What is Operating System: An operating system (OS) is the program that, after

being initially loaded into the computer by a boot program, manages all of the
other application programs in a computer. The application programs make use of
the operating system by making requests for services through a defined application
program interface (API). In addition, users can interact directly with the operating
system through a user interface, such as a command-line interface (CLI) or a
graphical UI (GUI). [1]

An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the
computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs.[2]

Following are some of important functions of an operating System.

 Memory Management
 Processor Management
 Device Management
 File Management
 Security
 Control over system performance
 Job accounting
 Error detecting aids
 Coordination between other software and users

History: On November 10, 1983, at the Plaza Hotel in New York City, Microsoft
Corporation formally announced Microsoft Windows, a next-generation operating
system that would provide a graphical user interface (GUI) and a multitasking
environment for IBM computers.

Microsoft promised that the new product would be on the shelf by April 1984.
Windows might have been released under the original name of Interface Manager
if marketing whiz, Rowland Hanson had not convinced Microsoft's founder Bill
Gates that Windows was the far better name.
That same November in 1983, Bill Gates showed a beta version of Windows to
IBM's head honchos. Their response was lackluster probably because they were
working on their own operating system called Top View. IBM did not give
Microsoft the same encouragement for Windows that they gave the other operating
system that Microsoft brokered to IBM. In 1981, MS-DOS became the highly
successful operating system that came bundled with an IBM computer.

Top View was released in February of 1985 as a DOS-based multitasking program

manager without any GUI features. IBM promised that future versions of Top
View would have a GUI. That promise was never kept, and the program was
discontinued barely two years later.

A Byte Out of Apple

No doubt, Bill Gates realized how profitable a successful GUI for IBM computers
would be. He had seen Apple's Lisa computer and later the more
successful Macintosh or Mac computer. Both Apple computers came with a
stunning graphical user interface.
Wimps
Side Note: Early MS-DOS diehards liked to refer to MacOS (Macintosh operating
system)as "WIMP", an acronym for the Windows, Icons, Mice and Pointers
interface.
Competition
As a new product, Microsoft Windows faced potential competition from IBM's
own Top View, and others. VisiCorp's short-lived VisiOn, released in October
1983, was the official first PC-based GUI. The second was GEM (Graphics
Environment Manager), released by Digital Research in early 1985. Both GEM
and VisiOn lacked support from the all-important third-party developers. Since, if
nobody wanted to write software programs for an operating system, there would be
no programs to use, and nobody would want to buy it.

Microsoft finally shipped Windows 1.0 on November 20, 1985, almost two years
past the initially promised release date.

"Microsoft become the top software vendor in 1988 and never looked back" -
Microsoft Corporation

Apple Bytes Back

Microsoft Windows version 1.0 was considered buggy, crude, and slow. This
rough start was made worse by a threatened lawsuit from Apple Computers. In
September 1985, Apple lawyers warned Bill Gates that Windows 1.0 infringed on
Apple copyrights and patents, and that his corporation stoled Apple's trade secrets.
Microsoft Windows had similar drop-down menus, tiled windows and mouse
support.
Deal of the Century
Bill Gates and his head counsel Bill Neukom, decided to make an offer to license
features of Apple's operating system. Apple agreed and a contract was drawn up.
Here's the clincher: Microsoft wrote the licensing agreement to include use of
Apple features in Microsoft Windows version 1.0 and all future Microsoft software
programs. As it turned out, this move by Bill Gates was as brilliant as his decision
to buy QDOS from Seattle Computer Products and his convincing IBM to let
Microsoft keep the licensing rights to MS-DOS. (You can read all about those
smooth moves in our feature on MS-DOS.)

Windows 1.0 floundered on the market until January 1987, when a Windows-
compatible program called Aldus PageMaker 1.0 was released. PageMaker was the
first WYSIWYG desktop-publishing program for the PC. Later that year,
Microsoft released a Windows-compatible spreadsheet called Excel. Other popular
and useful software like Microsoft Word and Corel Draw helped promote
Windows, however, Microsoft realized that Windows needed further development.
[3]

The following image indicates the total market share of all desktop operating
systems (November, 2017):
Year Event

1983 Bill Gates announced Microsoft Windows on November 10, 1983.

1985 Microsoft Windows 1.0 was introduced on November 20, 1985, and was

initially sold for $100.00.

1987 Microsoft Windows 2.0 was released on December 9, 1987, and was
initially sold for $100.00.

1987 Microsoft Windows/386 or Windows 386 was introduced on December 9,

1987, and was initially sold for $100.00.

