Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

Early life (Biography):

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was a well-known Muslim reformer, educator and politician. Syed
Ahmed was born on 17th October 1817 in Delhi. Born into a family with strong Mughal
connections. He came from a wealthy from a wealthy family which was well known and respected
in the area. Great care was taken by his father to ensure that he received a high-quality education.
His father, Syed Muttaqi Mohammad was an advisor to Emperor Akbar II, while his grandfather,
Syed Hadi Alamgir, held a position of prominence in the Mughal court. He studied Persian, Arabic,
Mathematics and medicine along with the Quran. He left his conventional course but continued to
study privately. He had a keen interest in literature. After his father’s death, Khan joined the East
India Company as a clerk and gradually got promoted to become a judge of the small court. he
received the conventional education but was a pioneer in introducing modern education for the
Indian Muslim Community.

When the war of independence broke out in 1857 Sir Syed was working as a chief judge
Bijnaur and is said to have saved the lives of many women and children during the fighting. In
return for his loyalty the British offered him an estate with a large income, but he refused the offer.
He was appointed Chief Justice in Muradabad and later was transferred to Ghazipore.

In 1864 He was transferred to Aligarh where he played an important part in establishing

new college. In 1876 he retired from His work in the law to concentrate on running the college and
to devote himself to improving the position of Muslims in the Sub-continent through education.
Aligarh became the center of a ''Muslim Renaissance''. He died on 27 MARCH 1898, having
served his fellow Muslims in a way which few had rivalled.

Educational services or Ali Garh Movement:

As we know that, after the war of independence the condition of the Muslims of India were
very miserable as the British fell more on the Muslims than on Hindus. They considered that
Muslims were responsible for all the wrongs and the war held just because of their harsh and rude
behavior. After 1857, the Muslims emerged as a backward nation; they were illiterate and
hopelessly ignorant in every walk of life. They were deprived of their basic rights and were
neglected in every sphere of life. Nevertheless, they were economically, politically, socially and
to be more exact religiously made the subject of ruthless punishment. In such conditions, Sir Syed
Ahmad Khan came forward and tried to help the Muslims come out from such deplorable and
miserable conditions. He guided the Muslims towards the right path and attempted to draw out the
Muslims from such helpless condition. He started a movement in order to give respectable position
to Muslims in society as they had in past, this movement is known as Aligarh Movement. The
main focus of the Aligarh movement was:

• Loyalty to British Government.

• Modern western education for the Muslims to compete with Hindus.
• To keep away the Muslims from politics.
The most important movement for the spread of modern education and social reform among
Muslims was started by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan. Sir Syed realized that this miserable and deplorable
condition of Muslims was due to the lack of modern education. He believed that the cure of every
problem of Muslims was the modern education. Therefore, he commenced an educational program
in order to uplift the deprived and disappointed Muslims, who had lost their past glory. He took
concrete steps for his education plan.

Establishment Of First School In Muradabad (1859):

Thus, in 1859, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan set up a school for Muslims in Muradabad where
English, Persian, Islamiat, Arabic, Urdu were compulsory subjects.

School in Ghazipur (1862):

 In 1862, Sir Syed was transferred from Muradabad to Ghazipur where he established
another school for Muslims, which was known as Madrass Ghazipur. Here, also the English,
Arabic, Persian, Urdu and Islamiat were compulsory subjects.

Scientific Society Ghazipur 1864:

In 1864, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan laid the foundation of a scientific society at Ghazipur. The
purpose of this society was to translate the English books into Urdu language. But, later on, in
1866, after his transfer to Aligarh, the main office of the scientific society was also transferred to
Aligarh.

Aligarh Institute Gazette (1866):

In 1866, the scientific society issued a journal named as Aligarh Institute Gazette. This
journal was published both in Urdu and English languages. The aim of this journal was to wash
away the misconception between Muslims and British government and brought them close to each
other.

Committee Striving for Educational Progress of Muslims:

In order to closely watch the educational system of England, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan
accompanied his son Syed Mehmud, visited England in 1869 and stayed there for seventeen
months studying English educational institutions like Oxford and Cambridge University. Later,
after his return to India, he set up a committee known as “Committee Striving for Educational
Progress of Muslims”.

Under the Committee Striving for Educational Progress of Muslims” another committee
was established named as “Fund Committee for the establishment of a Muslim College”. For this
purpose, Sir Syed toured across the country and collected funds for the establishment of college.
The committee decided first for the forming of school as a model to the people and later to found
the college.

Mohammedan Anglo Oriental School 1875:

 Hence, in 1875, Sir Syed established Mohammedan Anglo Oriental School at Aligarh. In
1877, the school was upgraded to the level of college which was inaugurated by Lord Lytton. The
main characteristic of this college was that it offered both Western and Eastern educations. Later
on, this college was raised to the level of university, after the death of Sir Syed in 1920.

Mohammedan Educational Conference 1866:

In 1886, Sir Syed set up an organization which is known as Mohammedan Educational

Conference, which presented a twelve-point program in western and religious education in English
and other languages. It aims was to convey the message of education to the Muslim masses. The
Conference held its sessions at different towns of the country to know about the educational
problems and then tried to solve them. The conference in its meeting discussed the modern
techniques for the development and improvement of the standard of the education.

