Durban University of Technology

Faculty of Engineering and The Built

Environment
(Durban)

Laboratory Safety Manual

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CONTENTS

1. General Safety
1.1 General Safety Rules
1.2 Faculty's Safety Officers and Procedures
2. Overview of the Occupational Health and Safety Act
3. Mechanical Hazards
3.1 Noise and Ultrasound
3.2 Machinery with Moving Parts
3.3 Grinding Machines
3.4 Ladders
4. Electrical Hazards
5. Hazards in the Laboratories
5.1 General Laboratory Practice
5.2 Gases and Liquids under Pressure
5.3 Large Scale Equipment
5.4 Chemical Materials
5.5 Chemical Storage
5.6 Chemical Spills
5.7 Biological Hazards
5.8 Waste Disposal
6. Hazard Signs
7. Safety Equipment
8. Personal Contamination and First Aid 9. References

Appendix A - Lifting Large or Heavy Objects

Appendix B - Properties and Hazards Associated with Some Commonly used Hazardous Gases
Appendix C - Toxic and/or Noxious Chemicals
Appendix D - Biological Infections
Appendix E - Chemical Incompatibility List

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1. GENERAL SAFETY

The primary motivation for all safety activities, procedures and rules is that injuries and accidents
are avoidable. Although lengths are taken to ensure the safety of all in the Faculty, a "fool-proof"
environment is impossible. Equipment is only as safe as the operator who is using it. Personal safety
thus depends on a high level of individual safety-consciousness and an informed approach to safety
issues. This manual hopes to provide an initial awareness of some of these issues, and everyone is
expected to be familiar with its contents. However, the individual attitude adopted towards safety
will determine the success of the Faculty in preventing accidents. It is therefore in YOUR best
interests to improve the safety of the Faculty and your own particular workplace to avoid becoming
a "safety statistic".

An accident is any event which causes damage to people and property. Every accident or equipment
failure which could lead/have led to an accident must be reported to the Faculty's Safety Officer.
Obviously the seriousness of these accidents will vary, the worst being Injury to people, and the least
being inexpensive damage to repairable/replaceable items. Accidents can be fatal, painful or
expensive, and are always undesirable. THEY CAN BE AVOIDED.

Hazards to people and property abound in everyday life, and are often so obvious that they become
"invisible". The commonplace hazards usually account for more, or even worse accidents that the
recognized dangerous aspects of the Faculty. One should be aware of one's immediate environment
and look out for such things as:

slippery floors cables on pathways swing doors

overhead objects ladders electrical hazards
hot objects (equipment) and steam broken glass
loose/corroded flooring or steps lifting large or heavy objects
steep or uneven stairways sharp objects adjacent to pathways

Correct clothing can often minimize injury in the event of a small accident. It is advisable to wear
protective clothing (e.g. laboratory coat, overall, glasses, gloves, etc.) where necessary, and
enclosed, low-heeled shoes at all times in the laboratory or other work areas. Safety-glasses, masks
or face shields are available when necessary, as are gloves and ear-plugs for further protection.

Protective clothing is also necessary in the event of an accident where there has been a wound
which is bleeding. Anyone assisting an injured/bleeding person should wear gloves or other
protective clothing to avoid coming into direct contact with the blood which might be infected. All
blood spills should be considered infected and treated as such, with the areas being thoroughly
cleansed and disinfected. Be aware of the threat of HIV-AIDS and possible infectious situations.

Overconfidence and bad attitudes can also lead to accidents. Examine your attitudes to the tasks you
perform, do you have unsafe habits or procedures, do you think "it" will never happen to you?

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1.1 GENERAL SAFETY RULES

• No horseplay in the laboratories.

• No eating or drinking or smoking in any laboratory.
• Observe the ‘no smoking’ regulations in all areas of the Faculty.
• Observe the particular safety rules of the area in which you work.
• Be familiar with the fire drill and evacuation procedures.
• No sitting on stairways or steps, or leaving objects lying on stairways or steps.
• Know the location and use of emergency equipment such as: fire alarms/extinguishers, eye-
wash stations/bottles, emergency shower, electrical plug/fuse box for your equipment, closest
first aid box.
• No experimental work to be undertaken in laboratories after hours. Exceptions may be granted
to certain individuals with permission from the Safety Representatives and Supervisors.

1.2. FACULTY SAFETY OFFICERS (fill in names)

FEBE Safety Officer: Mr Keith Paul

Departmental Safety Officers: Mr Keith Paul

1.3 EVACUATION ASSEMBLY POINT

The grassed areas in the front of the S-blocks, between the S-blocks and Steve Biko Road.

1.4 EMERGENCY PROCEDURES

• Do not panic.
• Laboratories and Workshop - isolate equipment to make the area safe and then proceed to
the assembly point.
• Offices and lecture theatres - all staff, students and visitors to proceed to the assembly
point.
• Close the room door/s and windows on leaving but do not lock (except if a drill has been
announced). Open access is required in the event of a fire or bomb-scare evacuation.
• Walking briskly, proceed to the designated assembly point by via the nearest escape route which
is indicated by evacuation signs.
• Remain at the assembly point until further notice. Do not re-enter the building until instructed to
do so

Evacuation routes are detailed in maps on walls at the end of exterior corridors in the S-Blocks

Make sure that you are familiar with these.

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2. AN OVERVIEW OF THE OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY ACT (OSHACT)

The Act calls for an agreement between the workers and the employers on the management of
occupational health and safety in the workplace. The agreement is an attempt to achieve a safe,
healthy, risk-free working environment for employers, employees and visitors.

Important points of the Act include:

• the need to have a health and safety policy

• appointment of health and safety representatives and health and safety committees
• undertaking health and safety inspections, risk assessment and occupational hygiene monitoring
• qualified practitioners conducting medical surveillance
• mandatory reporting of occupational diseases by the occupational medicine practitioner to the
Chief Inspector
• education and training of workers regarding the health and safety risks they are exposed to
• outlawing the discrimination against workers found to have occupational diseases as a result of
medical surveillance

You are, in the context of the act, regarded as a worker, employer or manager. This means that the
Act APPLIES TO YOU.

3. MECHANICAL HAZARDS

3.1 NOISE AND ULTRASOUND

High noise levels may damage the hearing and exposure should be kept at a minimum. Where high
noise levels are encountered, the level should be monitored, and attempts made to muffle or
contain the noise. If the noise level is 85 dB(A) or higher, and cannot be reduced in anyway, the noisy
zone must be demarcated, and only people wearing hearing protectors (ear muffs or ear plugs) are
permitted to enter this zone. Wherever high noise levels are encountered in the department, the
Safety Officer must be notified, and every effort made to reduce the noise output.
Ultrasound equipment must also be placed in a demarcated area and people entering this area
should wear hearing protectors. Unauthorised people may not operate ultrasound equipment, and
the Health and Safety Officer must be aware of the location of the equipment, and the safety
precautions taken during operation.

3.2 MACHINERY WITH MOVING PARTS

Most reciprocating/rotating machines, rollers, belt drives, etc. even when driven by small motors are
highly geared or carry considerable momentum. No such equipment may be operated without the
express permission of the person "responsible" for the equipment. (This person is required to
obtain the permission of the Faculty's Safety Officer when the equipment is installed, moved, or
modified).
Be familiar with the emergency stop buttons or trip mechanisms.

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3.3 GRINDING MACHINES

Only authorized personnel may use grinding machinery, and then only with the correct eye
protection (goggles). Do not use grinding machines with chipped or cracked stone/disc. Before using
the equipment ensure that the gap between the stone and the work rest does not exceed 3 mm.

3.4 LADDERS

Inspect all ladders before use, and never use a ladder with cracked tiles or rungs, nor loose or
missing rungs. Wooden ladders should not be painted so that cracks are readily visible, they may be
coated with a clear varnish or wood preservative. Ladders must have non slip feet and must be
standing on level, solid ground. When in use, ladders must be supported by a" person holding the
bottom, or the upper reaches must be lashed to a solid object.

4. ELECTRICAL HAZARDS

Only qualified electricians are authorized to do any type of work on the electrical distribution and
the lighting circuits. Servicing of electronic equipment also requires specialized personnel.

Electrical difficulties and all cases of electrical shocks must be reported to the Electronics Technician.

