12.

Loads and Load Factors

12.1. General For the strength limit states, the LRFD Specifications
12.2. Permanent Loads are a hybrid design code in that, for the most part, the
12.3. Transient Loads force effect on the left-hand side of the LRFD
Equation is based upon elastic structural response,
12.1. General while resistance on the right-hand side of the Equation
12.1.1. Load Definitions is determined predominantly by applying inelastic
Reference: LRFD Article 3.3.2 response principles. The LRFD Specifications have
adopted the hybrid nature of strength design on the
Permanent Loads assumption that the inelastic component of structural
Reference: LRFD Article 3.5 performance will always remain relatively small
because of non-critical redistribution of force effects.
Permanent loads are loads that are always present in Ensure this non-criticality by providing adequate
or on the bridge and do not change in magnitude redundancy and ductility of the structures.
during the life of the bridge.
Load Modifier
Transient Loads
The load modifier ηI relates the factors ηD, ηR, and ηI
Transient loads are loads that are not always present in
to ductility, redundancy, and operational importance.
or on the bridge or change in magnitude during the
The location of ηI on the load side of the LRFD
life of the bridge.
Equation may appear counterintuitive because it
12.1.2. Limit States appears to relate more to resistance than to load. ηI is
Reference: LRFD Article 1.3.2 on the load side for a logistical reason. When ηI
modifies a maximum load factor, it is the product of
The LRFD Specifications group the traditional design the factors as indicated in LRFD Equation 1.3.2.1-2;
criteria together within generalized groups of design when ηI modifies a minimum load factor, it is the
criteria termed “limit states.” The LRFD reciprocal of the product as indicated in LRFD
Specifications assign multiple load combinations to Equation 1.3.2.1-3. These factors are somewhat
the various limit states. arbitrary; their significance is in their presence in the
Basic LRFD Equation LRFD Specifications and not necessarily in the
accuracy of their magnitude. The LRFD factors
Design the components and connections of a bridge to
reflect the desire to promote redundant and ductile
satisfy the basic LRFD equation for all limit states:
bridges.
∑η γ Q
i i i ≤ φR n (LRFD Eq.1.3.2.1-1) In general, use ηI values of 1.00 for all limit states,
because bridges designed in accordance with this
Where: Manual will demonstrate traditional levels of
γi = load factor redundancy and ductility. Rather than penalize less
Qi = load or force effect redundant or less ductile bridges, the DOT&PF does
not encourage such bridges. DOT&PF may on a case-
φ = resistance factor
by-case basis designate a bridge to be of special
Rn = nominal resistance
operational importance and specify an appropriate
ηi = load modifier as defined in LRFD
value of ηI. For structural systems with only two
Equations 1.3.2.1-2 and 1.3.2.1-3
longitudinal main members (e.g., two-girder/truss/arch
The left-hand side of LRFD Equation 1.3.2.1-1 is the bridges), ηI shall be taken as 1.20 for the
sum of the factored load (force) effects acting on a girder/truss/arch.
component; the right-hand side is the factored nominal
resistance of the component for the effects. Consider Do not confuse the load modifier, ηI, accounting for
all applicable limit-state load combinations for the importance of LRFD Article 1.3.5 with the categories
Equation. Similarly, the Equation is applicable to of critical or essential bridges for seismic design of
both superstructures and substructures. Article 3.1 of the Guide Specifications for LRFD
Seismic Bridge Design. Use 1.0 for the importance

