Chapter 4 Vectors

4 VECTORS
Objectives
After studying this chapter you should
• understand the difference between vectors and scalars;
• be able to find the magnitude and direction of a vector;
• be able to add vectors, and multiply by a scalar;
• appreciate the geometrical representation of vectors;
• be able to evaluate and interpret the scalar and vector products.

4.0 Introduction
Some physical quantities, such as temperature or time, are
completely specified by a number given in appropriate units
e.g. 20° C, 14.30 hours. Quantities of this sort, which have only
magnitude, are referred to as scalars; whereas quantities for which
it is also necessary to give a direction as well as magnitude are
called vectors. Examples include
wind velocity
force
displacement.

In this text we will print vectors in bold type; for example

a, b, etc.

Unfortunately, when writing vectors you cannot distinguish them

from scalars in this way. The standard way of writing vectors is to
underline them; for example

a~ , b~ , etc.

It is very important for you to conform to this notation. Always

remember to underline your vectors, otherwise great confusion
will arise!

Activity 1
Make a list of scalar and vector quantities, distinguishing between
them.

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Chapter 4 Vectors

4.1 Vector representation

A vector can be represented by a section of a straight line,
whose length is equal to the magnitude of the vector, and whose
B
direction represents the direction of the vector.
A
a a
All the lines shown opposite have the same magnitude and
direction, and so all represent the same vector a. Sometimes the
a
notation a
→ a
AB
is used to represent the vector a.

Modulus
The modulus of a vector a is its magnitude. It is written as a ,
and is equal to the length of the line representing the vector.

Equal vectors
The vectors a and b are equal if, and only if,

a = b and

a and b are in the same direction.

B
a P
→ →
How are the vectors shown opposite, a = AB and b = PQ , A b
Q
related?

Since a = b , and they are in opposite directions, we say that

b = −a.

Multiplication of a vector by a scalar

If λ is a positive real number, then λ a is a vector in the same a
2a

direction as a and is of magnitude λ a . If λ = 0 , then λ a is

the zero vector 0, and if λ < 0 then λ a is the vector in the –a
opposite direction to a and of magnitude λ a .

Does the definition make sense when λ = −1 ?

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 Chapter 4 Vectors

Activity 2
Draw any vector b on a sheet of paper, and then also draw

(a) – b
(b) 2b, 3b, 4b
(c) 1 b
2

(d) – 2b, – 1 b
2

c
h
b
Activity 3 d

The diagram opposite shows a number of vectors. Express

vectors c, d, e, f, g and h in terms of a or b.
f
g
a
e

4.2 Vector addition

If the sides AB and BC of a triangle ABC represent the vectors p B q C
and q, then the third side, AC, is defined as the vector sum of p p
and q; that is p+q
→ → → A
AB = p , BC = q ⇒ AC = p+ q

This definition of vector addition is referred to as the triangle law

of addition. You can then subtract vectors, for a − b simply means
a + ( −b). For example
→ → →
AB = BC − AC.

As an example, consider the displacement vectors. If you walk in

the direction North for 5 miles, then East for 10 miles, you can
→ → 10
A B
represent these two displacements as vectors, OA and AB , as
→ → →
shown opposite. The vector addition of OA and AB is OB , and
5
this indeed is the final displacement from O.

Example O
→ →
In the triangle ABC, AB represents a, BC represents b. If D is
→ → →
the midpoint of AB, express AC , CA and DC in terms of a and b.

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Chapter 4 Vectors

Solution B
b
→ → →
AC = AB + AC = a+ b a C

→ →
CA = − AC = − a − b
A

→ → →
DC = DA + AC

→ → B
= − AD + AC

= − 12 a + ( a + b) (since D is the midpoint of D C

AB)
A
= 1
2 a+ b

Example B C

→ →
ABCD is a parallelogram. AB represents a and BC represents
b. If M is the midpoint of AC, and N is the midpoint of BD, find
→ →
AM and AN in terms of a and b, and hence show that M and N A D
are coincident.

