Week 11 - Handout (5) - Sample (2) of Conclusion & Discussion Chapter
Week 11 - Handout (5) - Sample (2) of Conclusion & Discussion Chapter
Chapter 6
General conclusions and discussion
6. General conclusions and discussion
6.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the main findings with regard to the research questions are
summarised and general conclusions based on the findings of the studies
presented in this thesis are described. Furthermore, the strengths and limitations
of this thesis are considered and suggestions for further research into higher
education are presented. This chapter concludes with recommendations for three
categories of stakeholders in higher education: policy makers, teachers, and
students.
6.2 Links between research and teaching
Many issues need to be considered when enhancing links between research and
teaching in higher education. These issues can be divided along the organisational
levels, ranging from government policy on higher education and institutional
policies to curriculum development and implementation by individual teachers
(cf. Elsen et al., 2009; Jenkins et al., 2003; Clark, 1997). One of the aims of
strengthening the research‐teaching nexus is to improve student understanding of
science and scientific research (cf. Jenkins et al., 2007; Zubrick et al., 2001). The
studies presented in this thesis were focused on the level of teaching and
learning; academics’ characteristics, such as research dispositions and teaching
intentions, were examined. The central aim of the studies presented in Chapters 2
and 3 was to improve understanding of the research dispositions of experts in the
field of scientific research. The overarching aim of the studies presented in
Chapters 4 and 5 was to identify patterns between science academics’ teaching
intentions and their actual teaching practice. The teachers’ intentions investigated
in this thesis were intentions regarding research activities for students in their
courses and regarding the stimulation of the development of students’ research
dispositions. The findings of the studies reported in Chapters 1 and 2 provided a
categorisation of aspects of research dispositions; this was used in Chapter 5 to
investigate teachers’ intentions regarding the development of students’ research
dispositions. Furthermore, teachers’ actual teaching practices were explored by
analysing their discourse during course meetings, their methods of instruction,
and students’ perceptions of the learning environments.
In the research literature about higher education, research dispositions
have been identified as relevant elements of the intangible nexus; they have also
been recognised as an under‐emphasised theme in education and in educational
research (cf. McLean & Barker, 2004; Elen & Verburgh, 2008). In the first two
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studies, therefore, the nature of scientific research dispositions was considered.
The main research aim of the first study, reported in Chapter 2, was to identify
aspects of science academics’ research dispositions, and to describe the
differences and similarities between the individual research dispositions of the
participants. An interview study was performed among academics (n=23) from the
Faculty of Science of Leiden University. The interviews were analysed, and the in
vivo responses of the participants about their research dispositions were
identified and categorised. Academics with similar research dispositions were
clustered using a hierarchical cluster analysis, combined with a principal
components analysis, with the objective of finding differences and similarities
between participants' research dispositions and their background variables. This
study resulted in a classification of aspects of research dispositions and in the
identification of similarities and differences between academics. This classification
of aspects of research dispositions (for a description see Chapter 2) was later, in
the study reported in Chapter 5, used to identify teachers’ intentions regarding
the stimulation of the development of students’ research dispositions.
The research aim of the second study, described in Chapter 3, was to
examine potential ways to describe a person's research disposition. In this study,
first, the concept of disposition found in the research literature was described to
identify principles which may be useful for the development of an empirically
based notion of disposition. Second, three instruments to assess a person’s
research disposition were investigated in a case‐study approach (n=3): a semi‐
structured open‐ended interview, a hierarchical ordering task, and a cognitive
mapping task.
The third and fourth studies, described in Chapters 4 and 5, respectively,
were focused on associations between teachers’ intentions and actual teaching
practice in research‐intensive learning environments. The central research aim of
the third study was to identify and describe typical sequences in individual
teachers’ speech during course meetings, and to draw associations between these
typical sequences of speech and teachers’ approaches to teaching. University
science teachers’ (n=12) discourse during course meetings was recorded. An
analysis scheme was developed to identify the underlying rationale behind
teachers’ spoken language. This scheme was based on speech act theory from the
field of philosophy of language. The teachers were also asked to complete a
questionnaire, in retrospect, on their approaches to teaching. The central aim in
the fourth study was to identify associations between teachers’ intentions
concerning, on the one hand, the emphasis on research in their courses and
students’ research dispositions, and on the other hand, students’ perceptions of
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Generally, the results show that teachers’ intentions were moderately congruent
with students’ perceptions of the research intensiveness of the learning
environments. Teachers’ intentions related to the tangible elements of research
were relatively more often congruent with students’ perceptions, while intentions
related to intangible elements of research were relatively more often incongruent
with students’ perceptions. This was explained in two ways. First, intangible
elements are more difficult for students to perceive than are tangible elements.
