Panchayati Raj bodies
(iii) Powers to remove office bearers
(iv) Powers to suspend and dissolve the PRIs
 The village level revenue officer or Patwari is the most significant functionary
of the state at the village level. No proficient revenue administration of a
district is feasible if the Patwari staff is not strong or appropriately trained
and austerely supervised. In simple terms, he is regarded as the village
accountant.
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8.7 KEY WORDS Raj Institutions
 Block Development Officer (BDO): He or She is the Secretary and

officer-in-charge of the Panchayat Samiti. NOTES
 Extension officers: It refers to the officers on deputation from the state
government who provide technical advice and assistance to Panchayat
Samitis.
 District Collector: It refers to the head of District Administration in India.
 Patwari: It refers to a state officer in the revenue department at village
level.

EXERCISES
1. What are the patterns of BDO selection in different states in India?
2. Briefly explain the role of BDOs and who they report to.
3. Write a short note on the duties of a Patwari.
1. Describe the functionalities which characterizes the role of BDO’s with
respect to PRIs.
2. Examine the pattern of relationship between the Collector and PRIs.

University Press.
Agarwal.
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Material 129
Personnel Administration
in Municipal
Governments UNIT 9 PERSONNEL
ADMINISTRATION IN
NOTES
MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENTS
Structure
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Municipal Personnel Administration
9.4 Summary
9.5 Key Words
9.0 INTRODUCTION
The success of any system depends mainly on the competence of the staff employed
for implementing its policies and programmes. It is the skill, capacity and enthusiasm
of the workers which matters for the success. This is truer in the case of Municipal
system in India, which seeks in one way or the other, to influence people’s behaviour.
In this unit, you will learn about the personnel involved at the municipal levels in
India.
9.1 OBJECTIVES

 Describe Municipal Personnel Administration
 Discuss the recruitment of municipal personnels
 Explain the functions of the Central Council of Local Government
9.2 MUNICIPAL PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATION
The municipal governments are intimately concerned to and, are responsible for
the provision of facilities for healthy living in urban areas. Efficient administrative,
professional and technical staff at the municipal level is the sine qua non of forceful
and proficient Municipal government. Being a service-oriented organisation with
the minimum of mechanization in its operation, municipal bodies are to depend
heavily on the competence and devotion of their staff in the performance of their
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tasks. Municipal personnel system, thus, needs to be apt. As per the study of the Personnel Administration
in Municipal
United Nations the municipal personnel system can be classified into three categories: Governments
separate, unified and integrated personnel systems. Let’s have a brief look at these
categories.
NOTES
Separate Personnel System
Under this system, the local authorities have the power to appoint, administer and
dismiss the personal on its own, who may not be transferrable to any other
jurisdiction by a central body. Earlier, Municipal bodies in most of the states in
India practiced the separate personnel system. This system has been in trend in
many countries like UK USA, Japan and New Zealand.
The advantages and disadvantages of this system are as following:
Advantages
 The municipal body is obliged to ensure the inhabitants for its employee’s
effective performance.
 The employees recruited locally are acquainted with local conditions and,
thus, ensures greater interest in local affairs as compared to the migrated
employees.
 The prospects for continuous employment in their own area can attract
more talented persons to enter the municipal services.
 The system being confined to local employees, local community and local
problems restricts outside interference.
Disadvantages
 The system is not suitable for small municipalities a to scale minimum
standards and to recruit competent persons.
 It suffers from the disadvantages of nepotism, political interference and
insecurity.
 The chances of promotion are limited.
 The officials on higher positions may frustrate this due to the lesser number
of higher positions to which they can expect promotion.
 The relations between political leaders and the officials can hamper the
smooth functioning of the local body.
 Political pressures can penetrate into every aspect of administration involving
officials in factional politics.
 The limited financial resources of a local body hinder employment of suitable
and competent persons.
 An elected council cannot act impartially for recruitment of its personnel,
but it is likely to be influenced by various factors, especially political.
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Personnel Administration In short, the system affords such advantages as recruitment of local people
in Municipal
Governments who possess better knowledge of local conditions, have keen interest in local
affairs and are committed to the achievement of the welfare of their community.
But its disadvantages outweigh its advantages.
NOTES
Unified Personnel System
The unified personnel system was considered to be a remedy for the ailments of
the prevailing municipal personnel system. Under a unified personnel system, all
or certain categories of local authorities form a single career service for the entire
state. It is distinct from the state/national civil service, and it is the State Government
which administers and controls the service. The employees are transferrable
between local governments within the state. Local governments, thus, get divested
of the authority to recruit and administer personnel. The countries which have
adopted the system includes Ireland, Thailand, Nigeria and Ghana.
Advantages
 The system proposes the creation of a national or statewide career service
based on the principle of merit, which reduces the chances of favoritism in
the recruitment of personnel.
 The smaller local bodies can obtain the services of more qualified persons.
 The system helps the personnel to acquire experience in different local bodies
and in different circumstances, which give them a much wider approach to
the problems of local government and a much greater competence to tackle
individual problems.
 It provisions a structure for promotion from one grade to another, which
upholds the interest of the personnel in the services.
 Persons transferable from one local body to another can have a feeling of
greater freedom of operation without any self-consciousness that their entire
career will be at stake if they offend the non-officials of any particular local
body.
 The system gives the personnel a prestige in the public eye, self-confidence
and compulsive efficiency.
Disadvantages
 This system is not completely conducive to the principle of local autonomy.
 A few small Municipal bodies, due to their limited resources, may find it
difficult to bear the cost of statewide cadres, which have to be paid at a
higher level.
 The possibility of transfer from one Municipal body to another can restrict
an employee to develop a sense of loyalty and belonging to a local body.
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 The system reduces the Agency’s power over recruitment, promotion and Personnel Administration
in Municipal
discipline, which ultimately results in making the staff non-responsive to the Governments
municipal committee.
 Where the municipal councils have to bear the cost for the training of staff,
NOTES
the situation can further deteriorate due to shortage of funds.
 The system does not provide any solution for promotional opportunities as
a few large municipalities is only can afford to maintain higher positions.
Integrated Personnel System
In the integrated personnel system the personnel of the state government and those
of local government form part of the same service and in which vertical as well as
horizontal transfer ability is possible. In other words, the state government may
constitute an integrated service for some or all categories of personnel for the
urban government. The integrated personnel system exists in various under-
developed countries like Nepal, Taiwan and Morocco.
Advantages
 This system provides uniformity in regard to salaries and conditions of service
and retirement benefits for civil servants.
 The officials, under this system, are free from local politics and pressures.
 Horizontal and vertical transfers make it possible to have the service of
more competent staff.
 The system provides wider possible career opportunities in public service.
 Personnel can be acquired in accordance with the technicalities of the
problem.
Disadvantages
 The employees may not be as responsive, loyal and committed as they
would be to a local body.
 It is possible that some inefficient persons may get an opportunity to enter
Municipal service at the behest of the state government.
 There is a danger of conflict between Municipal councillors and officials
belonging to integrated service.
 Under this system, the employees will have to work under dual control, on
the one hand, the control of state government with regard to appointment,
promotions and disciplinary action, and on the other hand, the control of
municipal authorities in regard to day-to-day administration.
 The local bodies will become training centres for the employees. As soon
as they will gain some experience in the field of local administration, they
will be transferred to the state government departments.
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Personnel Administration Position in India
in Municipal
Governments
In India, all three systems, namely, separate, unified and integrated, are followed
in various states. The integrated system is followed in Tamil Nadu and other Southern
NOTES States wherein officers serving Municipal government are transferable horizontally
between municipalities and also vertically between national, state and Municipal
governments. The unified model is in trend in Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab
and Haryana where municipal services have been unified upto the supervisory and
clerical levels, but the lowest level employees continue to be recruited and
controlled at the municipal level. The separate personnel model is obtainable in
West Bengal, Maharashtra and Gujarat where the municipal authorities enjoy
exclusive competence to recruit and manage their own personnel subject to the
rules framed by the concerned state governments to control certain aspects of the
management of municipal personnel. Thus, the personnel system of urban local
government in our country differs from state to state and even in the same state, as
there in the unified personnel system operates where higher echelons of municipal
services are concerned, and the separate personnel system works in the case of
services at lower levels.
Provincialization of municipal services has been stressed and emphasized by
various forums and government committees is from time to time. The first
conference of local self-government ministers held in August 1948 had adopted
the following resolution: ‘In view of the fact that provincial cadre would facilitate
recruitment of suitable personnel from a wide field and provide a more efficient
and contented service, this conference was of the opinion that there should be
provincial cadres for the higher executive and technical staff employed by local
bodies.’
The second conference of local self-government ministers held in 1954
had reiterated the same suggestion. The Central Council of Local Self Government
in conjunction with the Fourth Conference of Ministers of Town and Country
planning, held in 1963, had recommended the provincialization of Administrative,
health, engineering and town planning services of the municipalities in the interest
of better and more efficient administration. The Rural-Urban Relationship
Committee, 1966 had observed that it would be more convenient and
advantageous to have a combined integrated service for public health, engineers,
town planners and medical and health officers, as also of Accounts and Audit
Officers, in order to attract and to ensure a steady flow of qualified and competent
persons.
In its report the Task Force on Management of Urban Development
appointed by the Planning Commission (1983) held that personnel development
had been the biggest aspect of urban management in India and suggested the
formation of a state cadre for key positions in municipal management like chief
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officers, engineers, account officers and revenue officers and opined that the
134 Material
separate personnel system would be of greater advantage with respect to the Personnel Administration
in Municipal
lower levels. Governments
In pursuance of the recommendations of various commissions/ committees,
various state governments have provincialized municipal services by making
NOTES
necessary amendments in their respective Municipal Acts.
Recruitment of Municipal Personnel
Recruitment constitutes the cornerstone of the whole personnel structure for it
determines the tone and calibre of public services. On it rests the nature and
degree of usefulness of the administrative machinery. Dimock and Dimock rightly
observed, ‘The fundamental operation in building a strong public service is
recruitment. If original selection is carelessly or inadequately performed, weakness
is carried with the staff which time and training may never cure.’ The municipal
administration close as it is to the public, can inspire respect and confidence
only if it is manned by efficient civil servants. It is, therefore, essential that
Municipal bodies should have a sound policy and system of recruitment in order
to get competent staff.
The state government may depending on the laws functional in their states
make recruitment to the provincialized municipal services on the recommendation
of a selection committee, which may be constituted by it and consist of five members,
out-of-whom three are officers of the Government and two non-officials having
sufficient experience of urban local bodies. At least one of the members of the
selection committee must belong to Scheduled Castes. The Selection Committee
keeping in view the nature and duties of the post required to be filled, can associate
not more than two members who are experts in the field concerned.
The selection committee is to follow the policy of the government regarding
the reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and other backward classes while
recommending appointment to the municipal services. Provision has also been
made to make appointments by transfer/deputation from other departments. If
suitable candidates are not available by direct recruitment or promotion. The state
government also make appointments to the municipal corporation services such
as those of Executive officers, secretaries, municipal engineers and municipal health
officers on the recommendations of a selection committee. It is evident that a
municipal corporation does not enjoy any autonomy worth the name in the
recruitment of personnel for the management of senior and middle level positions.
For recruitment to lower posts, the corporation and the commissioner have to
abide by the rules and regulations which may be framed by the state government.
The Central Council of Local Self Government though convened in 1948, was
constituted by an order of the president in 1954. It consisted of the then minister
of local self government in the states. It can invite experts and Technical Advisors
to its meetings, but they have no right to vote. Its main functions are to consider
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Material 135
Personnel Administration and recommend broad lines of policy in matters relating to local government in all
in Municipal
Governments its aspects, but post 1958, it only covers matters pertaining to the urban local
government. In 1980, the word ‘self-government’ was replaced with the term
‘government’. It is a purely advisory body. Among its functions are tasks like:
NOTES
 Make proposals for legislation on matters relating to local government;
 Draw up a common program of action to make recommendations to the
central government regarding the allocation of financial assistance to local
bodies
 Review the work accomplished in different areas with such Central
assistance.
 Pass resolution at its annual meetings and also reviews implementation of
earlier resolution.
 Set up committee also to look into problems of urban local governments.
Generally, the Central Council of Local government consists of the Minister
of Urban Affairs, the ministers for local self government of the state. The union
minister acts as the chairman of the council.
Check Your Progress

1. What is the separate personnel system not suitable for?
2. What does the unified personnel system propose the creation of?
3. List examples of countries where the integrated personnel system of
municipal corporation is followed.
4. Which type of municipal personnel system is in trend in states like Rajasthan,
Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana?

QUESTIONS
1. The separate personnel system is not suitable for small municipalities a to

scale minimum standards and to recruit competent persons.
2. The unified personnel system proposes the creation of a national or statewide
career service based on the principle of merit, which reduces the chances
of favoritism in the recruitment of personnel.
3. The integrated personnel system exists in various under-developed countries
like Nepal, Taiwan and Morocco.
4. The unified model is in trend in Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana
where municipal services have been unified upto the supervisory and clerical
levels, but the lowest level employees continue to be recruited and controlled
at the municipal level.
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136 Material
Personnel Administration
9.4 SUMMARY in Municipal
Governments
 The municipal governments are intimately concerned to and, are responsible

for the provision of facilities for healthy living in urban areas. Efficient NOTES
administrative, professional and technical staff at the municipal level is the
sine qua non of forceful and proficient Municipal government.
 As per the study of the United Nations the municipal personnel system can
be classified into three categories: separate, unified and integrated personnel
systems.
 Under the Separate Personnel system, the local authorities have the power
to appoint, administer and dismiss the personal on its own, who may not be
transferrable to any other jurisdiction by a central body.
 The unified personnel system was considered to be a remedy for the ailments
of the prevailing municipal personnel system. Under a unified personnel
system, all or certain categories of local authorities form a single career
service for the entire state.
 In the integrated personnel system the personnel of the state government
and those of local government form part of the same service and in which
vertical as well as horizontal transfer ability is possible.
 In India, all three systems, namely, separate, unified and integrated, are
followed in various States.
 Provincialization of municipal services has been stressed and emphasized
by various forums and government committees is from time to time. The
first conference of local self-government ministers held in August 1948 had
adopted the following resolution: ‘In view of the fact that provincial cadre
would facilitate recruitment of suitable personnel from a wide field and
provide a more efficient and contented service, this conference was of the
opinion that there should be provincial cadres for the higher executive and
technical staff employed by local bodies.’
 In pursuance of the recommendations of various commissions/ committees,
various state governments have provincialized municipal services by making
necessary amendments in their respective Municipal Acts.
 Recruitment constitutes the cornerstone of the whole personnel structure
for it determines the tone and calibre of public services. On it rests the
nature and degree of usefulness of the administrative machinery.
 The state government makes recruitment to the provincialized municipal
services on the Recommendation of a selection committee, which is
constituted by it and consists of five members, out-of-whom three are officers
of the Government and two non-officials having sufficient experience of
urban local bodies.
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Personnel Administration  The Central Council of Local Self Government though convened in 1948,
in Municipal
Governments was constituted by an order of the president in 1954. It consisted of the
then minister of local self-government in the states. It can invite experts and
Technical Advisors to its meetings, but they have no right to vote. Its main
NOTES functions are to consider and recommend broad lines of policy in matters
relating to local government in all its aspects, but post 1958, it only covers
matters pertaining to the urban local government.
9.5 KEY WORDS
 Provincialization of municipal services: It refers to the creation of cadres

for municipal employees, state wise.
 Central Council of Local Self Government: It is a body created to
consider and recommend broad lines of policy in matters relating to the
urban local government.

EXERCISES
1. Write a short note on separate personnel system.
2. What is the type of municipal personnel system followed in India?
3. Briefly explain the origins of the provincialization of municipal services in
India.
4. How are municipal personnel recruited in India?
5. What are the functions of the Central Council of Local Self Government?
1. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the unified personnel system.
2. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of the integrated personnel system.

University Press.
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138 Material
Panchayati Raj
UNIT 10 PANCHAYATI RAJ Institutions: Sources of

Income and State
Control
INSTITUTIONS: SOURCES
NOTES
OF INCOME AND STATE
CONTROL
Structure
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Sources of Income for Panchayati Raj Institutions
10.3 State Control Over Panchayat Raj Institutions
10.5 Summary
10.6 Key Words
10.0 INTRODUCTION
Up till now you have learnt about the basics of panchayati raj institutions including
its composition, functions, and the constitutional provisions governing them. You
have also studied the electoral process followed in such institutions. In this unit,
you will learn about the sources of income for these institutions. It had been
mentioned earlier in Unit 3, that the sources for the panchayati raj institutions
comes from different sources including taxes, fees, fines as well as grants from the
government. These are important since it forms the basis on which the activities
will be operationalised. Limited funds for panchayats will become a hindrance in
the activities taken by them. However, excess use of funds is also problematic
since if it is not translating into development, it is a sign of corruption and misuse.
But who keeps a check on the panchayati raj institutions? In this unit, you will also
learn the dynamics of state control over the panchayati raj institutions.
10.1 OBJECTIVES

 Discuss the sources of income for panchayati raj institutions
 Explain state control over panchayati raj institutions
 Describe the concept of social audit
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Panchayati Raj
Institutions: Sources of 10.2 SOURCES OF INCOME FOR PANCHAYATI
Income and State
Control RAJ INSTITUTIONS
NOTES Panchayats can efficiently perform their duties and activities only when they have
adequate resources of finance. For these, the panchayats depend on State
government approved grants and disbursements. Additionally, they receive taxes
and revenue from owned or rented assets. Further, they may also receive a portion
from the taxes, duties, tolls and fees that are levied and collected by the state
government.
The sources of income of Gram Panchayat
In most states, some of the taxes may be levied by the gram panchayats including
taxes like house tax, tax on immovable property, commercial crops, cattle tax, fee
for water supply, lighting tax, octroi, sanitation fee, drainage tax etc. Panchayats
can also levy entertainment tax on temporarily stationed theatres, taxes on animals
and non-mechanically propelled vehicles plied for hire, except those which are
used for farming.
Income from property owned by Gram Panchayats on assets like common
grounds, jungles, cattle ground etc., are also important source of income. Further,
gram panchayat also has the power to retained a portion of proceeds from specific
activities like sale of cow dung, refuse and carcasses along with any other taxes
which are authorised by the Act governing these local bodies. They also receive
their share in land revenue from the state.
The sources of income of Panchayat Samiti (Nagar Panchayat)
Panchayat Samiti (Nagar Panchayat) can impose tax on facilities provided by
them as water for drinking or irrigation purposes, lighting arrangements, tolls for
bridges maintained by them. Panchayat receive income from the property vested
in them. The property of Nagar Panchayat includes public buildings, public roads
constructed or maintained out of their funds and all land or other property
transferred to them by the government. They also gain their income by levying
taxes on businesses and industries, fairs organised in Panchayat Samiti area and
Community Development Fund. They also receive grants from the state
governments. The Zila Panchayat transfers the funds from the state governments
along with schemes to be implemented by the immediate Institutions of Panchayati
Raj.
The budget of Panchayat Samiti
The Block Development Officer (BDO) prepares the budget of Panchayat Samiti
and submits it to Panchayat Samiti. Thereafter it goes to District Development
officer who submits it to Zila Parishad. Zila Parishad sends it to Panchayat Samiti
with its recommendations. Panchayat Samiti evaluates it and gives approval.
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The sources of income of Zila Parishad (Panchayat) Panchayati Raj
Institutions: Sources of
Income and State
Zila Parishad like the panchayats and panchayat samitis are authorised to impose Control
taxes like taxes on individuals carrying on business in rural areas for 6 months,
taxes on brokers, commission agents in markets established by them, on sale of NOTES
good in these markets, water tax, 5% stamp duty for expenditure of property.
Fees for granting permission for fairs and tax on land revenue can also be imposed
by Zila Parishad. When development schemes are entrusted to them, necessary
funds are also provided. They also receive grants from the state grants and donation
from the public and from charitable institutions, and may also raise loans.
Method of execution of budget of Zila Parishad
The Chief Executive Officer of the the Zila Parishad is entrusted with the duty of
preparing the budget. This is then submitted to the Panchayati Raj and Rural
Development Department.
Finance Commission
As mentioned in earlier units, a Finance Commission is constituted every five years
on the recommendation of the Governor to comment on issues like the
 The principles which should govern
o The distribution between the State and the Panchayats of the net proceeds
of the taxes, duties, tolls and fees leviable by the State, which may be
divided between them under this Part and the allocation between the
Panchayats at all levels of their respective shares of such proceeds;
o The determination of the taxes, duties, tolls and fees which may be
assigned as, or appropriated by, the Panchayats;
 The grants-in-aid to the Panchayats from the Consolidated Fund of the
State;
 The measures needed to improve the financial position of the Panchayats;
Any other matter referred to the Finance Commission by the Governor in
the interests of sound finance of the Panchayats.
10.3 STATE CONTROL OVER PANCHAYAT RAJ

INSTITUTIONS
The 73rd Amendment Act has provided and has power to the rural local bodies,
but it does not mean that they have limitless authority and freedom. Some measures
of control over Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) are not only desirable but are
also necessary. Therefore, PRIs are kept under the control of state government.
State control over these institutions is more necessary because in the rural areas
the authority is vested in the local people. Most people among them may not have
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Panchayati Raj the relevant experience or knowledge so as to make use of the authority. Though,
Income and State in such a situation there are all the possibilities of committing mistakes while
Control exercising the authority. Hence, the state control is very much needed for proper
directions, amalgamation and coordination of the Civic services, and for security,
NOTES consistency and continuity both in the formulation and implementation of national
policies.
State Government, Panchayati Raj and their Dynamics
The revival of PRIs has opened new panorama of relationship between the state
government and the PRIs. For the effective functioning of PRIs, sound relationship
between the state government and the PRIs has become yet more important and
it is expected of both, State Government and the PRIs to recognise each other’s
position and develop a healthy understanding and mutual cooperation to discharge
their respective responsibilities.
Types of Control over PRIs
The following are the major types of control exercised by the state governments
over PRIs:
(i) Institutional control
The provisions of the Constitution and the acts legalized by the State legislature
grant the institutional control of panchayats to the State Governments. Some
important aspects of these acts include the proper elucidation of the area as well
as territorial jurisdiction of the PRIs, the manner of the composition, the procedures
which need to be followed in the event of elections, the machinery and protocols
for dispute settlement, the functions of the staff and their recruitment, the control
over the property and documentations to be maintained for functioning of these
PRIs. The state government can also amend following due procedures, the relevant
acts by which these PRIs have been established.
(ii) Administrative control
These controls refer to the power of the State governments to oversee the operations
of the PRIs and check the activities undertaken by them. The evaluation of day to
day activities also fall under the purview of the State government. Under such a
role, the state governments also have the power to check any proposal by the
PRIs and either pass, reject or suggest changes to them. Provisions also allow the
State government to remove members of the PRIs under specified conditions and
also dissolve or supersede such bodies. Additionally, the state government is also
authorised to conduct inspections.
(iii) Financial Control
As mentioned in the previous section, as well as mentioned in the Articles of the
Constitution, the panchayati raj institutions have sources of revenues from taxes,
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grants, fees and loans. The budgets and the principles on which they are based are Panchayati Raj
generally under the regulation of the state government. They also govern rules to Income and State
be followed and accounts to be maintained by the PRIs for its financial expenditures Control
and earnings. The audit of the PRIs are also done through the office of the examiner
of local funds and submitted to the government. NOTES
(iv) Technical Control