Political services:
Sir Syed advised Muslims of India to stay away from the political activities temporarily
because they have had no modern and political education at that time. The Hindus had established
“Congress” and had very sharp political knowledge which could be helpful for them in crushing
the Muslims very easily. He forbade the Muslims to join Congress since he knew that Hindus will
never be of the same interests as that of Muslims. He put stress on acquiring modern and political
education before getting into politics.
Muslim-British Relations:
After the War of Independence, the relationship of Muslims and British Government was
in deadly tarnished. Sir Syed knew the only way of revival of Muslims was to maintain the
relationship with British Government and wining their trust. In this respect he wrote a magazine
“Rasala-e-Asbab-e-Baghawat-e-Hind. In which he explained that not only the Muslims were
responsible for the War of Independence but also Hindus and other nations involved and this was
backed by ill-measured government policies. In 1986 he formed British Indian Association at
Aligarh with the objective of expressing grievances of Indian-Muslims before British Government.
In this course he wrote “Loyal Muhammadans of India” a detailed article accounted for the
services which were rendered by loyal Muslims to British Government.
The Aligarh movement awakened the Muslims and helped them regaining their lost value and
social status. This movement encouraged the Muslims to fight for their economic and political
rights to flourish their Islamic Civilization. This movement broadly helped Muslims reviving their
social, economic, political, cultural and religious value in the sub-continent. Educational reforms
opened new ways for Muslims to progress in economic and political spectrum. Sir Syed died in
27th March 1898 and his Aligarh Movement led the foundation for Pakistan Movement which
resulted in Separate homeland for Muslims in 1947.

Conclusion:
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan played a big role in the awareness of the Muslims of South Asia. Unlike
other Muslim leaders of his time, Sir Syed was of the view that Muslims should have friendship
with the British if they want to take their due rights. To achieve this, he did a lot to convince the
British that Muslims were not against them. On the other hand, he tried his best to convince the
Muslims that if they did not befriend the British, they could not achieve their goals. Sir Syed wrote
many books and journals to remove the misunderstandings between Muslims and the British. The
most significant of his literary works were his pamphlets “Loyal Muhammadans of India” and
“Cause of Indian Revolt”. He also wrote a commentary on the Bible, in which he attempted to
prove that Islam is the closest religion to Christianity. Sir Syed asked the Muslims of his time not
to participate in politics unless and until they got modern education. He was of the view that
Muslims could not succeed in the field of western politics without knowing the system. He was
invited to attend the first session of the Indian National Congress and to join the organization but
he refused to accept the offer. He also asked the Muslims to keep themselves away from the
Congress and predicted that the party would prove to be a pure Hindu party in the times to come.
By establishing the Muhammadan Educational Conference, he provided Muslims with a platform
on which he could discuss their political problems. Sir Syed is known as the founder of Two-
Nation Theory in the modern era. In the beginning of 1898, he started keeping abnormally quiet.
For hours he would not utter a word to friends who visited him. Medical aid proved ineffective.
His condition became critical on 24th of March. On the morning of March 27, a severe headache
further worsened it. He expired the same evening in the house of Haji Ismail Khan, where he had
been shifted 10 or 12 days earlier. He was buried the following afternoon in the compound of the
Mosque of Aligarh College. He was mourned by a large number of friends and admirers both
within and outside South Asia.
 Ideology of Pakistan With Reference to Allam Muhammad Iqbal
Early Life / Biography:
Allama Muhammad Iqbal was born on November 9, 1877 in Sialkot, inside the Punjab
province of British India. His grandparents were Kashmiri Pandits, who changed over to Islam.
Iqbal was at the age of four years when he was sent to the mosque to study the Holy Qur’an. He
did his matriculation in 1893. He completed his intermediate from Government College Lahore
where he got his Bachelor of Arts in theory, English writing and Arabic in 1897. In 1899, he got
his Masters of Arts degree from a similar college and had the primary spot in Punjab University,
Lahore. Allama Iqbal finished his Masters of Arts Degree and started his academic career as a
reader of Arabic at Oriental College but within a short period of time, he became a junior professor
of philosophy at Government College Lahore. Iqbal opted for higher studies in the West and
travelled to England to study on a scholarship from Trinity College, Cambridge, and received his
Bachelors of Arts degree from the same in 1906. In 1907, he went to Germany to pursue doctorate
and earned PhD degree from the Ludwig Maximilian University, Munich. He returned to India
and became an assistant professor at Government College, Lahore but the job did not provide
enough financial support which is why he decided to turn to practice of law. He practiced as a
lawyer from 1908 to 1934. In 1919, he became the general secretary of Anjuman-e-Himayat-e-
Islam, an Islamic intellectual and political organization based in Lahore, Pakistan, which he was
an active member of many years before gaining this position. In 1927, Iqbal was elected to the
Punjab Legislative assembly and was later elected to preside over the session of the Muslim
League. It was in these positions that he for the first time introduced the idea of ‘Pakistan’. Due to
his failing health, Iqbal stopped practicing law altogether in 1934 and was honoured with a pension
by the Nawab of Bhopal. He dedicated his life to his own spiritual upliftment and contributing to
the Persian and Urdu literature.
Service of Iqbal in Pakistan Movement:
In 1926, Iqbal started his political career when he was elected as member of Punjab
Imperial Legislative Council (PILC). Allama Iqbal is a unique contributor to the making of
Pakistan. If Sir Syed prepared the ground through Aligarh Movement for a Muslim State, Then
Allama Iqbal raised the structure of the Muslim state through the Allahabad Address on which the
blue print was prepared in the Pakistan Resolution. It goes to Allama Iqbal’s credit that he initiated
the idea of separation of the two communities, Muslims and Hindus. He negated the concept of
One-Nation of India and emphasized on the separate and distinct national image of Pakistan.
According to Iqbal making of a separate homeland was essential for the restoration of identity of
Muslims. He clearly declared that the principle of European democracy could not be applied in
India as communalism was indispensable to form a harmonious country. It was from here that he
strongly defended the Muslim Nationalism defining it as moral consciousness.
Iqbal and ideology of Pakistan (Two nations Theory):
Allama Iqbal was also a strong believer of Hindu-Muslim unity but Congress extremism
forces him to change his attitude. In 1930, Iqbal clearly discussed Two Nation Theory as: Islam:
as code of conduct and way of life. Muslims are separate nation. Demand of separate state.
Islam: as Code of Conduct and Way of Life:
Islam is complete code of life; so Indian Muslims should get assistance from Islam. It will
support them fully. He believed that the creation of superior people centres around Islam alone
and not the race. He said: “Islam guides the mankind in every aspect of worldly life and therefore
must be enforced in an Islamic state as a code of life. Allama Iqbal believed that the Holy Quran
and the teaching of the Prophet (PBUH) are highly meaningful for the development of mankind.
Muslims are Separate Nation:
Allama Iqbal openly negated the concept of one nation and said: “Nations are based with
religion; not with territories. So, we are separate nation because we have our own ideology.”
Demand of Separate State:
If British Government is interested to resolve Hindu-Muslim conflicts then India should be
divided into states. NWFP, Sindh, Baluchistan, Punjab, Aasam and Bengal should be converted
into one unit and authority should be given to Indian Muslims.”
Thus, in Allahabad Address he declared:
“I would like to see the Punjab, NWFP, Sindh and Baluchistan amalgamated into single state. Self-
government within the British Empire or without British Empire, the formation of a
consolidated North-West Indian Muslim state appears to me to be the final destiny of the Muslims
at least of North-West India”. He did not believe in any system separated from religion and
declared that religion and politics are not separated from each other in Islam. Allama iqbal believed
in the federal system and thought it as an ideal system for India in prevailing system. He believed
that federal system would promote unity amongst the various segments of the society which would
help in defence of the country. His concept of “Khudi” and philosophy of believe in faith and
institutions led him to the concept of Nation as Moral Consciousness which declared his genius in
his famous Allahabad Address.
It was definitely Iqbal’s call to action in the name of Islam that Pakistan came into shape. It was
him who gave the meaning of ideology of Pakistan as ideology of Islam.