There are however several guidelines for working with electrical equipment:

• Inspect all equipment before use for damage to cables and plugs, and check for any
moisture present. Refer any problems to the Electronics Technician.

• When equipment is moved to a new location, make sure that the circuit can carry the extra
load.

• DO NOT improvise connections between non-matching plugs.

• In fume hoods where flammable/volatile substances are being handled use caution with
electrical equipment such as heater thermostats or stirrer motors.

• Consider the effect of possible static charge build up on certain equipment when dealing
with flammable materials.

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5. HAZARDS IN THE LABORATORIES

5.1 GENERAL LABORATORY PRACTICE

No experimental work should be undertaken in the laboratories by undergraduates without the

supervision of a demonstrator or a member of staff. For staff or postgraduate students, careful
consideration should be given to the increased risk of working alone or without a person within
hearing distance. For safety precautions, no one is allowed to undertaken experimental work in the
Faculty's laboratories after hours. Persons wishing to do so must obtain permission from their
Supervisors and the Laboratory Technicians. All warnings or hazard signs associated with chemicals
or equipment should be observed and any particular protective devices necessary for your work
should be utilized.

Maintain your working area in a neat and orderly condition; this prevents spillages, breakages,
injuries and loss of time due to broken equipment and loss of samples.
Aim to avoid emergencies by careful planning of your work in all stages:

a) Choice of location
. need for fume hoods (for toxic volatiles)
. need for fire-fighting equipment, guards, signs, etc.
. accessibility of controls (no obstruction by screens, hot pipes, etc.)
- do not block passageways
b) The materials of construction
. resist corrosion
. withstand heaVpressure etc.
. correct choice of glassware
c) Required safety protection, e.g. gloves, glasses, etc.
d) Review the completed installation and make a "dummy" run to check procedures
e) Dismantle equipment and discard all chemicals in the correct manner. Return all materials to
designed stations. Consult Laboratory Technicians.

HOUSEKEEPING
Always work in a neat, orderly manner. Ensure that the bench tops are always tidy and free of
clutter as this allows for a safe and efficient worktop. The passageways, emergency exits, emergency
equipment, electrical panels, etc. must be free from any obstacles at all times. Any tubing or cables
must be properly located out of harm's way.

All chemicals and equipment must be neatly stored in its proper place after use. Glassware must be
properly cleaned before returning to its place of storage. Glassware and apparatus that is chipped or
broken may not be used. These must be removed immediately and either sent for repairs or
disposed of in the proper manner.

Spills must be cleaned up immediately.

Bottles and containers must not be left open when they are not in use.

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Bunsen burners must not be left unattended with the flame burning.

Do not remove any items from another person's work area or locker without their permission and
always leave the workplace clean and tidy for the next person to use.

LABELS
Proper labelling forms a part of housekeeping. However, many people overlook the importance of
labels thereby making it necessary to highlight its vital role in safety under its own heading.

A label is not just a name tag identifying the contents of a container. It is also a means of conveying
the hazards of the chemical to all other persons. Labels may not be removed from the container. If a
chemical has been transferred from one container to another, it is then the responsibility of that
person to ensure that the new container has been labelled accordingly. All containers (whether it
contains store bought chemicals, chemicals prepared in the laboratory or waste chemicals) must be
clearly labelled with the following information:
• contents of the container (the chemical name rather than the chemical formula)
• name and address of the manufacturer
• date that the container was opened/date on which the chemical was prepared
• physical and health hazards
• recommended personal protective equipment

This information provides all users with the basic necessary data to safely handle that chemical.

In cases where it is impractical to print all data on the label, a MSDS (Material Safety and Data Sheet)
must be printed and be readily available.

MATERIAL SAFETY AND DATA SHEET (MSDS)

A MSDS is an important document that informs the user of potential health effects and the safe
handling of a particular chemical. It is highly recommended that a MSDS of the chemical be carefully
read and understood before one begins working with the chemical, as this document contains more
information than the label on the container.

The following ten categories can be found on a MSDS:

1. Product information. product name, trade name, synonyms, chemical formula, CAS
number, manufacturer's name, emergency numbers
2. Hazardous ingredients, exposure limits when known
3. Physical data
4. Fire or explosion data
5. Reactivity data.- information on the chemical instability and the substances that the
product may react with
6. Toxicological properties.- health effects, emergency & first aid procedure
7. Procedure for spillage or release
8. Protective equipment required
9. Handling and storage information

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 10. Preparation information. - person responsible for the preparation of the MSDS and the date
on which it was prepared

Please remember that all the information you may need may not necessarily be found on a MSDS.
Therefore, you are advised to consult a health and safety specialist. health nurse or family doctor for
further information. However, it is still necessary to present the appropriate MSDS to the medical
personnel when seeking their help in the case of accidents.

The Faculty of Chemical Engineering has a database of material and safety data sheets available to
its staff and students. Please consult the Laboratory Technicians for more information.

VENTILATION
Every effort should be made to keep the environment unpolluted. An effective ventilation system is
essential in a laboratory. This minimises the exposure to waste products and other chemical odours.
When necessary, a fume hood must be used. To determine whether or not the use of a fume hood is
required, look at the physical characteristics, quantity and toxicity of the materials to be used. The
experimental procedure also needs to be taken into consideration.

HANDLING OF CHEMICALS
As there is a correct method of handling every chemical, it is extremely important to read the label
and to consult the MSDS for that chemical. Personal protective equipment (laboratory coats,
goggles, etc.) and closed shoes must be used at all times.

Containers must then be opened with care ensuring that stoppers do not pop out under pressure.

Splashing can occur when pouring liquids out. A spill tray must be used as it prevents the liquid from
spreading in the event of a spill. It is necessary to use a funnel when pouring out of small containers
and a pump when transferring from larger vessels. In the case of large drums, it is safer to have a tap
flitted onto the drum and to have that drum securely mounted.
A range of apparatus is available for transfer of liquids from one container to another.

The smelling, tasting or inhaling of any chemical is strictly forbidden. Using your mouth to draw
liquids into a pipette is not allowed. Only a proper pipette filling device, e.g. pipette bulb, may be
used to siphon liquids into a pipette.

Avoid skin contact with any chemical at all times. It is essential that laboratory coats, long pants,
closed shoes be used to minimize skin exposure to chemical contamination. When necessary,
request the use of gloves. Long, unconfined hair hinders safety as it can obscure vision, catch alight
or catch onto equipment.
When carrying a container, you are not to carry it by the lid as this may break under the weight. Use
a tray, trolley or caddy instead. If none of these are available, hold the container with both hands
with one hand lending support at the bottom.

A mature, professional code of contact is demanded when in a laboratory and working with
chemicals. This means that: .

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• unauthorised experiments, practical jokes and horseplay will not be tolerated
• there is to be no distracting or startling other laboratory users
• you do not work alone in a laboratory at any given time
• chemicals are to be used only as directed and for their intended use

HYGIENE
Careless actions could lead to the ingestion of chemicals. Do not store any food, drinks, cigarettes or
cosmetic products in an area which contains chemicals. It is forbidden to eat, drink, smoke or apply
cosmetics in any of the laboratories. Be careful when using stationery (pens, pencils, etc.) in the
laboratory.

Hands need to be thoroughly washed before leaving the laboratory, even if gloves were used.

HANDLING OF GLASSWARE
Make sure that glassware selected is suited to the application, and the glassware is not damaged in
such a way as to cause failure to the vessel or tube, or to cause injury to the person using the
equipment. Glassware should be treated with due consideration to the limits of its strengths, heat
resistance and ability to withstand pressure or vacuum. Where glassware is under pressure there
should be a protective shield erected to contain chemicals and glass fragments should implosion
occur.

Mishandling of glassware can lead to serious Injuries. Glassware must be inspected for cracks and
chips before use. Any damaged glassware must be immediately discarded into a specially labelled
box for broken glass. After use, glassware should be well washed and properly stored. Always carry
long lengths of glass tubes in a vertical position.

PLASTIC TUBING
Rubber and plastic tubing tend to get hard and crack over a period of time. It is therefore necessary
to check them for damages and replace as required. Extra caution must be exercised when long
lengths of tubing are used. These need to be properly identified and secured out of the way

Care must be taken when choosing tubing to be used with organic solvents.