Alaska Bridges and Structures Manual 12-1 12. Loads and Load Factors
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load modifier used in the basic LRFD Equation, but load combination will only be necessary in
use the critical or essential category to determine the relatively rare cases.
minimum seismic requirements.
5. Strength V Load Combination. This load
12.1.3. Load Factors and Combinations combination represents the simultaneous
Reference: LRFD Article 3.4.1 occurrence of a “normal” live-load event and a
“55-mph” wind event with load factors of 1.35
LRFD Table 3.4.1-1 provides the load factors for all and 0.4, respectively.
of the load combinations of the LRFD Specifications.
For components not traditionally governed by wind
Strength Load Combinations force effects, the Strength III and Strength V load
The LRFD Specifications have calibrated the load combinations do not govern. Generally, the Strength I
factors for the Strength load combinations based upon load combination governs for a typical multi-girder
structural reliability theory, which represents the highway overpass.
uncertainty of their associated loads. The following
simplifies the significance of the Strength load Service Load Combinations
combinations, and it provides guidance on which Unlike the Strength load combinations, the Service
Strength limit states are applicable to the bridge under load combinations are material dependent.
design:
Extreme-Event Load Combinations
1. Strength I Load Combination. This load The Extreme-Event limit states differ from the
combination represents random traffic and the Strength limit states, because the event for which the
heaviest truck to cross the bridge in its 75-year bridge and its components are designed has a greater
design life. During this live-load event, a return period than the 75-year design life of the bridge
significant wind is not considered probable. (or a much lower frequency of occurrence than the
loads of the Strength limit state).
2. Strength II Load Combination. In the LRFD
Specifications, this load combination represents Fatigue-and-Fracture Load Combination
an owner-specified permit load model. This The Fatigue-and-Fracture load combination, although
live-load event has less uncertainty than random strictly applicable to all types of superstructures, only
traffic and, thus, a lower live-load load factor. affects the steel elements, components, and
DOT&PF does not specify a design permit load. connections of a limited number of steel
Therefore, this load combination is not superstructures. Chapter 15 discusses fatigue and
applicable in Alaska. fracture for steel.
3. Strength III Load Combination. This load Application of Multiple-Valued Load Factors
combination represents the most severe wind Maximum and Minimum Permanent-Load Load
during the bridge’s 75-year design life. During Factors. In LRFD Table 3.4.1-1, the variable γP
this event, assume that no significant live load represents load factors for all of the permanent loads,
crosses the bridge. shown in the first column of load factors. This
4. Strength IV Load Combination. This load variable reflects that the Strength and Extreme-Event
combination represents an extra safeguard for limit state load factors for the various permanent loads
bridge superstructures where the unfactored are not single constants, but they can have one of two
dead load exceeds seven times the unfactored extreme values. LRFD Table 3.4.1-2 provides these
live load. Thus, the only significant load factor two extreme values for the various permanent load
is the 1.25 dead-load maximum load factor. For factors, maximum, and minimum. These maximum
additional safety, and based on engineering and minimum values do not represent a usable range
judgment, the LRFD Specifications has of values. Either the maximum or the minimum value
arbitrarily increased the load factor for DC to shall apply, not both. Further, in a single load-
1.5. This load combination typically governs combination evaluation, the bridge engineer applies
only for longer spans, greater than either the maximum or the minimum value uniformly
approximately 200 feet in length. Thus, this to the permanent load, not a combination of the two
values. Permanent loads are always present on the
bridge, but the nature of uncertainty is that the actual

12. Loads and Load Factors 12-2 Alaska Bridges and Structures Manual
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loads may be more or less than the nominal specified With the use of maximum and minimum load factors,
design values. Therefore, maximum and minimum the LRFD Specifications have generalized load
load factors reflect this uncertainty. situations such as uplift where a permanent load (in
this case a dead load) reduces the overall force effect
Select the appropriate maximum or minimum (in this case a reaction). Select permanent load
permanent-load load factors to produce the more factors, either maximum or minimum, for each load
critical load effect. For example, in continuous combination to produce extreme force effects.
superstructures with relatively short-end spans,
transient live load in the end span causes the bearing Substructure design routinely uses the maximum and
to be more compressed, while transient live load in the minimum permanent-load load factors from LRFD
second span causes the bearing to be less compressed Table 3.4.1-2. An illustrative yet simple example is a
and perhaps lift up. To check the maximum spread footing supporting a cantilever retaining wall.
compression force in the bearing, place the live load When checking bearing, factor up the weight of the
in the end span and use the maximum DC load factor soil (EV) over the heel by the maximum load factor,
of 1.25 for all spans. To check possible uplift of the 1.35, because greater EV increases the bearing
bearing, place the live load in the second span and use pressure, qult, making the limit state more critical.
the minimum DC load factor of 0.90 for all spans. When checking sliding, factor EV by the minimum
load factor, 1.00, because lesser EV decreases the
Superstructure design uses the maximum permanent-
resistance to sliding, Qτ, again making the limit state
load load factors almost exclusively; the most
more critical. Foundation and substructure design
common exception is uplift of a bearing as discussed requires the application of these maximum and
above.
minimum load factors.