Ideology of Pakistan with Reference to Quaid-e- Azam

Early Life / Biography:
Mohammed Ali Jinnah was born on 25 December 1876 in Karachi, now in Pakistan, but
then part of British-controlled India. His father was a prosperous Muslim merchant. Quaid’s family
was basically from Rajkot India they migrated towards Karachi to find better business
opportunities. Mister Ponja wanted his son to get the best education available.
Muhammad Ali, started his education from Sindh Madrasatul Islam, then he went to Bombay for
more education. After this he went to England where he studied law at Lincoln’s Inn. Quaid e
Azam later told that he applied in Lincoln’s Inn because he saw Holy Prophet Muhammad (peace
be upon him) name at the reception of the college.
This shows the love Quaid e Azam had for Holy Prophet and Islam. Since the early days of his
youth he was always a neat and clean boy. He was very well mannered, punctual and disciplined.
He was a born leader and had all the essentials for a leader since his childhood.
After completing his education, he practiced law in Bombay and instantly became the most well-
known and reputed lawyer in Bombay. It was his commitment to his profession and his view of
legal system.

Political Career:
So many leaders led their nations to get freedom from British rule. But Jinnah created a nation and
then demanded a separate homeland for them. This part of his life is the toughest and caused
changes in the geography, culture and every aspect of life in South Asia. Jinnah first entered
politics by participating in the 1906 session of the Indian National Congress (Congress Party) held
at Calcutta (now Kolkata), in which the party began to split between those calling for dominion
status and those advocating independence for India. Four years later he was elected to the Imperial
Legislative Council—the beginning of a long and distinguished parliamentary career. In 1906,
Jinnah joined All India National Congress. In 1913, Jinnah joined All India Muslim League on the
request of Mollana Muhammad Ali Johar. In 1919, he became the President of All India Muslim
League. The attitude congress showed after the elections of 1935. Most Muslims felt that their
future is not safe in united India. Congress not only refused to accept Muslim league’s
cooperation but also refused to protect Muslim minorities by providing them legislative guard.
As a result of Jinnah’s ceaseless efforts, the Muslims awakened. It was a great success for
Quaid because Congress had accepted separate electorate for the Muslims of India. Due to
this pact the Quaid was called Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim unity but this unity did not last
long and in the year 1924 this unity vanished in thin air because of non-cooperative attitude
of Mr M. K Gandhi in the Khilafat Movement and after the period of 1924 the Indian Muslims
were in deep trouble due to the launching of the Arya Samaj Movements. Due to this
movement riots and bloodshed started all over India and Muslims were being killed
everywhere. In the year 1928, the Nehru Report was published which great injustice was done
to the Muslims and their political rights were snatched. This attitude of the Congress
disappointed the Quaid and in the year 1929 he presented the famous fourteen points for the
protection of the rights of the Muslims. In the year 1929, Quaid-i-Azam wrote a long letter to
the British Prime Minister Sir Ramsay McDonald in order to find a political solution for India.
Due to Quaid's efforts three sessions of Round Table Conference was held in London.
However the antagonistic and non-cooperative attitude of M.K Gandhi resulted in the failure
of these conferences. The Quaid was so disgusted by the behavior of the Congress leaders
that he decided not to return to India and settle down in London for good but due to letters of
Allama Iqbal which impressed him very much the Quaid-i-Azam returned to India and in the
year 1934 became a permanent member of the Muslim League. But in the election of 1937
Muslim League was disappointed badly for the Congress formed governments in eight of the
provinces of India and from the period of 1937 to 1939, the Indian Muslims were in distress.
In the year 1939 the Second World War broke out and the Congress demanded maximum
provincial autonomy which was not acceptable to the Government of India due to which
Congress Ministries resigned and the Muslims took a sigh of relief.
In the year 1939 on the advice of the Quaid the Indian Muslims celebrated "the day of
deliverance", because the cruelties and injustices of the Hindus had come to an end. In the
year 1940 the 27th meeting of Muslim League was held at Lahore. On 22nd March 1940 the
Quaid-i-Azam addressed a large gathering of Muslims in Iqbal Park, Lahore, and presented
the idea of a separate homeland for the Muslims of India. In the year 1942 the Cripps Mission
came to India but the Quaid did not co-operate with it because this mission had suggested
formulation of Indian Union.
Creator Of Pakistan
Jinnah had originally been uncertain about the practicability of Pakistan, an idea that the poet and
philosopher Sir Muhammad Iqbal had propounded to the Muslim League conference of 1930, but
before long he became convinced that a Muslim homeland on the Indian subcontinent was the only
way of safeguarding Muslim interests and the Muslim way of life. It was not religious persecution
that he feared so much as the future elimination of Muslims from all prospects of advancement