Second, intangible elements are more difficult for teachers to emphasise during
university courses. It is, therefore, likely that teachers’ intentions such as working
towards the development of students’ research dispositions or the creation of an
inquisitive atmosphere are more often incongruent with students’ perceptions
than are teachers’ intentions such as letting students participate in research or
using the teachers’ own research.
6.4 General conclusions
The general conclusions can be categorised into conclusions about scientific
research dispositions, evaluation of research dispositions, teachers’ speech acts,
and teachers’ intentions regarding research in teaching. Although the conclusions
in this section are presented as solitary units, they can only be interpreted
properly and understood in combination with the information presented in the
chapters of this thesis.
6.4.1 Research dispositions of academics
• Six aspects are fundamental to research dispositions of academics in the
sciences: inclination (1) to achieve, (2) to be critical, (3) to be innovative, (4) to
know, (5) to share knowledge, and (6) to understand (Chapter 2).
• Academics from more applied and experimental fields of study tended to put
more emphasis on 'to be innovative' and 'to be critical', whereas academics
from fields with a theoretical research orientation tended to focus more on
'to achieve' and 'to understand' (Chapter 2).
6.4.2 Evaluation of research dispositions
• A distinction can be made between academics’ explicit conceptions and their
tacit conceptions of their research dispositions (Chapter 3).
• Semi‐structured open‐ended interviews and hierarchical ordering tasks
showed explicit conceptions, whereas structured mapping tasks represented
the tacit conceptions of academics’ research dispositions (Chapter 3).
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6.4.3 Teachers’ speech acts
• The typical sequences of teachers’ speech acts illuminate their speech act
repertoires in action (Chapter 4).
• Teachers who emphasised conceptual changes of students more often use
directive speech acts, such as questions or instructions, whereas teachers who
emphasised knowledge transfer more often use assertive speech acts
(Chapter 4).
6.4.4 Teachers’ intentions regarding research in teaching
• Teachers’ intentions are moderately congruent with students’ perceptions of
the research intensiveness of the learning environments (Chapter 5).
• Teachers' intentions related to tangible elements of the nexus are relatively
more coherent with students’ perceptions than are teachers’ intentions
regarding intangible elements of the nexus (Chapter 5).
6.5 Strengths and limitations of the studies
6.5.1 Strengths
Broader applicability of aspects of research dispositions
The classification of aspects of research dispositions was developed through the
analysis of interviews with 23 academics who had a great deal of experience in
doing scientific research. Through these interviews with experts on scientific
research, a complete picture of aspects of research dispositions emerged. The
results of a methodological study of the saturation point in qualitative interview
studies show that, in general, after 12 transcripts most of the categories (>90%)
are identified in interview transcripts (Guest et al., 2006). We can assume that the
classification of aspects developed in the study reported in Chapter 2 is adequate
for describing scientific research dispositions. Individuals with less experience in
doing research, such as students, can develop their research dispositions,
analogous to students developing their skills or knowledge about the process and
products of research. It is plausible that individuals who have less experience in
doing research have similar aspects, but ambiguously expressed, or
underdeveloped. For example, a person who has not yet encountered academic
debate through peer‐reviewed feedback on manuscripts for scientific journals
might be less inclined to consider collegial feedback an essential part of research.
This person might express a weak correlation between the inclinations ‘to share’
information and ‘to be critical’ when asked to express an opinion. The
development of a person’s research disposition can be measured in at least three
ways, through examining the number of aspects which are explicitly part of the
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disposition, the number of relationships between these aspects, and the personal
hierarchical order of aspects (cf. Chapter 3). In the studies presented in Chapters 2
and 3, academics showed aspects which were more prominently present and
aspects which were peripherally present in their personal research dispositions.
