The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

www.emeraldinsight.com/0969-6474.htm

TLO
16,4 The thinking styles of human
resource practitioners
Paul Higgins
276 Department of Public and Social Administration, City University of Hong Kong,
Kowloon, Hong Kong, and
Li-fang Zhang
Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Abstract
Purpose – Drawing upon Sternberg’s theory of mental self-government, this paper aims to
investigate the thinking styles and workplace experiences of 152 human resource (HR) practitioners
pursuing Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD) membership. It seeks to explore
whether their thinking styles complemented their jobs and consider the implications for the CIPD’s
notion of the “thinking performer”.
Design/methodology/approach – A two-part questionnaire, including the Thinking Styles
Inventory-Revised II (Sternberg et al.) is completed by the research participants to identify their
Type I (creativity-generating) and Type II (norm-favouring) thinking styles. Six focus group sessions
are also conducted to gather insights about the participants’ workplace experiences.
Findings – On average, participants scored more highly on Type I thinking styles. Although this
suggested their thinking styles are consistent with the “thinking performer” ideal, focus group
participants doubted whether the creativity-generating attributes of Type I suited the reality of the HR
function, which is described as being awash with rule bound behaviours. Particularly, this is the
experience of junior staff, who felt unable to challenge senior management or contribute to the bigger
picture. Correlation coefficients revealed that age, length of service with current organization and
perceived autonomy at work are the most significant socialisation variables.
Practical implications – Emphasis on strategic matters in CIPD courses needs to be balanced with
a greater recognition of the operational and routine reality of much HR practice.
Originality/value – This represents the first known attempt to test thinking performer construct
amongst HR practitioners. The study combines questionnaire and focus group methods.
Keywords Thinking styles, Human resource management
Paper type Research paper

Introduction
In 2002, the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD) – the UK’s
leading professional body for those involved in the management and development of
people – reframed its professional standards around the notion of the “thinking
performer”. The “thinking performer” represents a description of an ideal human
resource (HR) practitioner, someone who is able to “add value” to the organisation in

The authors would like to thank all research participants for their valuable time and
The Learning Organization
Vol. 16 No. 4, 2009 contributions, particularly during the focus group interviews. A special mention of thanks is
pp. 276-289 extended to Sharon McMahon and Andre Kyriakou for their additional focus group offerings.
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0969-6474
The authors are also grateful for the helpful comments and suggestions of two anonymous
DOI 10.1108/09696470910960374 reviewers.
which they are employed because they are capable of and willing to constantly The thinking
challenge the way things are executed (CIPD, 2004). styles of human
On its web site, the CIPD contrasts the “thinking performer” archetype with three
other, inferior, types of HR practice which it refers to as the “lifetime liability”, the resource
“wish-list dreamer” and the “automated bureaucrat.” The four resulting types are then
depicted in a two-by-two “thinking performer” matrix whose quadrants are
distinguished via a vertical axis representing different degrees of effectiveness – 277
conceptualised as “doing the right things-thinking” – and a horizontal axis representing
different degrees of efficiency – conceptualised as “doing things right-performing”.
Figure 1 reproduces the thinking performer matrix and provides a brief description of
each of the four quadrants therein.
It can be seen from Figure 1 that the “thinking performer” quadrant, situated in the
upper right of the matrix, is portrayed in terms of the “strategic activist,” someone who
is willing and able to challenge the status quo position and to demand more from what
is currently being delivered in their place of work. The remaining three quadrants are
then negatively contrasted with this ideal whose shortcomings vary according to their
lack or efficiency and/or effectiveness. Thus, the “wish list dreamer” quadrant, located
in the upper left of the matrix, is depicted in terms of someone lacking efficiency
because of their failure to communicate their (effective) ideas to others. The “automated
bureaucrat” quadrant, positioned in the lower right of the matrix, is then depicted as
someone who is efficient in terms of (accurately and speedily) doing what they are told
but who also lacks effectiveness through not being willing to challenge what is done or
through not considering ways of doing things differently (more effectively). Finally, the
“lifetime liability” quadrant, in the lower left of the matrix, is expressed in terms of
someone who lacks competence on the grounds of both efficiency and effectiveness.