within India, as soon as power became devolved in the close-knit structure of Hindu social
organization. To guard against that danger, he carried out a nationwide campaign to warn his
coreligionists of the perils of their position, and he converted the Muslim League into a powerful
instrument for unifying the Muslims into a nation.
Two Nation Theory
Up to the 1928, Jinnah was also true believer of Hindu Muslim unity. But Nehru report of 1928
dishearten Jinnah. So, after Nehru report, Jinnah also talks on Two Nation Theory. “Pakistan was
created the day the 1st Indian National entered the fold of Islam”
Formation of Pakistan
On August14, 1947 by the Grace of Allah Pakistan came into being. On the very initial basis the
government of India Act-1935 was implemented as the constitution of Pakistan. Quaid-e-Azam
was the first Governor General of Pakistan.
INDUS CIVILIZATION
Indus valley is one of the oldest civilizations of the world. the region where these civilizations was
developed had been irrigated mainly by River Indus and its tributary rivers. The signs of this
civilization are found in Sindh at Mohenjo Daro and in Punjab along the River Ravi at Harappa
(Sahiwal). About 1500 additional settlements and signs of this civilization have been discovered
in Pakistan and Western India.
The Period of Indus Valley Civilizations:
The Indus Valley Civilization consisted of three periods: Primary Period 3800 BC to 2500 BC
Middle Period 2500 BC to 1700 BC Last Period 1700 BC to 1300 BC During the primary period,
urban life made a great progress. The art of handicrafts flourished. In the middle period, this
civilization progressed well. Many new cities and villages were established. In the end of third
period, the Indus Valley Civilization was inclined towards downfall.
Important Cities of Indus Valley Civilization:
Mohenjo Daro:
It is an ancient city, situated in District Larkana (Sindh). This city was the most important center
of Indus Valley. Indus River flows on its Eastern part. The signs of Indus Valley Civilization were
first discovered in 1922 in Mohenjo Daro during excavation of the land. The things which have
been found here are ornaments, clay, bronze, utensils, seals, carts, boats, toys, statues, spindles and
skeletons of different animals. Bangles and beads of red clay are discovered from here which had
been worn by ladies and children. Along with that precious gems, oyster shells made ornaments
had also been used there.
Harappa:
Harappa is the second most important city of the Indus Valley Civilization. From here, a lot of
assets have been discovered of this civilization. Solid clay utensils, seals and system of measures
and weights are included in it. Seals were made of solid clay, silver and copper. The pictures of
elephant and humped bull are more prominent. Tools were made with bronze. Resemblance has
been found in objects, which have been found in both cities, because both cities were the part of
the Indus Valley Civilization.
Characteristics of Indus Valley Civilization:
Religious Beliefs There have been found the portraits of gods and mother goddesses on stamps,
which reflect that they used to worship the statutes and gods. Clay statues were also made for
worshiping purposes. People used to consider the trees of holy values. Here consider were also
worshipped as a custom. The portraits of the bull, rhinoceros, lion and elephant have been found.
The Indus Valley people buried their dead bodies as well as burnt them.
Social System:
The social system was run under a regular administration. It was enforced to keep the system of
weight and measurement correct and according to the standards. Sweepers were bound to keep
streets and paths neat and clean. The society was divided into different sections. Town planning
provides us information about it. Landlords and influential persons resided in upper parts in large
and spacious houses. Separate quarters had also been reserved for servants. Majority of people had
been poor. They lived in lower areas in small houses. Farmers lived in villages, while nomads
wandered with herds of cattle in forests and plains. Artisans and merchants also lived in cities.
Grand palaces, temples and tombs were not seen in cities. Jobs had been allocated among men and
women. Women used to grind wheat, weave cloth and look after the cattle whereas cultivation,
commerce and industrialization were specified for men. Cotton was commerce and
industrialization were specified for men. Cotton was cultivated in Indus Valley. Spindles also have
been found in homes which indicate that weaving cloth was also a profession of those people.
Statues of clay and printed cloth gave impression of textile industry. Women used to wear
necklace, strings of beads and bangles for decoration. They were also used to wear "Lahanga"
(long skirt). Men used to wear Shawl.
Script (calligraphy):
The people of Indus Valley could read and write. Their mode of writing was very interesting and
complicated. A supreme system of writing was conducted in that period which had 400 symbols.
Merchants, soldiers and political personalities used it. The experts of archaeology department
could not find their meanings till now. Certainly, some experts have formed an idea, that these
scripts Script (Writing System) consisted of more than one language. Many corners of this
civilization will be hidden until an expert does not read the words and the mode of writing of this