5.2 GASES AND LIQUIDS UNDER PRESSURE

Permanent gases, oxygen, nitrogen, air, argon, helium, hydrogen, methane, etc. are supplied in high
pressure cylinders. Numerous other gases are supplied as liquids under pressure. These include,
ammonia, butane, carbon dioxide, chlorine, hydrogen chloride, propane, and sulphur dioxide. The
pressure is dependent on the characteristics of the substance. In addition, the gases can be toxic and
flammable. Cylinders of flammable gases generally have valve outlets with left-hand threads, while
non-flammable gases have right-hand threaded outlets.

STORAGE OF GAS CYLINDERS

Due to the large amount of energy associated with compressed gases, gas cylinders can be very

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dangerous. All cylinders must be stored in a vertical position at all times, except for cylinders
designed to be horizontal, e.g. ammonia or chlorine. This is to keep any liquid present out of the
valve, and to protect the sides of the cylinder from shocks. Cylinders must also be chained at any
given time. If a cylinder of compressed gas falls over and the fitting snaps off, that cylinder will
propel like a rocket and can go through concrete walls. The cylinders must always be stored and
used in a cool well-ventilated area away from all ignition sources. Valve caps should always be kept
in place to protect the valve from damage and accidental opening.

Cylinders containing noxious or toxic gases must be stored in a well ventilated area, and ALL
cylinders must be returned as soon as they become empty. These cylinders should be kept aside
from full cylinders, be clearly marked and their valves closed.

TRANSPORTATION OF GAS CYLINDERS

• Always read the label on a cylinder before transporting or connecting up a fresh cylinder. If the
label is illegible or altogether missing, return to the supplier. It is unsafe to use a cylinder of
unidentified contents.
• Cylinders must always be in an upright position and never on their side, except for cylinders
designed to be horizontal, e.g. ammonia or chlorine. This is to keep any liquid present out of the
valve, and to protect the sides of the cylinder from shocks.
• Ensure that cylinders are always chained to a stable object, whether in use, being stored or
transported. A damaged valve on a cylinder means that the contents will exit with great force.
• Cylinders are not to be rolled or "walked". Always use a proper trolley and ensure that the valve
is protected with a valve cover during transportation. Do not transport a cylinder with the
regulator still in place.

USING GAS CYLINDERS

Firstly, secure the cylinder to a permanent fixture such as a laboratory bench or a wall with a
cylinder support bracket. Then select a regulator that is recommended by the supplier as this is
compatible with the gas content of the cylinder. At no time must you attempt to use a cylinder
without a regulator in place. Always ensure that the valve socket is clean, dry and free of damage
before fitting the regulator. If defects are detected, return the cylinder to the supplier. Any dust or
liquid may be cleared out by use of a jet of compressed air.

Do not quickly open and shut the valve of a cylinder because if you cannot close it the loud noise
produced can damage your hearing. In addition you may discharge a toxic or highly flammable gas. If
a valve cannot be opened by hand, or the hand wheel supplied, the cylinder should be returned.
Never hammer a cylinder valve.

To withdraw gas from a high pressure cylinder follow the procedure outlined below: .
• Close off the regulator valve
• Open the cylinder valve until pressure is shown, then an extra quarter turn .
• Adjust the regulator to the required pressure (or flow rate)

To shut-down the gas system:

• Turn off the gas cylinder valve

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• Bleed the regulator and gas lines
• Turn off the regulator

Do not close off the regulator without shutting down the gas cylinder valve as this leaves the
regulator under pressure.

If a cylinder of hazardous gas develops a leak, evacuate and seal off the area. Ensure all sources of
ignition have been removed if the gas is flammable. Contact the fire department.
Beware of all the precautions when using liquefied gases or cryogenic liquids.

GAS REGULATORS
The primary function of a gas regulator is to reduce high pressure gas in a cylinder or process to a
lower usable level as it passes from the cylinder to a piece of equipment. It is not a flow control
device and is only used to control delivery pressure.

As there are various hazards associated with the use of gases, take proper precautions to assure
safety in high pressure gas control. When unsure of an operation, seek the advice of an expert.
Never use a regulator for a gas that it is not intended for. Only use the type of regulator appropriate
for the gas in the cylinder, as interchanging these could lead to mixing reactive gases under pressure.
Regulators should not be modified except by authorized personnel.

HAZARDOUS GASES
As mentioned previously all compressed gases are hazardous. Refer to Appendix B (Table B.1) for
some common gases and their associated hazards (reference to additional sources is still necessary).

5.3 LARGE SCALE EQUIPMENT

Larger scale work carries all the hazards of the smaller scale laboratory work, and in some cases
magnifies these dangers. Anyone working on larger scale equipment must be familiar with the
laboratory safety procedures. Before a new chemical process is carried out on a pilot plant scale,
the important physical and chemical properties of the materials involved must be known, and the
potential dangers identified. Wherever possible, sight-glasses or other indicators displaying the state
of the material in these vessels should be utilized.

The following rules and practices must be observed when working with larger scale equipment

• Prepare a comprehensive flow sheet of the process, showing all valves, pipes, temperatures,
pressures, etc.
• All equipment must be tested AND safety instructions including a simple description of the
process and a shut down procedure must be prepared prior to starting up. Pieces of equipment
must be labelled for reference in the operating manual. This should be checked by the
Supervisor of the project.
• A HAZOP analysis must be undertaken by the student, and presented to the Faculty's HAZOP
Committee.
• A "dummy" run should be made prior to the initial process run, to serve as a practice run and a

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 means to check the performance of the equipment.
• Regular servicing and maintenance of all equipment is required.
• At the end of the project the equipment and all other apparatus used must be thoroughly
cleaned and dismantled, the chemicals safely disposed of, and the equipment stored for use on
other projects.

Be aware of connections to the water main supply, i.e. just as water flows out the pipe; with
connections and back pressure, one can have materials being transferred into the main supply

5.4 CHEMICAL MATERIALS

FLAMMABLE MATERIALS
Do not keep large volumes of flammable materials in the laboratories, (including waste chemicals).
Smoking is prohibited in ALL laboratories. Steam or hot water should be used wherever possible to
heat flammable liquids to avoid ignition. Where flame or electricity is used, a metal catch pan (of
sufficient volume to hold the liquid) should be placed underneath. Waste chemicals should be clearly
labelled as such.

EXPLOSIVE MATERIALS
Potential reaction violence or explosions can be predicted. One way is through the calculations of
the heats of reactions, all possible reactions should be considered not just the desired reactions;
consider also the intermediates and by-products. Reactions which produce gas could also be
explosive if not vented.

Chemical structure is also helpful in recognizing explosive organic compounds. The following groups
could be explosive: -ON02, -ON2, -ON, =N-N02, -N=N-, -O-O,-N3,-C=C-. Two or more such groups in a
molecule could make the compound more dangerous.

Remember that often dangerous reactions are described in literature without any warning
of their explosive nature.

Peroxides that form in common laboratory solvents have been one of most frequent causes of
laboratory explosions. These may occur -during distillation or after a distillation has been performed,
on dismantling the apparatus. They have also been known to occur on opening, or moving bottles of
solvents (e.g. ether, cyclohexene, branched chain saturated hydrocarbons or alkyl-substituted
cycloaliphatics. Special care should be taken with waste bottle where reactions might have taken
place).

Where the possibility of explosion exists, limit the scale of the reaction performed to as small as
possible, shield all people in the area with adequate safety protection and clothing, if possible
conduct the operation by remote control, and know the location and use of the nearest fire
extinguisher in your work station. Often dilution or cooling of an explosive material can render it
non-explosive. Remember that the small scale experiment without explosion must never be taken as

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proof of the absence of hazard when scaling the operation up. Gas mixtures in particular must be
treated with care.

Always consult your supervisor if in doubt.

TOXIC AND SKIN HAZARDS

All chemicals should be regarded as toxic unless toxicity studies have proved them harmless.

The three main mechanisms for poisonous materials to enter the human body are listed below.
Poisoning by any of these routes may be acute, chronic, or even fatal.