1988 Microsoft Windows/286 or Windows 286 was introduced in June 1988, and
initially sold for $100.00.

1990 Microsoft Windows 3.0 was released on May, 22 1990. Microsoft Windows

3.0 full version was priced at $149.95 and the upgrade version was priced at
$79.95.

1991 Following its decision not to develop operating systems cooperatively

with IBM, Microsoft changed the name of their version of OS/2, originally
named NT OS/2 3.0, to Windows NT. Developed by David Cutler,
Windows NT was built on a different architecture than IBM's OS/2
 operating system.

1991 Microsoft Windows 3.0 or Windows 3.0a with multimedia was released in

October 1991.

1992 Microsoft Windows 3.1 was released in April 1992 and sells more than one
million copies in the first two months of its release.

1992 Microsoft Windows for Workgroups 3.1 was released in October 1992.

1993 Microsoft Windows NT 3.1 was released on July 27, 1993.

1993 Microsoft Windows 3.11, an update to Windows 3.1 was released on

December 31, 1993.

1993 The number of licensed users of Microsoft Windows totaled more than 25
million in 1993.

1994 Microsoft Windows for Workgroups 3.11 was released in February 1994.

1994 Microsoft Windows NT 3.5 was released on September 21, 1994.

1995 Microsoft Windows NT 3.51 was released on May 30, 1995.

1995 Microsoft Windows 95 was released on August 24, 1995, and sold more
than one million copies within four days.

1995 Microsoft Windows 95 Service Pack 1 (4.00.950A) was released on

February 14, 1996.

1996 Microsoft Windows NT 4.0 was released on July 29, 1996.

1996 Microsoft Windows 95 (4.00.950B) aka OSR2

with FAT32 and MMX support was released on August 24, 1996.

1996 Microsoft Windows CE 1.0 was released in November 1996.

1997 Microsoft Windows CE 2.0 was released in November 1997.

1997 Microsoft Windows 95 (4.00.950C) aka OSR2.5 was released on November
26, 1997.

1998 Microsoft Windows 98 was released in June 1998.

1998 Microsoft Windows CE 2.1 was released in July 1998.

1998 In October 1998, Microsoft announced that future releases of Windows NT

would no longer have the initials of NT and that the next edition would be
Windows 2000.

1999 Microsoft Windows 98 SE (Second Edition) was released on May 5, 1999.

1999 Microsoft Windows CE 3.0 was released in 1999.

2000 On January 4th, 2000, at CES, Bill Gates announced the new version of

Windows CE will be called Pocket PC.

2000 Microsoft Windows 2000 was released on February 17, 2000.

2000 Microsoft Windows ME (Millennium) was released on June 19, 2000.

2001 Microsoft Windows XP was released on October 25, 2001.

2001 Microsoft Windows XP 64-bit edition (version 2002) for Itanium systems

was released on March 28, 2003.

2003 Microsoft Windows Server 2003 was released on March 28, 2003.

2003 Microsoft Windows XP 64-bit edition (version 2003) for Itanium 2 systems

was released on March 28, 2003.

2003 Microsoft Windows XP Media Center edition 2003 was released on

December 18, 2003.

2004 Microsoft Windows XP Media Center edition 2005 was released on October

12, 2004.

2005 Microsoft Windows XP Professional x64 edition was released on April 24,

 2005.

2005 Microsoft announced its next operating system, code-named "Longhorn,"

would be named Windows Vista on July 23, 2005.

2006 Microsoft released Microsoft Windows Vista to corporations on November

30, 2006.

2007 Microsoft released Microsoft Windows Vista and Office 2007 to the general

public on January 30, 2007.

2008 Microsoft released Microsoft Windows Server 2008 to the public on

February 27, 2008.

2009 Microsoft released Windows 7 on October 22, 2009.

2012 Microsoft released Windows Server 2012 on September 4, 2012.

2012 Microsoft released Windows 8 on October 26, 2012.

2013 Microsoft released Windows 8.1 on October 17, 2013.

2015 Microsoft released Windows 10 on July 29, 2015.

How Microsoft launched windows one from windows 10?[4]

Windows history began in 1985.

Windows 1, 1985
The first version of windows  MS-DOS called Microsoft disk operating system
which is character based operating system which is used in many computers, but it
didn’t take market manymore.

Windows 2, 1987

This is the first operating system to use Microsoft word and Microsoft excel. At
that time, Apple has stolen some event with Macintosh and Lisa, and there was a
case for taking “look and Feel” law in which apple lose the case.