civilization.
Agriculture:
The soil of Indus Valley was fertile. The dependence of its wealth was upon trade and agriculture.
The majority of Indus Valley Civilization consisted of farmers, who made the soil fit for cultivation
purposes after cutting the forests. The crops were damaged due to seasonal rains. People retained
the water to make banks on rivers for cultivation. The signs of crops which have been found from
the settlements, it is said on this basis that the wheat, millets, barley, vetches, peas, Indian millet,
rice, linseed, mustard-seed and cotton was produced. The signs of dates, melon and grapes have
been found among fruits.
Peaceful:
Society Few numbers of huge weapons have been found during excavation of cities. The rulers
had not kept large army or police. They maintained the relations with their neighbors and
contemporary civilizations on the basis of peace. The common weapons which have been found
during excavation, can be used only for hunting. This indicates that those people led peaceful life.
No proof was found about assassination and plundering in that society.
The Presence of Bull:
Cattle were the part of their lives. A large number of the skeletons of bulls have been found in
Indus Valley. It shows that it was a common practice to rear the bulls. The bull was the most
important animal in their society. Countless seals with bull's picture and clay toys have been found.
The people also used the bull for transportation.
Commercial Activities:
The trade of agricultural crops and minerals had been carried among cities and villages of Indus
Valley. Internal trade had been happened by bullock-carts. Weights and scales of measurements
have been found which are made of stones in quadrilateral shape.
Town Planning:
The people had excellent knowledge of art of architecture. Cities and towns had been constructed
with great technique and planning. Artisans had known the art of making and baking the bricks.
They made the foundations of houses profound and deep, strong and also paid attention to exterior
beauty. Houses had been built on the edges of the roads of city. Baked bricks were used in their
construction. Every house had bathrooms which had been made towards outer street. Houses had
more than one story. Ladders had been used to go to upper story. There was a reasonable
arrangement of light and air in houses. Roads had been constructed with such a style in ancient
Harappa that people could easily move among different towns and streets. Narrow gates had also
been made from which a bullock-cart could pass easily at one time. It has been found by digging
that a straight road was one kilometer long and nine meters wide.
Drainage System:
There was an excellent drainage system of filthy water. Narrow and wide drains were made in
proper order for the outlet of dirty water. Narrow drains had been covered by bricks and wide
drains by large marble slabs. The stinking water had been brought together with wide drains; thus,
stinking water was flowed out from the city. There is no example of any other city built in ancient
period which has such a perfect facility for the drainage of the waste water.
God owns of Grain:
Mostly god owns of grain were situated on the bank of river in Mohenjo-Daro. The collected wheat
from different areas was brought to god owns by the river routes and then had been sent to other
regions. Concrete roads had also been made for this purpose. Solid floors had been made in 17 god
owns. The salaries of government servants had been paid from that grain. The grain had also been
used as currency. Huge god owns of grain were found in Harappa which had been used to store
extra grain.
Evacuation of Local Community:
People of the Indus Valley were civilized, peaceful and developed, the Aryan assailants destroyed
their graceful civilization. Aryans were Worriers. They had war-horses and excellent weapons.
When Aryans attacked Indus Valley inhabitants, they could not face them. Aryans had pushed the
local community towards South-East and became occupants.
The Decline of Indus Valley Civilization:
Indus Valley Civilization gained a magnificent place by making a progress gradually. Its effects
had been implemented upon a vast region. but suddenly it had disappeared in 1500 B.C. It cites
had been buried into earth. Its art, religion and culture were invisible from eyesight. There is a
great difference among archaeologists to find the reasons about decline of the Indus Valley
Civilization. It is estimated that both internal and external factors were involved in its decline.
Some experts think that this civilization had come to an end due to natural calamities like
earthquakes and floods. Some experts think that epidemics, diseases played a significant role to
undo the Indus Valley Civilization. Drought was also major cause according to one opinion,
because when rivers changed their course then supply of water had become impossible and this
region had become barren. Well populated cities on the banks of rivers had been utterly destroyed.
Some experts think that people intensively cultivated the land. They had finished the fertility of
the land by cutting the forests. The pastures for animals had come to an end. Some experts consider
that the trade had been finished with Mesopotamia and other contemporary civilizations. A major
portion of income could not have retained due to this reason. When cities and colonies had been
ruined. then people migrated to other places.