The schemes, projects and plans initiated by the panchayati raj institutions are to
be approved by the state government. This is what is called technical control. It is
also the responsibility of the state government to provide technical guidance to
these bodies. The approach and intent and review of the activities of the panchayati
raj institutions are done by the State governments through their officers who attend
their meetings.
Ministry of Panchayati Raj
As you have learnt in earlier units, the decentralisation of government and its powers
and functions is now done in three tiers. Through the 73rd and 74th amendments to
the constitution, the devolution of power is done at the Union, State and Local self
government levels.
The ministry which is responsible for taking policy level decisions regarding
local self-government in rural areas is the Ministry of Panchayati Raj created in
May 2004. The ministry is headed by a Minister of cabinet rank.
State Government’s Control
As discussed in the previous paragraphs, the State government’s control over the
panchayati raj institutions can be understood not only at the legislative levels but
also financial and administrative levels. The State governments are tasked with
overseeing and passing resolutions with respect to the organisation and functions
of Panchayats in their respective states. The State government is also responsible
for providing financial resources to the PRIs. Administratively, the District Collector
and District Panchayati Raj officers are tasked to overseeing and supervising the
operations of the PRIs. The state government is also responsible for encouraging
the PRIs by delegating them the responsibility of planning and implementing schemes
for certain matters as mentioned in the Eleventh schedule. Additionally, the election
activities of the PRIs are also done in coordination with the State Government and
the State Election Commission.
Since we are on the topic of state control over panchayati raj institutions, it is
important to mention that social audits of the activities of the Gram Panchayat has
been mandated by the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee
Act (MGNREGA) and the Fourteenth Finance Commission. This is to say that
the grants get affected by the activities undertaken by the Gram Panchayat.
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Panchayati Raj As mentioned in the ‘Social Audit Units in India Current Status’ (2018) by
Income and State the National Institute of Rural Development and Panchayati Raj: ‘Section 17 of
Control the MGNREG Act says that the Gram Sabha shall conduct Social Audit of all the
projects under the scheme taken up within the Gram Panchayat. Social Audit is
NOTES the audit of a scheme jointly by the Government and the people, especially by
those who are affected by the scheme or its beneficiaries. It is a powerful tool to
promote transparency, accountability and people’s participation in the schemes
meant for them.’
Further the document ‘Social Audit of Fourteenth Finance Commission
(FFC) Grants’Activities / Works of Gram Panchayats’ by the Ministry of Panchayati
Raj also notes that the ‘The mechanism of social audit is essential for the effective
functioning of Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRI).It is necessary, not only in assessing
the optimal use of resources, but in suggesting the corrective steps as well. Therefore,
it is expected that while conducting social audit, quantum of funds utilised, time
taken in completing the work and quality of asset created are assessed. Along
with this, social audit should also suggest improvement and corrective measures.
Many of the GPs are not being able to access the performance grant. The social
audit should also assess this aspect and suggest modality for GP to receive the
Performance Grants.’
The document further lists the ‘Broad Issues to be taken note of under Social
Audit of FFC Grants to Gram Panchayats’. Let’s have a look at these:
 Utilisation of FFC Grants in the basic services (water supply, sanitation
including septage management, sewerage and solid waste management,
storm water drainage, maintenance of community assets, maintenance of
roads, footpaths and street-lighting, and burial and cremation grounds, and
any other basic service within the functions assigned to them under relevant
legislations.)
 The extent to which the FFC Grants individually or in convergence with the
funds of other Central / State scheme funds were utilized towards
development of assets for the basic services and their proper operation and
maintenance are to be studied. It would also be essential to observe that
the funds are judiciously utilized for a proper mix of all essential basic services
as required by the community instead of pooling the entire grant to just one
or two services only.
The Social Audit shall make on the spot visit / study of GPs to ascertain that
the funds provided through FFC Grants on the recommendation of MoPR
are fruitfully and optimally utilized for creating/providing good quality basic
services in GPs/Rural areas as mentioned above.
 Receipt of FFC Performance Grants by the Gram Panchayats.
The FFC Performance Grants are provided to the GPs based on their
compliance to the requirements of submission of audited accounts, increase
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144 Material
in Own Source Revenues (OSR), Open Defecation Free (ODF) status and Panchayati Raj
Child Immunization Status. Whether the GPs has been able to receive the Income and State
share of FFC Performance Grant released to the State will need to be Control
checked and if not received, the reasons therefor may be identified for
future improvements. NOTES
 Quality of Works/Activities taken up with FFC Grants
Many capital intensive asset creation activities utilizing the FFC Grants would
also need to be evaluated for not only their adherence to time and cost
targets but also towards satisfactorily fulfilling the quality specifications/
standards. This may be evaluated by physically inspecting the structures as
well interaction with the end beneficiaries.
 Geo-Tagging of the Photos of FFC Assets
To enable accountability and transparency, it has been mandated to upload
the photo images of the FFC Assets at three different phases of their creation
through the mActionSoft app in the ActionSoft portal. It may be required to
evaluate that the requirement is complied with along with the efficacy of the
uploaded images actually matching with the reality existing at the ground
level.
 Use of proper accounting systems through PRIASoft/ State specific
software applications and PFMS
The GPs are required to make digitally all their payments to the vendors/
service providers out of the FFC funds through the online system of
PRIASoftPFMS or State Specific Software applications. A Model
Accounting System (MAS) has been created towards the purpose towards
codifying various categories of expenditure and incorporated in the system.
It may be studied by the Social Audit Team as to whether the system of
proper accounting has been followed by the GPs and they are able to
properly classify the types of expenditures made out of FFC grants by
allocating proper expenditure codes while entering the details in the PRIASoft
system.
 Creation of Awareness / Public Display of FFC works/activities
MoPR has advised to create public awareness and also ensure accountability
/ transparency through public display boards containing essential and updated
information on FFC Activities/Works. The compliance to these at the GPs/
Villages may be physically checked for their adequacy.
 Effective Convergence of FFC with Other Central / State schemes
The GPDPs are to be prepared taking into considering availability of funds
under various Central / State Schemes and after getting the fuller picture of
total resource envelope. Adherence to the effective convergence towards
achievement of synergy in basic services for the citizens are to be evaluated
at the time of Social Auditing.
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Panchayati Raj  Improvement in Own Resource Revenues (OSR) out of FFC assets.
Income and State The creation of assets out of FFC grants would also facilitate the GPs to
Control
collect user fees from the consumers which would enhance their Own
Source Revenues (OSR) towards self – sufficiency. The extent to which
NOTES
the GPs are progressing towards this objective are also to be studied.
 Establishment and Effectiveness of Grievance Redressal Systems
The success of governance systems essentially lies in the speed and
effectiveness within which the grievances of the public are redressed. In this
regard, the GPs are required to establish Grievance Redressal System/
Mechanism. The adherence to the stipulations / rules towards grievance
redressal system/mechanism by the GPs are to be evaluated.
Remedial Actions for Non-Compliance
The social audit will verify compliance to the requirements of the various issues to
comply to prescribed standards/ guidelines and suggest remedial actions in case
of observations of non-compliance.
Check Your Progress

1. List some of the taxes which may be levied by the gram panchayats.
2. What does the property of Nagar panchayat include?
3. When was the Ministry of Panchayati Raj created?
4. Which Section of the MGNREG Act mandated the social audit of gram
sabha?
5. What is the basis on which FFC performance grants are provided to the
gram panchayats?

QUESTIONS
1. In most states, some of the taxes may be levied by the gram panchayats
including taxes like house tax, tax on immovable property, commercial crops,
cattle tax, fee for water supply, lighting tax, octroi, sanitation fee, drainage
tax etc.
2. The property of Nagar Panchayat includes public buildings, public roads
constructed or maintained out of their funds and all land or other property
transferred to them by the government.
3. The Ministry of Panchayati Raj was created in May 2004.
4. Section 17 of the MGNREG Act says that the Gram Sabha shall conduct
Social Audit of all the projects under the scheme taken up within the Gram
Self-Instructional
Panchayat.
146 Material
5. The FFC Performance Grants are provided to the GPs based on their Panchayati Raj
compliance to the requirements of submission of audited accounts, increase Income and State
in Own Source Revenues (OSR), Open Defecation Free (ODF) status and Control
Child Immunization Status.
NOTES
10.5 SUMMARY
 Panchayats can efficiently perform their duties and activities only when they
have adequate resources of finance. For these, the panchayats depend on
State government approved grants and disbursements.
 Additionally, they receive taxes and revenue from owned or rented assets.
Further, they may also receive a portion from the taxes, duties, tolls and
fees that are levied and collected by the state government.
 In most states, some of the taxes may be levied by the gram panchayats.
 Panchayat Samiti (Nagar Panchayat) can impose tax on facilities provided
by them. Panchayat also receive income from the property vested in them.
They also receive grants from the state governments.
 Zila Parishad like the panchayats and panchayat samitis are authorised to
impose taxes. When development schemes are entrusted to them, necessary
funds are also provided. They also receive grants from the state grants and
donation from the public and from charitable institutions, and may also raise
loans.
 A State Finance Commission is constituted every five years on the
recommendation of the Governor to provide valuable inputs for improving
the financial positions of the Panchayats and provide details regarding the
distribution of income between the State and the panchayats.
 73rd Amendment Act has provided and has power to the rural local bodies,
but it does not mean that they have limitless authority and freedom. Some
measures of control over Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) are not only
desirable but are also necessary.
 The state control is very much needed for proper directions, amalgamation
and coordination of the Civic services, and for security, consistency and
continuity both in the formulation and implementation of national policies.
 The following are the major types of control exercised by the state
governments over PRIs: institutional, administrative, technical and financial.
 Social audits of the activities of the Gram Panchayat has been mandated by
the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
(MGNREGA) and the Fourteenth Finance Commission.
 Social Audit is the audit of a scheme jointly by the Government and the
people, especially by those who are affected by the scheme or its
Self-Instructional
Material 147
Panchayati Raj beneficiaries. It is a powerful tool to promote transparency, accountability
Income and State and people’s participation in the schemes meant for them.
Control
 The mechanism of social audit is essential for the effective functioning of
Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRI). It is necessary, not only in assessing the
NOTES
optimal use of resources, but in suggesting the corrective steps as well.
10.6 KEY WORDS
 Fourteenth Finance Commission: It was the finance commission

constituted in 2013 which submitted its report in 2015 which were applicable
for five years.
 Social Audit: It is the audit of a scheme jointly by the Government and the
people, especially by those who are affected by the scheme or its
beneficiaries

EXERCISES
1. How is the budget prepared and passed for panchayat samiti and zila
parishad?
2. What do the state finance commission provide recommendations on?
3. Write a short note on the sources of income of Panchayat, Panchayat Samitis
and Zila Parishads.
4. Why is state control important for rural local bodies?
1. Discuss the various types of state control over PRIs.
2. Explain the issues of importance in social audits for FFC grants.

University Press.
Agarwal.
Self-Instructional
148 Material
Websites: Panchayati Raj
Income and State
‘Social Audit of Fourteenth Finance Commission (FFC) Grants’Activities / Works Control
of Gram Panchayats’ by the Ministry of Panchayati Raj <https://www.
panchayat.gov.in/documents/20126/0/Social+Audit+Brouchure.pdf/43ccfdd7- NOTES
ced8-af53-83ea-cac97e3ceb11?t=1573801815587>
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Material 149
Urban Local Self
Government: Sources of
Income and State UNIT 11 URBAN LOCAL SELF
Control
GOVERNMENT: SOURCES
NOTES
OF INCOME AND STATE
CONTROL
Structure
11.0 Introduction
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Sources of Income for Urban Local Self Government
11.3 State Control Over Urban Local Self Government Institutions
11.5 Summary
11.6 Key Words
11.0 INTRODUCTION
The significance of finance is too obvious to need any elaboration as no

organization can exist, much less achieve its objectives, without finances. In
fact, finance constitutes the backbone of the life and blood of government; it
provides fuel to the administrative machinery. Sound fiscal policy is therefore of
crucial importance to the government whether Central, state or local. Imprudent
financial management not only is wasteful to the government, but also eliminates
its benefits from reaching the people, and may endanger its very existence. The
responsibilities of municipal bodies have tremendously increased as a result of
the rapid increase in urbanization and adoption of welfare state as the ultimate
goal of our polity. In this unit, you will learn about the sources of income of
urban local self government along with the dynamics of state control over these
governments.
11.1 OBJECTIVES

 Explain the sources of income of urban local self government
 Discuss state control over urban local self government
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150 Material
Urban Local Self
11.2 SOURCES OF INCOME FOR URBAN LOCAL Government: Sources of
Income and State
SELF GOVERNMENT Control
In any multi-level pattern of government, the effectiveness with which the lower NOTES
units would operate is determined to a large extent on how their finances are
organized in relation to their functional responsibilities. Local government finance
is therefore of great importance. In order to be able to discharge their obligations
with respect to development and improvement of their respective areas, provision
of civic amenities and welfare services, municipal bodies require adequate financial
resources commensurate with the task assigned to them. But unfortunately, with
rapid urbanization causing continuing and mounting pressure on the civic facilities
and amenities, it is regrettable that the importance of these obligations with adequate
resources has never been sufficiently recognised. Since independence, this aspect
has been inquired into by numerous central and state commissions and committees
but their recommendations have not been matched with adequate follow up action
towards implementation. Decentralization movement of the post independence
period has not radically adhered to financial conditions of local government and
they continue to suffer from paucity of resources and the gap between their finances
and desired level of services is continuously widening.
Powers of taxation of local government
Local governments in India do not have the inherent power of taxation. The
Constitution does not specify any taxes for their exclusive use. It may, however,
be mentioned that the Scheduled Tax Rules framed under the Government of
India Act 1919, contained an exclusive list of taxes to be utilised by or for the local
authorities. These rules were repealed with abolition of the distinction between
provincial and local taxation in the new Federal scheme embodied in the
Government of India Act 1935, putting every local tax into the basket of the tax
resources of the provincial governments. The present constitution of India has
inherited and sanctified the same arrangement. As such, local governments are
empowered to levy only such taxes as have been approved by the state government.
Consequently, they are at the mercy of the state government in respect of their
finances.
Municipal Budget
Municipal budget is the annual financial statement of the anticipated income and
expenditure of the concerned Municipal body. Budget preparation is usually the
occasion for determining the levels of taxation and the ceilings on expenditure. The
main objective of the budget is to ensure that funds are raised and money is spent
by the executive departments in accordance with rules and regulations and within
the limits of sanctions and authorisations by the Municipal Council.
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Urban Local Self Sources of income of municipal bodies
Income and State
Control Constitutionally, local bodies in India as discussed earlier have not been provided
with a separate list of taxes and they are therefore at the mercy of the state
NOTES government for their financial resources. Consequently, there is a universal complaint
that local bodies, which are responsible for managing city services, do not have
adequate resources to justify their existence. The existing source of income of
municipal bodies can be classified into four categories: local taxes/tax revenue;
non-tax revenue; grants-in-aid and loans/borrowings.
Local taxes
Local taxes constituted the major portion of municipal income resources. It is
about two thirds of the revenue collected by the municipal bodies. A Municipal
committee can impose a number of taxes, such as octroi tax, tax on property, tax
on vehicles (other than motor vehicles), tax on property and advertisement tax.
The scope of taxation is somewhat larger in the case of a municipal corporation in
view of the broader functions it is expected to perform. The taxes, levied by it are:
tax on land and buildings, octroi, tax on vehicles and animals, tax on advertisements
(other than advertisements published in newspaper) tax on buildings, tax on
professions, trades, callings and employments and any other tax which the state
legislator has power to impose under the constitution, subject to the prior approval
of the government. Though the tax heads of a municipal corporation are not very
extensive as compared to those of a Municipal committee, they are exploited
more intensively. In the following are listed some of the taxes which a local Body
can levy: property tax, registration fees, fair tax, animal tax, market tax, octroi tax,
terminal tax, turnover tax, toll on new bridges, vehicles tax (non-motorized),
betterment tax, conservancy tax, lighting tax, sanitation tax scavenging tax, water
text, advertisement tax, entertainment tax, profession tax, pilgrim tax, special
education tax, etc.
Of all the taxes levied by Municipal bodies the most important from the
point of view of revenue are discussed as follows:
 Octroi
Octroi is the tax on entry of goods into a local area for consumption, use or sale
therein. A Municipal body initiates a proposal by adopting a special resolution to
levy a tax and the state government may sanction the same or refuse to sanction it
or return it for reconsideration. At present, the municipal bodies are free to rationalize
their octroi schedules and rates having regard to their requirements which would
be lost if octroi is substituted by surcharge.
 Property tax
Property tax is levied on building and lands on the basis of their rental value instead
of their capital value as the former is easier to determine on the basis of market
rent and is not subject to wide fluctuations as the capital values of the properties
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are. A Municipal body by a resolution passed at a special meeting and confirmed Urban Local Self
by the state government can impose, suspend, reduce or abolish the tax or exempt Income and State
in whole or in part from the payment of any such tax, any person or class of Control
persons or any property or description of property.
NOTES
 Profession tax
Profession tax is levied on trade professionals and callings and may be termed as
local Income Tax. It is elastic as it automatically increases with increase in income
and population. Moreover, since it is a personal tax, it assures quick and easy
payment.
 Entertainment tax
Entertainment tax is levied on programs and luxuries including betting and gambling.
Generally, entertainments are charitable, religious and educational purposes. The
tax is determined, imposed and collected by the state government and after the
close of each year it is reimbursed to the municipal body concerned in whole or in
part.
 Advertisement tax
Municipal corporations are empowered to levy tax on advertisements other than
those published in the newspapers with the prior sanction of the state government.
Anyone who displays and advertisement on any land, building, post or structure
or in any vehicles plying within Municipal area, or by means of cinematograph,
has to pay this tax. However, any advertisement relating to public meetings for
election to Parliament or state legislature or the corporation is exempted from
such tax.
Non tax revenue
Non tax revenue of municipal bodies consists of receipts from fees and fines,
incomes from remunerative enterprises and miscellaneous sources. The primary
purpose of collecting fees and fines is regulation and control of trade, markets,
industrial establishments and eating places, rather than resources mobilization.
Revenue from remunerative enterprises comprises incomes derived from leasing
out market-places, slaughter-houses, commercial buildings, exhibition grounds,
stadia, swimming pools and other Municipal properties.
Grants-in-aid
Grants-in-aid form an important constituent of municipal finance. A payment made
from the treasury of the state government to a local authority for the purpose of
assisting that authority in carrying out a part or all of its activities is known as grant
in aid. The revenues of local bodies are inelastic in relation to their needs and as a
result there is a tendency for the gap between the two to go on widening. This gap
is narrowed down as far as possible by the provision of more finances by the state
government in the form of grants in aid. When the state governments assign more
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Urban Local Self and more functions to the local authorities, they are under a moral obligation to
Income and State assist them to carry out these functions, particularly when the principal sources of
Control revenue have already been tapped by them.
NOTES Loans
Municipal bodies are obliged to borrow from State Government and other Agencies
to meet emergencies and for capital expenditure which they cannot afford out of
their revenues. Their borrowings are regulated by central law known as the Local
Authorities Loan Act, 1914.
11.3 STATE CONTROL OVER URBAN LOCAL SELF

GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
Urban local bodies are controlled by all the organs of government, i.e., legislature,
administrative and judiciary. The methods of control are as follows:
Legislative control
It is one of the most important method of control over urban local bodies
because these institutions come in existence by the act of Legislature the state
government has the power to make law about urban local government.
Following aspects are considered before making laws: (a) Rules of elections;
(b) Rules about meetings; (c) Income and expenditure; (d) Developmental
plans; (e) Property; (f) Taxation and grants, loans, provident funds, other
service conditions of personnel; (g) The recommendations to be given by State
officials to municipalities.
Means of Legislative control
From among the various means of Legislative control such as discussions and
debates and different kinds of motions like call attention, adjournment and privilege,
questions asked by the members of the Legislature during the question hour
constitute the most powerful means of soliciting information about different aspects
of municipal administration from the Minister concerned. The questions raised in
the Assembly generally relate to issues like Municipal Elections, including
preparation of electoral rolls, election petitions, gazette notification of elected
members, removal of members, writs filed in the High Court, supersession and
abolition of municipal committees, personnel, finance and day-to-day administration
of municipal bodies.
Legislative control over Municipal bodies as discussed above is of great
significance, but it cannot be exercised in an effective manner going to paucity of
time at the disposal of the legislators, technical nature of municipal administration
and political considerations, biases and prejudices of the ruling party.
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Administrative control Urban Local Self
Income and State
Administrative control over municipal bodies is the most effective type of control Control
extending to every aspect of municipal administration. The administrative control
is also known as executive control. This control plays an important role in local NOTES
administration. It comprises of determination of criteria for the creation of different
kinds of municipal bodies: (a) the state government determines the standard of
services which should be maintained in urban local bodies; (b) the state government
can terminate any number of municipality if they misuse their power; (c) the state
government can define, increase or decrease the territorial limits of any Municipal
body; (d) the state government can fix the number of the elected members and the
seats to be reserved for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes; (e) it can
conduct of free and fair elections; (f) it can de-limit the wards; (g) it can appoint
associate members and officials Advisors, extend the term of office of members
or its reduction due to supersession dispose of election petitions, remove members
and office bearers such as President and Vice Presidents, etc.; (h) the laws prepared
by the State Government have to be approved by the state government; (i) the
state government can inspect various projects and programmes run by urban local
bodies through its officers.
Judicial control
There are so many methods by which Judiciary can control urban local bodies.
Judicial control is intended to safeguard the rights of individuals against their
encroachment by Municipal authorities and those of municipal bodies against
infringement by the state government. Judicial control is not only limited to the
right of an aggrieved individual to sue a local authority for damages, there are, in
addition, remedies available to secure the performance by local authorities of
their statutory duties or to restrain them from being acting outside their jurisdiction.
The remedies available are in the form of various kinds of writs such as injunction,
certiorari, prohibition, mandamus and quo warranto. Injunction is a writ
issued by a court requiring a person or a party to refrain from doing a thing.
Certiorari enables a Superior Court to send for the record of the proceedings
and orders of a Lower court to enquire into its legality and to quash the order if
found beyond its jurisdiction. Prohibition is issued by a superior court to an
inferior court and also to an authority exercising judicial or quasi-judicial functions
for the purpose of preventing it from usurping jurisdiction with which it is with
vested. The writ of mandamus is in the nature of a command issued by a court
to any person or public body to do something which is a part of their official
duty. The writ of quo warranto can be applied for or by any member of the
public to challenge the rights of a person to hold a public office and to get him
ousted if he has unlawfully usurped or intruded into such office. Judiciary has the
power to interpret laws governing the local government, bye laws and rules
made there under and declare them ultra-vires, if they contravene the constitution
or some provisions of other laws. The courts, however, do not interfere in
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Urban Local Self Municipal administration on their own. They intervene only on the initiative of
Income and State the aggrieved party and when they are satisfied that errors of law, fact-finding,
Control jurisdiction and procedure have been committed. If the local bodies hamper the
rights of citizens the Judiciary can provide help to the aided person or institution.
NOTES The Judiciary examines the functions performed by urban local bodies whether
they are in the limits of law or not. Urban local bodies can also take protection
of Judiciary if the state government hampers their rights. Judiciary can bind urban
local bodies to perform their compulsory functions. The Judiciary can declare
any function illegal which is not in their jurisdiction. The Judiciary, thus, plays an
important role in providing justice to the aggrieved parties against the arbitrary
and unlawful actions of the Municipal bodies and the state government. But
judicial control is not very effective because, first, the judiciary never takes the
initiative, but intervenes only on being approached by the aggrieved citizen or
by someone interested in the case, consequently many cases are never brought
to the notice of the courts; second, litigation is a very expensive affair which a
private citizen of moderate means can ill afford; third, the judicial process is
very lengthy, dilatory and time-consuming and is therefore very discouraging
and frustrating for the persons concerned to take recourse to court of law;
fourth, Municipal Acts and the Municipal Corporation Acts of some States bar
the jurisdiction of the courts in certain cases.
Limitations of state control over urban local self government
institutions
The various limitations of control are: (a) the control is more or less negative; (b)
the Bureaucracy also controls the urban local bodies; (c) state government keeps
so many terms and conditions before giving grants to local bodies; (d) the permission
of the state government has to be taken if it exceeds the prescribed limit; (e) the
collector is overburdened with work, therefore, he cannot exercise effective control
over administration.
Arguments concerning State Control over Urban Local Self
There are two opposite views concerning the supervision and control of state
government over Municipal bodies. The advocates of population who are
supporters of an inherited Municipal democracy believe that the control and
supervision of the Municipal institutions is unwarranted, unnecessary and fraught
with mischief; and that self-government would cease to be so if it is made subject
to external control and supervision. They further contend that decentralization
implies complete autonomy without any outside restrictions and limitations, that
centralisation of powers would tend to transform local government into local
administration; and that the strength of a central government that tries to keep
local government weak, is an illusive strength.
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Supporters of paternalism, to the contrary, hold the view that Municipal Urban Local Self
bodies have to be regularly controlled, supervised, guided and occasionally Income and State
punished for their acts of omission and commission. It is argued that since Control
constitutionally Municipal government falls within the provisions of the state
government, the latter has the power to determine their structure functions and NOTES
financial resources. Being sovereign bodies created by the state government,
they are amenable to its control and their autonomy is limited, for according to
them, the autonomy of municipal bodies implies the degree of self government
within the scope of their functions, but it does not mean that they have unlimited
authority and freedom. They, therefore, are of the view that some measure of
control of state government over the municipal Institutions is not only desirable
but also necessary. They hold that ever since the inception of statutory institutions
of local government, the state government has reserved the rights to regulate
their structural autonomy and has not treated decentralization as something
sacrosanct but as a device to aid the achievement of the ends of government.
State control over municipal bodies is favoured for other reasons also. It enables
the government to put into operation a policy which individual local institutions
may find annoying or unduly restrictive of their initiative. The state government
can also lay down certain minimum standards of administration below which the
services of the local authorities should not be allowed to fall. State control is
also needed for proper direction, unification and coordination of the civic services
and for securing consistency and continuity both in the formulation and the
implementation of the national policies. If the central or state governments are to
be held responsible for the financial soundness of local bodies, they must have
the power to exercise financial control in a measure sufficient enough to prevent
mismanagement.
From the above discussion it is very much clear that the state control over
Municipal bodies is justified on the ground that it is conducive to the maintenance
of a reasonable degree of efficiency; that it helps in weaning away local bodies
from vested interest; that it adds in augmentation of financial resources of the local
bodies which are generally reluctant to impose Direct Access; that it makes for
minimising regional imbalances and ensure stability and uniformity in administration;
that its safeguards national interest in there embryonic stages and that it facilitates
more sound socio-economic planning.
Check Your Progress

1. Who are the local governments at the mercy of in respect of their finances?
2. List some of the tax revenues for urban local bodies.
3. What is the nature of revenues of urban local bodies?
4. Mention the judicial remedies available in case of urban local bodies.
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Urban Local Self
Government: Sources of 11.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Income and State
Control QUESTIONS
NOTES 1. Local governments are empowered to levy only such taxes as have been
approved by the state government. Consequently, they are at the mercy of
the state government in respect of their finances.
2. An Urban Body can levy: property tax, registration fees, fair tax, animal
tax, market tax, octroi tax, terminal tax, turnover tax, toll on new bridges,
vehicles tax (non-motorized), betterment tax, conservancy tax, lighting tax,
sanitation tax scavenging tax, water text, advertisement tax, entertainment
tax, profession tax, pilgrim tax, special education tax, etc.
3. The revenues of local bodies are inelastic in relation to their needs and as a
result there is a tendency for the gap between the two to go on widening.
This gap is narrowed down as far as possible by the provision of more
finances by the state government in the form of grants in aid.
4. The remedies available are in the form of various kinds of writs such as
injunction, certiorari, prohibition, mandamus and quo warranto.
11.5 SUMMARY
 The significance of finance is too obvious to need any elaboration as no

organisation can exist, much less achieve its objectives, without finances.
 Finance constitutes the backbone of the life and blood of government; it
provides fuel to the administrative machinery. Sound fiscal policy is therefore,
of crucial importance to the government whether Central, state or local.
 Civic facilities and amenities, it is regrettable that the importance of these
obligations with adequate resources has never been sufficiently recognised.
 Local governments are empowered to levy only such taxes as have been
approved by the state government.
 Municipal budget is the annual financial statement of the anticipated income
and expenditure of the concerned Municipal body. Budget preparation is
usually the occasion for determining the levels of taxation and the ceilings
on expenditure.
 The existing source of income of municipal bodies can be classified into
four categories: local taxes/tax revenue; Non-tax revenue; grants-in-aid;
loans/borrowings.
 The urban local bodies are controlled by all the organs of government, i.e.,
legislature, administrative and Judiciary.
 Legislative control is one of the most important method of control over
urban local bodies because these institutions come in existence by the act
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158 Material
of Legislature the state government has the power to make law about urban Urban Local Self
local government. Income and State
Control
 Administrative control over municipal bodies is the most effective type of
control extending to every aspect of municipal administration. The
NOTES
administrative control is also known as executive control. This control plays
an important role in local administration. It comprises of determination of
criteria for the creation of different kinds of municipal bodies.
 Judicial control is intended to safeguard the rights of individuals against their
encroachment by Municipal authorities and those of municipal bodies against
infringement by the state government.
 There are two opposite views concerning the supervision and control of
state government over Municipal bodies.
 The advocates of population who are supporters of an inherited Municipal
democracy believe that the control and supervision of the Municipal
institutions is unwarranted, unnecessary and fraught with mischief; and that
self-government would cease to be so if it is made subject to external control
and supervision.
 Supporters of paternalism, to the contrary, hold the view that Municipal
bodies have to be regularly controlled, supervised, guided and occasionally
punished for their acts of omission and commission.
11.6 KEY WORDS
 Municipal budget: It is the annual financial statement of the anticipated

income and expenditure of the concerned Municipal body.
 Non tax revenue: It consists of receipts from fees and fines, incomes from
remunerative enterprises and miscellaneous sources.
 Grant in aid: It refers to a payment made from the treasury of the state
government to a local authority for the purpose of assisting that authority in
carrying out a part or all of its activities is known as grant in aid.

EXERCISES
1. Write a short note on the origin of municipal sources of taxes in India.
2. What is the objective of a municipal budget?
3. List the limitations of state control over urban local self government
institutions.
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Urban Local Self 4. Briefly explain the arguments concerning state control over urban local self
Income and State government institutions.
Control
NOTES 1. Describe the sources of income of municipal bodies.
2. Examine the methods of state control over urban local self government.

University Press.
Agarwal.
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Rural Development
BLOCK - V
ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN LOCAL
SELF GOVERNMENT
NOTES
UNIT 12 RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Structure
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Rural Development: Meaning and Schemes
12.3 Major Central Government Programmes
12.3.2 Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-National Urban Livelihoods Mission
(DAY-NULM)
12.3.3 Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
(MGNREGA)
12.3.4 Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY)
12.3.5 Prime Minister's Rozgar Yojana (PMRY)
12.3.7 Pradhan Mantri Awaas Yojana - Gramin (PMAY-G)
12.4 Challenges
12.6 Summary
12.7 Key Words
12.0 INTRODUCTION
Rural development is considered to be one of the most important area of work for
the government solely because even after more than seventy years of independence,
the majority of Indian population in engaged in primary activities and resides in the
countryside. While this is not a problem simply by its nature, it is a problem when
viewed from an economics perspective. This is to say that the income levels, the
infrastructure facilities, the human development and the overall livelihood of the
rural population is not at par with the urban population. There is a huge gap or
inequality in the way resources are being used and incomes redistributed. It is the
duty of the government to assist the rural communities reach a sustainable and
respectable living standard for the growth and well-being of the entire country. In
this unit, you will learn about the current scenario of rural development, some of
the major rural development policies by the government and the problems and
challenges of rural development in India.
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Rural Development
12.1 OBJECTIVES

NOTES  Describe the meaning of rural development
 Discuss the central government programmes for rural development
 Explain the challenges of rural development
12.2 RURAL DEVELOPMENT: MEANING AND

SCHEMES
In its most generic form ‘development’ is any activity or progress which increases
the wellbeing of humans and the environment. Too often it is accidentally or
deliberately confused with the concept of growth (particularly economic growth
including consumerism and commercialism). But growth isn’t always development,
which must include things like reduction of poverty and increased quality of life,
modernization, equity, health, democracy, freedom, fair trade and conservation.
Traditionally, a developed country is a country that is technologically
advanced and that enjoys a relatively high standard of living. In most cases,
countries with high per capita GDP are “developed countries”, while a developing
nation is the one which progresses towards achieving this growth so as to give the
same standard of living to its citizens.
India lives in its villages and is not found in its few cities, but several thousand
villages. The share of rural population in 2019 was 65.23 percent according to a
recent study. The country’s development landscape is often held synonymous with
development of the people living in rural areas. Since independence the five year
plans have focussed on the development of the rural communities in various ways.
The concept of rural development has been at the forefront and has received
significant attention of all the governments. In India, rural development holds special
mention for two very important reasons. First, is its large population that still lives
in the villages. Second, with such a large population living in rural areas, its
backwardness shall impede the overall growth of the nation. Rural economy
therefore holds the key for rural development. It constitutes 46 percent of national
income and even as we see an upsurge in urbanization, fifty percent of country’s
population shall remain rural by 2050. The growth and development of rural
economy and rural communities are key drivers of India’s development.
In India, the Ministry of Rural Development (MORD) is responsible for
conceptualizing and implementing program for rural development. The ministry is
actively involved in implementing a wide range of programmes that focuses on
poverty reduction, employment generation, infrastructure development and social
security. As of now the ministry is implementing Mahatma Gandhi National Rural
Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS), Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana –
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National Rural Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NRLM), Deen Dayal Upadhyay – Rural Development
Gramin Kaushalya Yojana (DDU-GKY), Pradhan Mantri Awaas Yojana – Gramin

(PMAY-G), Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY), Shyama Prasad
Mukherjee National RuRBAN Mission and National Social Assistance Programme
(NSAP) to bring desired development in the rural areas of the entire country. NOTES
The section below provides a snapshot of rural development schemes introduced
and already running as mentioned in the Union Budget 2020:
 Housing: Under the aegis of Ujjwala and Saubhagya Yojana the government
has assured to provide electricity and clean cooking facility to all willing
rural families by 2022. The Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana – Gramin (PMAY-
G) has also earmarked 1.95 crore houses to eligible beneficiaries. The
provisions also exist to provide facilities like toilets, electricity and LPG
connections. Also the new guideline proposes to complete a single unit in
114 days as against 314 days.
 Sanitation: The much talked about Swachh Bharat Mission gets a new
push to undertake sustainable solid waste management in every village.
 Digitalization: Digitalization has become very important in the recent years
and rural villages cannot be left out. To give boost to connectivity the Bharat-
Net, program is set to assure internet connectivity to local bodies in every
panchayat.
 Connectivity: Connecting the villages is very important for speeding the
development discourse. It has been proposed to upgrade 1,25,000
kilometres of the road over the next five years under Pradhan Mantri Gram
Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) Phase III.
 Rural Economy: India is an agrarian society and a boost to its rural economy
is a must. Over the years the contribution of rural villages in national economy
has grown steadily. Several schemes have been launched to strengthen the
rural economy. For instance, the Scheme of Fund for Upgradation and
Regeneration of Traditional Industries’ (SFURTI), aims at establishing
Common Facility Centres (CFCs) to facilitate cluster-based development
during 2019-20 with special focus on Bamboo, Honey and Khadi. Similarly,
the Scheme for Promotion of Innovation, Rural Industry and
Entrepreneurship’ (ASPIRE), Livelihood Business Incubators (LBIs) and
Technology Business Incubators (TBIs) are to be established with an
objective of developing entrepreneurs in agro-rural industry sectors. Under
Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY) it is aimed to create
robust fisheries management framework to give boost to fisheries.
 Water Conservation Schemes: Water is the mainstay of human life. While
the access to water for various kinds of consumption is not as difficult in the
urban areas the rural areas score low on the same. Various schemes including
Jal Shakti Abhiyan, Atal Bhoojal Yojna, Jal Jeevan Mission and Samagra
Shikha Jal Suraksha are being proposed. Focused on 256 water stressed
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Rural Development districts and 1592 blocks the Jal Shakti Abhiyan aims at water conservation
including the rainwater harvesting; renovation of traditional and other water
bodies; water reuse and recharge; watershed development and management
and intensive afforestation. Covering 78 districts, 193 blocks and more
NOTES than 8,300 gram panchayats the Atal Bhujal Yojana will be launched in
Gujarat, Maharashtra, Haryana, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and
Madhya Pradesh. The main objectives of the scheme include groundwater
recharge and storage for agricultural usage and the revival of surface water
bodies to increase the groundwater level. With an estimated budget of 3.5
lakh crore the Jal Jeevan Mission aims at providing drinking water connections
to all homes by the year ending 2024. The project also aims at providing
access to water and toilets to women. Samagra Shikha Jal Suraksha project
focuses on students’ participation in creating awareness about water
conservation. It aims to connect more than 10 crore students with the
program.
 Sabki Yojna Sabka Vikas: India is home to the world largest democratic
system. At the heart of it lies the Panchayati Raj System which provides
power to local self governance structures and processes. The country houses
2 lakh 48 thousand 160 Gram Panchayats, 6284 Block Panchayats and
595 District Panchayats with 31 lakhs elected representatives at all levels
of Panchayats. The scheme aims at strengthening the role of 31 lakh elected
Panchayat leaders and 2.5 crores SHG Women under DAY-NRLM in
effective gram sabha and to connect rural people to the mainstream
development.
 Deen Dayal Upadhyay Grameen Kaushal Yojana: With an outlay of
INR 1500 crores the Deen Dayal Upadhyay Grameen Kaushal Yojana
focuses on enhancing employability for the target youth under 15- 35 years
of age. The scheme is operational in 21 states and union territories across
568 districts and 6215 blocks. According to recent data a close to 690
projects are being implemented by 300 partners and over 2.7 lakh candidates
have been trained till now with 1.34 lakh candidates linked to jobs in their
respective trades.
 Roshni: Skill Development Scheme for Tribal: The scheme is focused on
developing skills of tribal youth in 24 Naxal affected districts and offers
them employment. The project is targeted to provide training and employment
to an anticipated 50,000 youth in the age group of 10-35 years, for a period
of three years. Also half of the beneficiaries of the scheme will be women
only.
 National Rural Livelihoods Mission: India has a long history of several
poverty alleviation programs. National Rural Livelihoods Mission is a poverty
alleviation program that was launched in the year 2011 with an objective to
promote self-employment and organization of rural poor. The scheme was
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renamed Deendayal Antayodaya Yojana (DAY-NRLM). The program’s Rural Development
strategy includes mobilization and organization of rural women into self-

managed community institutions such as self-help groups, village
organisations, cluster level federations, producer groups/companies, in a
phased manner. NOTES
 Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme
(MNREGS): Launched in 2006 the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural
Employment Guarantee Scheme is Indian labour law and social security
measure that aims to provide ‘right to work’ to the people falling Below
Poverty Line. The scheme ensures a minimum 100 days of employment in a
year to the local village people with fifty per cent work reserved for women.
The scheme is one of the largest scheme and 90% of funding is borne by the
central government and 10% by the state government.
 National Rural Health Mission (NRHM): Health is a very important
sector. It contributes immensely towards development of productive human
capital. Healthy people shall always build better and stronger nation by
contributing more with their hard work. The National Rural Health Mission
(NRHM), which is now initiated under National Health Mission, is a Central
government’s Mission with an objective of providing accessible, affordable
and accountable quality health services even to the poorest households of
the rural areas.
 Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan: Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is a flagship
program of Government of India’s that focuses on the achievement of
Universalization of Elementary Education (UEE). The program as mandated
by 86th amendment to the Constitution of India provides free and
compulsory Education to the Children of 6-14 years age group. The program
includes opening of the new schools, strengthening existing school
infrastructure, provisioning additional teachers, providing training aids,
developing teaching learning material etc. The program has special focus on
girl child education and children with special needs. It also provides computer
education to reduce the digital divide in rural areas.
Several other schemes also are playing an important role in promoting rural
development across the nation. Across the nation the satisfactory evaluation of the
programs and schemes infuse a new hope especially among the rural communities.
Check Your Progress