The development of students’ research dispositions is also a personal matter, in
the sense that no single constitution of aspects can be considered to be the ideal
disposition for doing scientific research. When examining the development of
students’ research dispositions, at least three points are necessary to consider:
students' 1) awareness of the potential aspects and relations between aspects, 2)
awareness of their own research disposition and of those of others, and 3)
awareness of individuals’ personal choice in developing their own research
disposition. The strength of the classification scheme of aspects of research
dispositions is that it can be used to identify aspects and create awareness among
academics and among less experienced groups of researchers, such as students.
A diverse set of research tools
In the study reported in Chapter 3, an analysis tool from social network theory
was used to evaluate academics’ research dispositions. In the study presented in
Chapter 4, a ‘theoretical’ framework from the philosophy of language was re‐
evaluated and re‐developed into an empirically useful instrument to assess
teachers’ classroom discourse. Remodelling theoretical frameworks from other
disciplines for empirical use in the field of educational research might improve the
applicability and reliability of the results of educational studies. Various authors in
the field of teaching and teacher education have revealed the complexity of
‘teaching’ (cf. Verloop et al., 2001; Shulman, 1986; Borko & Putman, 1996). This
complexity can only be properly analysed and understood when the phenomena
are investigated from different perspectives and by using various research tools.
Researchers who investigate teachers and teaching in higher education should
thus have a strong inclination to look over the disciplinary fence, to borrow ideas,
models, and research tools from fields close to educational research, such as
psychology, sociology, pedagogy, or philosophy, and also from more distant
domains, such as mathematics, economy, or linguistics. The studies presented in
Chapter 3 and in Chapter 4 show examples of how ideas from other fields can
improve the analysis of phenomena in the field of education.
Combination of teachers’ conceptions and teaching practice
In early research on teaching, much emphasis was put on teaching effectiveness.
Studies were predominantly focused on a description of what teachers did and
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General conclusions and discussion
what the effect was on the students (Gage, 1963; Rosenshine, 1971; Shulman,
1986). Although this behavioural process‐product line of research was recognised
as the most vigorous and productive programme of research on teaching at that
time, in recent decades studies on teacher cognitions have become a central focus
in the field of research on teaching (Floden, 2001). At this moment, the pendulum
is swinging back towards more effectiveness studies, as can be seen, for example,
in the evidence‐based programmes, in which evidence is seen as ‘scientifically
proven’ effectiveness of teaching. In the studies presented in Chapters 4 and 5
elements of teacher cognitions, namely, teachers' orientations (Chapter 4) and
teachers’ intentions (Chapter 5), were examined in combination with measures of
teacher behaviour, namely, teachers’ speech acts and students’ perceptions of
the constructed learning environment. The strength of future research on
teaching lies in the design of studies in which teachers’ cognitions and teachers’
behaviours are investigated in concert. These studies should stand on the
shoulders of previous programmes and paradigms, for example, by intelligently
using research design and methods from previous studies or through reflection on
the current usefulness of the results from previous programmes. For example, in
the sixties and seventies studies were designed concerning the topic of teacher
classroom talk (Rosenshine & Furst, 1973). At first, the proportion of teacher talk
to total classroom speech or the proportion of teacher talk to student talk were
determined. Later on, more sophisticated observation schemes were designed in
which, e.g., teachers’ approval and disapproval were discerned. These studies
yielded consistent, low positive correlations with student achievement, which
were often not significant (Rosenshine, 1971). In the study reported in Chapter 4,
a more refined analysis tool was developed to examine teacher talk, use of which
made it possible to discern determinants of teacher talk per method of
instruction.
6.5.2 Limitations
Considerations concerning the samples
The participants in the studies presented in this thesis were all affiliated with the
Faculty of Science of Leiden University. This means that, strictly speaking, only
conclusions can be drawn about academics of the science faculty at Leiden
University. The findings presented in Chapter 2 showed that disciplinary and
cultural differences can be expected in academics’ research dispositions. Although
the differences between research universities in the Netherlands are much
smaller than are the similarities, differences in the ways academics teach in the
various teaching cultures at higher education institutions can be expected.
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Therefore, when applying findings from these studies to other research cultures
or teaching cultures, one has to pay attention to relevant differences.