MUSLIM ADVENT
Arrival-Of Arabs In the Sub-Continent and The Conquest of Sindh:
The Arabs were traders by profession. Basically, they used to visit different countries for their
trade. They carried their luggage by boats and ships for Egypt and Syria. The Arabs had established
their friendly relations with the people of these regions, due to trade. The Arabs had also delivered
the message of Islam to the people of sub-continent. The Muslim traders had also settled at the
coast of Sri Lanka and western India.
Reasons of Attack of Sindh:
In 703 A.D, The Governor of Makran Saeed bin Aslam was murdered and his murderer took refuge
with Raja Dahir of Sindh. Hajjaj bin Yousuf demanded the hand over the murderer but Raja Dahir
rejected it. A ship of Arab Muslims who had settled in Sri Lanka carrying trade luggage and gifts
for Hajjaj bin Yusuf. When it reached near the coast of Debal, it was plundered by pirates. They
imprisoned the children as well as women. Hajjaj bin Yusuf wrote a letter to Raja Dahir to recover
the luggage from the pirates. In response to it, Raja Dahir wrote that pirates were out of his control.
Hajjaj bin Yousuf infuriated and his young son-in-law and nephew Muhammad bin Qasim was
sent to Sindh with troops to punish Raja Dahir.
Conquest Of Debal:
In 712 A.D. Muhammad bin Qasim reached Debal through Makran and besieged it. Debal was a
famous sea-port of Sindh. Hajjaj Bin Yusuf wrote a letter to Muhammad bin Qasim, “Let Raja
Dahir not cross the River Mehran (Sindh), face the enemy in an open area, keeping in view the
organization of the troops, and win the favor of chiefs of Sindh”. Muhammad bin Qasim acted
upon these instructions and succeeded in winning the battle. Forces of Raja came out of the fort
and started fighting. The Arabs fought boldly entered over the fort captured the city. Raja Dahir
fled away from the battle field and was killed later on. The Muslims got. Freedom from the prison
of the pirates who were punished heavily. In 712 A. D, Sindh was conquered completely.
Conquest of Multan:
The province of Multan was also included in the kingdom of Raja Dahir at that time. It was the
center of trade and counted among strong forts. The ruler of Multan was the son of Raja Dahirs
uncle. Having conquered Sindh, when Muhammad bin Qasim reached Multan, the Raja faced the
Islamic troops b Lit saved his life by his escape. Muhammad bin Qasim found much wealth and
treasure there. The major portion of the booty was divided among the soldiers and the rest was
sent to Hajjaj bin Yusuf in Iraq. This conquest made Hajjaj bin Yusuf very happy.
Effects of Invasion:
People of Sindh welcomed Muhammad bin Qasim after the conquest of Sindh. Muhammad bin
Qasim established the rule of equality and justice, which effected the Indian society very much.
The Hindus of low caste embraced Islam by the moral influence and fraternity of Muhammad bin
Qasim and his companions. The Muslims opened schools and Maddarasas to give education.
Sanskrit books were translated into Arabic. After the conquest of Sindh, many scholars, and traders
settled in Sindh. The Arab trade increased along the coastal areas of Baluchistan and Sindh. A
number of religious scholars, writers and poets were emerged and they spread their knowledge.
The Muslims learned Indian sciences like medicine, astronomy and mathematics. Sanskrit books
on various subjects were translated into Arabic. During the reign of Haroon al Rasheed, a number
of Hindu scholars were even invited to Baghdad. The establishment of Muslim rule also paved
way for future propagation of Islam in Sindh and the adjoining regions. Later Sindh also attracted
Ismaili missionaries who were so successful that Sindh passed under Ismaili rule. With the
conquest of Lahore by Mahmud of Ghazni, missionary activity began again under the aegis of
Sufis who were the main agents in the Islamization of the entire region.