Solution
→ → →
AC = AB + BC = a + b

→
so AM = 1
2 ( a + b) .
Similarly,
→ → → → →
BD = BA + AD = − AB + BC = −a + b ,

→
so BN = 1
2 ( − a + b)
→ → →
and AN = AB + BN

= a+ 1
2 ( − a + b)
= a − 12 a + 12 b

= 1
2 ( a + b)
→
= AM .

→ →
Since AN = AM , N and M must be coincident.

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 Chapter 4 Vectors

Exercise 4A
1. Four points, O, A, B and C are such that 4. OABC is a tetrahedron with B
→ → → → → →
OA = 10a, OB = 5b, OC = 4a+ 3b. OA = a , OB = b , OC = c.
→ →
Find AB and BC in terms of a and b and hence
show that A, B and C are collinear. C

2. ABCD is a quadrilateral. Find a single vector O

which is equivalent to A
→ → →
→ → → → → → → Find AC, AB and CB in terms of a, b and c and
(a) AB + BC (b) BC + CD (c) AB + BC + CD
hence show that
Hence deduce that → → →
AB + BC + CA = 0 .
→ → → →
AB + BC + CD + DA = 0 . →
5. In a regular hexagon ABCDEF, AB = a and
→ → →
→ → → →
3. If a, b and c are represented by AB , AD and AF BC = b . Find expressions for DE , DC , AD and
in the cube shown, find G in H →
terms of a, b and c, the B BD in terms of a and b.
C
vectors represented by
→ → → →
other edges. 6. Given that OA + OC = OB + OD , show that the
F
E quadrilateral ABCD is a parallelogram.
A D

4.3 Position vectors

In general, a vector has no specific location in space. However, if
→
a = OA , where O is a fixed origin, then a is referred to as the
position vector of A, relative to O.

Is the position vector unique?

The use of position vectors for solving geometry problems has

already been illustrated in the previous section. Here, you will
see many more examples of this type, but first an important
result.

Theorem
If A and B are points with position vectors a and b and point C
divides A and B in the ratio λ : µ , then C has position vector

µ a+ λ b
(λ + µ )

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Chapter 4 Vectors

Proof
If C divides AB in the ratio λ : µ , then A

a
λ
AC = AB
(λ + µ ) ? C
O

µ b B
(and CB = AB )
(λ + µ )
→ λ →
Hence AC = AB
(λ + µ )
→ →
since AC and AB are in the same direction. Thus

→ λ  → →
AC = OB− OA
(λ + µ )  

λ
= (b − a)
(λ + µ )
→ → →
and OC = OA + AC

λ
= a+ (b − a)
(λ + µ )
a( λ + µ − λ ) + λ b
=
(λ + µ )
µa + λ b
= , as required.
(λ + µ )

Note that, in the special case λ = µ , when C is the midpoint of A

AB, then a
→ C
OC = 12 ( a + b)
O

and this result has already been developed in the last section. b B

Example
→ → A
In the triangle OAB, OA = a and OB = b . If C divides the line
AB in the ratio 1:2 and D divides the line OB in the ratio 1:2, C
→
find DC and hence show that DC is parallel to OA.

O B
D

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 Chapter 4 Vectors

Solution
From the result in the theorem above

→ 2a + b 2 1
OC = = a+ b
3 3 3

→ 1
Clearly OD = b,
3

→ → →
DC = DO + OC = − b +  a + b = a
1 2 1 2
so
3  3 3  3

→
Since DC is a multiple of a, it is in the same direction as a; that
is, DC is parallel to OA.

Example
In the figure opposite, X and Y are the midpoints of OA and OB
→ →
respectively. If OA = a and OB = b find the position vector of A
the point Z, the intersection of XB and YA.