1. Which government department is responsible for conceptualizing and
implementing programmes for rural development in India?
2. Mention the poverty alleviation programme launched in the year 2011 with
an objective to promote self-employment and organization of rural poor
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Rural Development
12.3 MAJOR CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
PROGRAMMES
NOTES In this section, you will learn about some of the major central government
programmes for rural development.
The objective of the Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) is to bring
the assisted poor families (Swarozgaris) above the poverty line by ensuring
appreciable sustained level of income over a period of time. This objective is to be
achieved by inter alia organizing the rural poor into Self Help Groups (SHGs)
through the process of social mobilization, their training and capacity building and
provision of income generating assets. The SHG approach helps the poor to build
their self-confidence through community action. Interactions in group meetings
and collective decision-making enables them in identification and prioritization of
their needs and resources. This process would ultimately lead to the strengthening
and socio-economic empowerment of the rural poor as well as improve their
collective bargaining power. The poverty line varies from state to state.
SGSY lays stress on the cluster approach. What this means is that instead
of funding diverse activities, each block should concentrate on a few select activities
(key activities) and attend to all aspects of these activities, so that the Swarozgaris
can draw sustainable incomes from their investments. These key activities should
preferably be taken up in clusters so that the backward and forward linkages can
be effectively established. This would facilitate not only monitoring but more
importantly provision of various services required by the Swarozgaris.
Selection of Key Activities
The success of SGSY will therefore depend, to start with, on the choice of activities.
The key element is that the choice of activity should be based on the local resources,
the aptitude as well as the skill of the people. It is also necessary that the products
have ready market.
The choice of key activities should not be an arbitrary or an ad hoc decision
but should be a carefully thought out process. The Block SGSY committee has a
very important role to play in it. For identifying the key activities that can be taken
up, the committee should ensure that this selection takes place through a participative
process. For selection of key activities, a profile of the poor families, as reflected
in the BPL census should be analysed. There will be poor families with assets,
such as land. Efforts should be made to see that those having a minimum extent of
land are enabled to cross the poverty line by making additional investment on their
lands, such as wells or other irrigation facilities, pump sets and so on. The experience
over the years as well as evaluation studies have shown that investments on land-
based activities have resulted in generation of income on a more sustainable basis.
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The Block SGSY committee should therefore, analyse the potential for farm activities Rural Development
on priority. Care must be taken to see that they also have access to short term
credit and other inputs required in the farm sector to supplement the efforts under
the scheme. The next priority may be given to those who have an inherent skill.
These would primarily be the rural artisans who form a significant segment of the NOTES
rural society. Under the SGSY, rural artisans should be covered in a significant
manner. Another category would be the unemployed educated youth. A number
of them would have been trained under the erstwhile Training Rural Youth for Self-
Employment (TRYSEM) Programme. An inventory may be taken of such people
to find out which activities are best suited for the area. Generally, the people who
are asset-less and skill-less are poorest of poor and are left out under the
programme. Such category of people may require small doses of multiple credit
over a period of time coupled with emphasis on awareness creation, training and
capacity building. The activities which are easier to handle and product is easily
marketable could be identified for such category of people to ensure sustainable
income, so that, they do not fall into debt trap.
The Block SGSY Committee may also look at the potential link plans
prepared by National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD)
as well as any other survey carried out by various banks and industrial/technical
organizations. The local khadi and village industry officials as well as the district
manager of District Industry Centre may also be consulted.
The Block SGSY Committee must interact with as many sarpanches as
possible and also discuss with groups of the rural poor such as the landless labour,
the educated unemployed, those rural poor with lands, the artisan groups and
many others. Where self-help groups are in position, they should also be consulted.
In their discussions, the Committee should explore various opportunities that are
available (provided credit, technology, skill up gradation and marketing are assured)
to enable the poor to cross the poverty line. While conducting this dialogue, the
Block SGSY committee should be equipped with information relating to the
performance of various activities in the village whether such activities are taken up
under government programmes or otherwise. The Committee should use that
knowledge to supplement the traditional knowledge of the poor households and
to facilitate the identification of suitable activities. In this process, the traditional
wisdom of the poor families acquires value and the Block Committee builds upon
the traditional knowledge of the poor families with its knowledge base. It must be
ensured that the consultation process is genuine and not perfunctory in nature.
In so far as on-farm activities are concerned, provision of irrigation facilities
continues to be important. These facilities can be provided either in the form of
open dug wells or bore/tube wells or through lift irrigation or check dams. In other
words, the nature of source is not important for providing irrigation facilities under
SGSY. Effort may be made to bring in as much of the land of the rural poor as
possible under irrigation so that they can have sustainable incomes. Minor irrigation
investment will include cost of well, lifting device and land development—a
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Rural Development composite investment. Working capital requirement can also be considered but
would not be eligible for subsidy.
Minor irrigation projects may be group oriented or individual oriented. It is
preferable to adopt as far as possible, a project approach under minor irrigation
NOTES
instead of spreading the investment in a scattered manner. Minor irrigation can
also be the basis for activity clusters or formation of SHGs.
As regards the non-farm activities, care must be taken to identify only those
activities which result in the production of goods/services that have a ready market.
Based on this consultation process, the committee may identify about 8-10
activities, which they may rank in the order of preference. This list should then be
placed before the general body of the Panchayat Samiti (Block Panchayat). The
Panchayat Samiti should be asked to give its recommendations. The list of selected
key activities, along with the recommendations of the Panchayat Samiti, should
then be forwarded by the Block Development Officer (BDO) to the District SGSY
Committee for consideration. Before sending the list to the District SGSY
Committee, the Block Committee should prepare a brief project report, keeping
in view the guidelines.
The District SGSY Committee will receive the block-wise proposals and
will vet them. The Committee will select about ten activities per block. However,
focus should be on 4-5 Key activities which are identified for training and micro-
enterprise development in a cluster approach for larger number of groups. In the
process, scope for other potential activities should not be excluded. In doing so,
the District SGSY Committee will ensure that the infrastructure already available
in the district—in terms of production, service, training facilities as well as market—
are utilized and that the choice of activity does not require a new effort in all
directions: production as well as marketing. In other words, at least some of the
key elements of the economic chain of the selected activity should be present and
it is only the missing link that needs to be provided. Second, in choosing the
activities, the district level committee will also ensure that Swarozgaris taking up
the activity can realize appreciable incremental income sustained over a period of
time which will help them to effectively cross the poverty line. District Rural
Development Agency’s (DRDAs) may ensure that the anticipated income as
stipulated in the project is realized during the project period in order to enable the
Swarozgaris to cross the poverty line. Generally, one-time assistance/credit injection
might not help the Swarozgaris to cross the poverty line. Therefore, multiple doses
of credit would be necessary which should be ensured through continuous
monitoring and follow up. The Committee will ensure that the views of line
departments are taken into consideration so that the line departments have a
commitment to the key activity being taken up in the respective blocks and provide
required services to the Swarozgaris.
The District SGSY Committee should scrutinize the proposals for each key
activity separately in consultation with the concerned experts including the line
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department officials. In fixing the unit costs for the farm sector, the costs fixed by Rural Development
the regional committees of NABARD should be taken into consideration. With

regard to the loans for various purposes falling under ISB sector of SGSY, the
responsibility of fixing the unit cost and other techno-economic parameters is of
the Committee. NOTES
It must be noted that identification of activities is critical for the success of
the SGSY. It is therefore necessary that it should be done in a careful manner.
Care should however be taken that the market is either readily available or there is
a potential for market creation for the products. This may require engaging the
services of professionals in the field for market research and survey. A detailed
timetable may be drawn up by each DRDA for each Block and the schedule
publicized so that everyone is aware of the selection of key activities.
The District SGSY Committee is empowered to add or delete any activity
in the list of selected key activities with due justification. Any of the selected activities
can be replaced by a new one, if the scope of the former has been exhausted. The
procedure for replacement will be the same as it is for making the original list of
key activities. However, the number of selected key activities should not ordinarily
exceed ten. The DRDAs shall prepare a directory of selected key activities in the
district, which will be consolidated at the state level for preparation of directory of
selected key activities.
Preparation of Project Reports
For each key activity, there should be a project report indicating various elements
such as training, credit, technology, infrastructure and marketing. The project report
should indicate how many people could be covered economically in a block under
a key activity. The tendency to provide finance to a large number of similar units
must be avoided so as to prevent creation of excess capacity.
The project report should also include the balancing infrastructure that needs
to be provided and the costs involved. The district level committee should ensure
that it is well within the limits of the money that is likely to be available under SGSY
infrastructure. Care should be taken to avoid any attempt to create infrastructure
for line departments without concomitant benefit to Swarozgaris. The test of SGSY
will be in additional incomes accrued to Swarozgaris, the additional infrastructure
being only an enabling factor. The project report should specifically include a chapter
on the levels of investment required at individual Swarozgari’s level or by a group.
The economics for group lending should be shown distinctly from that of individual
lending. The project report shall be prepared for each activity and for each block
separately. The project report should indicate that whether the key activity selected
is for an individual or group or both. The economics should also be clearly spelt
out for each of these. The economics should indicate the details of investment
required, the details of returns, the repayment schedule and the net income accruable
to the Swarozgari.
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Rural Development The Committee should undertake the entire exercise in a careful manner
and not as a routine exercise. All expenses relating to this exercise will be borne
by the DRDA from its administrative expenses, which are provided for separately
under the head ‘DRDAAdministration’.
NOTES
The line departments have an important role to play in the entire exercise,
for they will be responsible for the implementation and monitoring of respective
sectoral activities. SGSY would need a very close collaboration between the
implementing agencies and the line departments. Presently, this is lacking or at
least is not taking place in the desired extent. This collaboration must start with the
identification of key activities and preparation of project reports. The line
departments will be responsible for planning and creation of the infrastructure
required for making the key activities successful. In addition, once the bank has
sanctioned the loan, the line departments must ensure that all facilities including
technical guidance are provided to the Swarozgaris. The line departments may
also verify whether the Swarozgaris have the necessary skill requirement and take
steps to train them. The line departments should also satisfy themselves about the
quality of training that is being imparted. They should assist the DRDAs in ensuring
that the Swarozgaris are duly trained in appropriate institutions. It shall be their
responsibility to monitor the progress and whether Swarozgaris are able to derive
the expected levels of income. In other words, the line departments must recognize
that promotion of self-employment in their sector is as much their responsibility as
that of DRDAs/Panchayati Raj Institution/Banks and it should be an integral part
of their day-to-day functioning.
On approval by the District SGSY Committee, the list of selected key
activities as well as the project report of each key activity in respect of each block
should be placed before the governing body of the DRDA. Where no DRDA
exists, it should be placed before the Zila Parishad. On approval, it should be
circulated to the BDO and all the banks in the concerned blocks as well as the
concerned line departments. All the banks in the district would be expected to
follow the model set out in the respective project reports. Under any circumstances,
under-financing of the key activity should not be allowed. This should be reviewed
in the Block SGSY Committee constantly.
The major share of SGSY assistance will be for the key activities. A minimum
of 75 per cent, both by number and funding, will be for the key activities identified
in the block both as group assistance and individual assistance. However, assistance
is not prohibited for other activities. There may be stray instances where a
Swarozgari may like to take up an activity by himself/herself and where the nature
of activity is such that its economic return is assured. SGSY allows such activities
but subject to a limit of 25 per cent of the total number and funding of Swarozgaris
in any given year. It must be noted that this is only an enabling provision for
exceptional cases and it is expected that the funding of key activities will be the
norm. Therefore, the figure of 25 per cent is only the upper limit and should not be
the norm.
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The Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana was remodelled in 2011, to Rural Development
launch the National Rural Livelihood Mission. And in 2015, it was again redesigned
to form the current running Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-National Urban
Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NULM).
NOTES
12.3.2 Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-National Urban Livelihoods
Mission (DAY-NULM)
The mission statement of the same as per its official website is: ‘To reduce poverty
and vulnerability of the urban poor households by enabling them to access gainful
self-employment and skilled wage employment opportunities, resulting in an
appreciable improvement in their livelihoods on a sustainable basis, through building
strong grassroots level institutions of the poor. The mission would aim at providing
shelters equipped with essential services to the urban homeless in a phased manner.
In addition, the mission would also address livelihood concerns of the urban street
vendors by facilitating access to suitable spaces, institutional credit, social security
and skills to the urban street vendors for accessing emerging market opportunities.’
The major components of the DAY-NRLM are:
 Promotion of sustainable institutions of the poor
 Ensuring access to financial services
 Promote diversified livelihoods opportunities for the poor, in farm and non-
farm sectors.
 Promotion of skill development and access to jobs
 Promotion of social inclusion, social development and human development
The key achievements made under the Mission as per the ‘Year Ender Review of
the Ministry of Rural Development 2019’ is furnished below:
(a) Geographical Coverage: The Mission has covered 5894 blocks spread
over 646 districts across 29 States and 5 UTs under the intensive strategy
up to Oct’19.
(b) Social Mobilization/Institution Building: More than 6.47 crore women
have been mobilized into 58.7 lakh Self-Help Groups (SHGs) up to Oct’
During the year 2019-20, up to October, 19; about 67.9 lakh women have
been mobilized in to 6.55 lakh SHGs against the target of mobilizing 93.66
lakh women into 8.10 lakh SHGs.
(c) Social Capital: Community driven approach is central to the Mission’s
implementation strategy. As on date, more than 2.50 lakh Community
Resource Persons have been trained on multiple interventions. This includes
more than 38,032 trained Krishi Sakhi and Pashu Sakhi who provide last
mile livelihoods extension services.
(d) Capitalization Support: During FY 2019-20, capitalization support of
nearly ‘743.1 crore have been provided to SHGs and its federations upto
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Rural Development Oct, 19. Cumulatively, about 8334.7 crore has been provided as
capitalization support under the Mission.
(e) SHG-Bank Linkage: More than 2.59 lakh crore of bank credit has
been accessed by the SHGs since 2013-14. As on date, outstanding bank
NOTES
loans are to the tune of 88,345 crore against the target of 100986 crore
for FY 2019-20.
12.3.3 Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
(MGNREGA)
The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA)
is a legal guarantee that people can use to secure their entitlement of wage
employment. It holds the government responsible for making this employment
available to the people. It is a legal instrument in the hands of the poor based on
the demand of the workers.
The rights-based design of (MGNREGA) has a genesis in the preceding
wage employment programmes. Almost all the rights related features of
MGNREGA are inherited from previous wage employment programme. The
rights based framework was inherited from Maharashtra Employment Guarantee
Act 1977. Under MGNREGA, apart from guaranteeing 100 days of wage
employment, the Panchayati Raj Institutions have been vested with the
responsibility of planning, implementation and monitoring of activities taken up
under the scheme. MGNREGA made the demand factor a conscious strategy
as a right to obtain employment. Financial obligations both of the centre and the
state are part of the legal framework. The MGNREGA guidelines also detail
operational and administrative modalities of implementation seeking to address
the limitations of the earlier wage employment programmes, placing greater
emphasis, for example on planning processes, and Management Information
System (MIS) for improving data management.
However, since the conditions for implementing the rights-based processes
of the Act were not necessarily universally or equally present, the implementation
of the schemes under the Act, immediately with its notification, became the testing
and training ground.
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA)
with its legal framework and rights-based approach was notified on 5 September
2005. It aims at enhancing livelihood security by providing at least one hundred
days of guaranteed wage employment in a financial year to every rural household
whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work. The Act covered
200 districts in its first phase, on 2 February 2006, and was extended to all the
rural districts of the country in phases.
MGNREGA is the first ever law, internationally, that guarantees wage
employment at an unprecedented scale. The primary objective of the Act is
meeting demand for wage employment in rural areas. The works permitted under
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172 Material
the Act address causes of chronic poverty like drought, deforestation and soil Rural Development
erosion, so that the employment generation is sustainable. The Act is also a

significant vehicle for strengthening decentralization and deepening processes of
democracy by giving a pivotal role to local governance bodies, that is, the
Panchayati Raj Institutions. NOTES
Salient Features of the Act

Salient features of the Act are:
 Rights based framework: For adult members of a rural household willing
to do unskilled manual work.
 Time bound guarantee: 15 days for provision of employment, else
unemployment allowance to be paid.
 Limit of working days: Upto 100 days in a financial year per household,
depending on the actual demand.
 Labour intensive works: 60:40 wage and material ratio for permissible
works at the Gram Panchayat; no contractors/machinery.
 Decentralized planning:
(i) Gram Sabha’s to recommend works
(ii) At least 50 per cent of works by Gram Panchayats for execution
(iii) Principal role of PRIs in planning, implementation and monitoring
 Work site facilities: Crèche, drinking water, first aid and shade provided
at worksites
 Women empowerment: At least one-third of beneficiaries should be women
 Transparency and accountability: Proactive disclosure through wall
writings, citizen information boards and MIS and Social Audits
 Funding: 100 per cent cost towards unskilled wages and 75 per cent towards
skilled, semi-skilled and material is borne by central government and 25
per cent of skilled, semi-skilled and material costs is contributed by states.
In addition, 6 per cent administrative expenses are borne by the centre for
effective implementation of the Act.
Recent Initiatives to Strengthen MGNREGA
Over the last few years, based on reports from the field and research inputs on
implementation issues and challenges, the Ministry has taken initiatives to strengthen
the programme implementation at grass root level.
The Fourth edition of MGNREGA Operational Guidelines, 2013 was
released on 2 February 2013. The revised guidelines have attempted to meet
important implementation challenges viz. accurate capturing of demand for the
Scheme, delays in wage payment, issues of transparency and accountability.
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Rural Development Some new initiatives taken under MGNREGA are:
(a) Ensuring Durable and Quality Assets
(i) As a result of various deliberations, focused discussions with experts and
NOTES based on the recommendations of Dr Mihir Shah Committee, the list of
permissible works under MGNREGA was expanded in May 2012 to:
 Strengthen the synergy between MGNREGA and rural livelihoods,
particularly agriculture, and create durable quality assets
 Respond to the demands of states for greater location-specific flexibility
in permissible works
 Help improve the health and ecological situation in rural India, with
particular focus on sanitation
(ii) The contribution from MGNREGA for construction of individual toilets under
Total Sanitation Campaign, now renamed as Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan, has
been increased to 4500 from 1200.
(b) Measures to Ensure Transparency and Accountability
(i) Appointment of Ombudsman at district level for expeditious redressal
of grievances on implementation of MGNREGA: Transparency and
accountability are the cardinal principles underlying the implementation of
MGNREGA. In order to realize an effective redressal of the grievances of
the people, all the states have been directed to establish office of Ombudsman,
which will, as an independent authority, expeditiously redress the grievances
in regard to the implementation of the Scheme. Seven States have appointed
Ombudsman in all the districts. These are Gujarat, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh,
Manipur, Nagaland, Sikkim and West Bengal. Five States have not appointed
Ombudsman in any of the districts. States which are yet to appoint
Ombudsman are Arunachal Pradesh, Goa, Jammu and Kashmir, Mizoram
and Uttar Pradesh. The number of districts in other states where Ombudsman
is functional are: (Total number of districts in the State mentioned within
brackets) Andhra Pradesh: 20(23), Assam: 22(27), Bihar: 13(38),
Chhattisgarh: 13(27), Haryana: 7(21), Himachal Pradesh: 10(12), Jharkhand:
7 (24), Karnataka: 26(30), Maharashtra: 29(33), Meghalaya: 1(7), Orissa:
24(30), Punjab: 5(22), Rajasthan: 20(33), Tamil Nadu: 11(31), Tripura:
3(9) and Uttarakhand: 11(13). The data also reflects that in Sikkim one
Ombudsman is appointed for all the four districts and in West Bengal six
Ombudsmen are appointed for all the 18 districts in the state.
(ii) Social audits: Section 17 of the MGNREG Act requires that Gram Sabha’s
shall monitor the execution of works within the Gram Panchayat (GP). The
Gram Sabha shall conduct regular social audits of all projects taken up
under the scheme within the GP. Social Audit is not only a management tool
but also a platform for public and primary stakeholders of MGNREGA to
scrutinize the resources (both financial and non-financial) used for
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development initiatives. The MGNREGA Audit of Schemes Rules 2011 Rural Development
clearly provides that Social Audit Unit shall facilitate conduct of Social Audit
of the works taken up under the Act in every GP at least once every six
months in the manner prescribed under the rules.
NOTES
(iii) Grievance redressal: Standard Operating Procedures formulated: To
effectively address issues of concern on implementation of MGNREGS
and leakages in the Scheme, the Ministry has formulated the Standard
Operating Procedure (SOP) under Section 27(2) of MGNREGA for
redressing complaints. This was realized during September 2012. The new
mechanism delineates procedures for managing various types of complaints
that will streamline the redressal procedures.
(iv) CAG audit: Performance audit of Mahatma Gandhi NREGA by the
Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG), is in progress and detailed report
is expected soon.
(v) CA audit at GP level: The objective is to make certification of MGNREGA
accounts at the GP level by chartered accountants compulsory over time,
starting with 10 per cent GPs in the identified highest spending district in
each State in 2012-13.
Effective Monitoring of MGNREGA
Recently MGNREGA Sameeksha, the first comprehensive anthology of over 130
major independent evaluation studies on the MGNREGA was published.
MGNREGA Sameeksha provides an objective summary of both, the positive
impacts of the Scheme as well as its constraints.
(a) The Ministry is also in the process of setting up a concurrent evaluation
office (CEO), a system by which the schemes of the Ministry of Rural
Development including MGNREGA will be evaluated in real time during
implementation to identify weaknesses in structure and execution, and enable
the Government to insert mid-course correctives. Concurrent evaluation
would mark a change from the present method of annual studies undertaken
to evaluate schemes.
(b) The Vigilance and Monitoring Committees (V&MCs) are constituted at
state as well as district level to function as important instrument for effective
monitoring of implementation of the programmes of the Ministry of Rural
Development. One of the major objectives of the V&MCs is to provide a
crucial role to the Members of Parliament and elected representatives in
monitoring of implementation of the Rural Development Programmes so
that the schemes are executed in an effective manner and the benefits reach
the poor in full measure.
After the constitution of the XV Lok Sabha, the Ministry of Rural
Development issued guidelines for reconstituting state and district level V&MCs.
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Rural Development It is imperative that the meetings of the Vigilance and Monitoring Committees
(V&MCs) are held regularly in accordance with the guidelines.
MGNREGA, UIDAI and Direct Benefit Transfers
NOTES The Ministry has strongly supported the use of Information Communication
Technology (ICT) to improve programme efficiency, streamline processes as well
as place information in public domain
 e-FMS: An electronic Fund Management System (e-FMS) has been
implemented to reduce delay in payment of wages to workers employed
under the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act. e-
FMS has been implemented in Karnataka, Odisha, Gujarat, Tripura and
Rajasthan, for crediting wages electronically into workers’ Banks/P.O.
accounts leveraging core banking solution of banks and Sanchay Post
Solution of Department of Posts. e-FMS will capture real time transactions,
eliminate delays and leakages apart from parking of funds at various levels
held by different stakeholders.
 e-MMS: Electronic Muster Management System (e-MMS) has been
introduced using mobile based application to capture worksite attendance.
Mobile based application is piloted in Andhra Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.
The e-MMS uses Mobile based technology to capture attendance of labour
and measurements of work done thereby enabling information flow directly
from worksite to the website.
 Aadhar: Ministry is in process of operationalizing Direct Benefit Transfer
(DBT) in identified 51 (46 districts under MGNREGA) districts from 1
June 2013 onwards. DBT will be implemented through e-FMS and
subsequently through Aadhaar Enabled Bridge (APB) once the MGNREGA
beneficiary has an Aadhaar number, which is seeded in the programme
database (MGNREGA).
The key achievements made under the Mission as per the ‘Year Ender
Review of the Ministry of Rural Development 2019’
Achievements under Mahatma Gandhi NREGA for the Year 2019.
Sl.
THEME/ACTIVITY Achievements (01.01.2019 to 17.12.2019)
No.
1 Person-days Generated 249.65 crore
2 Fund released to States/UTs Rs. 65,961 crore
3 Women Participation 56%
4 Rate of Completion of Works 74.96 lakh works completed
5 Job card verification 53.18 lakh Job Cards verified
SECURE has greatly benefitted in creating a
SECURE transparent system for according administrative
(Software for Estimate approval and technical sanction. Now, field
6
Calculation Using Rural Rates functionaries can track, remove obstacles and speed up
for Employment) whole process of workflow. SECURE has been
implemented 24 States and 3 UTs across 595 districts.
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176 Material
12.3.4 Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) Rural Development
Keeping in view the fact that rural roads are vital to economic growth and measures
for poverty alleviation in the village, the government has launched a 100 per cent
Centrally Sponsored Scheme called the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana NOTES
(PMGSY). The Programme seeks to provide connectivity to all unconnected
habitations in the rural areas with a population of more than 500 persons through
good all-weather roads. In respect to the Hill States (North-East, Sikkim, Himachal
Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Uttarakhand) and the Desert Areas, the objective
would be to connect habitations with a population of 250 persons and above.
As per the Year-end report of the Ministry of Rural Development:
 Government approved phase-III of PMGSY for consolidation of 1,25,000
Km Through Routes and Major Rural Links connecting habitations, inter-
alia, to Gramin Agricultural Markets (GrAMs), Higher Secondary Schools
and Hospitals.
 36,037 Km road length has been constructed and 5,952 habitations have
been provided connectivity so far during current year.
 E-marg software for maintenance of roads has been developed and is being
rolled out in all States.
12.3.5 Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana (PMRY)
The Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana (PMRY) was launched on 2 October 1993
to assist less educated and poor unemployed youth in setting up micro level self-
employment ventures. Initially, the PMRY was implemented only in the urban areas
of the country. Since 1994-95, it is being implemented in both urban and rural
areas.
An educated (up to VIII standard) unemployed person living in any part of
the country is eligible under the Scheme and can apply for assistance to the general
manager, DIC in the district to which he belongs. In cases where the applicant
belongs to the cities of Kolkata, Chennai and Mumbai, the application has to be
filed directly with the office of the director of industries and in the office of the
deputy commissioner of the respective zones in case of Delhi.
The Task Force Committees set up at district level or the Task Force
constituted under the Scheme at Sub-divisional level/block level, have been
entrusted with the job of scrutinizing the applications and interviewing the applicants.
The names of applicants approved by Task Force Committee are sponsored by
District Industries Centres (DICs) to the concerned bank branches for sanction of
loans.
In addition to sponsoring of applications by Task Force Committees(s),
bank branches themselves may also receive applications directly from the eligible
persons under the Scheme. However, such applications should be sent to
sponsoring agencies with their observations on the viability and bankability of the
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Rural Development projects. The sponsoring agencies would then formally sponsor such applications
back to the bank branches for sanction of loan.
Contingency Funds for Scheme Administration
NOTES Funds for contingency at the rate of ‘ 250 per case sanctioned, under the Scheme,
are released to the concerned states/UTs from 1996-97 onwards. The
contingency funds are meant for utilization towards meeting expenditure in
administering and supervising PMRY at the DIC level, which includes, inter-
alia, publicity, organization of workshops, motivational and familiarization
programmes for eligible youth.
In order to provide greater flexibility to the states/UTs in utilization of
contingency funds, the expenditure norms have been modified to include
expenditure on training equipment/models, trainer’s fees, training course materials,
hiring of transport and strengthening the existing infrastructure.
Project Profiles
Project Profiles have been prepared for guidance of entrepreneurs in selecting the
viable projects and Training and Trainers Manuals have been developed by the
Ministry through Rural Development and Self Employment Training Institute
(RUDSETI), Karnataka.
Assistance from States/UTs
State/UT Governments may provide necessary infrastructure support like provision
of industrial sites, shops and water supply on preferential basis to the entrepreneurs
availing benefit under the Yojana. The provision of sites and sheds at concessional
rate to service ventures in urban areas will be essential for their success. Priority in
electric connections and general tax concessions/incentives may also be provided
to the beneficiaries.
Monitoring and Guidance for PMRY
The district, being a well-established geographical unit for many state/central
promotional programmes, is the basic unit for implementation of the Prime
Minister’s Rozgar Yojana. In all the districts, District Industries Centre (DIC) is
the implementing agency except in the metropolitan cities of Kolkata, Mumbai
and Chennai where the Directorate of Industries is the implementing agency
under the Scheme. In Delhi, the applications are received in the office of the
deputy commissioner of the respective zones. The field agencies, in consultation
with the banks of the respective areas, are responsible for formulation of self-
employment plans, their implementation and monitoring under the overall guidance
of the District PMRY Committee. These agencies are required to formulate
location specific plans of action based on realistic demand assessment for various
activities.
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Monitoring and Guidance at District Level Rural Development
The Yojana is being monitored and guided at district level by the District PMRY
Committee under the chairmanship of district collector/deputy commissioner. The
Committee is required to meet at least once in a month and send monthly progress NOTES
report in the prescribed pro forma to the directorate of industries of the concerned
state/UT.
Monitoring and Guidance at State/UT Level
The monitoring and guidance for the Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana at state/ UT
level is undertaken by the State/UT PMRY Committee under the chairmanship of
the chief secretary.
Monitoring and Guidance at Government of India Level
The Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana is being monitored at the central government
level by the High Powered Committee on PMRY under the chairmanship of the
secretary (MSME).
Initiatives Taken for Strengthening PMRY
Based on the recommendations of the group (June 2006) constituted under the
chairmanship of the adviser (VSE), Planning Commission to review the design
and implementation of the Yojana, some important components, viz. enhancement
in the family income ceiling, project cost, subsidy, training cost reimbursement,
have been revised in the guidelines of the PMRY with effect from 2007-08.
In the quarterly schedule fixed for the year 2007-08, applications to the
extent of 125 per cent of the target are targeted to be sponsored by the end of
the third quarter (100 per cent by the end of the second quarter), so that loans
could be sanctioned in 90 per cent of the sponsored cases by the end of the
third quarter (100 per cent by the end of 4th quarter). The quarterly schedule
further prescribes that loans would be disbursed in 75 per cent cases by the end
of the third quarter and the loan disbursement of the entire target of 100 per cent
cases would be achieved by the end of 4th quarter. The RBI has also issued
instructions to all implementing banks reiterating the above decision of the
government.
To improve the success rate of eligible applicants, a new concept of pre-motivational
campaign has been introduced w.e.f. 2007-08. Under this programme, state/ UTs
are allowed reimbursement of cost of counselling and guiding the applicants at the
rate of 200 per applicant, for 125 per cent of the allocated target. Besides, a
number of operational guidelines have been issued to make this Yojana more
effective which inter alia include:
 Seminars to be held at the level of each district for creating awareness of
PMRY in the area in the form of pre-selection motivational campaign. A
resolution is to be adopted by each and every Gram Panchayat for giving
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Rural Development wide publicity and spreading awareness about the Scheme in their respective
jurisdictions.
 All the members of the Task Force Committee would be collectively
responsible for selection of beneficiaries. This would ensure that the bank
NOTES
manager alone is not held responsible for the non-performing assets if any
that could arise out of the loans extended under PMRY to the beneficiaries.
 No collateral shall be insisted for PMRY loans upto 5 lakh.
 SC/ST and beneficiaries from minority communities should be targeted in
such a manner that they are benefited, at least, in proportion to their population
in each district/state.
 Of the total target for each state/UT, women beneficiaries should constitute
at least 30 per cent.
 Preference may be given to develop clusters specializing in specific products
at the time of selection of PMRY beneficiaries.
 According to the findings of the evaluation studies of PMRY, the ratio of
applications received to the targets was low owing to inadequate publicity
of the scheme. As such aggressive publicity campaigns have been asked to
be undertaken through media like radio, television, cinema slides and
distribution of pamphlets, in addition to pre-selection motivational campaigns.
In 2008, the PMRY was merged with Rural Employment Generation
Programme to form the Prime Minister Employment Generation Programme.
The scheme is implemented by Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC)
functioning as the nodal agency at the national level. At the state level, the scheme
is implemented through State KVIC Directorates, State Khadi and Village Industries
Boards (KVIBs), District Industries Centres (DICs) and banks. In such cases
KVIC routes government subsidy through designated banks for eventual disbursal
to the beneficiaries / entrepreneurs directly into their bank accounts.
The maximum cost of the project/unit admissible in manufacturing sector is
25 lakhs and in the business/service sector, it is 10 lakhs. Categories of
Beneficiary’s Rate of subsidy under PMEGP (of project cost) Area (location of
project/unit) General category 15%(Urban), 25%(Rural), Special 25%(Urban),
35%(Rural) (including SC/ ST/ OBC/ Minorities/Women, Ex-servicemen,
Physically handicapped, NER, Hill and Border areas, etc.) The balance amount
of the total project cost will be provided by the banks in the form of term loan and
working capital.
Any individual, above 18 years of age. At least VIII standard pass for
projects costing above 10 lakh in the manufacturing sector and above 5 lakh in
the business / service sector. Only new projects are considered for sanction under
PMEGP. Self Help Groups (including those belonging to BPL provided that they
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have not availed benefits under any other Scheme), Institutions registered under Rural Development
Societies Registration Act, 1860; Production Co-operative Societies, and