Location and Geo-Physical Features of Pakistan:

The official name of Pakistan is Islamic Republic of Pakistan. It covers an area of 796,096 sq. km.
Pakistan is located in the south of the continent of Asia. It is a country having fertile land, lofty
plains, rivers and beautiful valleys.
Location of Pakistan:
Pakistan is located between latitudes 23o to 37o North, and longitudes 61o to 77o East. India lies
in the East, China in the North, Afghanistan in the North-west, and Iran in the West. The Arabian
Sea lies in the South.
Geo-Physical Features of Pakistan:
The land of Pakistan can be divided into five major parts with respect to physical features.
1. Mountain Ranges
2. Plateaus
3. Indus Plains
4. Deserts
5. Coastal Areas
1. Mountain Ranges:
The high piece of land that has rocky, uneven and steep surface is called a mountain. Pakistan has
following mountain ranges: i. Northern Mountain Ranges ii. Central Mountain Ranges iii. Western
Mountain Ranges.
Northern Mountain Ranges:
These mountains are located in the north of Pakistan. These mountain ranges make the Northern
borders of Pakistan secured to a great extent. They stop the winds coming from the Arabian Sea
and Bengal Gulf causing snow-fall and rain. Their peaks are covered with snow throughout the
year. This snow is a source of supplying our rivers with water throughout the year. We also get
precious wood from these mountains. There are many healthy places in this region where people
go for tourism. Among these places, Murree, Ayubia, Nathiagali, Kaghan, Lipa, Skardu, Swat,
Kalam, Neelam, Bagh, Hunza, Chitral, Yasin, and Gilgit are famous. The northern mountain
ranges include the following ranges:
1. Himalayas
a. Sub-Himalayas or Siwalik Hills
b. Lesser Himalayas
c. Greater Himalayas
2. Karakoram
3. Hindukush
4. Mountains of Swat and Chitral.
Himalayas:
Sub-Himalayas or Siwalik This mountain range is in the east of the River Indus. It is the southern
branch of Himalayas which stretches from east to west. It is also called Siwalik Mountain Range.
Pabbi Hills are its famous hills which are situated in the south of Hazara and Murree.
Lesser Himalayas:
The Lesser Himalayas lie north of the Sub-Himalayas. This range stretches from east to west. Pir
Panjal is the highest mountain range here. Murree, Ayubia, and Nathiagali are the famous resort
places.
Greater Himalayas:
It is one of the highest mountain ranges in the world. It is covered with snow throughout the year.
The beautiful valley of Kashmir is located between the Pir Panjal and Great Himalayas. The
glaciers are found in this region which melt to form rivers. Nanga Parbat is the highest peak of this
range.
Karakoram Karakoram:
Range stretches from west to east in Kashmir and Gilgit along with the borders of China. It is in
the north of Himalayas. The second highest peak in the world is located in this range. It is called
Mount Godwin Austin or K-2. It reaches to a height of 8611 meters. Karakoram Highway passes
through this range and leads to China via Khunjerab Pass.
Hindukush:
The Hindukush Mountain Range is located in the north-west of Pakistan. Most of the mountains
of this range are in Afhganistan. The highest peak of this range is Tirch Mir.
Mountains of Swat and Chitral:
Small mountain ranges stretch to the south of the Hindukush Range. Between these mountains,
there is the Lowari Pass which connects Chitral with Peshawar. It remains closed in the winter due
to snow-fall. A tunnel named Lowari Tunnel is constructed here. Through this tunnel, traffic
between Chitral and Peshawar runs throughout the year. The Swat River, the Panjkora River
(Kunar River) and the Chitral River flow between these mountain ranges.
Central Mountain Ranges:
Salt Range:
This mountain range is located in the south of Pothwar Plateau, between River Jhelum and Indus
River. Sakesar is the highest and beautiful place in this range. Deposits of salt, gypsum and coal
are found in this range. Salt Range is also known as Koh-e-Namak.
Suleiman Range:
The Sulaiman Mountain Range stretches from north to south; it starts from south of River Gomal
and reaches to the center of Pakistan. Takht-e-Sulaiman is the highest peak.
Kirthar Range:
This range is located in the south of Sulaiman Range, and in the west of Indus River and west of
Lower Indus Plains. It consists of low and barren mountains. Hub river and lyari River flow from
Kirthar towards the Arabian Sea.
Western Mountain Ranges:
Koh-e-Sufaid:
Range Koh-e-Sufaid stretches from east to west in the south of River Kabul. Khyber Pass, which
is a historic passage between Pakistan and Afhganistan, lies to the north of the Koh-e-Sufaid. River
Kurram flows in the south of Koh-e-Sufaid.
Waziristan Hills:
This mountain range stretches in the south of River Kurram along the Pak-Afghan border from
north to south. Tochi Pass and Gomal Pass are situated in these hills.
Toba Kakar Range:
Toba Kakar Mountains is situated along the Afghan border to the south of Waziristan Hills. It
extends from north-east towards south-west till it ends in the north of Quetta.
Chaghi Hills and Ras Koh Hills:
To the west of Pakistan, along the Afghan border, there lie the Chaghi Hills. Ras Koh Hills are
situated in the south of Chaghi Hills along the border of Iran.
Saihan Hills:
To the south of Rash Koh, there are Saihan Hills.
Central Makran:
Hills These hills are situated in Baluchistan. The winter season here is extremely cold whereas the
summers are mild.
Hills of Makran Coast:
These hills are situated in the west of Saihan Hills. These are low hills.
Plateaus Following are the plateaus situated in Pakistan.
Pothwar Plateau:
Pothwar Plateau is situated in the north of Salt Range. It is in the middle of River Jhelum and
Indus. Huge reserves of Gypsum, Coal, and mineral oil are found here. River Sawan is an important
one of this area. River Sawan make its valley known as Sawan Valley. The surface of Pothwar
Plateau is badly cracked.
Balochistan Plateau:
Balochistan Plateau is located in the west of Sulaiman Range and Kirthar Range. It is uneven and
barren. It receives very low rainfall; therefore, this region has desert characteristics. To the north
of this Plateau, there are mountain ranges of Chaghi and Toba Kakar. There are lakes with salty
water in the western part of the province of Balochistan. Among them, the most famous and the
larges one is the Hamoon-e-Mashkel lake.
Plains:
A vast, less steepy and comparatively even surface of land is called a plain. These plains are also
known as the food baskets. We can divide the plains of Pakistan into two major parts. 5.2.5.1
Upper Indus Plains This plain extends from the south of Pothwar Plateau to Mithankot in the
