1.

PFD - Process Flow Diagram

The Process Flow Diagram - PFD, a schematic illustration of the system

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A Process Flow Diagram - PFD - (or System Flow Diagram - SFD) shows the relationships between the
major components in the system. PFD also tabulate process design values for the components in
different operating modes, typical minimum, normal and maximum. A PFD does not show minor
components, piping systems, piping ratings and designations.

A PFD should include:

 Process Piping
 Major equipment symbols, names and identification numbers
 Control, valves and valves that affect operation of the system
 Interconnection with other systems
 Major bypass and recirculation lines
 System ratings and operational values as minimum, normal and
maximum flow, temperature and pressure
 Composition of fluids

This figure depict a small and simplified PFD:

1 ISA codes for Process Instrumentation | D V SANG – Self study

System Flow Diagrams should not include:

 pipe class
 pipe line numbers
 minor bypass lines
 isolation and shutoff valves
 maintenance vents and drains
 relief and safety valve
 code class information
 seismic class information

 Example - Process Flow Diagram

 Piping & Instrumentation Diagram - P&ID?

2. P&ID - Piping and Instrumentation Diagram

A Piping and Instrumentation Diagram - P&ID, is a schematic illustration of
functional relationship of piping, instrumentation and system equipment
components
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P&ID shows all of piping including the physical sequence of branches, reducers, valves,
equipment, instrumentation and control interlocks.

The P&ID are used to operate the process system.

A P&ID should include:

 Instrumentation and designations

 Mechanical equipment with names and numbers
 All valves and their identifications
 Process piping, sizes and identification
 Miscellaneous - vents, drains, special fittings, sampling lines, reducers,
increasers and swagers
 Permanent start-up and flush lines
 Flow directions
 Interconnections references
 Control inputs and outputs, interlocks
 Interfaces for class changes
 Seismic category
 Quality level
 Annunciation inputs
 Computer control system input
 Vendor and contractor interfaces
 Identification of components and subsystems delivered by others
 Intended physical sequence of the equipment

This figure depict a very small and simplified P&ID:

2 ISA codes for Process Instrumentation | D V SANG – Self study

A P&ID should not include:

 Instrument root valves

 control relays
 manual switches
 equipment rating or capacity
 primary instrument tubing and valves
 pressure temperature and flow data
 elbow, tees and similar standard fittings
 extensive explanatory notes

 Process Flow Diagram - PFD?

3. BFD - Block Flow Diagram

It is common to use the Block Flow Diagram - BFD - as a schematic illustration
of the major process
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The block or rectangles used represent a unit operation. The blocks are connected by straight
lines which represent the process flow streams which flow between the units. These process flow

3 ISA codes for Process Instrumentation | D V SANG – Self study

streams may be mixtures of liquids, gases and solids flowing in pipes or ducts, or solids being
carried on a conveyor belt.

In order to prepare clear, easy to understand and unambiguous block flow diagrams a number of
rules should be followed:

 unit operations such as mixers, separators, reactors, distillation columns and heat
exchangers are usually denoted by a simple block or rectangle.
 groups of unit operations may be noted by a single block or rectangle.
 process flow streams flowing into and out of the blocks are represented by neatly
drawn straight lines. These lines should either be horizontal or vertical.
 the direction of flow of each of the process flow streams must be clearly indicated
by arrows.
 flow streams should be numbered sequentially in a logical order.
 unit operations (i.e., blocks) should be labeled.
 where possible the diagram should be arranged so that the process material flows
from left to right, with upstream units on the left and downstream units on the
right.

This figure depict a very small and simplified BFD:

Example - Block Flow Diagram

4 ISA codes for Process Instrumentation | D V SANG – Self study

  What is a Process Flow Diagram - PFD?
 What is a Piping & Instrumentation Diagram - P&ID?

4. Process Control and Common Terms

Common terms in the process control terminology
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Analog Signal
Analog signals are like voltage or electric current signal, representing temperature, pressure, level
etc. Usually the electrical current signal is of magnitude 4-20 mA where 4 mA is the minimum
point of span and 20 mA is the maximum point of span.