Charitable Trusts are also eligible.
Existing Units (under PMRY, REGP or any other scheme of Government of
NOTES
India or State Government) and the units that have already availed Government
Subsidy under any other scheme of Government of India or State Government are
NOT eligible.
Since inception in 2008-09 and upto 31.12.2019, a total of about 5.7 lakh
micro enterprises have been assisted with a margin money subsidy of 13,033.3
crore providing employment to an estimated 47 lakh persons. During the Financial
Year 2019-20, a target was fixed for setting up of 73241 new micro-enterprises,
by disbursing 2247.10 crore of margin money subsidy, generating estimated
employment opportunities for 5.8 lakh persons.
12.3.7 Pradhan Mantri Awaas Yojana – Gramin (PMAY-G)
In the context of Government’s priority for “Housing for All” by 2022, the
erstwhile rural housing scheme has been restructured into Pradhan Mantri Awaas
Yojana – Gramin (PMAY-G), which came into effect from 1st April, 2016.
PMAY-G aims to provide a pucca house with basic amenities to all houseless
households and households living in kutcha and dilapidated house by 2022.
Main features / initiatives under the scheme
I. Unit assistance 1,20,000 in plain areas and 1,30,000 in hilly states/difficult
areas/IAP districts.
II. In addition to the unit assistance, the beneficiaries through convergence
with Swachh Bharat Mission and MGNREGA would be provided the
following :
a. 12,000/- as assistance for construction of toilet
b. Unskilled wages of 90 /95 person days for construction of house
Shyama Prasad Mukherji Rurban Mission (SPMRM) is focused on
comprehensive development of 300 clusters spread across 29 States and 6 Union
Territories of the country. These clusters are identified in rural regions displaying
potential for economic growth through presence of thematic livelihood activities,
increasing population and non-farm employment. The Mission is being implemented
with an aim to transform these clusters by focusing on developing skills, strengthening
economic activities and provision of crucial basic infrastructure amenities in an
equitable and time-bound manner. ‘Integrated Cluster Action Plans (ICAPs)
comprising all these components are prepared for every cluster.
Saansad Adarsh Gram Yojana (SAGY), a pathbreaking initiative in rural
development was launched by the Hon’ble Prime Minister on 11 October 2014 Self-Instructional
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Rural Development with the objective of creating ‘Adarsh Grams’ across the country. These ‘Adarsh
Grams’ serve as ‘nucleus of health, cleanliness, greenery and cordiality’ within the
village community becoming schools of local development and governance, inspiring
neighbouring Gram Panchayats.
NOTES
Towards holistic development, the Gram Panchayats under the guidance of
Hon’ble MPs, follow a structured process of environment creation, social
mobilisation, resource mapping and participatory development planning. They
prepare Village Development Plans (VDP) containing prioritised time-bound
projects to achieve holistic progress of the village, through the convergence of
resources.
National social assistance programme (NSAP) is targeted at any such person
who has little or no regular means of subsistence from his/her own source of
income or financial support from family members or other sources, to be identified
by States/UTs. With the objective of providing basic level of financial support,
NSAP covers a total of 2.84 crore beneficiaries. Funds amounting to 3633.30
Crore (40%) have also been released to the States/UT’s. At present NSAP includes
five sub-schemes as its components – IGNOAPS, IGNWPS, IGNDPS, NFBS,
Annapurna.
 Indira Gandhi National Old Age Pension Scheme (IGNOAPS): The
eligible age for IGNOAPS is 60 years. The pension is 200 p.m. for persons
between 60 years and 80 years. For persons who are 80 years and above
the pension is 500/- per month.
 Indira Gandhi National Widow Pension Scheme (IGNWPS): The
eligible age is 40 years and the pension is 300 per month. After attaining
the age of 80 years, the beneficiary will get 500/- per month.
 Indira Gandhi National Disability Pension Scheme (IGNDPS): The
eligible age for the pensioner is 18 years and the amount is 300 per
month. After attaining the age of 80 years, the beneficiary will get 500/-
per month.
 National Family Benefit Scheme (NFBS): 20000/- will be given as
one time assistance to the bereaved household in the event of death of the
breadwinner. A woman in the family, who is a home maker, is also
considered as a „bread-winner for this purpose. The family benefit will
be paid to such surviving member of the household of the deceased poor,
who after local enquiry, is found to be the head of the household. For the
purpose of the scheme, the term “household would include spouse, minor
children, unmarried daughters and dependent parents. In case of death of
an unmarried adult, the term household would include minor brothers/
sisters and dependent parents. The death of such a bread-winner should
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have occurred whilst he/she is more than 18 years of age and less than 60 Rural Development
years of age.
 Annapurna Scheme: 10 kg of food grain (wheat or rice) per month per
beneficiary. The scheme aims at providing food security to meet the
NOTES
requirement of those eligible old aged persons who have remained uncovered
under the IGNOAPS.
Check Your Progress

3. Where does the origin of the rights based framework of MGNREGA lie
in?
4. Who is eligible under the Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana?
5. Who implements the PMEGP at the national and state levels?
6. State the aim of PMAY-G.
12.4 CHALLENGES
India has a long history of experimenting with rural development initiatives. Since
independence the country has launched several programs for the development of
the communities that reside in rural locations. It has witnessed programs and
schemes in almost every aspect of development including agriculture, rural economy,
rural livelihoods, health, education, environment, natural resources, livestock,
infrastructure, women, men, youth, children and the elderly. A review of resources
earmarked for the rural development interventions shall clearly highlight the
gargantuan investment all the governments and administrative machinery has made
to bring the difference. However, as we look back the results do not look that
great. The rural landscape of the country poses several problems and challenges
before those involved in undertaking the challenging interventions for the betterment
of rural landscape. The concept of problems and challenges for rural development
in India stems from the characteristics of the rural sector itself. These include:
 Excessive dependence on nature
 Prevalence of small and uneconomic land and livestock holdings
 Low capital – labour ratio
 Low Factor Productivity
 Low gestation and low rate of turnover
 High poverty
 Predominantly Illiterate and unskilled workforce
 Lack of Basic Infrastructure
Excessive Dependence on Nature: The mainstay of rural economy is agriculture
and allied activities. The dependence therefore exists heavily on nature including
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Rural Development weather and climatic conditions. Natural calamities like draught, flood etc., affect
activities in the rural area and not much can be done to mitigate the risks associated
with them.
Prevalence of small and uneconomic land and livestock holdings: The rural
NOTES
sector is also characterised by small and uneconomic land and livestock holdings.
The fragmented holdings of small and marginal farmers in the country are highly
unproductive and not financially viable. The high number of small and marginal
farmers in the country is a challenge for the policy makers.
Low capital – labour ratio: The capital – labour ratio in the country is very low
thereby affecting the productivity negatively. A large amount of public and private
investment therefore is the key requirement to facilitate development of any kind
which at times is highly challenging.
Low Factor Productivity: Low factor productivity is yet another challenging
issue that affects the rural development programs. Inadequate capital for
production inputs, raw materials, machines and equipments etc., adversely
affects and does not complement the rural development process at many
instances.
Long Gestation & Low Rate of Turnover: Most of the activities in the rural
sector are characterized by long gestation period and low rate of turnover. The
slow output often restricts the return on investment and poses a challenge.
High Poverty: Rural poverty has posed serious challenges in realising the dream
of better life for rural India. The data from NSSO survey reveals that poverty in
the rural areas yet remain the biggest challenge for any government.
Predominantly Illiterate and Unskilled Workforce: Rural sector is also plagued
by illiterate and unskilled workforce. The higher level of illiteracy and lack of skills
are a serious impediment to rural development.
Lack of Basic Infrastructure: One of the most serious challenges faced by the
rural sector is that absence of basic infrastructure. Over the years several attempts
have been made to create basic infrastructure in the rural areas. Schemes like
MNREGS, NRHM, SSA, etc., have made it possible to a great extent. However,
still lack of basic infrastructure in rural villages cannot be unaccounted for and is a
challenge for the rural development landscape.
Check Your Progress

7. What are the different aspects for which rural development programmes
and schemes have been made in India?
8. What has been the challenge for policy makers in terms of rural land holdings
in India?
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Rural Development
QUESTIONS
1. In India, the Ministry of Rural Development (MORD) is responsible for NOTES

conceptualizing and implementing program for rural development. The
ministry is actively involved in implementing a wide range of programmes
that focuses on poverty reduction, employment generation, infrastructure
development and social security.
2. India has a long history of several poverty alleviation programs. National
Rural Livelihoods Mission is a poverty alleviation program that was launched
in the year 2011 with an objective to promote self-employment and
organization of rural poor. The scheme was renamed Deendayal Antayodaya
Yojana (DAY-NRLM).
3. The rights based framework of the MGNREGA was inherited from
Maharashtra Employment Guarantee Act 1977.
4. An educated (up to VIII standard) unemployed person living in any part of
the country is eligible under the (PMRY) Scheme and can apply for assistance
to the general manager, DIC in the district to which he belongs.
5. The (PMEGP) scheme is implemented by Khadi and Village Industries
Commission (KVIC) functioning as the nodal agency at the national level.
At the state level, the scheme is implemented through State KVIC
Directorates, State Khadi and Village Industries Boards (KVIBs), District
Industries Centres (DICs) and banks.
6. PMAY-G aims to provide a pucca house with basic amenities to all houseless
households and households living in kutcha and dilapidated house by 2022.
7. India has witnessed rural development programs and schemes in almost
every aspect of development including agriculture, rural economy, rural
livelihoods, health, education, environment, natural resources, livestock,
infrastructure, women, men, youth, children and the elderly.
8. The fragmented holdings of small and marginal farmers in the country are
highly unproductive and not financially viable. The high number of small and
marginal farmers in the country is a challenge for the policy makers.
12.6 SUMMARY
 In its most generic form ‘Development’ is any activity or progress which

increases the wellbeing of humans and the environment. Too often it is
accidentally or deliberately confused with the concept of growth (particularly
economic growth including consumerism and commercialism). But growth
isn’t always development, which must include things like reduction of poverty
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Rural Development and increased quality of life, modernization, equity, health, democracy,
freedom, fair trade and conservation.
 Traditionally, a developed country is a country that is technologically
advanced and that enjoys a relatively high standard of living.
NOTES
 In India, the Ministry of Rural Development (MORD) is responsible for
conceptualizing and implementing program for rural development.
 The objective of the Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) is to
bring the assisted poor families (Swarozgaris) above the poverty line by
ensuring appreciable sustained level of income over a period of time. This
objective is to be achieved by inter alia organizing the rural poor into Self
Help Groups (SHGs) through the process of social mobilization, their training
and capacity building and provision of income generating assets.
 The Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana was remodelled in 2011, to
launch the National Rural Livelihood Mission. And in 2015, it was again
redesigned to form the current running Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-National
Urban Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NULM).
 Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana-National Urban Livelihoods Mission’s
statement of the same as per its official website is: ‘To reduce poverty and
vulnerability of the urban poor households by enabling them to access gainful
self-employment and skilled wage employment opportunities, resulting in
an appreciable improvement in their livelihoods on a sustainable basis,
through building strong grassroots level institutions of the poor.
 The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
(MGNREGA) is a legal guarantee that people can use to secure their
entitlement of wage employment. It holds the government responsible for
making this employment available to the people. It is a legal instrument in
the hands of the poor based on the demand of the workers.
 Keeping in view the fact that rural roads are vital to economic growth and
measures for poverty alleviation in the village, the government has launched
a 100 per cent Centrally Sponsored Scheme called the Pradhan Mantri
Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY). The Programme seeks to provide
connectivity to all unconnected habitations in the rural areas with a population
of more than 500 persons through good all-weather roads.
 The Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana (PMRY) was launched on 2 October
1993 to assist less educated and poor unemployed youth in setting up micro
level self-employment ventures. Initially, the PMRY was implemented only
in the urban areas of the country. Since 1994-95, it is being implemented in
both urban and rural areas.
 In 2008, the PMRY was merged with Rural Employment Generation
Programme to form the Prime Minister Employment Generation Programme.
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186 Material
 Shyama Prasad Mukherji Rurban Mission (SPMRM) is focused on Rural Development
comprehensive development of 300 clusters spread across 29 States and 6

Union Territories of the country. These clusters are identified in rural regions
displaying potential for economic growth through presence of thematic
livelihood activities, increasing population and non-farm employment. NOTES
 Saansad Adarsh Gram Yojana (SAGY), a pathbreaking initiative in rural
development was launched by the Hon’ble Prime Minister on 11 October
2014 with the objective of creating ‘Adarsh Grams’ across the country.
 National social assistance programme (NSAP) is targeted at any such person
who has little or no regular means of subsistence from his/her own source of
income or financial support from family members or other sources, to be
identified by States/UTs.
 The concept of problems and challenges for rural development in India
stems from the characteristics of the rural sector itself. These include:
(i) Excessive dependence on nature
(ii) Prevalence of small and uneconomic land and livestock holdings
(iii) Low capital – labour ratio
(iv) Low Factor Productivity
(v) Low gestation and low rate of turnover
(vi) High poverty
(vii) Predominantly Illiterate and unskilled workforce
(viii) Lack of Basic Infrastructure
12.7 KEY WORDS
 Development: It is any activity or progress which increases the wellbeing

of humans and the environment.
 Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
(MGNREGA): it is a legal guarantee that people can use to secure their
entitlement of wage employment.

EXERCISES
1. Why has the concept of rural development been at the forefront and received
significant attention of all governments in India?
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Rural Development 2. What are the major components of DAY-NRLM?
3. Write a short note on the schemes of SPMRM and SAGY.
4. List the challenges of rural development in India.
NOTES Long-Answer Questions
1. Explain the process of how the Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana is
implemented.
2. Examine the salient features and enforcement of the MGNREGA.