SWALLOWING
with food, drink, or saliva. To avoid accidental contamination, food and cigarettes are not allowed in
the laboratories, and the hands should be washed carefully after working with chemicals and before
eating, drinking or smoking. Pipette bulbs should be used unless the chemicals are known to be non-
toxic, and chemicals should NEVER BE TASTED

INHALATION
breathing into the respiratory tract vapours, dust, gases, etc. Contamination of air by dust or
vapours should be regarded as dangerous, although the acceptable level of exposure varies from
chemical to chemical. DO NOT rely on the odour to determine the degree of contamination.
BEWARE OF ASBESTOS, dry asbestos (insulation, piping, etc.) can produce small particles which
become trapped in the bronchi and cause cancer, or even death. For a list of SOME materials toxic
by inhalation, refer to Appendix C. To prevent hazards from toxic gases; supply adequate amounts of
fresh air to working areas, use fume hoods whenever necessary, and whenever there is any doubt,
know how to use gas masks and breathing apparatus, know the limitations of filter type masks, and
finally give the alarm if toxic gases are released into any area.

ABSORBTION
through the skin or entrance through breaks in the skin (sores or cuts). Hands and face should be
washed regularly when exposed to chemical dusts and vapours, and skin contact with all chemicals
should b avoided by using gloves, face shields, etc.

DANGEROUS CHEMICALS
It is important to read carefully the labels on ALL bottles of chemicals and take note of any hazard
signs or health warnings found there. ALWAYS consult the MSDS for the particular chemical.

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Acids

Mineral acids are very corrosive and capable of producing serious injury or death if handled
carelessly. When dealing with concentrated acids take the following precautions:
• Wear goggles/glasses when pouring
• Avoid contact with skin
• Spills on floor or bench should be cleaned up immediately, flushing with water or even dilute
sodium carbonate or bicarbonate
• Do not use combustibles (cloth, paper, etc. to mop such spills)
• Always pour acid into water and never water into acid
• Avoid inhaling acid fumes

Alkalis

Avoid contact with either the solid or solution form of alkali material, wear goggles/glasses and
gloves. If contact does occur, wash immediately with plenty of water. When making solutions always
use cold water and wear protective clothing, add the alkali slowly preventing boiling or spluttering.
Spillage should be flushed away immediately with water and dilute acetic acid. Avoid breathing the
vapours, especially ammonia.

Mercury

Mercury and its compounds are extremely toxic.

• Should be stored in a cool, well ventilated place, clearly labelled and away from fire
hazards
• Work should be done under a fume hood
• Spills should be cleared up immediately. Pick up droplets using a steel pipe or a glass pipette
connected to a suction bulb. Calcium sulphide or water can be sprinkled in larger spills which
cannot be cleared immediately.

Dry ice / Solid CO2

At room temperature this turns to' gaseous carbon dioxide which in high concentrations causes
death by asphyxiation.
• Wear dry cotton gloves, and do not allow contact with the skin because of danger of frost bite
• When breaking ice up with a mallet, wear goggles/glasses to protect the eyes and take care not
to endanger others working in the area
• Never store in gas tight containers
• When making mixture with liquids add the ice slowly and carefully to prevent splattering, wear
goggles/glasses

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Hazardous mixtures

The possibility that a hazardous mixture may be used or formed when carrying out a chemical
reaction must never be overlooked. Stability of products and by-products, catalytic effect of
structural materials, toxicity and flammability of the gases etc. must all be considered carefully.

Hazardous mixtures may also be formed when storing chemicals, or mixing waste materials. No list
of hazardous mixtures can ever be complete, and thus each combination must be carefully
considered.

RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL
Only authorized personnel may open, move or in any way tamper with any source of radiation.
These sources are recognizable by the radioactive hazard symbol (see "Hazard Signs"). If there is any
doubt as to the correct procedure when dealing with any radioactive material consult the Supervisor
or Laboratory Technicians. Correct protective clothing must be worn when dealing with radioactive
material, and the source must be kept in its correct protective housing, clearly labelled

5.5 CHEMICAL STORAGE

All chemicals (flammable, toxic, corrosive, etc.) must be stored under appropriate conditions. The
store should be situated a distance away from the working area with only the minimum amount of
chemicals being kept on the laboratory reagent shelf for the work being undertaken. Storage places
of dangerous chemicals must bear the relevant warning sign. The store must be cool, clean, dry and
have adequate ventilation. The reagent shelf must be no higher than eye level and it must be fitted
with a barrier or lip to prevent chemicals from falling off.

All chemical containers must be properly labelled. Whether storing chemicals in the store or on the
reagent shelf, you need to read the label on the container and the MSDS for specific storage
information and for incompatibilities.

Do not arrange the chemicals in alphabetical order before separating into their different classes.

GUIDELINE FOR CHEMICAL STORAGE USING THE DIFFERENT GROUPS

Acids
• Separate acids from bases and active metals such as sodium, potassium, magnesium. Segregate
organic acids from inorganic acids.
• Segregate oxidizing acids (nitric, perchloric, chromic acids) from organic acids and flammable
chemicals.
• Segregate acids from chemicals that liberate toxic gases upon contact (sodium cyanide, iron
sulphide).
• Store large acid drums away from direct sunlight and heat sources.
• Store bottles of acid on shelf or approved acid cabinet.
• Always place acid containing vessels on a spill tray

16
Bases
• Segregate bases from acids.
• Solutions of inorganic hydroxides to be stored in polyethylene containers. .
• Always place alkaline containing vessels on a spill tray

Flammables
• Safety drums containing flammable liquids must be grounded and bonded when liquids are
transferred. Read up further on the transferring of flammable liquids.
• Except when trying to maintain the purity of the chemical, do not use glass containers for
flammable liquids.
• Drums must be stored in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight and ignition sources.
• Store highly volatile flammable liquids in an approved flammable storage cabinet or an approved
flammable storage refrigerator.

Flammable Solids
• These materials react violently in the presence of moisture and may create/yield flammable and
toxic gases.
• Do not store under sinks.
• Elements lithium, potassium and sodium should be stored under kerosene or mineral oil.

Oxidisers
• Separate oxidisers from flammable and combustible materials.
• Segregate from reducing agents such as zinc, alkaline metals and formic acid.

Reactive and Extremely Toxic Compounds

E.g. Arsenic compounds, cyanides, phenol, picric acid, hydrazine
• Store individually in a plastic bag and also in a non-breakable secondary container.

Pyrophoric Substances
E.g. Cadmium, dichloroborane, manganese, titanium, zinc
• Pyrophoric substances ignite spontaneously upon air contact. Elemental phosphorous should be
stored and cut under water.

Light-sensitive Chemicals
E.g. Bromine, mercuric salts, potassium ferrocyanide, sodium iodide
• Avoid exposure to light to prevent decomposition
• They must be stored in amber bottles.
• If necessary, wrap bottle with foil but be sure to label the bottle and the outside of the foil.

Peroxide-forming Chemicals
E.g. acetaldehyde, cyclohexene, p-dioxane, ethyl ether, isopropyl ether, tetrahydrofuran.
• Store peroxide-forming chemicals in airtight bottles.
• Label containers with date received and date opened.
• Depending on the chemical, it must be discarded 3 to 12 months after opening the bottles.
• Discard unopened containers of these chemicals according to the printed expiration date or 12
months after delivery date.
• Test for the presence of peroxides periodically.

17
Compressed Gases
• Separate and clearly mark the full cylinders and the empty cylinders.
• All cylinders must be secured in an upright position by means of a ,chain or rack.
• Replace valve caps when cylinders are not in use.
• Do not store or use damaged or defective cylinders.
• Compressed’ gases must be stored away from all sources of heat.
• Cylinders too must be segregated by hazard classification and compatibility.
• Extremely hazardous gases must only be used and stored in ventilated safety cabinets.
• Lecture bottles of gas must be labelled with the chemical name, hazard, and date on which it
was received.
• Lecture bottles must be disposed of in the same manner as the other waste chemicals.