High effectiveness Wish-list dreamer Thinking performer

Lifetime liability Automated bureaucrat

Low effectiveness

Low efficiency High efficiency

1) Lower left: the Lifetime Liability - the employee who neither performs nor thinks yet
devote a good deal of time and energy to the development of "reasons" why agreed
outputs are unattainable and tasks unfulfilled.
2) Upper left: the Wish-List Dreamer - the thinking non-performer who, if he has ideas,
keeps them to himself.
3) Lower right: the Automated Bureaucrat - the non-thinking performer who does what
s/he's told and no more. S/he carries out instructions blindly, without necessarily knowing
(or caring) about their purpose.
4) Upper right: the Thinking Performer - the "strategic activist" employee who adds value
through continuous challenge and self-imposed improvement goals. Specifically in the
personnel area, the Thinking Performer is the person who amongst other things needs to Figure 1.
think, "Why do I do this?" or "How could we do this different or better?" The CIPD’s thinking
performer matrix
Source: CIPD website
TLO One assumption behind the matrix is that current HR practice in a UK context is
16,4 characterised by behaviours depicted in the three inferior quadrants of the CIPD
matrix and as such a thinking performer deficit exists amongst HR practitioners.
Moreover, it is a gap that needs to be addressed if the HR profession is to have a
positive impact on the performance of organisation – often referred to as the “Holy
Grail of HR management”. This view gains credence when one considers that
278 concomitant with the development of the “thinking performer” matrix, the CIPD has
also been active in championing the progression of the HR profession away from a
focus on operational matters and towards a strategic orientation (CIPD, 2004;
Whittaker and Johns, 2004). One implication of this is that in strategically upgrading
the HR profession, “thinking performer” properties should be prevalent amongst all HR
practitioners and at all levels of the organisation. Figure 2 visualises the role of
the “thinking performer” construct within the CIPD’s aim to strategically re-orientate
the HR profession.
This CIPD’s attempt to effectively upgrade day-to-day personnel management towards
strategic issues has proven to be controversial, however, not least because it is not
considered by some to be appropriate for the types of workplace practice demanded of the
majority of staff employed in the HR profession which tend towards more nuts-and-bolts
issues (Hope-Hailey et al., 2005). That is to say, most HR practitioners do not engage
themselves with strategic issues nor particularly do they challenge how things are
currently undertaken in their organisation but rather they follow established rules; do
what they are told and generally feel unable to contest the views of senior management
(Francis and Keegan, 2006). Another concern is that in shifting the focus of the entire
profession away from operational to strategic matters, it could leave other employees
feeling increasingly estranged from their HR department (Guest and King, 2004).
In the light of the controversy that has surrounded the introduction of the “thinking
performer” construct, this paper addresses two issues which lie at the heart of the
matter. The first issue is “How far do HR practitioners actually measure up to the
‘thinking performer’ ideal?” That is to say, to what extent is there a thinking performer
deficit amongst UK based HR practitioners? The second issue is “To what extent are
the types of strategically orientated and thinking performer type level of training
implicated by the CIPD’s matrix relevant to the workplace experiences actually
encountered by HR practitioners?”

Upgrade HR profession as a whole

Strategic focus

New HR profession
CIPD thinking performer

Figure 2.
Broader rationale for Old HR profession
CIPD’s “thinking
performer” construct Operational focus
In exploring these two issues, the paper sets out by aligning the “thinking performer” The thinking
and “automated bureaucrat” dimensions of the CIPD’s thinking performer matrix to styles of human
the longstanding and rigorously tested domain of thinking styles (Zhang and
Sternberg, 2005, 2006). The rationale for exclusively focusing on the “thinking resource
performer” and “automated bureaucrat” quadrants of the CIPD matrix is that they are
both active as a result of their efficiency (see vertical axis in Figure 1) and, therefore,
amenable to measurement. The “wish list dreamer,” in contrast, is marked by a failure 279
to act upon the ideas generated, while the lifetime liability is inactive on both counts of
efficiency and effectiveness. Moreover, in drawing from the domain of thinking styles
and, in particular, on Stenberg’s (1988, 1997) theory of mental government a degree of
objectivity and impartiality to the controversy can be introduced. As the following
section further demonstrates, the behaviour attributed to the “thinking performer” and
“automated bureaucrat” dimensions of the CIPD matrix strongly resonate with what
are referred to as Type I and Type II thinking styles, and can, therefore, serve as useful
proxies for them.