University Press.
Agarwal.
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Panchayati Raj
UNIT 13 PANCHAYATI RAJ Institution Issues

and Challenges
INSTITUTION ISSUES AND

NOTES
CHALLENGES
Structure
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Issues and Challenges
13.3 Causes for Failure of Panchayat Institutions
13.5 Summary
13.6 Key Words
13.0 INTRODUCTION
The main role of the Panchayati Raj has been to provide a better avenue for local
participation in democratic development of the country. It has been proved beyond
doubt that it is the best way to establish democratic decentralization. Unlike the
urban local government, rural local government has been found even in ancient
Indian societies. When British first introduced the concept of local self government
they did it only for urban areas. It was only in the Twentieth century that any
modern institution of rural local government was established. The national leadership,
including Mahatma Gandhi and Nehru, were vocal supporters of the idea of
Panchayati Raj. Once India got independence in 1947 and our constitution was
implemented, Panchayati Raj became a constitutional entity. Article 40 of the Indian
Constitution asked the state to implement the values of Panchayati Raj in India as
soon as possible.
In addition to the fact that it had the support of the national leadership, it
also had a historical presence in India and was also mentioned in the constitution.
Panchayati Raj in its true sense could not become reality in India till the Seventy-
Third Amendment was made in the Indian Constitution, in 1992. Panchayati Raj
institutions constitute the third layer of government in India, linking the people of
India directly to the constitution and democracy. After the Seventy-Third
Amendment, it has got various powers and responsibilities and therefore its study
has become very important. The devolution of power in the constitution, to the
rural bodies, has created a great enthusiasm among the people for participating in
the working of democracy. Panchayati Raj institutions have not only become a
source of greater economic development but they have also become a great source
and means of providing social justice in India.
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Panchayati Raj
Institution Issues 13.1 OBJECTIVES
and Challenges

NOTES  Explain the issues and challenges affecting Panchayat Raj Institutions
 Discuss the causes for failures of Panchayat Institutions
13.2 ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
If a major device for rapid economic development is centralized planning,

democratic decentralization could be described as a major device for dispersing
power and for stimulating political development. It must be realized that the
enthusiastic participation of voters in the general elections is not enough for the
growth of a democratic community. The unsatisfactory state of the much-advertised
community development programme was another factor which contributed to the
rethinking of the leaders. As you have learnt in earlier units, the publication of the
Balwant Rai Mehta Committee Report on democratic decentralization in 1957,
gave an impetus to the decentralization process, now known as Panchayati Raj.
But certain problematic tendencies could be observed even in the initial stages.
What followed was a brief account of these tendencies. It is noteworthy that the
Panchayati Raj institutions have evoked a certain enthusiasm among the rural
masses, who now appear to believe in ‘swaraj’ (self government) as an experience
of their day-to-day life. Elections to the three-tiered institutions have brought forth
‘new rural elites’. These non-westernised ‘sons of the soil’, have more in common
with the rural masses than with the westernised elites of urban India, whether
bureaucratic or political. It is not to say that ‘vernacular-speaking’ leaders have
replaced the ‘English-educated’. In all probability, many of the new rural elites are
conversant in English as well. What is significant about them is that they have
strong roots in the villages. The understanding of western democracy by the ‘English-
educated’ elites was mainly confined to the above institutional and to some extent
mechanistic aspects. Hence, the emphasis in the Indian Constitution on
parliamentary democracy, universal franchise, independence of the judiciary and
so on. But when these institutional arrangements had to function in a non-western
political culture, there were in fact three different political idioms operating together-
the western, the traditional, and the saintly. The Indian Constitution envisaged only
the first; while the politics of India could be said to be mainly under the influence of
the other two political idioms.
It might be said that the rural leaders could successfully use two political
idioms-the western and the traditional. The western political idiom had to be used
when the Zila Parishad chairman dealt with the secretary of the department of
rural development of the State Government. The same was true of the other civil
service personnel, both at the district level and at the Panchayat Samiti level. The
westernised bureaucrats even after 60 years of independence have scrupulously
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adhered to the British tradition of impersonal government. The new recruits to the Panchayati Raj
Institution Issues
Indian Administrative Service generally come from the same urban and westernised and Challenges
social classes as before 1947. Thus, the western idiom of politics and administration
will continue to operate for obvious reasons. The Panchayati Raj institutions mostly
functions in a traditional set up. Largely illiterate peasants are drawn into the politics NOTES
of development. If leaders of Panchayati Raj institutions use the western idiom to
communicate with the rural masses, there would be a breakdown of communication.
The use of the traditional idiom is therefore a necessity. Undoubtedly, there is an
inherent danger in this practice, however, so far as political development is
concerned. The continuous use of traditional idioms might result in the strengthening
of traditional bonds of caste and kinship, and thus obstruct the drive towards
equality.
Today, the new rural elites perform a significant function in political
development. The new elites are bridging this gap to a certain extent. They are
mass oriented and verbally committed to the new ideas of economic development,
universal education, social equality and democratic politics. This commitment results
from their belonging to political parties. Verbalization of values may not have much
operational content but it starts the percolation process of party-ideals. Political
participation and social mobilisation are regarded as necessary for a modern nation
state, whether democratic or authoritarian. India has chosen the more difficult way
of a democratic set-up. But political participation cannot be ordered. It has to be
voluntary. Such voluntary participation requires stimulus. It could be said that the
Panchayati Raj institutions, by and large, are successful in stimulating the rural
population. To some extent, this participation might be the result of traditional
loyalties. But the emergence of rival parties and elections will gradually change the
character of the participation. Social mobilization in different form including the
shramdan (voluntary labour) for a village school or an approach road is another
indication of the impact of these institutions. Adult literacy campaigns, with the
target of making the whole village literate are catching, the fancy of the villagers.
The response to nationally initiated drives-small-scale savings, use of new techniques
of cultivation, fertilisers, use of contraceptives-are other encouraging signs of social
mobilisation and political development.
There has been some criticism of ‘pollution’ of village-level life by the
introduction of party-politics. Without indulging in any idealisation of political parties,
it could be generally agreed that the party is a modern integrative agency in every
developing country. In India, the predominance of one party among a few smaller
parties has persisted since independence. This might not exactly accord with the
pure theory of parliamentary democracy, but in a certain sense it has given this
country a stable non-authoritarian Government. Opposition parties, though weak,
still exert a certain restraint on the party in power, and thus, prepare the people for
a more intelligent understanding of political issues. Comparisons with other Third
World countries could spotlight the democratic character of Indian politics and
Government. The ‘capacity of a political system’ depends primarily on the quality,
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Panchayati Raj training and socialization of the leaders at various levels. Before Independence, a
Institution Issues
and Challenges steady flow of leaders came out of the Nationalist Movement. The struggle with
the imperial power naturally demanded a certain amount of sacrifice, and there
developed a tradition of sacrifice among those who would be leaders in the field
NOTES of politics. The drying up of this tradition of sacrifice - a tradition which had provided
the generation of leaders like Gandhi, Nehru, Patel and many others was to be
expected. At first, the tradition was continued by the dwindling ranks of the
Sarvodaya group. Vinoba Bhave could be regarded as the last of those leaders
who could inspire a tradition of sacrifice. But the community needs a constant
supply of leaders to take up the responsibilities of political direction.
The successful working of Panchayati Raj institutions might create a new
catchments area for new political elites. These institutions are capable of inducting
new classes of population into politics. The working of these institutions might give
people some experience in policy-making and political bargaining. And in time
these institutions may prove to be the infrastructure of a mass democracy in local
and State politics. It is to be expected, however, that the new leaders would be
more power-oriented than sacrifice-oriented. But in a growing democracy, what
is expected of a leader is his capacity to get things done, rather than his inclination
to sacrifice for society. With a developing economy and centralized planning,
leadership at the district and lower levels will have to exercise its ability in the
‘politics of bargaining’. It might be impossible, however, to establish a tradition of
expertise to substitute the tradition of sacrifice in this country. People will have to
be gradually prepared to accept as leaders those men who have proved their
ability in different fields of life. With the rising tempo of economic development,
the importance of expertise would have to be recognised at all levels of politics.
Democratization of politics may be regarded as one of the indicators of
political development. Yet, democracy could be the most difficult form of
government. In practice, however, a democratic set-up may not differ very much
from a responsive, constitutional oligarchy. It could be argued that the result of
costly elections, political parties organized according to oligarchy, clever use of
charisma, and absence of vertical and horizontal social mobility, is not very different
from a responsive, constitutional oligarchy. In the circumstances democratic
decentralization could be regarded as an effort at democratising oligarchic politics.
It is too early to assert that this effort has succeeded. But it is certain that there is
a great change in what is called the catchments area of leadership groups. This
may gradually affect social mobility and the oligarchic structure of the ruling elite.
It could thus be argued that democratic decentralization is an insurance against
possible political decay. The role of Panchayati Raj institutions in socio-economic
change is not any less consequential. Functions performed by Zila Parishads to
bring about socio-economic change could indirectly contribute towards political
development. The role of local institutions in industrialising rural areas would be
crucial to both economic and political development. An agro-industrial society
would be in a vantage position to bridge the gap between the rural and the urban
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areas. This would correct the imbalance between the urban and the rural sectors, Panchayati Raj
Institution Issues
both as regards economic growth and political development. and Challenges
The role of the bureaucracy in India has a special significance from the point
of view of political development. The existence of a well-organised civil service in
NOTES
1947 contributed to the political stability of Indian democracy and also to its political
development afterwards. The bureaucracy is considered a modernising agency in
nearly all the developing countries. It could be said that the British legacy of the
‘steel frame’ and the silent service, came in handy for the new leaders of government,
both at the centre and in the states. At the same time, this unbroken tradition of the
civil service meant the continuation of its limited role of administering law and
order, though in the changed context of a welfare state holding the ideal of a
socialistic pattern of society, the civil service was expected to play a more positive
role than before. Through the experiment in democratic decentralization an attempt
is being made also to orient a law and order bureaucracy towards social welfare
and economic development. Civil servants are being groomed to deal with the
representatives of the people at the lower levels of administration. This interaction,
between the westernised administrative elites and the rural political elites, might
help the political development process. If political development demands specificity
of functions and specialisation, this could be provided by the administrative elites.
The new political elite on the other hand, would learn the procedures and processes
of administrative machinery at close quarters. This does not mean that the present
situation is in any way an ideal one. There have been many complaints about
frictions between the political and administrative elites. To some extent such friction
is to be expected as the civil service is not used to taking orders at the district level
from the representatives of the people.
The civil servants allotted to Panchayati Raj institutions resent the loss of
status-real or imaginary. Clearly, the proper psychological atmosphere for a growing
partnership between the representatives of the people and the bureaucracy is yet
to evolve. The main difference which democratic decentralization has brought about
in the structure of local self government institutions is the preeminence to the
representatives of the people. One may expect over a period of years a much
better understanding between the two sectors of the political structure. The constant
interaction referred to above, would result in democratising the administration and
modernising the political elites. These two consequences could be considered the
most useful aspects of democratic decentralization operating today. The functional
decentralization, envisaged in the present set up, might gradually lead to an effective
decentralization of political power and administrative control. This would stimulate
democratic growth, in terms of local initiative, autonomous functioning of Panchayati
Raj institutions, increase in their functions, and political education of the masses.
We have now experienced a whole decade of economic reforms. But these
reforms have hardly touched the lives of the common people. Even if there is no
great anger against reforms on the part of the people at large, there is no enthusiasm
either. This is because the reformers regard Panchayati Raj as being as irrelevant
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Panchayati Raj to their purposes as the people regard reforms as being irrelevant to their lives.
Institution Issues
and Challenges Reformers have no great objection to Panchayati Raj; the tragedy is they regard
Panchayati Raj as a sideshow. Not until economic reforms are integrated with
planning and implementation through institutions of self government will grassroots
NOTES empowerment lead to grassroots development. This, then, is the right moment to
ensure that both move together in tandem. Indeed, Panchayati Raj needs to be
made the fulcrum of the reform process. Part IX (‘The Panchayats’) and Part
IXA (‘the Municipalities’) are the longest and most detailed amendments made to
the Constitution since its promulgation more than half a century ago. If implemented
in letter and spirit, the two parts hold the promise of a silent revolution that would
dramatically alter the outlook for grassroots development through grassroots
democracy by endowing power to the people, in both rural and urban India.
Unfortunately, in the eighteen years that have passed since the Lok Sabha and the
Rajya Sabha passed the legislation on December 22 and 23, 1992, respectively,
and almost the same period have passed since Part IX was gazetted with the
president’s consent on April 24, 1993 (and Part IXA the following month) the
results on the ground have fallen far short of expectations.
Gandhiji’s dream of Poorna Swarajya through Gram Swarajya still remains
a distant dream. The reasons for these are many. Although the overarching aim of
Part IX is to ‘endow the Panchayats with such powers and authority as may be
necessary to enable them to function as institutions of self government’ (Article
243G), barring a few exceptions, such as the state of Kerala, almost nowhere in
the country has a sincere and serious attempt been made to ensure in practice that
Panchayats function as ‘institutions of self government’. Panchayats can fulfil their
responsibility as institutions of self government only if devolution is patterned on a
nexus between their functions, functionaries and finances. Very few states have
linked the formal devolution of functions to the means for actualizing such devolution
through the devolution of functionaries and finances. A Devolution Index will enable
a measure to be taken of the actual degree of devolution achieved, so that the best
practice becomes the ideal towards which all states strive, with the encouragement
and support of the centre. There is a disturbing lack of clarity about the tasks to be
entrusted to different tiers of the Panchayati Raj system. Some states like Karnataka
and Kerala have shown the way to how different functions can be entrusted to
different tiers and how the work of the different tiers can be synergized to the
benefit of the system as a whole.
Each state government must establish an appropriate body to recommend
the division of devolved functions (along with functionaries and finances) to different
tiers of the Panchayati Raj system. The central government might set the tone with
an indicative model prepared by an appropriate central body. In view of the clear
direction given by the Constitution to enable the Panchayats to function as institutions
of self-governance, it is no longer necessary for the centre to route its financial
support to schemes pertaining to the Eleventh Schedule of the Constitution to the
Panchayats through the state governments. In a very large number of instances,
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funds for rural development and poverty alleviation appear to have been diverted, Panchayati Raj
Institution Issues
at least temporarily, to meet the ways and means requirements of state governments, and Challenges
leading to inordinate delays and even the lapsing of funds meant to be spent through
the Panchayati Raj institutions. The central government must channel all funds for
central and centrally-sponsored schemes falling within the ambit of the Eleventh NOTES
Schedule direct to the Panchayats at the appropriate level. With the entry into
force of Part IX, the pre-Part IX instrument of the District Rural Development
Authority (DRDA) has become obsolescent and needs to be ended, especially as
the DRDA is inimical to the fundamental objective of Part IX which is the
establishment of institutions of self government.
In the interests of effective Panchayati Raj, as envisaged in the Constitution,
DRDAs should be disbanded and merged with district Panchayats, with the
chairperson of the district Panchayat as chairperson of the merged DRDA. Moreover,
with the clarification of which functions, functionaries and finances are to be devolved
to which tier of the Panchayati Raj system, intermediate and village-level bodies with
duties paralleling those of the existing DRDAs would need to be set up at these
levels, so that state and central finances are channelled to the appropriate tier and
not necessarily concentrated in the merged DRDA at the district Panchayat level.
The devolution of functionaries with functions implies the closing down of line
departments and the transfer of staff to the administrative and disciplinary control of
the Panchayats. In the absence of such effective devolution of functionaries with
functions, there is a kind of dyarchy operating at the ground level which is detrimental
to good governance and extinguishes all possibility of effective self government as
provided for in the Constitution. There will be a progressively growing need to establish
a Panchayat service, for both administrative and technical functions, on the lines of
existing state and central services governed by Part XIV of the Constitution.
The central and state governments need to take appropriate steps in this
direction with all deliberate speed. The provisions of Part IX are in part mandatory
and in part recommendatory. It is the fundamental duty of the centre to ensure
strict observance of the mandatory provisions of Part IX, and to use its powers of
persuasion to prevail upon state governments to conform to the letter and spirit of
the recommendatory provisions. There has been persistent flouting of even the
mandatory provisions of Part IX, leave alone the recommendatory provisions.
The ultimate recourse of the centre of wilful flouting of the Constitution is dismissal
of the state government under Article 356. This, however, is an extreme step. It
would be preferable for the centre to secure directions from the Supreme Court.
Such directions may be obtained through litigation, initiated either by the union
government or through public interest litigation. As the union government might be
somewhat reluctant to drag state governments to court, CAPART might be
encouraged to appropriately support NGOs engaged in promoting through litigation
compliance with the letter and spirit of Part IX. There is need for harmonizing and
clarifying the body of jurisprudence arising out of the relatively recent introduction
of Part IX, since some court judgments appear prima facie to be not consistent
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Panchayati Raj with other judgments. It is urged that such a process of harmonization and clarification
Institution Issues
and Challenges be undertaken by the authority or authorities concerned.
Many central and state Acts need amendment in view of the powers
conferred constitutionally on the elected local bodies. The central government and
NOTES
the state governments must establish appropriate review bodies to carefully examine
the compatibility of pre-Part IX legislation with the new constitutional provisions.
This exercise needs to be undertaken urgently within a time-bound framework.
Possibly, the Law Commission might be entrusted with the initial responsibility of
identifying the categories of central and state legislation which need to be so
examined and acted upon. There has been a mushrooming of parallel bodies which
is seriously undermining the functions entrusted to the Panchayats by virtue of
Article 243G and the Eleventh Schedule. Such parallel bodies must be wound up
and their duties entrusted to the Panchayats at the appropriate level. Parts IX and
IXA were designed as mutually reinforcing parts of the Constitution designed to
integrate economic and social development in the urban areas with their rural
hinterland, not to artificially divide rural from urban India. Yet, that is what is
happening in consequence of Parts IX and IXA being administered by different
ministries both at the centre and the states. A single ministry of Panchayats and
nagarpalikas, at both the centre and the states, will promote the synergies required
for rural and urban development to mutually reinforce each other rather than be
pursued separately in a compartmentalized manner.
Arrangements for the training of elected members of the Panchayats at
different levels, and of the administrative and technical staff attached to the
Panchayats, fall at present far short of requirements. An exponential increase in
the quantum of funds made available for such training is required as well as deep
consideration to the overall training requirements of both elected members and
Panchayat staff. Moreover, there is special need to concentrate on training for the
weaker sections and women. The question of definitions in Part IX needs looking
into. To avoid problems arising out of the territorial constituency of an elected
person at one level being coterminous with the territorial constituency of another
person elected to another level, the intermediate level should be defined at an
appropriately high level to clearly distinguish it from the village and district level.
To facilitate the effective democratic functioning of the Gram Sabha, which is the
fulcrum of the system, the size of a village Panchayat needs be fixed at a level that
would facilitate democratic participation by all adult voters, and that where for
any reason the size of the Gram Sabha appears too large for effective democratic
participation, subsidiary Sabhas be established at, say, the ward level. In regard
to the Gram Sabha, the Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996,
passed by parliament in pursuance of section 4(b) of Article 243M, sets out the
functions of the Gram Sabha in an exemplary manner.
State legislatures should take these provisions as a model to effectively
empower Gram Sabhas in non-scheduled areas as well and so define the role that
the Gram Sabhas are expected to play. In view of the crucial importance of adequate
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women’s participation in meetings of the Gram Sabha, a sub-quorum of female Panchayati Raj
Institution Issues
attendance should be built into the required quorum. Moreover, provision may be and Challenges
made that meetings of the Gram Sabha be preceded by meetings of the Mahila
Sabha, comprising all adult women voters of the village Panchayat, to ensure that
gender concerns and preferences get fully reflected in the proceedings of the Gram NOTES
Sabha. Regarding the composition of Panchayats, in some states there appear to
be wide variations in the ratio of population to territorial area of Panchayats at
different levels. Existing ratios need to be reviewed to ensure that the constitutional
injunction for the ratio ‘as far as practicable, to be the same throughout the Panchayat
area’ (proviso to Article 243C (1)) is observed. While there may be scope to
reconsider the manner of election to different tiers of the Panchayati Raj system at
some future date, the important thing now is to ensure that the Panchayats are
enabled to function as institutions of self government within the meaning of Article
243G. Failure to ensure effective and meaningful devolution is the root cause of
widespread dissatisfaction with the manner of implementation of Part IX. It is only
after devolution in letter and after the spirit has been achieved that there might
arise a case for reviewing the provisions of this Article.
Reservations for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes are generally working
well. But, in the light of the experience gained, each state may wish to consider
afresh the period for which reservations are made - that is, for one term or more
than one term (Part IX leaves this to the discretion of state legislatures). Reservations
for the backward classes have been left to the discretion of the state legislatures.
In some instances, this has led to intensive litigation and delays in holding elections
to the Panchayats. The centre should bring the experience of different states in this
regard to the attention of state governments with a view to the states evolving
reservation systems for the backward classes which enjoy a wide measure of
consensus in society in general and without coming in the way of the effective and
timely implementation of Part IX. Reservation for women has opened the door to
revolutionary changes of a political, social and cultural nature. India can truly be
proud of being the first and only country in the world to have empowered through
free and fair elections more than one million women who are participating in the
Panchayats. There is, however, still some way to go in changing the apparent
empowerment of women into a real and genuine empowerment.
Regarding the duration of Panchayats, it is categorical and clear that the
maximum tenure of the Panchayats is five years and that, in terms of Article 243E
(3) (a), elections have to be held before the expiry of the five-year period, so that
the new Panchayats are constituted immediately thereafter without any extension
beyond five years of the previously elected Panchayats. Yet, many states have
flouted the five-year rule and introduced an interregnum between the expiry of one
tenure and commencement of the next. Recourse has been had to sub-section (b)
of clause (3) of Article 243E to justify this, as that sub-section states that a
Panchayat, if dissolved, shall be reconstituted by elections within six months. This
subsection was expressly designed for the dissolution of any single Panchayat on
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Panchayati Raj grounds of malfeasance, not for a situation in which all Panchayats stand dissolved
Institution Issues
and Challenges owing to the expiry of their tenure. In fact, unlike the constitutional provisions for
elections to parliament or the state legislatures, which envisage and provide for
situations in which elections can be postponed, Article 243E nowhere provides
NOTES for postponing elections in any circumstances, although the Supreme Court, in a
1997 judgment, has ruled that in ‘genuine supervening circumstances’, such as
natural calamities, elections to Panchayats may be postponed. The intention of
Article 243E is clear, elections to Panchayats must be held within five years of
their being constituted so that there is no hiatus between the expiry of one tenure
and the commencement of the next. Since regular periodic elections, within the
letter and spirit of the constitutional provision, lies at the very heart of the democratic
process, the central government must secure a clear ruling from the Supreme
Court about the meaning and scope of Article 243E so that elections are held
within five years and jurisprudence clearly indicates the highly exceptional situations,
if any, in which there might be a short postponement.
The three tiers of the Panchayati Raj system are integrated and mutually
reinforcing; indeed, Article 243ZD clearly shows that even the municipal bodies
constituted under Part IXA are expected to work in tandem with the institutions of
self government of Part IX. As such, it is imperative that simultaneous elections be
held to all three tiers of the Panchayat system and the municipalities. Yet, the
growing practice in most states has been to disaggregate these elections. Elections
to the Panchayats at all tiers and to the municipalities must take place simultaneously
to ensure the maximum synergy in their functioning. Owing to allegations of serious
and widespread malpractices and excessive expenditure by candidates, resulting
in the growth of money-power and muscle-power which vitiates people’s power,
the Election Commission should be requested to convene the state election authorities
for a detailed exchange of experience and the drawing up of a code for the conduct
for elections to the rural and urban institutions of self government that would
contribute to free, fair, transparent and economical elections. Notwithstanding the
disqualifications prescribed by law, a large number of undesirable people manage
to get themselves elected to the local bodies by threatening and cajoling voters
and then proceed to dominate and terrorize the local community. Each state should,
therefore, has the present disqualifications reviewed by the state election authority
or any other suitable body with a view to the state legislature passing additional
legislation designed to insulate the elected local bodies from such malign influences.
Article 243G relating to the powers, authority and responsibilities of
Panchayat, is the heart of Part IX, the kernel of Panchayati Raj. Tragically, very
few states have even attempted to approximate the goals of Article 243G. Not till
this Article is fully implemented in letter and spirit can it be said that we have
progressed towards fulfilling the dreams of Mahatma Gandhi and the framers of
Part IX. The union government is doing little to monitor progress towards the
achievement of these goals, with a view to bringing to the attention of all concerned
the best practice in different states in this regard, and convening state ministers for
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rural development on an annual basis or even oftener to lay down milestones and Panchayati Raj
Institution Issues
measure the progress made towards the time-bound achievement of these goals. and Challenges
This is an urgent requirement and should constitute the central task of the union
ministry. Article 243G provides that Panchayats should be enabled by law to
function as institutions of self government. Yet in most states, devolution and NOTES
decentralization is by executive orders under the law rather than by law per se. It
must be ensured that all states undertake devolution by law, as called for in the
Constitution, so that no retrogression in devolution is possible without the explicit
concurrence of the state legislature. It is essential that state governments establish
expert bodies to clearly designate which functions will be exercised at which tier
of the three-tier system so that there is no confusion and no overlapping between
different tiers and development work is synergized at all three levels. Such
demarcation of responsibilities at different levels of the system will also facilitate
the devolution of functionaries and finances to the appropriate level of the Panchayati
Raj system. Effective devolution requires the devolution of functions with
functionaries and finances. The sine quo non of effective Panchayati Raj is the
demarcation of responsibilities between the three tiers for each devolved function
go hand-in-hand with the devolution of functionaries and finances to that level.
The two key functions of the Panchayats at each level are defined in Article 243G
as: (a) the preparation of plans for economic development and social justice; (b)
the implementation of schemes for economic development and social justice.
Unless planning and implementation is undertaken by the Panchayats they
will not be serving their purpose. Of course, the Article provides that such planning
and implementation will be ‘subject to such conditions’ as may by law be stipulated.
But the central function of the Panchayats is planning and implementation. Yet, in
most states, there is no planning by Panchayats and implementation has been
reduced to a nexus between the contractor, the chairperson of the Panchayat and
the bureaucrats and technocrats of the line departments. In consequence, instead
of evolving as ‘institutions of self government’, the Panchayats have been reduced
to functional impotence and the corruption which arises out of chairpersons
exercising their authority without the involvement and sanction of the members of
the Panchayat at all levels and of the Gram Sabha at the village level. Corruption in
the Panchayats at all levels has become rampant in most states because chairpersons
are not responsible to the committees of the Panchayats or to the general body of
the Panchayats. In association with the bureaucracy chairpersons have tended to
usurp the functions which properly belong to the Panchayat as a whole. It is,
therefore, of crucial importance to establish standing and ad hoc committees of
the Panchayats at each level so that proposals are processed by such committees
and then brought before the general body of the Panchayat for approval before,
during and after the execution of works.
Planning is required to be undertaken at every tier of the Panchayati Raj
system, and not at the level of the District Planning Committee alone. Indeed, the
very wording of Article 243ZD dealing with the District Planning Committees says
Self-Instructional
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Panchayati Raj the DPC is to ‘consolidate the plans prepared by the Panchayats’. It is not till the
Institution Issues
and Challenges Planning Commission fulfils its constitutional obligation of making district planning
through elected DPCs the basis of all planning that the objectives of clause (a) of
Article 243G can be fulfilled. Implementation is a key responsibility of the
NOTES Panchayats. But this has to be by Panchayats functioning as ‘institutions of self
government’, not as handmaidens of the line departments. In respect of all devolved
subjects, implementation should be the responsibility of the Panchayats at the
appropriate level, with the bureaucracy and technocracy assisting the elected
authority in implementation and answerable to the Panchayat concerned, not the
line department of the state government. The Gram Sabha must be deeply involved
in implementation at all levels because it is the best form of social audit, both pre-
implementation and post-implementation. This is also the most effective way of
cutting down corruption and nepotism and ensuring transparency and
accountability, as well as functioning democracy.
Few legislatures have made adequate provision in their laws for the fiscal
duties and rights of the Panchayats at different levels. There also appears to have
been no endeavours made to demarcate fiscal duties and rights as between each of
the three tiers of the Panchayati Raj system. State Finance Commissions also do not
appear to have applied their mind to this issue. The union government should identify
a suitable expert body, to prepare model recommendations in this regard for the
consideration of state Finance Commissions and state legislatures/governments.
Although Article 243H (a) provides for Panchayats to ‘appropriate’ into their own
funds the proceeds of taxes, etc., collected by them, few states appear to have
encouraged this useful mechanism for Panchayats to raise their own resources.
Therefore, state legislatures should consider which of the taxes, etc., assigned to the
Panchayats might be left to be appropriated by the Panchayats and request state
governments to prepare appropriate legislation in this regard. Such appropriation
should be encouraged to the maximum extent possible. The union government should
credit all funds for central and centrally-sponsored schemes directly to the fund of
the Panchayat concerned in accordance with the demarcation of responsibilities as
between the three tiers of the Panchayati Raj system. State governments may be
directed to similarly credit direct to the funds of the Panchayats, in accordance with
the demarcation of functional responsibilities and the share of the contribution they
are required to make to central rural development schemes.
Check Your Progress