5.6 CHEMICAL SPILLS

Always anticipate spills as this will ensure that the required safety equipment will always be readily
available. The MS OS will contain special spill clean-up information. In the event of a spill the
following steps must be carried out:

• Alert all personnel and, if necessary, evacuate the area

• If a volatile, flammable material is spilled, turn off all sources of ignition and ventilate the area.
• Remove contaminated clothing immediately. This must be washed separately and depending on
contamination, it must be disposed of as hazardous waste.
• If there was contact with the skin or the eye, ensure that the affected area is flushed with large
amounts of water for at least fifteen minutes. Seek medical assistance
• Using the proper personal protective equipment, contain the spill
• Absorbents can be used to protect floor drains and other routes to environmental release.
• Distribute absorbent over the entire spill area. Working in a circular formation, start from the
outside circling to the inside. This minimises splashing and spreading of the spilled substance.
• Once the spilled chemical has been completely absorbed, collect and place into an appropriate
container. The container must be compatible with the collected waste.
• Properly label the container and store aside for waste disposal making sure that the waste is
stored by compatibility
• Decontaminate the area where the spill occurred with a mild detergent and water.
• All spills must be reported to your supervisor and/or member of the safety committee

Solid spills are not usually emergencies. However, remember that they need to be collected into
container using dampened cloths or paper towels as brushing of a dry material will result in it being
airborne

18
MERCURY SPILLS
Mercury is a silver-white liquid metal that can be absorbed through the skin, inhaled or ingested. Its
vapours are odourless, colourless and tasteless. Prolonged exposure to mercury can cause mercury
poisoning.

For large mercury spills, evacuate the area, close doors, alert your supervisors and do not allow
anybody to walk through the spill area.

For a small mercury spill (broken thermometer, etc.), clean up immediately. Personal protective
equipment (laboratory coat, closed shoes, eye-goggles) must be worn to prevent absorption via the
skin and to protect the mercury from contaminating your clothing.

NEVER use a broom to sweep or an ordinary vacuum cleaner to suction spilled mercury as these
procedures disperse the mercury into the air thereby spreading the contamination. The best way to
collect the mercury is by using an index card or rubber squeegee to form a pile that can then be
sucked up. Beads of mercury can be sucked up with a disposable pipette, a water-trapped vacuum
line attached to a disposable pipette or a hand-operated vacuum pump. Another method of
amalgamating mercury is by the use of mercury absorbing powders.

The mercury waste and all the materials used in the cleanup of the spill must be placed in a
container immediately. This must then be labelled as hazardous waste and stored for disposal.

The area in which the spill took place must be thoroughly washed with a detergent solution,
properly rinsed and allowed to dry before use.

5.7 BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS

The handling of items classified as Hazardous Biological Agents is governed by the Hazardous
Biological Agents Act. Any sample that may contain or have been contaminated by material of faecal
origin (including activated and anaerobic sludge) is classified as a hazardous biological agent. Gloves,
laboratory coats, closed shoes, face masks and safety glasses should be used when working with
hazardous biological agents.

People working with biological samples, and in particular sewage treatment projects, are potentially
exposed to a number of pathogenic organisms (refer to Appendix D). Such people are under the
threat of infections and the areas in which they work may be hazardous. If the amount of work done
with such samples warrants it, the researcher should be provided with vaccinations against diseases
such as Hepatitis B.

Eating, drinking or smoking is prohibited in these areas. Disinfect contaminated areas (hands etc.)
after working with biological samples. The hands may have become contaminated with the
organisms and accidental ingestion could lead to infection.

19
The working areas should be clearly demarcated, and the substances being examined (and potential
dangers) should be visibly labelled. These areas should be well ventilated, and as clean as possible,
regularly disinfected, and any spills wiped up as soon as they occur. Laboratory coats (regularly
laundered) and gloves must be worn when dealing with biological samples (sewage in particular),
and eye protection where splashing is possible. Hands should be disinfected after each contact with
the samples/sample containers.

On completion, projects dealing with such waste materials should be dismantled by the person(s)
involved as soon as possible and the waste material disposed of in a suitable manner. Waste
material should be autoclaved to kill the organisms and disposed of in Bio-hazard bags via the waste
disposal company (consult Laboratory Technicians). All equipment/containers should be autoclaved
and/or disinfected before reuse.

waste disposal company (consult Laboratory Technicians). All equipment/containers should be

autoclaved and/or disinfected before reuse.

Disposal of Waste materials

Any safety equipment (gloves, face masks), paper towel, disposable containers or samples
contaminated with hazardous biological agents must be autoclaved before disposal.
(i) liquid items (including leftover sludge samples, wastewater and sanitation sample suspensions)
must be poured into a large conical or round-bottomed flask. The neck of the flask must be packed
with cotton wool and covered with aluminium foil before autoclaving. After autoclaving, samples
may be flushed down the toilet.
(ii) solid items (including paper towel, gloves, face masks and disposable containers) must be packed
into autoclave bags (these are specialised heat resistant plastic bags), tied closed and autoclaved.
Once autoclaved, they may be disposed of with general refuse.

It is not acceptable to throw used gloves, paper towel and face masks etc. into general
refuse.

Disposal of Chemical Waste

Dry or wet chemicals that have been contaminated, which have expired, or are no longer needed
should be placed in a sealed container, labelled with your name, the contents and the date, and
placed in the waste chemical container. Periodically, a laboratory technician must be contacted to
co-ordinate the disposal of these items.

It is not acceptable to wash unwanted chemicals down the sink. If in doubt, ask a
Laboratory Technician

Disposal of COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) waste

As such a large volume of COD waste is generated in the Biochemical laboratory; it requires a

20
special disposal procedure.
• Identify appropriate bottles. These should be empty Winchester bottles (2.5 t glass bottles). If
the bottles have contained Cone. H2S04, they need not be rinsed. If not, they MUST be rinsed
out with water and drained. Label the bottles with proper stick on labels or ordinary paper,
stuck-on with sticky tape, and label with marker pen "COD WASTE"
• Pour COD waste into the bottle USING A FUNNEL
• Store partially filled bottles under the COD bench. There should be NO MORE THAN TWO
partially filled bottles there at any time.
• Once a COD waste bottle is full, it must be removed to the acid bunding outside the boiler room
on the lower level.
• When 10 COD waste bottles have accumulated in the acid bunding, contact Laboratory Assistant
to assist with removing and packaging them in the main laboratory.

COD waste is highly toxic and corrosive. Handle with extreme care.

5.8 WASTE DISPOSAL

The generation of waste when working with chemicals is normal. 1t is extremely important for
everyone to minimise the amount of waste produced as lower waste production leads to a lower
environmental impact. A few ways of achieving this is to:
• take care that you do not over-order chemicals
• carry out your experiment correctly the first time so that the volume is reduced
• substitute toxic chemicals with less toxic chemicals.

The way in which the waste is disposed off is of utmost importance. Depending on the composition
of the waste, it needs to be professionally incinerated or placed in a designated landfill. Chemicals
are not to be disposed of via the sewer or general solid waste system. Remember that what you
wash away in the sink today, can land in your drinking and irrigation water tomorrow. Waste must
therefore be collected and stored in a closed lid container. The following steps must be taken when
collecting and storing waste prior to disposal:

• Make very sure that the container to be used has been thoroughly washed and dried. The
container must be clean I .
• When adding waste into a container that already contains waste, ensure that both wastes are
compatible. The mixing of incompatible chemicals is extremely dangerous!
• Waste containers must be properly separated out to avoid unwanted reactions in the event
spills.
• The container must be properly labelled with at least the following information regarding the
waste:
a) the type of waste (composition of components must be stipulated in the case of multiple
chemicals being present),
b) name of person generating the waste
c) date on which collection into the container started
d) hazards of the chemical

Refer to Appendix E for a chemical incompatibility list.

21
In an attempt to save costs, empty reagent bottles (2.5L Winchester bottles), 25L aluminium and
plastic drums are used for collection and storage of waste products. While this is appreciated,
following points need to be noted:
• Do not place acids or alkaline material in a metal container. Metal and glass containers should be
used mainly for organic waste.
• Any container to be utilised for chemical waste storage must be thoroughly cleaned and must be
free of any reagents. The solvent rinse from the container is classed as waste.
• The original label must be removed before pasting the new label on.
• The container must be kept on a spill tray in a well ventilated room.

Damaged glass is not to be thrown into the general rubbish bin. Chemical residue must first be
removed and the glass disposed of into the special "broken glassware" container. When this
container has reached it capacity it will be sealed and disposed of in the filling manner.

Used "sharps" (blades, scalpels, needles, etc.) must be put into a special rigid-walled container
marked for these items. When these containers are three quarter full, they will be sealed and sent
for incineration by the appropriate authority. Please consult the Laboratory Technician when your
waste bottle is full. He will inform you of the waste collection points in the Faculty.

Under no circumstances may sharps be thrown into the general waste bins.