Only academics from science domains participated in the studies
presented in this thesis. Therefore, the conclusions drawn in this thesis are
applicable to academics who teach ‘science’ courses. In these studies, the sample
consisted of academics from different disciplines within the sciences, such as
physics, chemistry, biology, and mathematics. Within these disciplines, large
differences between participants in approaches to scientific research were
present. For example, academics in theoretical physics may have more in common
with mathematics than with academics working in experimental physics. Likewise,
experimental physicists might be more similar in their research dispositions to
experimental chemists. Therefore, disciplinary differences become ambiguous,
and the traditional disciplinary boundaries become inadequate demarcation lines,
when examining research dispositions (Brew, 2008). Nevertheless, attention
should be paid to differences in research and teaching cultures. Conclusions
drawn in this thesis can not be transferred directly to other disciplines without
further consideration.
All participating academics were selected on a voluntary basis. It can be
expected that the participating academics were, more than average, open to
reflecting on educational issues, such as pedagogy, the curriculum, and student
learning, and they might already have developed more sophisticated ideas about
teaching and learning. The findings described in this thesis might be limited by this
selection of participants. This needs to be taken into consideration when these
conclusions are transferred to situations in which participants are present who
have less clear ideas about teaching and learning.
Considerations concerning students’ research dispositions
Students’ research dispositions were not directly measured in the studies
reported in this thesis; the study presented in Chapter 5 was focused on the
stimulation of the development of students’ research dispositions. Academics’
research dispositions and students’ research dispositions are not the same, and
the aspects of research dispositions found in Chapter 2 cannot be used for both
groups without further consideration. A further study should be undertaken, with
the aim of verifying the applicability of the aspects to students. In the studies
reported in this thesis, academics' research dispositions were considered to be
characteristics of experts in the field of scientific research. In their studies,
students are working towards achieving more developed research dispositions.
The research dispositions of final‐year students are more developed than those of
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first‐year students. A plausible relation between academics’ research dispositions
and students’ research dispositions is that academics have more developed
research dispositions than students.
Further research is needed to examine the value of the development of
students’ research dispositions for student learning. Borda (2007) provided some
interesting suggestions for the cultivation and assessment of research dispositions
in college science classroom settings, such as open‐ended styles of inquiry, raising
appropriate research questions, and careful use of language. It might be
interesting to examine the influence of such approaches on students' learning and
development of research dispositions.
A rationale behind these studies is that the research experiences and
research dispositions of academics can support them in teaching students about
science and scientific inquiry. For example, an academic who in his/her daily
research continuously works on creative, innovative solutions, can stimulate
students to work on their creative skills and reflect on the innovative aspects of
their research dispositions. Although it is acknowledged in the research literature
that professional experience and craft knowledge are important elements of the
knowledge base of teaching in higher education (cf. Van Driel, Verloop, Van
Werven, & Dekkers, 1997), academics who teach courses in higher education do
not always know how to apply their professional experience effectively during
teaching. During the pedagogical training of teachers in higher education it might
be beneficial to put explicit emphasis on links between professional knowledge
and teaching students about science and scientific inquiry. Future research on
methods to stimulate the development of students’ research dispositions may
provide relevant and valuable findings for teaching practice in higher education.
6.6 Suggestions for further research into higher education
6.6.1 Further development of the research instruments
In the studies presented in this thesis, innovative research tools were developed.
In the study presented in Chapter 2, a categorisation scheme to examine the
aspects of a person’s research disposition was developed; in the study reported in
Chapter 3, a cognitive mapping task (cf. Bakkenes et al., 2007; Wassink et al.,
2003) based on Graph Theory was used; in the study reported in Chapter 4, an
analysis tool to examine teachers’ classroom talk was constructed; and in the
study presented in Chapter 5, a questionnaire to evaluate students’ perceptions
of the research intensiveness of learning environments was constructed and
administered (cf. Van der Rijst et al., 2009). Four suggestions for further research
using tools developed and used in this thesis are put forward below.
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First, further research is needed to explore the applicability of the
categorisation of aspects of research dispositions for groups other than science
academics at research universities. Studies using other groups, such as academics
in disciplines other than mathematics and the sciences, teachers in vocational
higher education institutes, teachers in secondary and primary education,
students at universities (research, vocational, or applied universities), pupils in
secondary education, and pupils in primary schools, can lead to new conceptual
insights.