X
Solution Z

→ → O B
1 1 Y
OX = a and OY = b .
→ 2→ → 2
Thus XB = XO + OB

1 1
= − a+ b =b− a
2 2

Since Z lies on XB, for some scalar number, say t,

→ →
XZ = t XB = t  b − a
1
 2 

→ → →
and OZ = OX + XZ

a + t  b − a
1 1
=
2  2 

1
= (1 − t )a + tb .
2

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Chapter 4 Vectors

Similarly, for some scalar number s, using the fact that Z lies on
→
AY gives
→ 1
OZ = sa + (1 − s )b .
2

But these vectors are equal, so equating coefficients of a and b,

⇒ 2s + t = 1
1
(1 − t ) = s 
2 1
 s=t= .
1 3
t = (1 − s ) ⇒ s + 2t = 1
2 

→ 1
Hence OZ = ( a + b)
3

Example 4B
C
C
1. In the diagram The position vectors of P, Q and R are p, q and r
respectively. Show that q can be expressed in
TA = 2BT
terms of p and r and hence, or otherwise, show
→
OA = a that P, Q and R are collinear. State the ratio of
BB 2b
2b the lengths of the line segments PQ and QR.
→ TT
OB = b 4. The points A, B and C have position vectors a,
bb b, c respectively referred to an origin O.
→
AC = 2b (a) Given that the point X lies on AB produced
OO AA
aa so that AB: BX = 2:1, find x, the position
(a) Find in terms of a and b vector of X, in terms of a and b.

→ → → → →
(b) If Y lies on BC, between B and C so that
(i) AB (ii) TB (iii) BC (iv) OT (v) TC . BY: YC = 1:3, find y, the position vector of
Y, in terms of b and c.
(b) From (iv) and (v), what can you deduce about
O, T and C? (c) Given that Z is the midpoint of AC, show
that X, Y and Z are collinear.
2. From an origin O the points A, B and C have
position vectors a, b and 2b respectively. The (d) Calculate XY: YZ.
points O, A and B are not collinear. The
midpoint of AB is M, and the point of trisection 5. The position vectors of three points A, B and C
of AC nearer to A is T. Draw a diagram to show relative to an origin O are p, 3q – p, and 9q – 5p
O, A, B, C, M, T. respectively. Show that the points A, B and C
lie on the same straight line, and state the ratio
Find, in terms of a and b, the position vectors of AB: BC. Given that OBCD is a parallelogram
M and T. Use your results to prove that O, M → →
and T are collinear, and find the ratio in which M and that E is the point such that DB = 13 DE , find
divides OT. the position vectors of D and E relative to O.
3. The vertices A, B and C of a triangle have
position vectors a, b, c respectively relative to an
origin O. The point P is on BC such that
BP:PC = 3:1; the point Q is on CA such that
CQ: QA = 2:3; the point R is on BA produced
such that BR: AR = 2:1.

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 Chapter 4 Vectors

4.4 Components of a vector

In this section, the idea of a unit vector is first introduced. This
is a vector which has unit magnitude. So if a is any vector, its
magnitude is a , and (provided that a ≠ 0) the vector

a
â =
a

is a unit vector, parallel to a.

Introducing cartesian axes Oxyz in the usual way, unit vectors in z

the direction Ox, Oy and Oz are represented by
i, j and k .
k
Suppose P is any point with coordinates (x, y, z) relative to O as O
j y
illustrated. i

What is the magnitude and direction of the vector x = xi ?

x
→ z
Clearly OA = xi ( = x)
D

→ → →
and OA + AB = xi+ OC
P (x, y, z)
= xi+ yj
r k
→ → → → C
O
and OA + AB+ BP = xi+ yj+ OD j y
i
= xi+ yj+ zk
A
→ → → B
x
What is the vector OA + AB+ BP ?

Thus
→
r= OP = xi+ yi+ zk

This vector is often written as a 3 × 1 column matrix

x
r=  y 
 
 z 

and the notation r= ( x, y, z ) is also sometimes used.