Gloves contaminated with hazardous chemical substances must be placed into a separate container
and marked as such. This too is not to be disposed of into the general purpose waste bin.

22
6. HAZARD SIGNS

SYMBOL TYPE OF HAZARD PRECAUTIONS

Avoid impact, knocks, friction,
sparks, fire and heat. When it is
absolutely unavoidable to work
with potentially explosive
substances, keep the quantities
used to a minimum, use a safe
E Explosive screen and store in a
designated enclosure away
from the area of work
Avoid all contact with
flammable substances. Risk of
ignition. The substance
promotes fires and impedes fire
fighting. This group of organic
peroxides, and chemicals and
preparations that come in
contact with inflammable
substances can inflame them or
O Oxidising will become explosive when
they are mixed with flammable
substances.
Avoid contact with the human
body, including the inhalation
of vapours. Injury to health is
possible with improper use.
With some substances
carcinogenic, teratogenic or
mutagenic action cannot be
fully excluded, as well as
Xn Harmful possible sensitization.

Avoid contact with eyes and

skin, do not inhale vapours.
Significant damage to eyes or
inflammation of the skin lasting
at least 24 hours after a defined
exposure or significant irritation
Irritant of the respiratory tract.

Take special measures to

protect the eyes, skin and
clothes. Do not inhale vapours
C Corrosive

Only authorized personnel may

open, move or in any way
tamper with any source of
radiation. Correct protective
clothing must be worn when
dealing with radioactive
material, and the source must
be kept in its correct protective
housing, clearly labelled.
Radioactive

23
 Only authorized personnel may
enter and work in these
demarcated areas. Correct
protective clothing must be
worn when dealing with bio
hazardous materials.

Biohazard

Keep away from naked flames,

sparks and sources of heat.
F Flammable

F+ Highly Flammable

All contact with the human

body must be avoided as sever
or even lethal damage to the
health cannot be excluded.
Particular attention is drawn to
the carcinogenic, teratogenic or
T Toxic mutagenic risks associated with
certain substances. A few
guidelines when working with
toxic chemicals are (i) Prevent
inhalation of vapours and dusts
(ii) Prevent contact with food
T+ Very Toxic (iii) Prevent skin contact (iv) No
eating, drinking or smoking in
the laboratory or store (v)
Never pipette by using your
mouth (vi) Store dangerous
drugs in a locked cupboard and
keep a register of the stock and
its usage (vii)
Medical advice must be sought
at the first signs of illnesses
(viii) Wash hands thoroughly
(even if gloves were worn)
before leaving the laboratory
(ix) Keep protective clothing
clean

24
7. SAFETY EQUIPMENT

The importance of personal protective equipment cannot be over emphasised. No persons must be
allowed entry' into a laboratory without the necessary personal protective gear.

CLOTHING
When you are working with chemicals, it is necessary to minimise skin exposure. The use of
laboratory coats or overalls is essential as they offer a good first line of defence. In the event of
contamination they are easily removed. Laboratory coats and overalls must not be worn or taken to
any place/area where food is consumed or stored. Laboratory coats and overalls need to be cleaned
periodically.

No person is allowed entry into a laboratory without a laboratory coat or an overall. This is not
debatable.

Safety shoes should be worn in laboratories and engineering workshops. However, for the Facultys'
laboratory environment closed shoes are suitably effective. The use of sandals, open toed, open-
back, high-heeled or perforated shoes are not permitted in the laboratory. Any person found
wearing any shoe other than the ones specified will be asked to leave the laboratory. This is not
debatable.

Safety goggles should be worn at all times when you are present in the laboratory. It offers
protection when glass apparatus is evacuated or taken above atmospheric pressure. It is essential
when chemicals are being poured, heated or when other reactions are taking place. Half- and full-
face visors are also available and it is a better choice when transferring liquids. Prescription
spectacles are not safety goggles. Specific safety goggles are available to users of spectacles. These
goggles wrap around the pair of prescription glasses. Users of contact lens need to be extra cautious
around harmful liquids and vapours.

Ear plugs must be worn in areas where there is ultra-sound machinery or high noise levels.

Your hands are one of the most frequently used parts of your body and need to be well looked after.
They are the easiest, most direct route of transferring chemicals into your body. Gloves are an
effective barrier against such problems. A wide range of gloves are available for the large variety of
chemicals that need to be handled. The user therefore needs to carefully match the type of glove
required to the chemical to be used. Please consult the laboratory technicians or relevant sources
for further information to selecting a suitable glove. Also, do remember that certain individuals have
displayed allergic reactions to natural rubber latex gloves. Make sure that you are not sensitive to
this or any other personal protective equipment. Also, always wash your hands with soap and water
after removing your gloves.

RESPIRATORS
Respirators are used in an environment where there is insufficient oxygen to protect against harmful

25
dusts, fogs, smokes, mists, gases, vapours and sprays. Simple respirators, e.g. dust masks, are often
used when dust is being produced. A filter cartridge/canister type respirator is required in an area
wherein low concentration toxic vapour is present. The filter cartridge used will depend on the
vapour being emitted. These cartridges have a shelf life. If possible, the filter cartridge type
respirator should be used solely by a single individual. The respirator must be a) inspected before
and after each use, b) cleaned and disinfected after each use

Routine Inspection of Respirator

• Rubber face piece should be checked for:
» Dirt
» Cracks, tears or holes
» Distortion from improper storage
» Cracked, scratched or loose fitting lens
» Damaged or absent mounting clips

• Head straps should be checked for:

» Breaks or tears
» Loss of elasticity
» Broken or malfunctioning buckles or attachments
» Excessively worn serrations of the head straps which might allow the face piece to slip

• Valves
» Detergent residue. dust or dirt on the valve seat » Cracks, tears or distortion in the valve
» Missing or defective valve cover

• Filter Elements
» Proper type of filter for the job and contaminants » Approved design
» Missing or worn gaskets
» Worn threads
» Cracks or dents in the housing
» Spent, dirty, used

Cleaning of Respirator
• Using a brush wash with a detergent, or a detergent/disinfectant combination.
• Rinse in clean water, or rinse once with a disinfectant and once with clean water. The clean water
rinse is very important as it removes traces of detergent or disinfectant from the mask. If these
traces are not removed, they can cause skin irritation and/or damage to the respirator
• Hang to dry in a manner which prevents the face piece from distortion.

Should you require a respirator for use in the Faculty, please contact the Chief Technician or
Laboratory Technician in the mechanical workshop.

FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
Know the location and operation of the fire extinguishers and fire alarms closest to your work
station. The particular application of these extinguishers (electrical fire, chemical fire etc.) is also

26
important.

Dry chemical extinguishers

(Blue label) particularly effective on flammable liquids, but may be used on any kind of fire

Water extinguishers
(Red label) useful on rubbish or paper fires but should NOT be used on burning metals or electrical
fires.

Carbon dioxide extinguishers

(Black label) useful for most fires EXCEPT those involving alkali metals and their oxides or
peroxides (use soda ash).

For a small, contained blaze, e.g. in a beaker, it is effective to cut off the oxygen supply by sealing the
container. For electrical fires, remember to switch off the current before proceeding to dose the
flames. It is important to attack a fire as soon as possible after it has started. The longer the fire
burns the more difficult it is to extinguish. When a fire has already got out of control and the
building/area is being evacuated, try to remember to close doors and windows to contain the blaze.

EQUIPMENT SHIELDS
Most reciprocating/rotating machines, rollers, belt drives, etc. even when driven by small motors are
highly geared or carry considerable momentum. Whatever such machinery includes "open" rollers,
belts, etc. a guard must be installed. No such equipment may be operated without such a guard, and
the express permission of the person "responsible" for the equipment. (This person is required to
obtain the permission of the Supervisor and the Faculty's Safety Officer when the equipment is
installed, moved or modified).

Be familiar with the emergency stop buttons or trip mechanisms.

Vessels which operate at high temperature or high pressures must also have shields/guards erected
around them to protect any person working in the area. This particularly applies to glass distillation
apparatus where explosives or dangerous chemicals are being processed or explosive mixtures may
arise.

Face shields are also available in the Faculty for work on small scale reactions which may be
explosive. Contact the Laboratory Technicians.