Analog to Digital Converting, A-D Converting

Electronic hardware converts analog signal like voltage, electric current, temperature, or pressure
into digital data a computer can process and interpret.

Auto Mode
In auto mode the output is calculated by the controller using the error signal - the difference
between set point and the process variable.

Closed Loop
Controller in automatic mode.

Cascade
Two or more controllers working together. The output of the master controller is the set point for
the "slave" controller.

Controller Output - CO
Output signal from the controller.

DDE Windows Dynamic Data Exchange

A standard Microsoft operating system method for communicating between applications.
Replaced by OLE for process control - OPC.

Dead Band
The range through witch an input can be varied without initiating a response.

Dead Time
Dead time is the amount of time it takes for the process variable to start changing after changing
output as a control valve, variable frequency drive etc.

Derivative - D
The derivative - D - part of a PID controller. With derivative action the controller output is
proportional to the rate of change of the process variable or process error.

Delay
A term commonly used in stead of dead time.

5 ISA codes for Process Instrumentation | D V SANG – Self study

Deviation
Any departure from a desired or expected process value.

Digital Signal
A discrete value at which an action is performed. A digital signal is a binary signal with two
distinct states - 1 or 0, often used as an on - off indication.

Digital Control System - DCS

Digital Control System - DCS refers to larger digital control systems.

Discrete Logic
Refers to digital "on - off" logic.

Discrete I/O
On or off signals sent or received to the field.

Dominant Lag Process

Most processes consist of both dead time and lag. If the lag time is larger than the dead time, the
process is a dominant lag process. Most process plant loops are dominant lag types. This
includes most temperature, level, flow and pressure loops.

Error
In the control loop the error = set point - process value.

Gain
Gain = 100 / Proportional Band. More gain in the controller gives a faster loop response and a
more oscillatory (unstable) process.

Gain in the process is defined as the change in input divided by the change in output. A process
with high gain will react more to the controller output changing.

Gain Margin
The difference in the logarithms of the amplitude ratios at the frequency where the combined
phase angle is 180 degrees lag is the gain margin.

Hysteresis
The signal change before the output unit (valve or similar) moves.

Input/Output - I/O
Electronic hardware where the field devices are wired.

Integral Action - I
The integral part of the PID controller. With integral action, the controller output is proportional to
the amount and duration of the error signal. If there is more integral action, the controller output
will change more when error is present.

Load Upset
An upset to the process not from changing the set-point.

6 ISA codes for Process Instrumentation | D V SANG – Self study

Lag Time
Lag time is the amount of time after the dead time that the process variable takes to move 63.3%
of its final value after a step change in valve position.

Measurement
Measurement is the same as the process value.

Manual Mode
In manual mode the output is set manual.

Mode
The controller can be set in auto, manual, or remote mode.

Man Machine Interface - MMI

Refers to the software that the process operator operates the process with.

Output
Output of the controller.

Overshoot
The amount a process exceed the set point during a change in the system load or change in the
set point.

PID Controller
Controller including Proportional, Integrating and Derivative controller functions. Cfr. ANSI/IEE
Standard 100-1977.

Process Value - PV
The actual value in the control loop, temperature, pressure, flow, composition, pH, etc

Programmable Logic Controller - PLC

Controllers replacing relay logic, usually with PID controllers.

Process Variable - PV
The actual value in the control loop, temperature, pressure, flow, composition, pH, etc. See
Process Value.

Proportional Band - P
With proportional band the controller output is proportional to the error or a change in process
variable. Proportional Band = 100/Gain

Rate
Same as the derivative or "D" part of PID controllers.

Register
A data storage location in a PLC.

Regulator
A controller changing the a output variable to move the process variable back to the set point

7 ISA codes for Process Instrumentation | D V SANG – Self study

Repeatability
The variation in outputs for the same change of input.

Reset
Same as the integral or "I" part of PID controllers.

Reset Windup
Integral action continuing to change the controller output value after the actual output reaches a
physical limit.

Response Time
The rate of interrogating a transmitter.

Sample Interval
The rate at which a controller samples the process variable and calculates a new output.

Set Point
The set point is the desired value of the process variable.