Alaska Bridges and Structures Manual 12-3 12. Loads and Load Factors
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12.2. Permanent Loads additional load as a skin-friction effect. If possible,
12.2.1. General detail the deep foundation to mitigate the effects of
downdrag; otherwise, it is necessary to design
Reference: LRFD Article 3.5 considering downdrag. Chapter 17 discusses
The LRFD Specifications specify seven components mitigation methods.
of permanent loads, which either are direct gravity
12.2.5. Differential Settlement (SE)
loads or caused by gravity loads.
Differential settlement between adjacent substructure
Consider the primary forces from prestressing to be units or transversely across a single substructure unit
part of the resistance of a component. Omit these induces stresses in continuous structures and
from the list of permanent loads in Section 3 of the deflections in simple structures. Although most
LRFD Specifications. However, when designing bridges can easily resist these stresses and deflections,
anchorages for prestressing tendons, the prestressing consider the potential effects of differential settlement
force is the only load effect, and appears on the load where applicable.
side of the LRFD Equation. The permanent load EL
includes secondary forces from pre-tensioning or post-
tensioning. As specified in LRFD Table 3.4.1-2, use a
constant load factor of 1.0 for both maximum and
minimum load factors for EL.
12.2.2. Superstructure Gravity Loads (DC and
DW)
Include a uniform load of 50 psf to account for a
wearing surface over the entire deck area between the
face of rails or sidewalks. Although not normally
permitted in new designs, where steel stay-in-place
formwork is used, account for the steel form weight
and any additional concrete in the flutes of the
formwork.
12.2.3. Distribution of Gravity Loads to
Girders
Reference: LRFD Article 4.6.2.2.1
Superimposed dead loads (e.g., curbs, barriers,
sidewalks, parapets, railings, wearing surfaces) may
be distributed equally to all girders as traditionally
specified by AASHTO. For wider bridges with more
than six girders, assume that the superimposed dead
loads of sidewalks, parapets, or railings are carried by
the three girders immediately under and adjacent to
the load. In some cases, such as staged construction
and heavier utilities, special consideration may be
required.
12.2.4. Downdrag on Deep Foundations (DD)
Reference: LRFD Article 3.11
Deep foundations through unconsolidated soil layers
may be subject to downdrag. Downdrag is a load
developed along the vertical sides of a deep-
foundation element, typically due to consolidation of
soft soils underneath embankments, tending to drag it
downward and reducing its resistance. Calculate this

12. Loads and Load Factors 12-4 Alaska Bridges and Structures Manual
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12.3. Transient Loads design lane force effects was developed to yield
12.3.1. General moments and shears representative of real trucks on
the highways.
The LRFD Specifications recognize 19 transient loads,
which integrate static water pressure, stream pressure, Multiple Presence Factors
buoyancy, and wave action as water load, WA. The The multiple presence factor of 1.0 for two loaded
LRFD Specifications elevate creep, settlement, lanes, as given in LRFD Table 3.6.1.1.2-1, is the result
shrinkage, and temperature (CR, SE, SH, TU, and TG) of the LRFD Specifications’ calibration for the
in importance to “loads,” being superimposed notional load, which has been normalized relative to
deformations which, if restrained, will result in force the occurrence of two side-by-side, fully correlated, or
effects. For example, restrained strains due to identical, vehicles. Use the multiple presence factor
increasing uniform temperature induce compression of 1.2 for one loaded lane where a single design
forces. tandem or single design truck governs (e.g.,
12.3.2. Vehicular Live Load (LL) overhangs, decks) or for single-lane bridges. Do not
apply the multiple-presence factors to fatigue loads.
General
Reference: LRFD Articles 3.6.1.1, 3.6.1.2, and Load Applications
3.6.1.3 Reference: LRFD Article 3.6.1.3.1
For short and medium span bridges, which 1. General. Neglect axles that do not contribute to
predominate in Alaska, vehicular live load is the most the extreme force effect under consideration (e.g.,
significant component of load. Live load becomes continuous girders).
less significant for long-span bridges. Long-span
2. Two Design Trucks in a Single Lane for
bridges are defined as those governed by the Strength
Negative Moment and Interior Reactions
IV load combination where the dead load is seven
times or more greater than the live load. Reference: LRFD Article 3.6.1.3.1