Second, the techniques from Graph Theory used in Chapter 3 effectively
discriminate between characteristics of individual nodes within graphs as well as
between structural global properties of academics' cognitive graphs. More
research is needed to examine the validity and the reliability of this instrument, to
assess dispositions in other contexts, and to identify other fields of educational
research in which this technique can be used. Furthermore, the mathematical
possibilities of this Graph Theory framework are large, and need further
development to uncover their full potential.
Third, use of the speech act analysis tool described in Chapter 4 has
shown that it is possible to determine typical sequences in teachers’ speech acts.
Further research is needed to examine the applicability of this tool to identifying
students’ speech acts. A possible following step is to design studies on classroom
discourse in which the speech acts of both teachers and students are examined
with the aim of identifying interaction patterns and relating these patterns to, for
example, the interpersonal relationships between students and teacher (Wubbels
et al., 1992; Wubbels, Brekelmans, Den Brok, & Van Tartwijk, 2006). Studies in
which students’ as well as teachers’ speech acts are analysed might provide a
better understanding of the discourse between student and teacher (cf. Rogers et
al., 2005; Saarinen, 2008; Scott & Mortimer, 2006). Further research on speech
acts related to student understanding and students’ perceptions of the learning
environment would be of interest to those aiming to improve teaching practice in
higher education; this might be done, for example, by providing teachers with
tools to evaluate their actions and become aware of how their speech acts on the
students.
Finally, in the study described in Chapter 5, students’ perceptions were
evaluated in relation to teachers’ intentions. It might be interesting in future
research to relate teachers’ intentions to a combination of students’ perceptions
and students’ expectations. Students' experiences of course meetings depend not
only on their perceptions, but also on their expectations (Könings, 2007). Students
with low expectations of the forthcoming research activities during a course could
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General conclusions and discussion
have different perceptions of the research activities than have students with high
expectations. A research design in which both perceptions and expectations are
evaluated can provide an understanding of the influence of the created learning
environment on students' experiences.
6.6.2 Student evaluation of research‐intensive learning environments
In Chapter 5, a study is described in which students’ perceptions of different kinds
of learning environments were investigated. The differences were categorised
into three methods of instruction, namely lectures, seminars, and practicals, and
into the four modes of the research‐teaching nexus proposed by Healey (2005b).
The results suggest that there are differences and similarities between these kinds
of learning environments in students’ perceptions. Future studies in which the
student questionnaire on the research intensiveness of learning environments
(Van der Rijst et al., 2009) is administered to students following various courses,
can provide valuable information about the differences and similarities in
students' experiences of these different learning environments. Studies in which
the questionnaire is used should be focused not only on large‐scale and
longitudinal administration, but also on the applicability of the questionnaire to
other higher education institutes, such as vocational universities, or universities of
applied sciences. The findings from large‐scale questionnaire studies will give
teachers as well as curriculum developers in higher education information about
the potential strengths and weaknesses of the various kinds of learning
environments with respect to the purpose of the teaching programme.
6.7 Recommendations for teaching practice in higher education
Possible implications for higher education are discussed in this section.
Recommendations are made for various stakeholders in higher education, such as
policy makers, educational developers, teacher trainers, teachers, and students.
6.7.1 Educational policy and consultancy
This thesis focuses on teaching and on learning environments. Therefore,
recommendations for educational policy makers are presented at the level of
curricula and the learning environments. In the research literature on higher
education, many suggestions can be found for strengthening the research‐
teaching nexus at the institutional policy level (cf. Boyer Commission, 1998; 2002;
Deem & Lucas, 2007; Durning & Jenkins, 2005; Elsen et al., 2009; Jenkins et al.,
2003; Zubrick, et al., 2001; Leisyte et al., in press). More evidence‐based literature
on higher educational policy can be found in higher education research journals,
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such as Higher Education Policy, Higher Education Quarterly, or Higher Education
Research and Development.
The findings of the studies presented in this thesis show variation among
academics in their scientific research dispositions and in their teaching practice.