Windows 3, 1990

Windows 3 hides all the old version of MS-DOS and comes with the program
manager, and this becomes the modern windows.

Windows 3.1, 1991

This window comes in the first decade of 1990 with IBM compatible computers,
and this becomes the standard version of that time, It seems as MS-DOS.

Windows 95, 1995

Windows 95 was very famous, and it took the operating system on the top level of
the world. It[places every icon whatever you like. It becomes to do work on the
computer. Many features such as internet explorer, Recycle bin, start button. These
all icon display on the desktop. At that everywhere crowds and talks about window
95. For the lunch of this OS, Lenovo gives his big hand with Bill gate to give such
output up to 2012. We found this in the market until the lunch of windows 8.

Windows 98, 1998

Windows 98 seems a windows 95 and works same as windows 95. There are some
features added.

Windows AMD, 2000

Windows AMD has some features as windows 98. It didn’t take the market, and
people hear about the upcoming windows window XP.so they wait for those
windows.

Windows CE, 2000

At that time, Microsoft has started its new version for mobile phone. It is based on
Windows CE. Microsoft began to this by putting the windows logo and start button
and many more.

Windows XP, 2001

Windows XP launched in 2001. IT becomes the fastest and furious windows

operating system after window 95. This was the first windows to consume MS-
DOS. Windows NT is the most reliable version of windows with their live features.
Windows Mobile 5.2005

Microsoft has started this feature in blackberry and Nokia. It’s proceeding for New
version of windows.

Windows Vista, 2006,

It takes five years to lunch windows vista while preparing this website there are
many faults, and it comes after the recovery of such errors, so it takes a long time
to lunch in the market.

Windows Mobile 6, 2007

Microsoft has launched windows mobile six which was five years old platform. It
was launched in February 2007. At the same time has started its iPhone. This has a
stylish keyword, but it didn’t run anymore in front of the iPhone.

Windows 7, 2007

Windows 7 uplift the fault of windows vista, and it comes with the new name
windows six view. This was the very high windows operating system. Many of the
offices are using this up to now. It takes the market many more. You can easily
upgrade windows 7 to windows 10.

Windows Phone, 2010

Microsoft launched windows phone, the first version of windows phone. It added
many features, but it didn’t success to compete iPhone market.

Windows 8 Tablets

After the 30 years of history, at last Microsoft launched this operating system and
it provided many benefits but didn’t a success so that it comes in windows phone.
It has many icons on the screen, but it does not have a start button.

Windows 8 Desktop

Windows 8 was released on August. 1, 2012 and is a completely redesigned

operating system that’s been developed from the ground up with touchscreen use
in mind as well as near-instant-on capabilities that enable a Windows 8 PC to load
and start up in a matter of seconds rather than in minutes.[5]

Windows Phone 8

Microsoft launched windows eight as same as the platform of windows mobile

phone. It has many features. Microsoft PC, Microsoft server, the operating system
uses Windows NT, but in comparison with Android IOS, windows phone is back
in the market.

Windows and Windows 8.1, 2014

Microsoft provides this feature such as PC, tablets, mobile update in 2014. It has
some changes such as the start menu. Window 8.1 will be updated to windows 10.

Windows 10

Windows 10 is Microsoft’s Windows successor to Windows 8. Windows 10

debuted on July 29, 2015, following a “technical preview” beta release of the new
operating system that arrived in Fall 2014 and a “consumer preview” beta in early
2015. Microsoft claims Windows 10 features fast start up and resume, built-in
security and the return of the Start Menu in an expanded form. This version of
Windows will also feature Microsoft Edge, Microsoft’s new browser. Any
qualified device (such as tablets, PCs, smartphones and Xbox consoles) can
upgrade to Windows 10, including those with pirated copies of Windows.
What is Windows Memory Management? – Overview
In operating systems, memory management is the function responsible for
managing the computer's primary memory.
The memory management function keeps track of the status of each memory
location, either allocated or free. It determines how memory is allocated among
competing processes, deciding which gets memory, when they receive it, and how
much they are allowed. When memory is allocated it determines which memory
locations will be assigned. It tracks when memory is freed or unallocated and
updates the status.[6]

Microsoft has, as of operating system versions Vista SP1 and Windows Server
2008, implemented new technologies, for both resource allocation and security. 
Several of these new technologies include the Dynamic Allocation of Kernel
Virtual Address Space (including paged and non-paged pools), kernel-mode stack
jumping, and Address Space Layout Randomization.  Basically, the allocation of
resources are not fixed, but are dynamically adjusted according to operational
requirements. The implementation of these new technologies such as Address
Space Layout Randomization are mostly due to the hacker threat of an advanced
knowledge of the location of key system components (such
as kernel32.dll, ntdll.dll, etc), and are partly due to the Window’s goal of using
memory allocation more efficiently by allocation on an as needed basis. In order to
understand these new technologies better and be able to use them as a developer,
device driver writer, or system’s administrator, this paper will focus on the
Windows Memory Manager prior to Vista SP1.[8]
How Does the Windows Memory Manager Work? 