8. PERSONAL CONTAMINATION AND FIRST AID

The golden rule of first aid is to seek expert medical aid assistance for even the most trivial of
injuries. However, in a laboratory environment prompt action becomes very necessary as delays may
cause irreversible damage. Examples are: chemicals in the eye, skin contamination, removal of
persons from an oxygen deficient zone, etc. When assisting in the emergency situation, be very sure
that you have a trained first aid person at hand and that you are absolutely certain of the victim's

27
cause of distress.

CHEMICAL SPILL OVER A LARGE AREA OF THE BODY

• Immediately flood the contaminated area with running water (under a safety shower)
simultaneously removing the contaminated clothing.
• Continue rinsing with cold water for at least 15 minutes. DO NOT use neutralising chemicals,
creams, lotions or salves.
• Get medical attention promptly.
• Provide the medical service personnel with the chemical name and any other helpful
information. Supply the medical team with a MSDS.

Beware
There are a few chemicals which react with water, e.g. sodium metal, and highly toxic ally
chemicals. It is preferable to remove these with alcohol or a safe hydrocarbon solvent to prevent
absorption through the skin. Large volumes of the solvent must be used for washing away the
contamination. Always know how to wash off the chemical that you work with.

CHEMICAL SPILL ON THE SKIN IN A CONFINED AREA

• Immediately flush with cold water.

• If there is no visible burn, remove jewellery to make sure that all residual material is removed
and wash the area with soap.
• If necessary, seek medical attention.
• If there is a delayed reaction (often noted the next day), seek medical attention.
• Provide the medical service personnel with the chemical name and any other helpful
information. Supply the medical team with a MSDS.

Beware
There are a few chemicals which react with water, e.g. sodium metal, and highly toxic oily
chemicals. It is preferable to remove these with alcohol or a safe hydrocarbon solvent to prevent
absorption through the skin. Large volumes of the solvent must be used for washing away the
contamination. Always know how to wash off the chemical that you work with.

CHEMICALS IN THE EYES

• Flush the eyeball and inner eyelid with cold water for at least 15 minutes. You need to forcibly
keep the eye open ensuring that the area behind the eyelid is properly washed.
• Remove contact lenses while washing the eye.
• Seek medical assistance.
• For caustic splash, continue washing of the eye during transportation.
• Provide the medical service personnel with the chemical name and any other helpful
information. Supply the medical team with a MSDS.

SMOKE OR CHEMICAL FUME INHALATION

28
• Remove anyone overcome with smoke or chemical fumes out of the contaminated area to a
fresh air area
• If necessary, treat for shock
• Seek medical help
• Provide the medical service personnel with the chemical name and any other helpful
information. Supply the medical team with a MSDS
• Do not enter the area if it is life threatening, Le. oxygen depletion, explosive vapours cyanide
gas, hydrogen sulphide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxides

BURNING CHEMICAL ON CLOTHING

• If your clothing catches alight, DO NOT run about as the air movement fans the flames and the
fire rapidly burns upwards causing upper body and facial damage
• Adopt the drop-and -roll technique immediately, keeping the burning side on the ground as
much as possible.
• Douse with cold water.
• The contaminated clothing must be removed taking care not to cause further damage to the
burned area
• Cover the injured person with a blanket, woollen clothing, etc. to prevent shock
• Seek medical help
• Provide the medical service personnel with the chemical name and any other helpful
information. Supply the medical team with a MS OS and the victim's clothing

BURNS

• For burns, immerse in cold water as this is very effective

• Keep the burned area in the water for at least 10 minutes
• Do not apply any oily liquids as this only makes the medical team's job difficult

CHEMICAL INGESTION

• Identify the chemical ingested

• If the chemical is confined to the mouth, give administer large amounts of water as a mouth
wash. DO NOT swallow the mouth wash
• If the chemical has been swallowed, give about 250ml of water in an attempt to dilute it in the
stomach
• Administer antidote, if known and available
• DO NOT induce vomiting as a first aid procedure
• Call campus clinic or the ambulance services
• Cover victim to prevent shock
• Provide the medical service personnel with the chemical name and any other helpful
information. Supply the medical team with a MSDS

COMPRESSED GAS LEAKS

• If a gas leak is suspected, confirm by using a gas-leak detector or soapy water. DO NOT use a
flame for detection
• If the gas is not hazardous, tighten all valves and nuts. If this does not stop the problem evacuate
the area and seek assistance from the supervisor
• In the case of hazardous gases or fumes, activate the emergency alarm and follow the

29
 emergency procedure
• Seek medical help for any injured parties

BLEEDING
Using a suitable pad, apply pressure to the wound until medical assistance arrives. There is no need
for dressings and bandaging.

9. REFERENCES
Laboratory Safety Manual, Chemical Engineering Department, University of Natal, Durban, South
Africa, 1995

Crisp, P. Safety in the Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Industrial Chemistry, University of New
South Wales for Persons Carrying out Supervised Research, 1'1 Ed, Faculty of Chemical Engineering
and Industrial Chemistry, University of New South Wales, Australia, March 1996

Laboratory Safety Manual, Chemical Engineering Department, University of Delaware, Delaware,

USA, 2004

Safety in Chemical Laboratories and in the Use of Chemicals, 4th Ed, Imperial College of Science and
Technology, London, UK, April 1977

The Occupational Health and Safety Act (85/1993)

http://www.ehs.ucdavis.edu/sftvnet/chem/sn-42.htmL: accessed 1/6198

http://web.princeton.edu/sites/ehs/labsafetvmanual/appe.htm - accessed December 2QQ7

http://web.chem-enO.utoronto.calindex.php?option=com docman&task=down&bid=8 - accessed

December 2007

http://www.cheme.washinoton.edu/PDFs/health safety plan 2005.pdf - accessed December 2007

30
APPENDIX A

LIFTING LARGE OR HEAVY OBJECTS

Do not bend over any heavy or large objects when lifting, as this will strain the back. Bend the knees
and grasp the object, straighten the legs to lift the object off the ground. The leg muscles are the
strongest group of muscles in the body and one will not damage them as easily as the back muscles.

APPENDIX B

Table B.1 lists some common gases and some of their associated hazardous (reference to additional
sources is still necessary).

Table B.1: Properties and hazards associated with some commonly used hazardous gases
Gas BP ER SG PEl Flam Other Hazards

Acetylene -84.0 2-82 0.91 2500 Y Asphyxiant, explosive compounds

Ammonia -33.3 15-28 0.6 50 Y Tissue burns, respiratory irritant
Arsine -62.5 Explo 2.66 0.05 Y Deadly poison, fire/explo hazard
Boron Trifluoride -100 NA 2.3 1 N Irritant, highly toxic
1,3-Butadiene -4.5 2-11.5 1.9 100 Y Irritant, suspected carcinogen
Carbon Dioxide -78.5s NA 1.53 5000 N Asphyxiant
Carbon Monoxide -191.1 12.5-74 0.97 50 Y Highly toxic, chemical asphyxiant
Chlorine -34.5 NA 2.49 1 N Toxic, explosive compounds
Ethylene -103.9 2.7-36 0.98 NA Y Simple asphyxiant
Ethylene Oxide 10.7 3-100 1.52 1 Y Strong irritant, toxic, carcinogen
Formaldehyde -19.4 7-73 1.01 3 Y Irritant, toxic, allergen, carcinogen
Hydrogen -252.8 4.1-74.2 0.07 NA Y Asphyxiant, invisible flame
Hydrogen Chloride -84.8 NA 1.27 5 N Irritant. Toxic, corrosive
Hydrogen Sulphide -60 4.3-46 1.19 20 Y Irritant, highly toxic
.Methane -161.4 5-15 0.52 NA Y Simple asphyxiant
Methyl Chloride -23.7 8.1-17 1.78 100 Y Irritant, toxic
Nitric Oxide -152 NA 1.0 25 N StronQ oxidizer, toxic, narcotic
Nitrous Dioxide -21 NA 2.83 5 N Toxic, strong irritant
Oxygen -183 NA 1.11 NA N Oxidising, promotes combustion
Ozone -112 NA 1.65 0.1 N Strong oxidiser, unstable
Propane -42.11 2.3-9.5 1.6 1000 Y (non-irritating, odourless)
Propene -47.7 2-11 1.5 NA Y Simple asphyxiant, reactive
Sulphur Dioxide -10.05 NA 2.26 5 N Strong irritant, corrosive
Vinyl Chloride -13.9 4-33 2.15 1 Y Dangerous irritant, carcinogen