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Chapter 4 Vectors

Activity 4 y

For vectors with two dimensions, using unit c

vector i and j as shown opposite, express b a
a, b, c, d and e in terms of i and j.
j

From the activity above, you should have shown that, O x

for example, i
c= i+ jand e= 2i+ j. f
d
Then the vector c+ e is simply 3i+ 2 j: adding vectors
in form is just a matter of adding components.
e
For vectors in 2 dimensions, in general
→
r= OP = xi+ yj
and its magnitude is given by the length OP,

where OP = x 2 + y 2

⇒ r = x 2 + y2 y
y P (x, y)

Example
x
j
If a = i+ 3j, b = 2i− 5j, c= − 2i+ 4 j, find
(a) the component form of the vectors
O i x
(i) a + b (ii) b + c (iii) a − b (iv) a + b − c (v) 3a + 2b ;
(b) the magnitude of the vectors in (a);
(c) unit vectors in the direction of a + b and b + c.

Solution

(a) (i) a + b = ( i+ 3j) + (2i− 5j) = 3i− 2 j

(ii) b + c= (2i− 5j) + ( −2i+ 4 j) = 0i− j= − j

(iii) a − b = ( i+ 3j) − (2i− 5j) = −i+ 8j

(iv) a + b − c= ( a + b) − c= 3i− 2 j− ( −2i+ 4 j) = 5i− 6 j

(v) 3a + 2b = 3( i+ 3j) + 2( 2i− 5j) = 3i+ 9 j+ 4i− 10 j= 7i− j

a + b = 32 + ( −2 ) = 9 + 4 = 13
2
(b) (i)
(ii) b + c = 1

(iii) a − b = ( −1) + 82 = 65
2

(iv) a + b + c = 25 + ( −6 ) = 61
2

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 Chapter 4 Vectors

3a + 2b = 72 + ( −4 ) = 65
2
(v)

1
(c) If n = a + b , n̂ = (3i− 2 j) = 3 i− 2 j
13 13 13
1
If n = b + c, n̂ = ( − j) = − j
1

For vectors in 3 dimensions, the position vector of the point P

with coordinates (x, y, z) is given by

r= xi+ yj+ zk

and its magnitude is given by

r = x 2 + y2 + z 2

Why is this result true?

You can perform algebraic operations in the usual way; for

example, if

a = 3i+ 2 j+ k
b = i− 2 j+ k

thus

a + b = (3i+ 2 j+ k) + ( i− 2 j+ k)

= 4i+ 2k

a − b = (3i+ 2 j+ k) − ( i− 2 j+ k)

= 2i+ 4 j

a = 32 + 2 2 + 12 = 14

( )
b = 12 + −2 2 + 12 = 6

Note that two vectors, a and b are parallel if a = λ b for some

non-zero λ ; furthermore, if λ > 0 they are actually in the same
direction.
Also note that two vectors

a = a1i+ a2 j+ a3k and b = b1i+ b2 j+ b3k

are equal if, and only if, their components are equal,

i.e. a1 = b1 , a2 = b2 , a3 = b3 .

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Chapter 4 Vectors

Activity 5
If a = 2i+ j− k, b = i− 2 j+ 3k , which of the vectors below are
parallel to a or b?

(i) −2i− j+ k (ii) 5i− 10 j+ 15k

(iii) 4i− 2 j− 2k (iv) 6i+ 3j− 3k
(v) −2i+ 4 j− 6k (vi) −4i− 2 j+ 2k

Exercise 4C
1. Write in the form xi+ yj+ zk , the vectors 4. If a = 2i+ 5 j− k , b = i+ j+ 2k , c= −2i+ 3j− k
→
represented by OP if P is the point find
(a) (1, 1, 1) (b) (2, 1, –1) (c) (1, –1, 0) (a) a+ b (b) ( a+ b) + c (c) a+ ( b + c)
→
2. OP represents the vector r. Write down the (d) a− 5b + 11c
coordinates of P if 5. Show that the points A(4, –2, –16), B(0, –10, − 4 )
(a) r= 3i− 4 j+ k (b) r= i+ 2 j− k (c) r= − 4k and C(–6, –22, 14) are collinear.