Punjab Province. If we assume Mithankot a base, where all the rivers of the Punjab join the River
Indus, the whole are above Mithankot towards the Panjab will be called the upper Indus Plain.
Whereas, the whole area below Mithankot towards Sindh to the point of Thatha will be the Lower
Indus Plain. Towards north, the Upper Indus Plain is high whereas it is steep towards south. That’s
why all the large rivers of Pakistan flow from north towards south. To the west of this plain lies
the sand desert. This plain is called Punjab (the land of five rivers). These plains are very fertile.
Even before the establishment the United Punjab was knows as the Home of Grain. These plains
of Punjab are playing an important role in meeting the food requirements of the country.
Lower Indus Plains:
Below Mithankot, the River Indus forms the shape of a huge river and flows alone till it reaches
Thatta.
Deserts:
Desert is an area where annual rainfall rate is less than 250 mm. There are four major deserts in
Pakistan. The major feature of these deserts are the sand dunes.
Thar:
The eastern part of lower Indus plain is sandy and known as “Thar Desert”.
Cholistan: Cholistan desert is locally known as “Rohi” and covers the area of Bahawalpur.
Thal:
The vast area of this desert is situated between River Indus and Jhelum. It covers the districts of
Bhakkar, Khushab, Mianwali, Layyah, Muzafargarhas, and Jhang.
Kharan:
The Kharan Desert is a sandy and mountainous desert situated in Balochistan in south-western of
Pakistan. The terrain is mainly dry, gray-brown sand.
Coastal Areas:
Sindh and Balochistan form the coastal line of the Arabian Sea. The coastal plain is located on the
shore of Arabian Sea. The coastal area of Pakistan is about 1000 km long and comprises of
important sea ports such as Karachi, Bin Qasim, and Gawadar.
Factors Leading to Muslim Separatism
There are a few factors which split the inhabitants of the sub-continent into two nations.
The Evolution of Two-Nation Theory:
In the perspective of sub-continent, Two-Nation Theory means that two major nations, the
Muslims and the Hindus, were settled there. The two nations were different from each other in
their religious ideas, the way of living and collective thinking. Their basic principles and the way
of living are different that despite living together for centuries, they could not interact with each
other. The Indian Muslims struggled for their separate state on the basis of Two-Nation Theory
and after accepting this theory as a historical fact, two separate states, Pakistan and India, came
into existence. This theory is also the basis of the ideology of Pakistan.
Religious Differences:
Although, India was a highly diverse society, having variety of religions, but the Hinduism and
Islam were the two major religions in India. Muslims believe in one God, and the last prophet.
Whereas, Hindus follow the religion which is based on the concept of multiple Gods.
Cultural and Social Differences:
The Hindus and Muslims belonged to different cultures based on their divergent outlook towards
life. The Hindus and Muslims followed different socio-cultural customs and traditions. The Hindus
burnt their died bodies while Muslims buried them. their language and communication reflected
peculiar and different ways and styles. Hindus and Muslim families which lived in the same
neighborhood for generations could be distinguished at a glance from each other. The clothes, the
foods, the household utensils, the layout of homes, the words of salutation, the gestures and
everything about them was different.
Freedom:
In the subcontinent the Muslim leaders were foreseeing the future of Muslims that when British
government will leave subcontinent Hindus will try their best to get charge all over subcontinent
and at that time they will openly remove Muslim community by killing them so they put the
demand of a separate homeland where they can lead their life according the teachings of Islam and
also with the great freedom.
Self-respect and dignity:
Hindus always hated Muslims and they never want Muslims to get success in any field of life.
British government played a vital role in keeping Muslims backward by eliminating all job
vacancies in subcontinent. Hindus tried to rape Muslim women and tried to kill them so the self-
respect of Muslims was badly damaged in subcontinent. It was necessary for them to demand for
a separate homeland where they have complete free atmosphere to live a perfect religious life with
perfect self-respect and dignity.
Economic Differences:
After 1857, Muslims economy was crushed and all the trade policies were formed in such a way
so as to destroy the Muslims ambition. They were thrown out of Government services and their
estate and properties were confiscated. However, the Hindus were provided ample opportunities
to make program.
Educational Differences:
The Hindus had advanced in educational field because they readily acquired English education.
The Muslims were not able to acquire modern knowledge so they lacked behind in education.
Political Differences:
There were many political differences which gave both to the partition of India. The political
differences between the Hindus and Muslims have played an important role in the development
and evolution of Two Nation Theory.
Hindi Urdu Controversy:
Hindus and Muslims have different languages. The Muslims and Hindus wrote and spoke two
different languages. The language of the Muslim majority was Urdu and it was written in Persian
Script. On the other hand, the Hindi language was spoken by Hindu majority and it was written in
Devanagari Script. Urdu and Hindi language had the difference in writing, thoughts of poetry, arts,
painting and words of music. In 1867, Hindus demands that Urdu should be written in Hindi Script
instead of Persian script. This created another gap between Hindus and Muslims.
Congress Attitude:
The Indian National Congress was founded in 1885. It claimed to represent all communities of
India but oppressed all Muslim ideas and supported the Hindus. Partition of Bengal In 1905, the
partition of Bengal province was divided on administrative grounds, but the Hindu community and
Congress itself, launched an agitation against the partition and partition was canceled in 1911.
Conclusion:
The Muslims apprehended that they would lose their identity if they remained a part of Hindu
society. They also came to realize the above-mentioned differences between them and the Hindus
and hence demanded separate electorate on the ground that they were different nation from Hindus.
Hence it is right to say that this Two-Nation Theory is the basis of the creation of Pakistan.