31
Key
BP - Boiling Point (DC)
ER - Explosive range (% by volume in air)
SG - Specific Gravity
PEL - Permissible exposure limit (ppm)
Flam - Is the gas flammable? (Y=yes; N=no)
NA - Not Applicable

APPENDIX C

TOXIC AND/OR NOXIOUS CHEMICALS

1. Irritants - These may affect any part of the respiratory system. Examples include:
Ammonia Halogen acids Sulphuric Acid
Formic Acid Acetic Acid Acetic anhydride
Sulphur halides Sulphuryl chlorides Thionyl halides
Sulphur dioxide Chlorine Bromine
Arsenic compounds Phosphorous chlorides Ozone
Nitrogen oxides Phosgene Acrolein
Dimethyl sulphate Active-halogen organics Hydrogen sulphide
Boron hydrides

2. Asphyxiants - These interfere with the supply of the oxygen to the body tissue. Examples include:
Any gas other than oxygen Hydrogen sulphide
Carbon monoxide Volatile cyanides

3. Systematic Poisons - These are absorbed through the respiratory system, enter the blood stream
and affect a site other than the point of contact. Examples include:
Benzene Toluene Styrene Butane
Alcohols Aldehydes Ketones Ketene
Ethers Esters Halogenated hydrocarbons
Aromatic amines Cycloparaffins Organic nitro-compounds
Carbon disulphide Boron hydride Mercury and its compounds
Arsenic and its compounds Selenium and its compounds
Selenium and its compounds Antimony and its compounds
Lead and its compounds Metal carbonyls
Phosphorous

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APPENDIX D

BIOLOGICAL INFECTIONS

Typhoid is spread by the faecal-oral route, and workers with sewage may be exposed to infection.
The incubation period varies from one to two weeks after contact with the organism. The disease
entails high temperatures, abdominal pain, blood stained diarrhoea and "marked debility". Mild
infections do occur when the disease is not as severe. Some people (2-5%) when recovered from the
disease harbour the organism and become carriers. The organisms when excreted in faeces and in
urine may infect others.

Cholera
Cholera is also transmitted by the faecal-oral route and is a serious acute intestinal disease,
characterized by diarrhoea, vomiting, rapid dehydration, acidosis and circulatory collapse. It can be
fatal within a few hours of the onset, and the incubation period varies from a few hours to five days.
The disease is contagious while the organisms are present in the faeces, which is until a few days
after recovery. Again, a few recovered people can serve as carriers for a longer period.

Polio
Polio is usually spread by direct contact with pharyngeal secretions from an infected person, but it is
possible to contract it from work with sewage as the organisms are present in faeces. Most people
have been immunized against polio, and this prevents infection

Hepatitis A and Band HIV-AIDS

The infection by the Hepatitis B virus is a significant risk amongst sewage workers. The incubation
period is twenty to sixty days, and the infectious period is seven days before and after the onset of
jaundice. The symptoms prior to becoming jaundiced are feelings of tiredness, lethargy and a loss of
appetite. The liver may also enlarge. After the onset of jaundice, abdominal pain may occur.
Mortality is not high
.
Hepatitis Band HIV-AIDS are transmitted sexually, and by inoculation with infected blood and body
fluids it is highly unlikely that these organisms would survive in the medium of sewage, but may be
contracted when dealing with blood.

Amoebic Dysentery
This is one example of a parasitic infection which can be contracted from sewage and which can
produce diarrhoeal diseases. The infection may be asymptomatic, mild, acute or chronic. The
organisms can spread to cause abscesses of the liver, lungs or brain which can be fatal. Incubation
periods range from five days to a number of months, (usually three to four weeks). The disease is
contagious for as long as the organism is present in the faeces which may be a period of years.

Round worm and Tape worm

These are two of a number of worms which can affect the intestine. This results in the person feeling
unwell, and is associated with allergic conditions.

33
APPENDIX E

Table E.1: Chemical Incompatibility List

Substance Incompatible With

Acetic Acid Chromium (Vi) Oxide, Nitric Acid, Alcohols, Ethylene

Glycol, Perchloric Acid, Peroxides, permanganates

Acetone Chlorine, Bromine, Copper, Fluorine, Silver,

Mercury

Acetylene Bromine, Chlorine, Fluorine, Copper, Silver,

Mercury
Active Charcoal Calcium Hypochlorite, Oxidising Agents

Alkali Metals Water, Carbon Tetrachloride & Other Halogenated

Alkanes, Carbon Dioxide, Halogens
Aluminium Alkyls Water

Ammonia, Anhydrous Mercury, Chlorine, Calcium Hypochlorite, Iodine,

Bromine, Hydrofluoric Acid
Mercury (E.G. In Manometers), Chlorine, Calcium,
Ammonia, Laboratory Gas Calcium Hypochlorite, Iodine, Bromine, Hydrogen
Fluoride
Acids, Metal Powders, Flammable Liquids,
Ammonium Nitrate Chlorates, Nitrates, Sulphur, Finely Divided Organic
Substances Or Other Combustible Substances
Aniline Nitric Acid, Hydrogen Peroxide
Azides Acids
Acetylene, Ammonia, Butadiene, Butane, Methane,
Bromine Propane, Hydrogen, Petroleum Ether, Benzene,
Metal Powders
Ammonium Salts, Acids, Metal Powders, Sulphur,
Chlorates Finely Divided Organic Substances Or Other
Flammable Substances
Acetylene, Ammonia, Butadiene, Butane, Methane,
Chlorine Propane, Hydrogen, Petroleum Ether, Benzene,
Metal Powders
Chlorine Dioxide
Ammonia, Methane, Phosphine, Hydrogen Sulphide

Chlorites
Sodium Sulphite, Sodium Hydrogen Sulphite

Chromium (Vi) Oxide Acetic Acid, Naphthaline, Camphor, Glycerol,

Petroleum Ether, Alcohols, Flammable Liquids

Copper Acetylene, Hydrogen Peroxide

34
Cyanides Acids

Flammable Liquids Ammonium Nitrate, Chromic Acid, Hydrogen

Peroxide, Nitric Acid, Sodium Peroxide, Halogens
Fluorine Store Separately
Hydrocarbons Nitric Acid, Alkali

Hydrogen Fluoride Ammonia (Laboratory Gas Or Solution)

Copper, Chromium, Iron, Metals And Metal Salts,

Hydrogen Peroxide
Alcohol, Acetone, Organic Substances (Solid Or
Liquid
Hydrogen Sulphide Fuming Nitric Acid, Oxidising Gases
Iodine Acetylene, Ammonia (Laboratory Gas Or Solution)
Mercury Acetylene, Ammonia
Acetic Acid, Aniline, Chromium (Vi) Oxide,
Nitric Acid (Con c) Hydrogen Cyanide, Hydrogen Sulphide, Flammable
Liquids & Gases
Nitrites Acids
Oxalic Acid Silver, Mercury

Perchloric Acid Acetic Anhydride, Bismuth & Its Alloys, Alcohols,

Paper, Wood

Peroxides, Organic Acids (Organic Or Mineral), Avoid Friction, Store

Cold

Phosphorous Sulphur, Compounds Containing Oxygen, E.G.

Chlorates

Potassium Water, Carbon Tetrachloride & Other Halogenated

Alkanes, Carbon Dioxide, Halogens
Ammonium Salts, Acids, Metal Powders, Sulphur,
Potassium Perchlorate Finely Divided Organic Substances Or Other
Flammable Substances

Potassium Permanganate Glycerol, Ethylene Glycol, Benzaldehyde, Sulphuric

Acid

Silver Acetylene, Oxalic Acid, Tartaric Acid, Ammonium

Compounds

Sodium Water, Carbon Tetrachloride & Other Halogenated

Alkanes, Carbon Dioxide, Halogens
Sodium Nitrate
Ammonium Nitrate And Other Ammonium Salts

Methanol, Ethanol, Glacial Acetic Acid, Acetic

Sodium Peroxide Anhydride, Benzaldehyde, Carbon Disulphide,
Glycerol, Ethylene Glycol, Ethyl Acetate, Methyl
Acetate, Furfural
Sulfides Acids

Sulphuric Acid Potassium Chlorate, Potassium Perchlorate,

Potassium Permanganate

35
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