3. Find the magnitude of the vectors

(a) a = 6i+ 2 j+ 3k (b) b = 2i− j− 2k

(c) c= a+ b (d) d = a− b
Also find unit vectors in the direction of a and b.

4.5 Products of vectors

The 'algebra' of vectors has been developed in previous sections.
You can add and subtract vectors, multiply a vector by a scalar
(λ a) , but as yet not 'multiply' vectors. There are, in fact, two ways
of multiplying vectors: one, the scalar product leading to a scalar
quantity; the other, the vector product, being a vector.

Scalar product
For any two vectors a and b, the scalar product, denoted by a.b
is defined by

a.b = a b cos θ
Here a is the modulus of a, b is the modulus of b, and θ is the
angle between the direction of the two vectors. (Some texts refer
to the scalar product as the 'dot' product, and you say 'a dot b'
for a.b )

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 Chapter 4 Vectors

Example
If a = 2i, b = 5j and c= i+ j, find
b
(a) a.b (b) a.c (c) b.c
θ
Solution
a
(a) a. b = a b cos90°
= 2×5×0 = 0
(b) a. c= a c cos 45°

=2× 2 ×
1
2
(since c = 2 )
=2 y

(c) b. c= b c cos 45° b

1
= 5× 2 ×
2
=5

From the definition of the scalar product:

(i) If a and b are perpendicular (as in (a) above), then
θ = 90° and cos θ = 0 , which gives a. b = 0 . j c

(ii) If, for non-zero vectors a and b, a.b = 0 , then

a b cos θ = 0 ⇒ cos θ = 0 , since a ≠ 0 , b ≠ 0 ; O i a x

then θ = 90° and a and b are perpendicular.

To summarise, for non-zero vectors a and b

a.b = 0 ⇔ a, b perpendicular

Also it is clear that

a.a = a 2

Activity 6
Evaluate the scalar products

(a) i.i, i. j, i.k

(b) j.i, j. j, j.k

(c) k.i, k. j, k.k

(d) (i+ j). j, (2i+ k).k

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Chapter 4 Vectors

Check, in (d), that for example,

(2i+ k).k = 2i.k + k.k
Assuming that the scalar product always behaves in this natural
way, deduce a formula for a.b when a and b are expressed in
component form

a = a1i+ a2 j+ a3k , b = b1i+ b2 j+ b3k

You should have found in Activity 6 that

i.i= j. j= k.k = 1, (i, j, k are unit vectors)

i. j= j.k = k.i= 0 (i, j, k are mutually perpendicular)

So if a and b are expressed in component form

a.b = ( a1i+ a2 j+ a3k). ( b1i+ b2 j+ b3k)

= a1 ( b1i.i+ b2i. j+ b3i.k)

+a2 ( b1 j.i+ b2 j. j+ b3 j.k)

+a3 ( b1k.i+ b2 k. j+ b3k.k)

= a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 (using the results above)

So

a.b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3

Example
If a = 2i+ j+ 3k , b = −3i+ j− 2k , find a.b and the cosine of the
angle between a and b.

Solution
a.b = ( 2i+ j+ 3k). ( −3i+ j− 2k)

= 2 × ( −3) + 1 × 1 + 3 × ( −2 ) = −6 + 1 − 6 = −11

So a.b = a b cos θ = −11

⇒ 14 14 cos θ = − 11

11
⇒ cos θ = −
14

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 Chapter 4 Vectors

Example
Show that the vectors, a = i+ 2 j− k and b = 2i− 2 j− 2k , are
perpendicular.

Solution
a.b = ( i+ 2 j− k). ( 2i− 2 j− 2k)
= 1 × 2 + 2 × ( −2 ) + ( −1) × ( −2 )
=2−4+2
=0

Hence vectors a and b are perpendicular.

Activity 7
For the vector x = 3i+ 2 j, y = i+ mj, determine the values of m
for which
(a) x is perpendicular to y
(b) x is parallel to y
(c) the angle between x and y is 30° .

