The University of Sydney

MOOC Introduction to Calculus

Notes for ‘Equations and inequalities’

Important Ideas and Useful Facts:

(i) Positive, negative, nonnegative and nonpositive real numbers: A real number x is called
positive if it appears to the right of zero on the real number line, in which case we write
a > 0, and negative if it appears to the left of zero, in which case we write a < 0. We say
that x is nonnegative if it is positive or zero, in which case we write a ≥ 0, and nonpositive
if it is negative or zero, in which case we write a ≤ 0.

(ii) Multiplication and (signed) areas of rectangles: If a and b are real numbers then the product
of a and b is the result of multiplying a by b, denoted typically by a×b or ab (juxtaposition).
The product ab may be represented, geometrically, by the (signed) area of a rectangle
with side lengths a and b. If both a and b are nonnegative then this is just the usual
(nonnegative) area.

b signed area = ab

If one of a and b is positive and the other negative then the area ab of the rectangle is
regarded as negative.
If both a and b are negative then the area ab is regarded as positive.
The formal rigorous explanation for this last fact is based on laws, or axioms, of arithmetic,
and involves an advanced argument in abstract algebra that one typically sees in second
or third year university mathematics.
Intuitively, one can just think of negatives of negatives being positive. It wouldn’t make
sense for the negative of a negative number to remain negative. This is mirrored in
common speech when one uses double negatives: for example, to say “I didn’t not say
that!” is a complicated way of saying “I said that!” (though its use can help to emphasise
the positive in a heated argument.) (The speech analogy also can break down, as some
languages, including some colloquial English, use a double negative in certain turns of
phrase to reinforce a single negative.)
For example, 2 × 2 = 4 and

2 × (−2) = (−2) × 2 = −4 ,

but
(−2) × (−2) = −(2 × (−2)) = −(−4) = 4 .

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(iii) Factorisation of zero: If a and b are real numbers then the product ab is zero if and only
if a = 0 or b = 0 (including the possibility that a = b = 0).
This follows from the representation of the product ab as the (signed) area of a rectangle
with side length a and b. If the area vanishes, then at least one of the side lengths must
vanish.
This fact about the factorisation of zero is very useful for solving equations. For example,
if x is a real number such that

(x − 1)(x − 2) = 0

then either x − 1 = 0 or x − 2 = 0, so that either x = 1 or x = 2.

This fact clearly generalises to more than two factors. For example, if

(x − 4)(x + 1)(x + 3) = 0

then either x − 4 = 0, x + 1 = 0 or x + 3 = 0, so that either x = 4, x = −1 or x = −3.

(iv) Inequalities: Let a, b ∈ R. We write a < b if a appears to the left of b on the real number
line, which is equivalent to the difference b − a being positive (and the difference a − b
being negative).

a b

In this case we say that a is less than b and b is greater than a, and also write b > a.
We write a ≤ b if a = b or a < b, and write a ≥ b if a = b or a > b.
For example,

−10 < −5 < −0.1 < −0.01 < 0 < 0.5 < 1 < 5 .

Note that −10 < 5 even though you might think of −10 as a “larger” number than 5 in
terms of “size”.
(Later, we introduce the magnitude or absolute value of a real number, which captures the
idea of “size” precisely. The word “larger” is ambiguous, and has to be read in context
in mathematics.)

(v) Properties of inequalities: Let a, b, c ∈ R.

(a) If a < b and c ≤ d then a + c < b + d, so that, in particular, a + c < b + c.
(b) It follows also, from the previous part, that if a < b then a − c < b − c.
a b
(c) If a < b and c > 0 then ac < bc and < .
c c
a b
(d) If a < b and c < 0 then ac > bc and > , so that, in particular, −a > −b.
c c
1 1
(e) If 0 < a < b then a > b > 0 .

Variations of these properties hold using >, ≤ and ≥.

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Examples and proofs:

1. Suppose that 2x + 1 < 7. By part (b) of (v),

2x = (2x + 1) − 1 < 7 − 1 = 6 ,

so that, by part (c) of (v)

2x 6
x = < = 3.
2 2
Hence x < 3.

2. Suppose that 1 − x < 3x + 6. By part (a) of (v),

1 = (1 − x) + x < (3x + 6) + x = 4x + 6 ,

so that, by part (b) of (v)

−5 = 1 − 6 < (4x + 6) − 6 = 4x ,

so that
4x > −5 .
Hence, by a variation of part (c) of (v),
5
x > − .
4

Alternatively, from 1 − x < 3x + 6, one could deduce, by part (d) of (v), that

x − 1 = −(1 − x) > −(3x + 6) = −3x − 6 ,

so that, by part (a) of (v),

4x − 1 = (x − 1) + 3x > (−3x − 6) + 3x = −6 ,

and therefore, also,

4x = (4x − 1) + 1 > −6 + 1 = −5 .
Hence, by part (c) of (v),
4x −5 5
x = > = − ,
4 4 4
yielding the same answer as before.

3. Here is a more challenging example. Suppose that we want to find all real numbers x
such that
1 2
0 < < .
x−1 x+1
By part (e) of (v), reciprocating the positive fractions, this is equivalent to
x−1 x+1
x−1 = > > 0.
1 2
We may separate this out into two inequalities:
x+1 x+1
x−1 > and >0.
2 2
3
 From the first of these we get that 2x − 2 > x + 1, so that x > 3. From the second we
get that x + 1 > 0, so that x > −1. Since −1 < 3, we conclude, more simply, that
x > 3,
that is, x is a real number to the right of 3 on the real number line.
4. Suppose that we want to find all real numbers x such that
(x + 1)(x − 2) < 0 ,
that is, all real numbers x such that the product of x + 1 with x − 2 is negative. This can
only occur if x + 1 is positive and x − 2 is negative, or if x + 1 is negative and x − 2 is
positive.
However, if x + 1 is negative then x + 1 < 0, so that x < −1, and it follows that
x − 2 < −1 − 2 = −3 < 0, so that x − 2 cannot possibly be positive.
Hence we conclude that x + 1 is positive and x − 2 is negative, that is
x+1 > 0 and x−2 <0,
so that x > −1 and x < 2, that is,
−1 < x < 2 .
Hence, x is a real number to the right of −1 and to the left of 2 on the real number line.
5. We verify the claims of (v). Suppose that a < b and c ≤ d. Then b − a > 0 and d − c ≥ 0.
Hence
(b + d) − (a + c) = (b − a) + (d − c) > 0 ,
since adding a number greater than or equal to zero to a positive number always produces
a positive number. This shows that a + c < b + d, and proves the first part of (v)(a).
The second part of (v)(a) is immediate, because c ≤ c. Part (b) of (v) is also immediate,
because −c ≤ −c.
We now verify part (c) of (v). Suppose that a < b and c > 0. Then
bc − ac = (b − a)c > 0 ,
since b − a > 0 and a product of positive numbers is positive. This shows that ac < bc,
proving the first part of (c). The second part follows immediately because, also, 1c > 0.
We now verify part (d) of (v). Suppose that a < b and c < 0. Then
ac − bc = (a − b)c > 0 ,
since a − b < 0 and a product of negative numbers is positive. This shows that ac > bc,
proving the first part of (d). The second part follows immediately because, also, 1c < 0.
The third part is a special case by taking c = −1.
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Suppose finally that 0 < a < b. Then, certainly b > 0, so that b
> 0. Also
1 1 b−a
− = > 0,
a b ab
since b − a > 0, as a < b, and ab > 0 since a > 0 and b > 0, and a quotient of positive
numbers is positive. This shows that
1 1
> >0,
a b
proving part (e), completing the verification of each of the claims of (v).