Time Constant
Same as lag time.

Transmitter
A transmitter sense the actual value of a system and transforms the value to a standardized signal
- 4-20 mA is common for analog signals - as input for the control system.

5. Process Controllers
Basic process controllers with proportional, integrating and derivative
functions
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Basic Controller
The Basic Controller for an application can be visualized as

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The controller consists of

 a measuring unit with an appropriate instrument to measure the state of process,

a temperature transmitter, pressure transmitter or similar.
 a input set point device to set the desired value.
 a comparator for comparing the measured value with the set point, calculating the
difference or error between the two.
 a control unit to calculate the output magnitude and direction to compensate the
deviation from the desired value.
 a output unit converting the output from the controller to physical action, a
control valve, a motor or similar.

Controller Principles
The Control Units are in general build on the control principles

 proportional controller
 integral controller
 derivative controller

Proportional Controller (P-Controller)

One of the most used controllers is the Proportional Controller (P-Controller) who produce an
output action that is proportional to the deviation between the set point and the measured
process value.

OP = -kP Er            (1)

where

OP = output proportional controller

9 ISA codes for Process Instrumentation | D V SANG – Self study

kP = proportional gain or action factor of the controller

Er = error or deviation between the set point value and the measured value

The gain or action factor - kP

 influence on the output with a magnitude of kP

 determines how fast the system responds. If the value is too large the system will
be in danger to oscillate and/or become unstable. If the value is too small the
system error or deviation from set point will be very large.
 can be regarded linear only for very small variations.

The gain kP can be expressed as

kP = 100 / P            (1b)

where

P = proportional band

The proportional band P, express the value necessary for 100% controller output. If P = 0, the gain
or action factor kP would be infinity - the control action would be ON/OFF.

Note! A proportional controller will have the effect of reducing the rise time and will reduce, but
never eliminate, the steady-state error.

Integral Controller (I-Controller)

With integral action, the controller output is proportional to the amount of time the error is
present. Integral action eliminates offset.

OI = - kI Σ(Er dt)            (2)

where

OI = output integrating controller

kI = integrating gain or action factor of the controller

dt = time sample

The integral controller produce an output proportional with the summarized deviation between the
set point and measured value and integrating gain or action factor.

Integral controllers tend to respond slowly at first, but over a long period of time they tend to
eliminate errors.

The integral controller eliminates the steady-state error, but may make the transient response
worse. The controller may be unstable.

The integral regulator may also cause problems during shutdowns and start up as a result of the
integral saturation or wind up effect. An integrating regulator with over time deviation (typical
during plant shut downs) will summarize the output to +/- 100%. During start up the output is set
to 100%m which may be catastrophic.

10 ISA codes for Process Instrumentation | D V SANG – Self study

Derivative Controller (D-Controller)
With derivative action, the controller output is proportional to the rate of change of the
measurement or error. The controller output is calculated by the rate of change of the deviation or
error with time.

OD = - kD dEr / dt            (3)

where

OD = output derivative controller

kD = derivative gain or action factor of the controller

dEr = deviation change over time sample dt

dt = time sample

The derivative or differential controller is never used alone. With sudden changes in the system
the derivative controller will compensate the output fast. The long term effects the controller allow
huge steady state errors.

A derivative controller will in general have the effect of increasing the stability of the system,
reducing the overshoot, and improving the transient response.

Proportional, Integral, Derivative Controller (PID-Controller)

The functions of the individual proportional, integral and derivative controllers complements each
other. If they are combined its possible to make a system that responds quickly to changes
(derivative), tracks required positions (proportional), and reduces steady state errors (integral).

Note that these correlations may not be exactly accurate, because P, I and D are dependent of
each other. Changing one of these variables can change the effect of the other two.