The Nature of the Notional Load The combination of the lane load and a single vehicle
(either a design truck or a design tandem) does not
The HL-93 live-load model is a notional load in that it
always adequately represent the real-life loading of
is not a true representation of actual truck weights.
two heavy vehicles closely following one another,
Instead, the force effects (i.e., moments, shears) due to
interspersed with other lighter traffic. Thus, the
the superposition of vehicular and lane load within a
LRFD Specifications specify a special load case to
single design lane are a true representation of the force
calculate these force effects. Two design trucks, with
effects due to actual trucks.
a fixed rear axle spacing of 14 feet and a clear
The components of the HL-93 notional load are: distance not less than 50 feet between them,
superimposed upon the lane load, all within a single
• a vehicle, either the design truck (similar to the design lane and adjusted by a factor of 0.90
former HS20 truck), or a 50-kip design tandem; approximates a statistically valid representation of
and negative moment and interior reactions due to closely
spaced heavy trucks. The LRFD Specifications
• a 0.64 k/ft uniformly distributed lane load,
specify this sequence of highway loading for negative
similar to the lane load of the Standard
moment and reactions at interior piers due to the shape
Specifications, but without any of the previous
of the influence lines for such force effects. The
associated concentrated loads.
LRFD Specifications do not extend this sequence to
A dynamic load allowance (IM) of 0.33 is applicable other structures or portions of structures because it is
only to the design truck and the design tandem, but not expected to govern for other influence-line shapes.
not to the uniformly distributed lane load. Figure 12-1 illustrates this loading.

The force effects of the design truck alone are less In positioning the two trucks to calculate negative
than that of current legal highway loads. Thus, a moment or the interior reaction over an internal
heavier vehicle is appropriate for design. As specified support of a continuous girder, spans should be at
for the HL-93 live-load model, the concept of least 90 feet in length to be able to position a truck in
superimposing the design vehicle force effects and the each span’s governing position (over the peak of the

Alaska Bridges and Structures Manual 12-5 12 Loads and Load Factors
September 2017
influence line). If the spans are larger than 90 feet in Assume centrifugal force (CE), braking force (BR),
length, the trucks remain in the governing positions and wind on live load (WL) act horizontally at a
but, if they are smaller than 90 feet, the bridge distance of 6 feet above the roadway. Connections
engineer can attain the maximum force effect by trial- can be fixed, pinned, or free for both moment and
and-error with either one or both trucks in off- shear.
positions (i.e., non-governing positions for each
individual span away from the peak of the influence If the horizontal superstructure force is applied to the
line). When using software, the clear distance substructure through a pinned connection, there is no
between the design trucks will likely need to be varied moment transfer. Apply the superstructure force to
to determine the maximum force effect. See Figure the substructure at the connection.
12-2. For a fixed or moment connection, apply the
3. Application of Horizontal Superstructure Forces superstructure horizontal force with an additional
to the Substructure. The transfer of horizontal moment to the substructure as shown in Figure 12-3.
superstructure forces to the substructure depends on The additional moment is equal to the horizontal force
the type of superstructure to substructure connection. times the distance between the force’s line of action
and the point of application.

Note: Under special loading, use 90% of above.

Figure 12-1
Special Loading for Negative Moment and
Interior Reactions of Continuous Spans

12. Loads and Load Factors 12-6 Alaska Bridges and Structures Manual
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 Figure 12-2
Application of Design Vehicular Live Load – LRFD Article 3.6.1.3