1. What does the capacity of a political system primarily depends on?
2. What was the main reason of the dysfunctions of the local self government
in India?
3. What is the common negative trend found in most of the local bodies?
4. State one method through which women’s participation in meetings of Gram
Sabha can be improved.
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200 Material
Panchayati Raj
13.3 CAUSES FOR FAILURE OF PANCHAYAT Institution Issues
and Challenges
INSTITUTIONS
The concept of grassroot democracy at both rural and urban levels has not flourished NOTES
in the country. On the basis of the literature available on the operational aspects of
Panchayati Raj, the reasons for its decline are many. One of the major reasons
behind this failure are the political repercussions of electoral competition between
state and Panchayati Raj representatives. Entry of criminal elements in the elected
bodies, rampant corruption, caste and group division, priority to self interest over
public welfare and electoral malpractices, the state level leaders begin to see their
rivals in these institutions and out of here they started withdrawing important
functions from these bodies making them only dumping ground for discarded state
cadre administrative officers.
Most of the extension and development functions, such as, development of
land, water, forests grazing lands, animal husbandry, rural help, etc., were taken
away by making regular amendments in the relevant Acts. Such functions should
be in the hands of Panchayati Raj bodies but are being controlled by State Level
departments. Moreover, Panchayati Raj elections were repeatedly postponed on
one or the other ground which resulted in lack of people’s faith in such institutions
because of their functional inability. Political considerations played a major role in
patronage distribution in these institutions and Panchayati Raj Bureaucracy and
BDO were not allowed to take free and objective decisions in running and
distributing annual grants to various panchayats. The state controls ruined these
institutions by creating parallel alternative structures for rural development functions,
i.e., District Rural Development Agency (DRDA) made responsible for the IRDP,
TRYSEM, NREP, RLEGP and other programs. Number of overlapping committees
at district level comprising of MPs and MLAs are functioning and various lead
banks provide finance for different schemes (outside the Panchayati Raj structure)
and a municipality of departmental organisations also exist side-by-side. In practice,
the plethora of rural development programmes and schemes implemented under
the control of Central state governments has minimised the scope for the functioning
of Panchayati Raj bodies.
The capacity of Panchayati Raj Institutions was further hampered due to
inadequate finances. Most of the finances come from the state government. Even the
central government is keen to spend its own resources through its own organisations,
which have been created at every level. To add to the miseries of Panchayati Raj
bodies, people have developed apathy and lost faith in their capacity to fulfil their
needs. The problem of Panchayati Raj has further been compounded by the State
Authority who use stringent controls like dissolution and suppression of Panchayati
Raj Institutions. Even sarpanches were suspended and removed by government on
insubstantial grounds. The bureaucracy serving in these institutions do not want to be
subordinated by Panchayati Raj leaders and create obstacles in smooth working of
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Panchayati Raj these bodies. The worst part of the whole politicization is that Panchayati Raj has
Institution Issues
and Challenges become the dumping ground for discarded state cadre officials those who are
inefficient or non-functional were transferred to manage these units at no expert staff
which is required for planning implementation and monitoring of various schemes
NOTES and programmes was given to the institutions to manage them efficiently.
The 73rd amendment seeks to radically alter the power relations in the villages
by reserving seats for scheduled caste Scheduled Tribes and backward classes
and women. Overall, in the absence of proper education training and economic
independence, these groups are unable to assert themselves. Illiteracy poverty
and unemployment are the major handicaps. Urgent measures are required to be
taken to effectively deal with these problems in order to facilitate participatory
development. Though the provision for reservation for women has been manipulated
by their male counterparts, mostly their husbands, it has surely empowered them
to some extent. They are increasingly becoming aware of their rights and
responsibilities and are asserting themselves in certain cases. This is definitely a
very positive development.
The latest constitutional amendments have certainly increased financial
resources of the local self-governing institutions, but they still remain in need of
funds. Taxation powers have been given to them, but they are unable to collect
enough taxes. So due to scarcity of resources, panchayats are not able to fulfil
their role as self-governing Institutions or carriers of economic development in the
countryside. Panchayats are subject to various controls by the state governments.
The state governments are authorised to cancel their resolutions and even dissolve
them. However, the 73rd constitutional amendment has made it compulsory for the
states to hold election of Panchayati Raj bodies within 6 months of their dissolution.
It is necessary that the people participate actively in in democratically elected
Panchayat. This can be ensured through Gram Sabhas. Through Gram Sabhas,
the people can question and demand explanation for Panchayats. Gram Sabha
can harmonize needs and priorities of people and also plan direction of Village
Development. The Gram Sabhas can successfully play the role of securing
democracy at the grass root level if they are endowed with sufficient authority.
The overall social economic and cultural development of rural areas depends
on strong panchayats. Panchayats, as the foundation of democracy at the grassroot
level, can be strengthened only by reposing faith in them, endowing them with
adequate administrative and financial powers and encouraging vigilance and active
participation of people.
Check Your Progress

5. Name the alternative structure whose creation has led to the minimizing of
Panchayati raj institutions for rural development.
6. What have been major handicaps in the facilitation of participatory
development in panchayati raj institutions?
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Panchayati Raj
13.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Institution Issues
and Challenges
QUESTIONS
1. The ‘capacity of a political system’ depends primarily on the quality, training NOTES
and socialization of the leaders at various levels.
2. Reluctance among the higher bureaucracy and political elite in devolving
their powers had been the main reason of the dysfunctions of the local self
government in India.
3. It has been found that most of the local bodies have become a centre of
corruption and petty politics.
4. In view of the crucial importance of adequate women’s participation in
meetings of the Gram Sabha, a sub-quorum of female attendance should be
built into the required quorum. Moreover, provision may be made that
meetings of the Gram Sabha be preceded by meetings of the Mahila Sabha,
comprising all adult women voters of the village Panchayat, to ensure that
gender concerns and preferences get fully reflected in the proceedings of
the Gram Sabha.
5. The state controls have ruined the Panchayati raj institutions by creating
parallel alternative structures for rural development functions, i.e., District
Rural Development Agency (DRDA) made responsible for the IRDP,
TRYSEM, NREP, RLEGP and other programs.
6. Illiteracy, poverty and unemployment are the major handicaps in the
facilitation of participatory development in panchayati raj institutions.
13.5 SUMMARY
 If a major device for rapid economic development is centralized planning,

democratic decentralization could be described as a major device for
dispersing power and for stimulating political development.
 The publication of the Balwant Rai Mehta Committee Report on democratic
decentralization in 1957, gave an impetus to the decentralization process,
now known as Panchayati Raj. But certain problematic tendencies could
be observed even in the initial stages. What followed was a brief account of
these tendencies.
 If leaders of Panchayati Raj institutions use the western idiom to communicate
with the rural masses, there would be a breakdown of communication. The
use of the traditional idiom is therefore a necessity.
 Today, the new rural elites perform a significant function in political
development. The new elites are bridging this gap to a certain extent.
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Panchayati Raj  It could be said that the Panchayati Raj institutions, by and large, are
Institution Issues
and Challenges successful in stimulating the rural population. To some extent, this participation
might be the result of traditional loyalties. But the emergence of rival parties
and elections will gradually change the character of the participation.
NOTES
 There has been some criticism of ‘pollution’ of village-level life by the
introduction of party-politics. Without indulging in any idealisation of political
parties, it could be generally agreed that the party is a modern integrative
agency in every developing country.
 The successful working of Panchayati Raj institutions might create a new
catchments area for new political elites. These institutions are capable of
inducting new classes of population into politics. The working of these
institutions might give people some experience in policy-making and political
bargaining.
 Panchayats can fulfil their responsibility as institutions of self government
only if devolution is patterned on a nexus between their functions,
functionaries and finances. Very few states have linked the formal devolution
of functions to the means for actualizing such devolution through the
devolution of functionaries and finances.
 The central government must channel all funds for central and centrally-
sponsored schemes falling within the ambit of the Eleventh Schedule direct
to the Panchayats at the appropriate level. With the entry into force of Part
IX, the pre-Part IX instrument of the District Rural Development Authority
(DRDA) has become obsolescent and needs to be ended, especially as the
DRDA is inimical to the fundamental objective of Part IX which is the
establishment of institutions of self government.
 Arrangements for the training of elected members of the Panchayats at
different levels, and of the administrative and technical staff attached to the
Panchayats, fall at present far short of requirements.
 The concept of grassroot democracy at both rural and urban levels has not
flourished in the country. On the basis of the literature available on the
operational aspects of Panchayati Raj, the reasons for its decline are many.
One of the major reasons behind this failure are the political repercussions
of electoral competition between state and Panchayati Raj representatives.
 Most of the extension and development functions, such as, development of
land, water, forests grazing lands, animal husbandry, rural help, etc., were
taken away by making regular amendments in the relevant Acts. Such
functions should be in the hands of Panchayati Raj bodies but are being
controlled by State Level departments.
 The capacity of Panchayati Raj Institutions was further hampered due to
inadequate finances.
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 The worst part of the whole politicization is that Panchayati Raj has become Panchayati Raj
Institution Issues
the dumping ground for discarded state cadre officials those who are and Challenges
inefficient or non-functional were transferred to manage these units at no
expert staff which is required for planning implementation and monitoring of
various schemes and programmes was given to the institutions to manage NOTES
them efficiently.
 Due to scarcity of resources, panchayats are not able to fulfill their role as
self-governing Institutions or carriers of economic development in the
countryside.
 It is necessary that the people participate actively in in democratically elected
Panchayat. This can be ensured through Gram Sabhas. Through Gram
Sabhas, the people can question and demand explanation for Panchayats.
13.6 KEY WORDS
 Decentralization: It is a social process in which population and industry

moves from urban centres to outlying districts.
 Bureaucracy: It is a system of government in which most of the important
decisions are made by state officials rather than by elected representatives.

EXERCISES
1. ‘The politics of India could be said to be mainly under the influence of the
other two political idioms’. What are these?
2. How do new rural elites perform a significant function in political
development?
3. Mention the mandatory and recommendatory provisions of Part IX of the
Indian Constitution.
4. Write a short note on the political repercussions of electoral competition
between state and Panchayati Raj representatives.
1. Examine the issues and challenges of rural local self government in India
ever since independence.
2. Discuss the causes of failure of rural local self-government and measures to
improve it.
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Panchayati Raj
Institution Issues 13.8 FURTHER READINGS
and Challenges

University Press.
Agarwal.
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Urbanization Process
UNIT 14 URBANIZATION PROCESS

Structure
14.0 Introduction NOTES
14.1 Objectives
14.2 Meaning of Urbanization
14.2.1 Features of Urban Society
14.3 Urbanization in India
14.5 Summary
14.6 Key Words
14.0 INTRODUCTION
After independence, urbanization in India began to accelerate due to the country’s

adoption of a mixed economy, which led directly to private sector development.
In India, urbanization took place at quite a rapid pace. Population living in India’s
urban areas was 11.4 percent, according to the 1901 Census. According to the
2001 census, this figure increased to 28.53 percent and crossed 30% as per the
2011 census, standing at 31.15 percent. According to World Bank, the numbers
increased to 34 per cent in 2017. According to a survey conducted in 2007 by
UN State of the World Population, by 2030, 40.76 percent of the country’s
population is projected to live in urban areas. National Commission on Population
(July 2020), India’s urban population will increase from 377 million in 2011 to
594 million in 2036 a growth of 57 per cent in percentage terms, close to 39 per
cent of population will be living in urban India. In this unit, we will discuss the
meaning, significance, and reasons for urbanization, along with classification and
identification of urban spaces. It will also focus on the World Bank indicators on
urbanization and urban development, urbanization trends, and rural urban linkages.
14.1 OBJECTIVES

 Explain the meaning of urbanization
 Describe the features of urban society
 Discuss the causes of urbanization
 Examine the challenges and issues of urbanization in India
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14.2 MEANING OF URBANIZATION
According to Thompson Warren, ‘urbanization is the movement of people from