Controller Steady State

Rise Time Overshoot Settling Time
Response Error

Small
P Decrease Increase Decrease
Change

I Decrease Increase Increase Eliminate

Small Small
D Decrease Decrease
Change Change

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Related Topics

11 ISA codes for Process Instrumentation | D V SANG – Self study

  Process Control - Instrumentation and process control systems - engineering and
documentation

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Related Documents
6. ISA Instrumentation Codes in Process Control Systems
The ISA standards and symbols are important for the P&IDs and documents
describing the process control system
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Process Variable Symbol Type of Instrument Symbol

Analyses A Alarm A

Burner B Users Choice B

Combustion B Controller C

Users Choice C Control valve CV

Users Choice D Trap CV

Voltage V Sensor (primary element) E

Flow Rate F Rupture disc E

Users Choice G Sight or gage glass G

Current (electric) I Monitor G

Power J Indicator I

Time K Control Station K

Level L Light (pilot/operation) L

Users Choice M Users Choice N

12 ISA codes for Process Instrumentation | D V SANG – Self study

 Users Choice N Flow Resistance Orifice O

Users Choice O Test point (sample point) P

Pressure / Vacuum P Recorder R
Radiation R Switch S
Speed (or Frequency) S Transmitter T
Temperature T Multifunction U
Multivariable U Valve/Damper V
Vibration V Well W
Weight (force) W Unclassified X
Unclassified X Relay Y
Event Y Driver Z
Position, dimension Z Actuator Z

Example - ISA symbols for a Level Indicator

A level indicator will receive the symbol "L" for the process variable "Level", and "I" for the
"Indicator" type of instrument. Both combines to:

LI

For unique identification it is common to add a number to the ISA code, by example the code for
level indicator no. eight may be:

LI 08

7. ISA codes for Process Instrumentation

ISA instrumentation codes and combinations
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It is common to make letter combinations in PI&D diagrams according ANSI/ISA S5.1-1984 (R

1992) "Instrumentation symbols and identification" standard.

In addition to the letter combination it is common with a succeeding number as a unique

identification of the actual instrument. The numbering practice varies - some use a sequential
number, others use a number related to the process line number or similar.  

First Letter
First letter indicates a measured or initiating variable, or a modifier, such as Current (I), Speed (S)
or Flow (F).

13 ISA codes for Process Instrumentation | D V SANG – Self study

Measured or Initiating Variable

 A - Analysis
 B - Burner, combustion
 C - User's choice
 D - User's choice
 E - Voltage
 F - Flow rate
 G- User's choice
 H - Hand
 I - Current (electrical)
 J - Power
 K - Time, time schedule
 L - Level
 M- User's choice
 N- User's choice
 O- User's choice
 P - Pressure, vacuum
 Q - Quantity
 R - Radiation
 S - Speed, frequency
 T - Temperature
 U - Multivariable
 V - Vibration, mechanical analyses
 W - Weight, force
 X - Unclassified
 Y - Event, state or presence
 Z - Position, dimension

Modifier

 D - Differential
 F - Ration (fraction)
 J - Scan
 K - Time rate of change
 M - Momentary
 Q - Integrate, totalizer
 S - Safety
 X - X-axis
 Y - Y-axis
 Z - Z-axis

Second or Succeeding Letters

Second or succeeding letters indicates a readout or passive function, output function or a
modifier function.

14 ISA codes for Process Instrumentation | D V SANG – Self study

Readout or Passive Function

 A - Alarm
 B - User's choice
 E - Sensor (primary element)
 G- Glass, viewing device
 I - Indication
 L - Light
 N- User's choice
 O- Orifice, restriction
 P - Point (test connection)
 R - Record
 U - Multifunction
 W - Well
 X - Unclassified

Output Function

 B - User's choice
 C - Control
 K - Control Station
 N- User's choice
 S - Switch
 T - Transmit
 U - Multifunction
 V - Valve, damper, louver
 X - Unclassified
 Y - Relay, compute, convert
 Z - Driver, actuator

Modifier Function

 B - User's choice
 H - High
 L - Low
 M - Middle, intermediate
 N- User's choice
 U - Multifunction
 X - Unclassified

Examples - P&ID codes

  Flowmeter - Indicating

 FI 001

15 ISA codes for Process Instrumentation | D V SANG – Self study

Temperature - Transmitter

 TT 001

Control Valve

 FV 001

Position Switch - High Level

 ZSH 001

16 ISA codes for Process Instrumentation | D V SANG – Self study