Example
If a = 3i− j+ 2k and b = mi− 2 j− 3k , find the value of m for
which a and b are perpendicular.

Solution
a.b = (3i− j+ 2k). ( mi− 2 j− 3k)

= 3m + ( −1)( −2 ) + 2( −3)

= 3m + 2 − 6

= 3m − 4
4
=0 ⇒ m=
3
4
So a and b are perpendicular when m = .
3

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Chapter 4 Vectors

Vector product
For any two vectors, a and b, the vector product, denoted by
n
a × b (or a∧ b ) is defined by b
turn from a to b
a × b = a b sin θ n̂

a
Here a is the magnitude of a, b is the magnitude of b, and n̂
is a unit vector, perpendicular to both a and b and in the sense of
direction of linear motion when a screw turns from a to b as direction
illustrated. In the figure if a and b are in a horizontal plane, of screw
motion
then n is vertical.
n b
This implies that a, b and n̂ form a right-handed system similar
to the i, j, k system.
What is the magnitude of the vectors a × b and b × a ?
a
What is the direction of the vector b × a ?

To follow the direction of a screw's motion turning from b to a

n b
gives the direction – n̂ , that is

b × a = a b sin θ ( − n̂) turn from b to a

a
= −a × b . –n

So b× a+ a× b = 0

and the vector product is not, in general, commutative

( a × b ≠ b × a ). y

b
Example
If a = 2i, b = 5i and c= i+ j, find
(a) a × b (b) (c) a × c (d) a × a

Solution
(a) a × b = 2 × 5 × sin 90°k = 10k (k is perpendicular to a and
b)
j c
(b) b × c= 5 × 2 × sin 45° ( −k) = −5k

(c) a × c= 2 × 2 × sin 45° ( k) = 2k O i a x

(d) a × a = 2 × 2 × sin 0° = 0 ⇒ a × a = 0

In a similar way, you can see that

i× j= i j sin 90°k = k

(since k is perpendicular to i and j, and i, j, k form a right-

handed system).

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 Chapter 4 Vectors

Activity 8
Determine all the vector products

(a) i× i, i× j, i× k
(b) j× i, j× j, j× k
(c) k × i, k × j, k × k

You should have found that

i× j= k , j× k = i, k × i= j

whereas

j× i= −k , k × j= −i, i× k = − j

and

i× i= j× j= k × k = 0

Again assuming that addition and subtraction behave in a

natural way, you can use these results to find a formula for a × b
in terms of their components. If

a = a1i+ a2 j+ a3k , b = b1i+ b2 j+ b3k

then it can be shown that

a × b = ( a2b3 − a3b2 ) i+ ( a3b1 − a1b3 ) j+ ( a1b2 − a2b1 ) k

Activity 9
Prove the formula above for a × b .

Writing out an array

 i j k
a a a 
 1 2 3
 b1 b2 b3

work out an easy way of remembering the formula for a × b.

Example
If a = i+ j+ k , b = 2i+ 3j− k , find a × b .

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Chapter 4 Vectors

Solution
a × b = ( i+ j+ k) × (2i+ 3j− k)

= i× (2i+ 3j+ k) × j2i+

( 3j− k) + k × (2i+ 3j− k)
= 20+ 3k − ( − j) + ( −2k) + 30− i+ 2 j− 3i− 0

= −4i+ 3j+ k

Alternatively you can quickly evaluate the vector product using

the formula from Activity 9; this gives

a × b = ( −1 − 3)i+ (2 − ( −1)) j+ (3 − 2 )k
= −4i+ 3j+ k

Note that if two vectors a and b are parallel (or anti-parallel)

then θ = 0 or π , and

a × b = 0 n̂ = 0

Conversly, for non-zero vectors a and b,

a × b = 0 ⇒ sin θ = 0 ⇒ θ = 0, π

Hence

a × b = 0 ⇔ a = 0 or b = 0 or a, b parallel

Example
If a = i− 3j+ 2k and b = −2i+ 6 j− 4k , find a × b . What can you
say about a and b?