NOTES communities concerned chiefly or solely with agriculture to other communities,
generally larger, whose activities are primarily centred in government, trade
manufacture or allied interests.’ He observes that urbanization not only involves a
movement from villages to cities but also involves a change in the attitude, values,
beliefs and behaviour of the migrants. Urbanization is universal and brings about
economic development and social change. It can be defined as a process of
concentration of population in a particular territory. According to Mitchell,
‘Urbanization is a process of becoming urban, moving to cities, changing from
agriculture to other pursuits common to cities.’ The eminent Indian sociologist, Dr
G.S. Ghurye, has defined urbanization in a functional manner. According to him,
‘urbanization means migration of people from village to city and the effect of this
movement upon the migrants and their families and upon fellowmen in the villages.’
It is important to distinguish the concept of urbanization from the concepts
of urbanity and urbanism. As we have seen, urbanization is a process which refers
to change in values, attitudes and beliefs of people who migrate from villages to
cities and the impact of this movement on people who are left behind in the villages.
Urbanity, on the other hand, is the state of the people living in an urban area which
is distinct from those living in the villages. It refers to a pattern of life in terms of
work, food habits and the world view of people living in the urban areas. Urbanism
is characterized by a system of values, norms and attitudes towards the inter-
personal relations in terms of individualism and anonymity.
Evidence of urbanization in India is available from the Harappan period and
throughout the history of India. The cities of Mohenjodaro and Harappa (presently
in Pakistan) were established in the Indus river valley way back in 2,500 BC. It
has been pointed out by archaeologists that urbanization in Harappa could be
ascertained from archaeological findings of brick technology, agriculture and
irrigation facilities. Other examples of urbanization in the ancient period of Indian
history are the cities of Pataliputra (Patna) and Vaishali during the Magadh rule
around 300 BC. In the medieval period of Indian history, cities like Kannauj,
Delhi, Agra, Daulatabad, Hyderabad, etc., had acquired importance. With the
advent of the British colonialism from the 17th century onwards, there was a
growth of urban centres like Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. Except Delhi,
all the other urban centres were port cities and facilitated trade and commerce
undertaken by the British rulers.
Pattern of Urbanization during the British Rule
During the 19th century, when the British firmly established themselves politically
in India, urbanization in India entered a different phase. Cities like Calcutta, Bombay
and Madras evolved from mere trading centres to political centres. This period
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also saw rapid technological advancements, new modes of transport and Urbanization Process
communication, emergence of new economic institutions, etc. All this made the
process of urbanization quicker and smoother.
While urban centres gained in prosperity, the rural areas of India became
NOTES
neglected. Cottage industries and rural artisans suffered a lot because of the
exploitative economic policies of the British. This forced the rural artisans and
other workers to migrate to cities in search of wage employment. Thus, it can be
said that the process of urbanization strengthened the cities at the expense of the
villages.
With the spread of education in these urban centres, the educated sections
joined the bureaucracy or took up jobs as teachers, doctors, lawyers, journalists,
etc. They became the intelligentsia and the elites of the Indian society and aligned
their world view with the western world. They also brought about new political
and economic ideas. The new process of urbanization provided ample scope for
occupational and social mobility and slowly broke the stranglehold of the caste
system. This process, which got a boost during the 19th century, gathered greater
momentum in the 20th century.
From the beginning of the 20th century and especially after independence,
urbanization in India has taken place at a fast pace. The modern Indian cities have
become centres of economic, political, administrative and cultural power. The
pattern of urbanization in the 20th century can be understood in terms of its
demographic, spatial, economic and socio-cultural aspects.
Demographic aspect
Population has always been an important aspect of urbanization in India. The
Indian population growth exploded in the 20th century and, as a result, urban
population also grew rapidly. The share of urban population in India has grown
from 10.8 per cent in 1901 to 31 per cent in 2011. The steady growth in urban
population over the last 110 years has been partly due to rapid economic
development in the cities and towns and partly due to the slow agricultural growth
in the rural areas.
Spatial aspect
The Indian urban scenario has witnessed a lot of spatial disparities. These disparities
are the result of regional disparities, imbalanced concentration of population in
certain areas and changes in the definition of urban areas in the census. These
disparities can be observed from the following facts:
 Increase and decrease in the number of towns and cities due to changes in
the definition of urban areas.
 Variation of urbanization amongst different states with urban domination in
states like Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
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Urbanization Process  Concentration of urban population in the big cities with the population in
such cities growing much faster than in other smaller towns.
 Growth of metropolitan cities with population of more than one million.
NOTES It is important to know about the following two concepts while talking about the
spatial aspect of urbanization in India:
 Over-urbanization: Cities and towns do not have an unlimited capacity to
accommodate the growing population and providing them with civic amenities,
medical facilities, schools, etc. Thus, when the population of a city goes
beyond a certain limit, the administration of that city fails to provide its
citizens with the requisite facilities. It is at this juncture that a city is said to
have become over-urbanized. Cities like Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata are
examples of such over-urbanization.
 Sub-urbanization: When cities and towns get over populated, they expand
beyond their boundaries and take the adjoining rural areas within their fold.
This phenomenon is known as sub-urbanization. Thus, sub-urbanization
refers to the urbanization of rural areas around the towns and cities and it is
characterized by the following features:
o A sharp increase in the urban uses of land.
o Inclusion of the surrounding areas within the municipal limits of the towns
and cities.
o Intensive communication of all types between the town or city and its
surrounding areas.
Economic aspect
Urbanization is both a cause and a consequence of economic development. It is
more of a consequence because economic development entails a huge movement
of labour and other inputs from the rural areas to the towns and cities. The National
Commission on Urbanization of India recognizes the importance of the Indian
cities and towns. It considers urbanization to be a catalyst for economic
development.
When we look at the various cities in India, we see that some have come up
at places where there was no habitation at all. One of the earliest steel cities in
India was Jamshedpur. It was the result of the setting up of the Tata Steel Plant,
which has provided employment to members of the Santhal tribe that stayed nearby.
Apart from Jamshedpur, three more steel cities also emerged after independence.
They were Rourkela in Orissa, Bhilai in Chhattisgarh and Durgapur in West Bengal.
These steel cities and steel factories completely modified the whole socio–economic
scenario of that area. They progressed from being backward areas to cosmopolitan
and prosperous urban centres. Thus, you see the important and crucial role played
by industries in urbanizing India.
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14.2.1 Features of Urban Society Urbanization Process
Urban society all over the world has a few common features. Let us discuss them
briefly as follows:
 Large population: The urban society is characterized by a large population NOTES
in any particular area. Since, urban society comprises cities and towns, and
they have high population levels, large population becomes its inherent
characteristic. Along with large population, there is the prevalence of high
density of population.
 Non-agricultural occupation: In any urban society, the occupational pattern
reveals that most of the people are engaged in non-agricultural economic
activities like government jobs, entrepreneurship, jobs in factories or other
service industries (banks, colleges, etc.), retail business, etc.
 Heterogeneity: This is an important feature of all urban societies. The
existence of a large population with diverse backgrounds is bound to result
in heterogeneity. Thus, urban societies have a great deal of variance in so
far as customs, festivals, lifestyles, ideologies, etc., of its members are
concerned.
 Tolerance: Urban areas comprise members from various castes, religions,
regions, languages, etc. For all of them to live peacefully together, a high
degree of mutual tolerance is absolutely essential. Since, urban areas have
been largely peaceful and prosperous; it implies that tolerance is a significant
feature of the urban society.
Features of urbanization in ancient and medieval India
The process of urbanization in ancient and medieval India had certain distinct
features, which can be classified under the following three broad categories:
 Political, demographic and spatial factors: The processes of urbanization
in ancient and medieval India had a very close relationship with the rise and
fall of political regimes. Cities emerged on the basis of political considerations
and were built around the ruler and his kinsmen. An important physical
feature of these early cities was the fortification that was undertaken to
protect them. High walls, deceptive ditches and secret tunnels were part of
the elaborate steps taken to defend the cities and its people.
 Economic factors: Despite the fluctuating fortunes of the political dynasties
of those times, the economic institutions have shown some degree of stability.
Guild formation was an important feature of the cities of that time. These
guilds performed important functions in the traditional towns in terms of
banking, trading, manufacturing, etc.
 Religious and socio-cultural factors: Religion was an important aspect
of statecraft in the ancient and medieval times. The rulers patronized a
particular religion or sect and their capital cities acquired the culture of that
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Urbanization Process particular religion or sect. For example, when Pataliputra was ruled by
Chandragupta Maurya, it reflected a Brahmanical Hindu civilization.
However, when the reins of the kingdom went to Ashoka, Buddhism
flourished in the same city. The traditional towns were heterogeneous in
NOTES terms of multiplicity of religious, sectarian and caste groups.
Re-urbanization
The term re-urban was introduced by the sociologist C.J. Galpin. It referred to
the composite urban settlements wherein the urban and rural population intermingled
and stayed connected with and dependent upon each other. These composite
settlements were characterized by a blending of rural and urban life. Thus, ‘re-
urbanization’ was the process that resulted in the development of a composite
settlement.
The blending of urban and rural life is not a new phenomenon. The rural–
urban fringe has always been a composite area where the rural and urban folks
interacted and intermingled. In contrast to ancient times, the distinction between
the city and the village has blurred. The city has expanded and passed into the
countryside. Beyond the city there is a large area where farms and urban homes
are completely mixed and it is not possible to demarcate between them. These
composite regions are called re-urban.
In these regions, most of the facilities enjoyed by the urbanites are also
enjoyed by the farmers. The farmers use the banking services available in the
cities and send their children to the city schools. Similarly, the urbanites grow
vegetables and raise poultry in their backyards. Thus, the re-urban region is a
distinct ecological type, which is not entirely urban but is city-dominated or city-
centred. This kind of an ecological setting, according to some sociologists, is the
most desirable for human beings. They believe that the re-urban areas would
replace the city and large scale ‘re-urbanization’ would take place. However,
there are others like Professor Bergel who thinks that is not going to happen.
Their reasoning is that the industries need large number of labourers who are
required to stay on the factory premises. Such labourers cannot be allowed to
stay far away from the factories. Thus, ‘re-urbanization’ would not get the support
of industrialisation.
The factors that are mainly responsible for urbanization are as follows:
 Industrialization: Industrialization is considered to be the single most
important cause for urbanization to have taken place. The emergence of
modern industries has proved to be a turning point for the global economic
and social development and change. The great impetus to urbanization came
with the industrial revolution in England followed by the one on the European
continent and finally in the United States of America. With the setting up of
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industries, there was a demand for labour and people moved in from rural Urbanization Process
areas to fulfil this need and also to satiate their desire for new and more
remunerative employment opportunities. Thus, began the process of
urbanization. New habitations developed in and around industries, which
had modern amenities like good houses, schools, hospitals, parks, roads, NOTES
electricity, piped water, public transport, etc. The people who had moved
in from the villages found the urban areas better and more comfortable and
settled there. They also brought their families in due course of time. Thus,
industrialization gave the initial push towards the process of urbanization
and reinforced it thereafter. In the modern era, it is the pace of economic
development that determines the growth and development of a country.
Industries have fuelled this growth and taken many countries to great heights.
Industries cannot operate without men and machines. Therefore, labour
and capital are imperative for the growth and success of any industry. This
demand for labour is a very significant pull factor for the people living in
isolated rural areas to migrate to areas in and around the industries. Similarly,
the poverty and lack of employment opportunities proved to be a push
factor for the rural populace to move towards these industrial towns. Thus,
industrialization started the process of urbanization and it continued unabated
due to its own momentum and the desire of people to lead a modern and
comfortable life.
 Social factors: Another reason for urbanization is the social factor. The
rural folks got attracted by the educational, health and other infrastructural
facilities available in the cities. Besides, the cities provided them with more
privacy and a great degree of anonymity, which helped them lead their lives
without the constant interference of family members and neighbours as it
used to happen in villages. Urbanization fuels many aspirations of the rural
population and results in rapid migration of people from the countryside to
fulfil these aspirations. This further quickens the pace of urbanization.
 Modernization: Modernization is also an important cause of urbanization.
Modern facilities in cities like better roads, excellent communication systems,
schools and hospitals, etc., attract the rural people to come to the cities in
search of a happy and comfortable life. Modernization is a process of
adopting the new and better options that are available so as to make human
life comfortable. Quite naturally, it brings forth urbanization because it is the
city that gets modernized much before the villages. Modernization and
westernization are sometimes used interchangeably. Urbanization is an
important feature of the western world and, therefore, it is natural for it to
be influenced by modern developments.
 Employment opportunities: People from the rural areas migrate to urban
areas in search of work opportunities and contribute to the process of
urbanization. The villages are mostly agricultural and there is no requirement
of a big labour force to work on the land. In fact, the agricultural sector in
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Urbanization Process the rural areas gives rise to a phenomenon called ‘disguised unemployment’.
This means that though people appear to be employed in the agricultural
sector, they actually contribute nothing because their labour is not at all
required. They are unemployed from the productivity sense of the word,
NOTES but such unemployment is disguised by the fact that they are engaged in the
fields.
Modern manufacturing and service industries that come up in the cities are
big attractions for the rural population. They believe that they can improve their
lives by moving out towards the urban centres.
Check Your Progress

1. What is urbanism?
2. Mention some of the cities which had acquired importance during the
medieval period.
3. What does the occupational pattern of urban society reveal?
4. List the two push factors responsible for rural populace to move towards
these industrial towns.
14.3 URBANIZATION IN INDIA
Commenting on the challenges of urbanization, the Twelfth Five Year Plan, stated,
‘Urbanization in India has occurred more slowly than in other developing countries
and the proportion of the population in urban areas has been only 28 per cent
based on the 2001 census. The pace of urbanization is now set to accelerate as
the country sets to a more rapid growth. Economic reform has already unleashed
investment and growth offering its citizens rich opportunities. Surging growth and
employment in cities will prove a powerful magnet. Three hundred million Indians
currently live in towns and cities. Within 20-25 years, another 300 million people
will get added to Indian towns and cities. This urban expansion will happen at a
speed quite unlike anything that India has seen before. It took nearly forty years
for India’s urban population to rise by 230 million. It could take only half the time
to add the next 250 million. If not well managed, this inevitable increase in India’s
urban population will place enormous stress on the system.
Recent reports suggest that India spends $17 per capita per year in urban
infrastructure, whereas the most benchmarks suggest a requirement $100. The
investment required for building urban infrastructure in India, over the next 20
years, is estimated at approximately US$ 1trillion.’
There is a worldwide trend towards urbanization and India too is part of
this movement. Over 50 per cent of the population of the entire world is today
living in urban areas, cities and towns. According to the 2011 Census, in India
31.16 per cent of the population or 377 million persons reside in urban regions.
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In India, the urban regions’ role as vehicles of growth has had a more significant Urbanization Process
growth in comparison with the population. Cities are taking on more and more the
role of being engines of both economic growth and productivity. Commonly now
it is recognized that determining of efforts towards poverty reduction and national
economic growth will be more and more dependent on the productivity of cities NOTES
and towns. Yet, simultaneously a huge majority of India’s urban inhabitants,
specifically the population of the urban poor have no adequate access even to
services and amenities which are extremely basic like hospitals, schools, sanitation,
water supply, transport and housing.
Various issues are caused in towns and cities because of population
concentration and the rising urbanization. Some of these issues are high level of
population density, traffic congestion, pollution (industrial, noise, traffic), slums,
increase in urban poverty, degradation of the environmental, housing shortage,
shortage of civic services and inadequacy of infrastructure. The primary
responsibility of making civic amenities available rests with the Urban Local Bodies
(ULBs) who are faced with constraints like inadequacy of revenues, inefficiency
of human and organisational resources, and environment being non-supportive.
Therefore, ULBs cannot effectively discharge their responsibilities and, therefore,
cannot improve the levels of service.
Though the continuously increasing population in urban areas is causing the
urban infrastructure to become inadequate and disintegrate, yet cities have grown
as the preferred destinations of domestic and foreign investment, as reservoirs of
infrastructure facilities, social capital, skills, and knowledge. The positive role that
a city plays is now of greater importance in the light of the current information
revolution, liberalization and globalization. It is increasingly becoming evident that
urbanization associated problems stem from inadequate management of cities and
of finances, and are not problems that are associated with the growth of cities, so
to say.
To quote from the Strategic Plan of Ministry of Urban Development for
2011-2016: ‘Urban population will be growing much faster than rural population
in the next few decades. Urban population (285 million) constituted 27.8 per cent
of the total population in 2001in India. Even at this relatively low level of urbanization,
India still has the second largest urban population in the world. According to the
Census, by 2026, urban population would rise to around 535 million or 38.2 per
cent of the total population. This means an addition of 250 million persons or near
doubling of urban population in about two decades from now with reference to
2001.’
Similarly, the McKinsey Global Institute projects that India’s urban population
will be 590 million by 2030 which would be about 40 per cent of the total population
of the country and further estimates that by 2030, the number of million plus cities
will increase to 68 of which 13 cities will have more than four million, and six cities
will have more than ten million people. By 2050, it is estimated that urban population
will constitute nearly half of the total population in India. Self-Instructional
Material 215
Urbanization Process Inadequate Level of Empowerment of Urban Local Bodies
Municipal institutions in India have a history of over 300 years. These refer to
urban local bodies comprising municipal corporations, municipalities and nagar
panchayats. In 2001, there were about 3,636 urban local bodies in the country.
NOTES
However, the Constitution did not make local self-government in urban areas a
clear-cut constitutional obligation. As a consequence of inadequate constitutional
provision for local self government, democracy in municipal governance was not
stable. As a result, many urban local bodies became weak and were not able to
perform effectively. In this context, the 74th Constitution Amendment Act (CAA)
came into force in June, 1993, which sought to strengthen decentralization. The
main provisions include constitution and composition; constitution of wards
committees; reservation of seats; duration of municipalities; powers and functions;
finances; finance commission; elections; district and metropolitan planning
committees, etc. The 74th CAA, expects that ULBs will assume responsibilities
for urban planning, water supply, social and economic planning, slum upgradation,
public health, etc. However, the CAA did not lay down revenue base for ULBs
and the power to determine the revenue base continues to remain with state
governments. Study of the implementation of the 74th CA shows that some states
have performed better than others. An important observation is that while there
has been full compliance in respect of provisions, such as constitution of three
types of ULBs, reservation of seats, and constitution of SFCs, the same cannot
be said for other provisions, namely constitution of wards committees, district
planning committees and metropolitan planning committees.
Many states have not transferred functions, funds and functionaries to urban
local bodies. Revenue powers of these bodies are often not in consonance with
the assigned responsibilities. There is also no consistency about term, powers and
method of election of mayors. In some states, mayors are elected directly whereas
in most states there are elected indirectly. The term of mayor varies between one
to five years. In most states, mayors do not have executive powers as these are
vested with the commissioners. Implementation of 74th CAA needs strengthening.
The need for improving the functional efficiency of ULBs has acquired greater
importance after the 74th CAA, which has devolved additional functions.
The contemporary process of urbanization has also given birth to various problems
in India. Some of the most significant problems which may be observed readily
are as follows:
(a) Development of slum areas: In almost all urban areas of India, the
population of slums comprises a major portion of the overall population of
the cities. Even the most planned cities (like Chandigarh) are not free from
the problem of these slum areas. These slum areas are those regions which
are densely populated with minimal living standards, deprived of basic
Self-Instructional
216 Material
amenities like ventilators, windows, roads, electricity, fresh air and clean Urbanization Process
drinking water etc. These slums are the halts of different kind of diseases,
environmental pollution, immoral acts and social tensions. These slums are
also the shelters of various social problems like domestic violence, child-
labour, gambling etc. Almost all indicators of poverty may be traced in these NOTES
slum areas.
(b) Lack of residences: Lack of residences is the second most important
problem of urbanization in India. This problem seems more radical in those
cities where population has crossed the limit of 10 Lacs or so. Along with
this, inappropriate and unplanned use of urban land is also a major problem
in urban areas. This problem has made widest impact on the low-salary
groups. Considering this problem, government has introduced several rules
and regulation for controlling and limiting the occupation of urban land and
rent of residential and commercial properties. National Council related to
urbanization in India has also suggested that at least 15% of all new
development works in the urban areas should be directed towards the
weaker sections of the society.
(c) Improper management of transportation: In India, lack of proper
transport system and commutation facilities pose the third most important
problem in the process of urbanization. Though most of the metropolitan
cities use advanced means of transportation with sophisticated technologies
like trains, metros, trams, buses etc., still due to ever-increasing immigration
in these areas and ever-increasing population, these facilities seem insufficient
to cope with the needs of the people. Similarly, lack of sufficient medical
facilities, health facilities, clean drinking water, and electric-supply also pose
a serious problem in the urban areas.
On the basis of abovementioned major problems, it would not be wrong to
say that India is fraught with the tendency of ‘over-urbanization’. Not only this,
but this process of urbanization is also giving rise to subsidiary urbanization. The
advanced means of transportation and communication have paved the way for the
sub-urbanization of the peripheral regions of the cities. Such development may be
readily observed in the metropolitan cities of Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai,
where capital regions are developing at remarkable rates.
In order to formulate a proper Urban Development policy in India, it should
be assured that proper motivation and facilities should be provided to the rural
areas, so as to reduce the gap between the urban and the rural areas. The Five-
Year Plans have played an important role in attempting to deal with these urban
problems, such as removal of slum areas, improvement of living standards in slums,
implementation of newer land acquisition and development policies are included in
this. Attempts are being made to bring about a similarity of lifestyle between the
main cities and regional peripheral areas.
Self-Instructional
Material 217
Check Your Progress

5. List some issues which are caused in towns and cities because of population
NOTES concentration and rising urbanization.
6. What are slum areas?

QUESTIONS
1. Urbanism is characterized by a system of values, norms and attitudes towards

the inter-personal relations in terms of individualism and anonymity.
2. In the medieval period of Indian history, cities like Kannauj, Delhi, Agra,
Daulatabad, Hyderabad, etc., had acquired importance.
3. In any urban society, the occupational pattern reveals that most of the people
are engaged in non-agricultural economic activities like government jobs,
entrepreneurship, jobs in factories or other service industries (banks,
colleges, etc.), retail business, etc.
4. The poverty and lack of employment opportunities have proved to be a
push factor for the rural populace to move towards these industrial towns.
5. Various issues are caused in towns and cities because of population
concentration and the rising urbanization. Some of these issues are high
level of population density, traffic congestion, pollution (industrial, noise,
traffic), slums, increase in urban poverty, degradation of the environmental,
housing shortage, shortage of civic services and inadequacy of infrastructure.
6. Slum areas are those regions which are densely populated with minimal
living standards, deprived of basic amenities like ventilators, windows, roads,
electricity, fresh air and clean drinking water etc.
14.5 SUMMARY
 Urbanization is universal and brings about economic development and social

change. It can be defined as a process of concentration of population in a
particular territory.
 Evidence of urbanization in India is available from the Harappan period and
throughout the history of India. The cities of Mohenjodaro and Harappa
(presently in Pakistan) were established in the Indus river valley way back
in 2,500 BC.
 With the advent of the British colonialism from the 17th century onwards,
there was a growth of urban centres like Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta and
Madras.
Self-Instructional
218 Material
 During the 19th century, when the British firmly established themselves Urbanization Process
politically in India, urbanization in India entered a different phase.

 From the beginning of the 20th century and especially after independence,
urbanization in India has taken place at a fast pace.
NOTES
 Urban society all over the world has a few common features. Let us discuss
them briefly as follows: Large population, Non-agricultural occupation,
Heterogeneity and Tolerance.
 The factors that are mainly responsible for urbanization are as follows:
Industrialization, Social factors, Modernization, and Employment
opportunities.
 The contemporary process of urbanization has also given birth to various
problems in India like a development of slum area, lack of residences, and
improper management of transportation.
14.6 KEY WORDS
 Urbanization: It is a process which refers to change in values, attitudes and

beliefs of people who migrate from villages to cities and the impact of this
movement on people who are left behind in the villages.
 Re-urban: It refers to the composite urban settlements wherein the urban
and rural population intermingled and stayed connected with and dependent
upon each other.
 Sub-urbanization: It refers to the urbanization of rural areas around the
towns and cities

EXERCISES
1. What is the difference between urbanization, urbanity and urbanism?
2. What are the evidences of urbanization in India throughout history?
3. List the common features of urban society all over the world.
4. What are the features of urbanization in ancient and medieval India?
5. With whom does the primary responsibility of making civic amenities available
rests? Mention some constraints they are faced with.
6. Write a short note on the inadequate level of empowerment of urban local
bodies.
Self-Instructional
Material 219
Urbanization Process Long-Answer Questions
1. Explain the pattern of urbanization in the 20th century.
2. Describe the causes of urbanization.
NOTES 3. Examine the contemporary process of urbanization has also given birth to
various problems in India.

University Press.
Agarwal.
Self-Instructional
220 Material

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ALAGAPPA UNIVERSITY

[Accredited with ‘A+’ Grade by NAAC (CGPA:3.64) in the Third Cycle

Directorate of Distance Education

B.A. (Public Administration)

LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT

"The copyright shall be vested with Alagappa University"

Vikas® is the registered trademark of Vikas® Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

BLOCK I: MEANING, SCOPE AND EVOLUTION OF LOCAL SELF

BLOCK II: ORGANISATION STRUCTURE AND ITS FUNCTIONS

BLOCK III: CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENT ACT AND ITS

BLOCK IV: PERSONNELAND FINANCE IN LOCAL SELF

Local governance refers collectively to administrative authorities over areas that

Local administration is the lower-most level of self-government in India. The term

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

Check Your Progress

1.3 EVOLUTION OF LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT

History of the Panchayati Raj System: Pre British Rule

Check Your Progress

1.4 EVOLUTION OF URBAN LOCAL BODIES

As mentioned in the previous section the introduction of local government was

1.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. In a welfare state, many progressive schemes and programmes are launched

 Local administration is based upon rule-making and decision-making for

NOTES  Self-governing village communities which are characterized by agrarian

1.7 KEY WORDS

 Panchayat: It is a village council in India which consists of five members.

1.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

Chakrabarty, B and R K Pandey. 2019. Local Governance in India. New

UNIT 2 COMMUNITY Programmes and

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

Check Your Progress

2.3 COMMITTEE REPORTS ON LOCAL BODIES

Check Your Progress

2.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

2.6 KEY WORDS NOTES

2.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

Chakrabarty, B and R K Pandey. 2019. Local Governance in India. New

As you have learnt in Unit 1, local government refers to the administrative

3.2 GRAM SABHA AND PANCHAYAT

Check Your Progress

3.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. The relationship between a Gram Sabha, Panchayat and Samiti is a

3.6 KEY WORDS

3.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

3.8 FURTHER READINGS

Chakrabarty, B and R K Pandey. 2019. Local Governance in India. New

During the period of their domination in developing countries, the colonial

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

4.2 MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS, MUNCIPALITY

Check Your Progress

4.3 TYPES OF ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURES

It is held in literature that four major types of administration structures could be

Fig. 4.1 The Weak Mayor-Council Structure

2. THE STRONG MAYOR COUNCIL STRUCTURE

Other Heads of Departments

Fig. 4.3 The Commission System

4. The Council-Manager System

Self-Instructional Fig. 4.4 The Council Manager System

Fig.4.5 Structure of Administration of Kolkata Metropolitan Area

2. Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority (MMRDA)