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 Figure 12-3
Transfer of Horizontal Superstructure Force to Substructure
Through Moment Connection
Wheel Load for Deck Design To promote uniformity of distribution of live load to
Reference: LRFD Article 3.6.1.3.3 piers and other substructure components, use the
following procedure unless a more exact distribution
Design bridge decks to carry axles consisting of two of loads is used:
16-kip wheels with dynamic allowance, alone or in
combination with the lane load as appropriate. The 1. Live-Load Distribution Factor. Determine
design tandem need not be used for the design of the live-load distribution factor for each girder
decks. assuming that the deck is acting as a simple
beam between interior girders and as a
Localized Vehicles cantilever spanning from the first interior girder
Investigate localized heavy vehicles such as oil field over the exterior girder (Lever Rule).
hauling equipment (B-train or oil-field equipment). If
localized heavy vehicles are present, consider a site- 2. Live Load on Design Lanes. Place design
specific live-load model with the approval of the lanes on the bridge to produce the maximum
Chief Bridge Engineer. force effect for the component under
investigation. Place the HL-93 live load within
Fatigue Loads its individual design lane to likewise produce
Reference: LRFD Articles 3.6.1.4.1, 3.6.1.4.2 the maximum effect. Consider one, two, three,
or more design lanes in conjunction with the
The LRFD Specifications define the fatigue load for a multiple presence factors of LRFD Table
particular bridge component by specifying both a 3.6.1.1.2-1, as can be accommodated on the
magnitude and a frequency. The Fatigue I load roadway width.
combination is associated with infinite life, but the
Fatigue II load combination is associated with the 3. Reaction on Piers. For continuous girders or
number of cycles for a 75-year life. multiple simple span girders, use 90 percent of
two closely spaced (i.e. 50 feet) design trucks
Distribution of Live Load to Piers superimposed over the lane load, with a
Reference: LRFD Article 3.6.1.3.1

12. Loads and Load Factors 12-8 Alaska Bridges and Structures Manual
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 distribution factor derived as discussed above in 12.3.6. Live-Load Surcharge (LS)
a line-girder analysis to determine the reaction Reference: LRFD Article 3.11.6.4
on piers. This is as specified in LRFD Article
3.6.1.3 for negative moment in continuous Where approach slabs are provided at bridge ends,
girders and interior reactions and discussed in consider the reactions on the abutment and wingwall
Section 12.3.2.4.2. due to the axle loads on the approach slabs plus one-
half of the live-load surcharges specified in LRFD
Sidewalk Loading Article 3.11.6.4. This applies to walls parallel to or
Reference: LRFD Article 3.6.1.6 perpendicular to the roadway centerline.
Where sidewalks are present on the bridge, design for Retaining walls that retain soil supporting a roadway
the dead load and pedestrian live load on the sidewalk; must be able to resist the lateral pressure due to the
however, also design the full width of the bridge, live-load surcharge. See Chapter 21 for retaining
including sidewalks, for the traffic live load assuming walls.
that traffic can mount the sidewalk. Do not apply
pedestrian and traffic loads concurrently. Design for 12.3.7. Vessel/Collision (CV)
vehicular loads any sidewalks separated from traffic Reference: Guide Specifications and Commentary
lanes by barrier rail to account for maintenance for Vessel Collision Design of Highway Bridges, 2nd
vehicles and potential future widening. Edition

12.3.3. Friction Forces (FR) Vessel collision is a site-specific consideration that the
Reference: LRFD Article 3.13 bridge engineer will consider on a case-by-case basis
in active boating channels.
Adjust the frictional forces from sliding bearings to
account for unintended additional friction forces due 12.3.8. Ice Loads
to the future degradation of the coefficient of friction Reference: LRFD Article 3.9
of the sliding surfaces. Consider the horizontal force Apply ice loads as specified in LRFD Article 3.9, but
due to friction conservatively. Include friction forces be aware of special situations where historical ice
where design loads would increase, but neglect loads have occurred.
friction forces where design loads would decrease.
Consider ice loads in the conceptual design of the
12.3.4. Thermal Loads bridge. For example, where historical ice loads have
Reference: LRFD Article 3.12.2 caused problems, consider whether to place a pier in
Use a modified Procedure A of LRFD Article 3.12.2.1 the water.
to determine the appropriate design thermal
movement range. For Alaska-specific ranges of
temperatures and procedures, see Chapter 19 on the
design of joints and bearings.
12.3.5. Earthquake Effects (EQ)
Reference: Guide Specifications for LRFD Seismic
Bridge Design
Use the AASHTO Guide Specifications for LRFD
Seismic Bridge Design to design bridges in Alaska.
Other chapters in this Manual present DOT&PF’s
seismic detailing practices.

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