Solution
a × b = ( i− 3j+ 2k) × ( −2i+ 6 j− 4k)

= i× ( −2i+ 6 j− 4k) − 3j× ( −2i+ 6 j− 4k) + 2k × ( −2i+ 6 j− 4k)

= −20+ 6k + 4 j− 6k − 180+ 12i− 4 j− 12i− 80

=0

Hence a and b are parallel. In fact you can readily see that
b = −2a .

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Exercise 4D
1. If a = 2i+ j− 2k and b = −3i+ 4k , find 5. Given the vectors u = 3i+ 2 j and v = 2i+ λ j,
(a) a.b determine the value of λ so that
(b) the acute angle between these vectors (to the (a) u and v are at right angles
nearest degree) (b) u and v are parallel
(c) a unit vector which is perpendicular to both a (c) the acute angle between u and v is 45° .
and b.
6. The angle between the vectors i+ j and i+ j+ λ k
2. For a and b in Question 1, find a× b . Use this to is 45° . Find the possible values of λ .
find the angle between these vectors (to the nearest
degree). 7. Given that a = 2i+ k , b = i− 2 j+ 3k calculate

3. Let a = i− 2 j+ k , b = 2i+ j− k . Given that c= λ a+ µ b (a) the scalar product a.b

and that c is perpendicular to a, find the ratio of λ (b) the vector product a× b
to µ .
8. The vectors u and v are given
4. Find the value of λ for which the vectors 2i− 3j+ k by u = 2i− j+ 2k , v = pi+ qk .
and 3i+ 6 j+ λ k are perpendicular.
Given that u × v = i+ sk , find p, q and s. Find
also the cosine of the angle between u and v.

4.6 Applications
In Chapter 5 you will see how vectors can be used to solve
problems in 3-dimensional space concerned with lines and planes.
Using vectors for these problems is very convenient but it is not the
principal application of vectors, which is for solving problems in
mechanics. These applications, and that of vector calculus to
problems in fluid mechanics, are beyond the scope of this text, but
if you pursue mathematics in Higher Education you will appreciate
their importance. Here we look at some simpler applications.

Projection of a vector
A
Let P be the foot of the perpendicular from A to the line OB. OP
a
is called the projection of a onto the line OB.

Note that O P B
→
OP = a cos θ , where a = OA and θ is angle AOP

If i is a unit vector in the direction OB, then

a.i= a i cos θ = a cos θ = OP

So

Projection of a onto the line OB = a.i

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Chapter 4 Vectors

Example y
The force F = 10 ĉ, where ĉ is a unit vector in a direction making
an angle of 45° with each of the positive x and y axes. Find the
projection of F on the x-axis. F

Solution
1 j 45o
ĉ = (i+ j) x
2 O

10 i
So F= (i+ j)
2
10
and F.i = (i+ j) .i
2
10 10
= .1 + .0
2 2
10
=
2

Area of a triangle
For the triangle AOB, let B

→ →
a = OA, b = OB
θ
O P A
So a × b = a b sin θ

= OA × (OBsinθ )

= OA × BP ( = base × height )
So
Area of ∆ OAB = 1
2 a× b

Example
If A is the point (5, 0), B is the point (3, 0), find the area of the
triangle OAB.

Solution
a = 5i, b = 3i+ 6 j

Area of triangle = 1
2 a× b
= 1
2 5i× (3i+ 6 j)
= 12 150+ 30k
= 1
2 30k = 12 .30 = 15

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 Chapter 4 Vectors

Example
The triangle ABC is defined by the points A(0, 1, 2), B(1, 5, 5)
and C(2, 3, 1). Find the area of ABC.

Solution
→ →
AB = (1, 4, 3) and AC = ( 2, 2, − 1).
→ →
So you can think of AB as i+ 4 j+ 3k and AC as 2i+ 2 j− k and
→ →
calculate AB× AC as

( 4. ( −1) − 3.2)i+ (3.2 − 1. ( −1)) j+ (1.2 − 4.2)k

or −10i+ 7j− 6k.