The purpose of this paper is to therefore give a conceptual understanding to those

who have struggled with memory management as a whole and to explain why
these newer technologies have evolved.  It will start with a general view of the
Windows Memory Manager, to get more specific as to how Windows manages
used and unused memory. To illustrate how memory works, tools from the
TechNet SysInternals web sites will be described for memory leaks. The paper will
conclude with a brief description of paging lists.

The Need to Use Memory Management

Now, let’s see the need to use memory management in operating system. The

details are as follows:

 You need to place the program in memory to make full use of the memory.
 You should also make sure that these applications do not interfere with each
other.
 It allocates space for application routines.
 It helps protect different processes between each other.
 It tracks when inventory is released or unallocated.
 It allows you to check how much memory needs to be allocated to the
process to decide which processor should acquire memory.[9]

32-bit Windows OS memory architecture

Figure B1.1 32-bit Windows OS Memory Architecture shows how memory is

allocated to the kernel and user applications by the 32-bit Windows operating
system.
The 32-bit Windows Operating System addressable memory space is shared
between active applications and the kernel as shown in Figure B1.1. The kernel
address space includes a System Page Table Entry (PTE) area (kernel memory
thread stacks), Paged Pool (page tables, kernel objects), System Cache (file cache,
registry), and a Non Paged Pool (images, etc).
The default 32-bit Windows Operating System (OS) configuration provides up to 4
GB (2^32) of addressable memory space divided equally between the kernel and
the user applications. With 4 GB of physical memory available, 2 GB will be
allocated to the kernel and 2 GB to application memory. The kernel mode address
space is shared across processes and the application mode access space is allocated
for each user process (each process has it’s own space).
Extended user application memory can be enabled by setting the windows Physical
Access Extension /PAE switch in the System Basic Input/Output System (BIOS).
The BIOS software is built into the computer hardware, and is the first software
run by the hardware platform when powered on. The 32-bit Windows OS with
/PAE switch in the BIOS provides up to 64 GB (2^36) addressable memory space.
The /PAE switch extends the user application mode address space up to 62 GB.
Each application is allocated it’s own 1.5 GB of virtual space. Enterprise or Data
Center version of Windows Server OS is required for 32-bit extended memory
operations.[7]

64-bit Windows OS memory architecture

Figure B1.2 64-bit Windows OS Memory Architecture shows how memory is

allocated to the kernel and user applications by the 64-bit Windows operating
system.
The 64-bit Windows Operating System addressable memory space is shared
between active applications and the kernel as shown in Figure B1.2. The kernel
address space includes a System Page Table Entry (PTE) area (kernel memory
thread stacks), Paged Pool (page tables, kernel objects), System Cache (file cache,
registry), and Non Paged Pool (images, etc).
The default 64-bit Windows Operating System (OS) configuration provides up to
16 TB (2^54) of addressable memory space divided equally between the kernel and
the user applications. With 16 TB of physical memory available, 8 TB virtual
address (VA) space will be allocated to the kernel and 8 TB VA space to user
application memory. The kernel virtual address space is shared across processes.
Each 64-bit process has it’s own space while each 32-bit application runs in a
virtual 2 GB Windows-on-Windows (WOW).

File system: In computing, file system controls how data is stored and retrieved. In

other words, it is the method and data structure that an operating system uses to

keep track of files on a disk or partition.

It separates the data we put in computer into pieces and gives each piece a name,

so the data is easily isolated and identified.