Awareness of this variety in higher education leads to the idea that each teacher
has personal strengths. For example, some teachers are strong in giving lectures,
others are better in guiding students through research internships; some
academics are strong in the innovative aspects of scientific research, while others
excel in the critical aspects. In situations which are not hindered by practical or
financial constraints, policy makers might consider assigning teaching staff to
activities which are in line with their strengths. Furthermore, to foster their
mature epistemological dispositions (Elen et al., 2007) and to develop a
sophisticated notion of the nature of science and scientific inquiry (Abd‐El‐Khalick
& Lederman, 2000), students need to come in contact with a variety of research
activities as well as with a diversity of research dispositions, modelled by the
teachers who teach them. This implies that when policy makers at higher
education institutes are aware of the human resources in their teaching staff, they
might manage these resources, taking into account possible constraints, in such a
way that students get as many learning opportunities as possible and get
acquainted with a broad variety of researchers and research practices during their
studies. This awareness of the variation among academics might also influence
the policy for contracting new faculty, in the sense that it is valuable for an
educational organisation to have as much variation in teaching staff as possible.
A well‐considered design of the programme and curriculum can be of
great help in providing students with learning opportunities regarding research.
Throughout the programme learning tracks, or educational trajectories, about
research can be designed, in which students gradually develop individual
competences in doing research. Well‐designed parallel learning tracks, for
example, a theoretical track and a practical track, can stimulate students to apply
theoretical knowledge in actual research activities (cf. Ruis, 2007; Van der Rijst &
Jacobi, 2009). In this thesis, scientific research dispositions are presented as
relevant elements for doing research (Chapters 2, 3, and 5). For educational
consultants, who advise higher education institutes about curriculum design, the
idea of the development of students’ research dispositions throughout the
programme is of interest. The categorisation of aspects of research dispositions
can be of assistance to educational consultants and curriculum developers in
considering the design of curricula in higher education.
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6.7.2 Teaching practice and teacher training
In this section three recommendations are presented which endorse awareness of
and encourage reflection on and monitoring of scientific research dispositions and
teaching practice in order to promote further professional development to
improve the pedagogical quality of teachers in higher education. In the following
sections three examples are described, which follow directly from the findings of
the studies presented in this thesis.
First, an understanding of scientific research dispositions can be helpful
for university teachers when teaching students about research. Teachers in higher
education, who scaffold research activities and supervise students in research
activities, need to know a variety of ways to effectively teach students about
research. If university science teachers are able to discriminate between the six
aspects of research dispositions, it is possible for them to scaffold the
development of students' research dispositions during science courses.
Encouraging teachers to reflect on implicit aspects of their own and their peers’
research practices, such as scientific research dispositions (Chapters 2 and 3), is
likely to help them become more receptive to student conceptions and
misconceptions about research practice, and support them in guiding students to
develop adequate conceptions about scientific research.
Second, the method of speech act analysis presented in Chapter 4 can
uncover teachers’ speech act repertoires, and can be used in professional
development programmes for teachers. Speech act theory provides teachers with
a method to reflect on their own speech act repertoires, and with a framework to
expand their repertoires. When university teachers and teacher trainers recognise
that teachers’ speech acts play a relevant role in educational practice in higher
education, and that it is possible to expand one’s speech act repertoire, teachers
might become more inclined to work on the scholarship of teaching and learning,
and on their knowledge base of teaching (Verloop et al., 2001).
Third, evaluation of students’ perceptions of the constructed learning
environments can be an effective tool to stimulate teachers to reflect on their
own teaching practices. The questionnaire used in Chapter 5 can be used as an
evaluation tool for teachers to become aware of students’ perceptions of the
constructed learning environment, and specifically of their perceptions of
research activities in the courses.
6.7.3 Student learning
Although knowledge about scientific research dispositions has the potential to
support student learning about research, academics do not frequently stimulate
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students to reflect explicitly on aspects of these dispositions. The categorisation of
six aspects of scientific research dispositions presented in Section 2.3 can be
helpful when encouraging student learning about research. During their studies,
students learn about both implicit and explicit elements of research practice. The
aspects of research dispositions can be used by students to reflect on specific
implicit elements of research in order to gain a deeper understanding of research
practices. For example, through reflection on the research dispositions of others,
scientists and peers, students might come to understand the unique feature of
research practice that there are different ways to do research.
The findings presented in Chapter 5 also suggest that reflection on
scientific research dispositions might be stimulated most through observation of
others, such as peers, experts, or the teacher, while doing research activities, and
sharing ideas through discussions about research. It might be more difficult for
students to reflect on the research process and research disposition when they
are actively involved in improving their research skills. It might be more profitable
for student learning about the processes of science to stimulate students’
reflection on the process afterwards.
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