Hence area of ∆ABC = 1

2 ( −10, 7, − 6)
= 1
2 100 + 49 + 36

= 1
2 185

Work done by a force

Work is done when a force moves a particle through a distance.
If F is the constant force being applied, and the particle is
→
moved from A to B where AB = d , then

work done = F.d

A

Example R

A block slides down an inclined plane from A to B. Ignoring h

friction, the forces acting on the block are its weight, W and a
normal reaction R. Calculate the work done by the forces in W
terms of h. O B
a

Solution
W = −Wj, d = −hj+ ai

W .d = −Wj. ( −hj+ ai) = Wh

and
R .d = 0

since R and d are perpendicular.

So the work done is simply W h.

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Chapter 4 Vectors

4.7 Miscellaneous Exercises

1. Find the sum of the vectors 2i+ j− k , i+ 3j+ k , 12. The position vectors of points P and R are
3i+ 2 j. 2i− 3j+ 7k and 4i+ 5 j+ 3k respectively. Given
that R divides PQ in the ratio 2:1, find the
2. Find the magnitude of the vector a = 3i− 2 j+ 6k .
position vector of Q if
3. If ( a + 2 )i+ ( b −1) j and ( b −1)i− aj are equal (a) R divides PQ internally
vectors, find the values of a and b.
(b) R divides PQ externally.
4. If λ i− 4 j is parallel to 2i− 6 j, find the value of λ .
→ →
5. Find the unit vector in the direction of 2i− j+ 2k . 13. Given that OA = i+ j, OB = 5i+ 7 j, find the
position vectors of the other two vertices of the
6. Find the vector with magnitude three and parallel square of which A and B are one pair of opposite
to 6i− 3j+ 2k . vertices.
14. Given that p = t 2 i+ ( 2t + 1) j+ k and
→ →
7. If OA = 4i+ 14 j− 5k , OB = i+ 2 j+ 7k , and
→
OC = 2i+ 6 j+ 37k , show that the vectors BC , CA
→ →
( )
q = ( t − 1)i+ 3tj− t 2 + 3t k where t is a scalar
are parallel. Hence deduce that the points A, B variable, determine
and C are collinear. (a) the values of t for which p and q are
→ → → perpendicular.
8. QP = p , OR = 3p , OQ = q . M is the midpoint
(b) the angle between the vectors p and q when
of QR.
R t = 1, giving your answer to the nearest 0.1° .
→ →
(a) Express OP and RQ (AEB)
in terms of p and q. 15. The point P has position vector
S M
→
(b) Express MQ in terms P
(1 + µ )i+ (3 − 2 µ ) j+ ( 4 + 2 µ )k
of p and q. where µ is a variable parameter. The point Q has
O Q
→ position vector 4i+ 2 j+ 3k .
(c) If S lies on QP produced
→ → →
(a) The points P 0 and P 1 are the positions of P
so that QS = k QP , express MS in terms of p, when µ = 0 and µ = 1 respectively. Calculate
q and k. the size of angle P 0 QP 1 , giving your answer
→ → to the nearest degree.
(d) Find the value of k if MS is parallel to QO .
(b) Show that PQ 2 = ( 3µ −1) + 10 and hence, or
2

9. Show that 3i+ 7 j+ 2k is perpendicular to

otherwise, find the position vector of P when
5i− j− 4k . it is closest to Q. (AEB)
10. The points A, B and C have coordinates 16. Referred to a fixed origin O, the points A, B and
(2, 1, –1), (1, −7 , 3) and (–2, 5, 1) respectively.
C have position vectors i− 2 j+ 2k , 3i− k and
Find the area of the triangle ABC. − i+ j+ 4k respectively.
11. If L, M, N and P are the midpoints of AD, BD, Calculate the cosine of the angle BAC.
→
BC and AC respectively, show that LM is parallel Hence, or otherwise, find the area of the triangle
→ ABC, giving your answer to three significant
to NP . figures. (AEB)

110