Without file system, information saved in a storage media would be one large body

of data with no way to tell where the information begins and ends.[10]

Different types of file system: There are so many types of file systems; different
file systems have unique features and have their own ways of organizing data.
Some have faster speed, some provide better compatibility, and other has better
security.
For Windows operating systems, FAT16, FAT32, exFAT and NTFS are four types
of file systems most widely adopted by users. Here are some brief introductions
about the different features of these four file systems.
● FAT16, also known as File Allocation Table 16, was created for old systems like
MS-DOS, Windows 95. FAT16 uses a 16-bit binary number to keep clusters, and
this is why it called FAT16. If a file exceeds the capacity of singular sector of a
FAT16 partition, it would take more space than the size of the file itself.
FAT16 is outdated because it has a big weakness: it supports partition with a
capacity of no more than 2GB. In today’s world, it is really difficult to find a disk
under 2GB, and a 2GB disk cannot meet the demand of most users.
● FAT32 file system was firstly introduced by Microsoft in 1996 to be taken as the
advanced edition of FAT16. It uses 32-bit binary number to hold clusters, limiting
the partition or volume size up to 2TB with a sector size of 512 bytes. And it works
with most of Windows, even Mac, and game consoles.
But it also has a size limit. It can only support a maximum of 32GB partition, and a
maximum of 4GB single file. If you copy a file like a movie that is usually larger
than 4GB to a FAT32 hard drive, you will be told that the file is too large for the
destination disk.
● NTFS stands for New Technology File System. It is a great improvement in
many aspects over FAT32 and FAT16 file system. It uses B-tree structure that
allows users to use hard disk larger than 2TB and provides much fast speed,
making itself a popular choice among an increasing number of Windows users.
Besides, NTFS is a journaling file system that resists data loss and damage. It has
additional permission settings that can encrypt files to control access of files and
folders.
However, NTFS file system also has its weakness: it is only compatible with
Windows 2000 and later versions. And NTFS doesn’t support PS4, android
smartphone, camera, and other devices. Mac OS X can only read NTFS partition.
● exFAT is a new file system launched in 2006, which was usually used for flash
memory like USB flash drive, SD card. It can be seen as a lightweight of FAT32
without additional features of NTFS. exFAT makes up for the disadvantages of
FAT32 in file size and the compatibility of NTFS, which means it can store a file
larger than 4GB and can both work in Windows and Mac OS.[11]

Windows Security
In today’s word, security is the main issue for systems. It is important to make our
device secure from vulnerabilities. Different threats and viruses appeared on our
system regularly, so it is necessary to install up-to-date security software. Security
can be only maintained if our system receives security updates automatically on
regular basis.
To achieve protection at the highest level, Microsoft offers a vast verity of tools
and technologies which gives many resources to make our system secure.
Windows’ main weakness
Windows is loved by its users because it offers tremendous application availability.
However, this strength is also its biggest weakness. By allowing an open approach
toward applications, Windows also exposes itself to malware more often than other
operating systems. [13]

Types of security Protection Given by Microsoft:

 Security Updates:

Common security threats (including viruses and malware) attacks daily on our
system. Microsoft offers updated packages regularly through Microsoft website.
The process can be performed by enabling automatic update service access through
the control panel. We can choose protections or updates from authentic websites.

 Tools and Tips:

Our system gets protection by large no of advice given by Microsoft.

These are some tools helpful for system security.

 MS Malicious Software Removal Tool:

It checks the system under the presence of specific software to find out the
malicious activities and removes viruses. This tool can be applicable to Windows
XP, Windows 2000 and windows server 2003.

 Windows Defender (Beta):

It helps to take action if any spyware or any unwanted activity found in the system.
It helps to remove them permanently.

 MS Security Essentials:

It consists of a website used to determine what operating system is running

currently in our system and then gives customize advice to increases the security
on our computer.

 Security Response Center (SRC):

Security vulnerabilities and incidents resolved by SRC. It encompasses a security

expert team, involving in analyzing and monitoring the major security issues that
need to be solved out throughout the different channels.
Monthly result generated to deliver security updates, tools and tips for customers

 Windows firewall:

In early days Microsoft introduces in Windows XP new feature called firewall for
internet security it was a packet filtering function it was included in Windows XP
and windows server 2003 but more enhance or more affecting in windows services
pack 2 it was windows security from internet connection malware and security.
known as internet connection firewall.

 OVERVIEW:

When Windows XP shipped in oct 2001 firewall is in limited addition  ‘’internet

connection firewall’’  it was blocked because backward compatibility and its
configuration screen do not work properly network configuration screen so the user
never looks a result. In Mid 2003 used properly because ‘’blaster worm’’ attacked
a large number of computers. So after several months later same type of worm  
‘’Sasser worm” are affecting the computer in 2004  and did something similar but
that time criticism on  Microsoft because are not protecting customer machine
from threats.so the company decided to significantly improve functionality and
interference of Windows XP’s built Firewall and switch on by default windows
SP2
Security log capability is included which are record IP address and always tracking
a computer on the network connection. And it can record dropped data packets and
successful connections. [12]