Thinking styles and thinking performer: a conceptual alignment

Thinking styles, like other style constructs such as cognitive styles and learning styles
are one of the many style constructs under the notion of intellectual styles (Zhang and
Sternberg, 2006) that refer to people’s preferred ways of processing information. As one
of the most recent theories of intellectual styles, Sternberg’s (1988, 1997) theory of
mental self-government has propelled much research interest in the scholarly
community. Using “government” as a metaphor, Sternberg proposed that just as there
are different ways of governing a society, there are different ways that people prefer to
use their abilities. These preferences in using one’s abilities are defined as thinking
styles.
According to Sternberg, there are 13 such thinking styles that can be classified into
five dimensions: functions, forms, levels, scopes, and leanings. Drawing on empirical
data, Zhang and Sternberg (2005, 2006) re-conceptualized the 13 thinking styles into
three types. Type I thinking styles are creativity-generating and denote higher levels of
cognitive complexity, including the legislative (being creative), judicial (evaluative of
other people or products), hierarchical (prioritizing one’s tasks), global (focusing on the
holistic picture), and liberal (taking new approaches to tasks) styles. Type II thinking
styles, by contrast, suggest a norm-favouring tendency and denote lower levels of
cognitive complexity, including the executive (implementing tasks with prescribed
procedures), local (focusing on concrete and discrete details), monarchic (working on
one task at a time), and conservative (using traditional approaches to tasks) styles.
Finally, the Type III thinking style embodies the anarchic (working on whatever tasks
that come along), oligarchic (working on multiple tasks with no priority), internal
(working on one’s own), and external (working with others) styles. Type III styles may
manifest the characteristics of the styles from both Type I and Type II groups,
depending on the stylistic demands of a specific task. For example, one could be
creative (i.e. using Type I styles) or conservative (i.e. using Type II styles) whether
when one works alone (internal style) or when one works in collaboration with others
(external style), depending on the nature of the specific task at hand.
It can be seen from the above descriptions of Type I and Type II thinking styles that
there is a large degree of correspondence with them and the sort of behaviours that the
TLO CIPD attributes, respectively, to the “thinking performer” and “automated bureaucrat”
16,4 quadrants of its matrix. Thus, akin to the CIPD’s description of the “thinking
performer” construct the five Type I thinking styles capture behaviour that entails
judgement and creativity. Likewise, akin to the CIPD’s description of the “automated
bureaucrat” construct the four Type II thinking styles capture behaviour that involves
a local focus and adherence to pre-set rules and procedures. If one accepts the case
280 made for aligning these two types of thinking styles to the two active quadrants of the
CIPD’s thinking performer matrix then the first research question becomes “to what
extent do HR practitioners actually report Type I and Type II thinking styles”? In other
words, how far do they currently measure up to the thinking performer ideal? Once this
ground is established, attention can then turn to the second research question
regarding workplace experiences.

Method
In all, 152 adults, each of whom currently enrolled on part-time post-graduate level
CIPD-accredited HRM courses in one of two London-based Universities, participated in
this research between October 2007 and February 2008. These participants have all
sought graduate and/or chartered CIPD membership and, at the time of research, were
employed in a HR position, either on a full or part-time basis. 24 of the respondents
were male and 128 female. With an average age of 31 and a mean of 29, the
participants’ ages ranged from 21 to 50. With an average of four years and a median of
three years, the length of service with their organizations ranged from one year to
30 years. The sizes of the organizations for which the participants were working varied
from 6 employees to 1 million, with a median of 368 people. Within this group, one
person did not receive formal education, 48 were qualified up to Higher National
Diploma level, 90 people held a degree and 12 a Masters degree.

Measures
A survey composed of two parts was administered to the research participants. One
part was the Thinking Styles Inventory-Revised II (TSI-R2, Sternberg et al., 2007) – the
second modified version of the Thinking Styles Inventory (TSI Sternberg and Wagner,
1992) based on the theory of mental self-government. Consisting of 65 statements, the
inventory assesses the 13 thinking styles delineated in the theory, with each
five statements contributing to the assessment of one of the thinking styles. Five of
the thirteen thinking styles form the Type I scale; four of the thirteen thinking styles
form the Type II scale and a further four of the thirteen thinking styles form the Type
III scale. For each statement, the participants rated themselves on a seven-point Likert
scale, with 1 indicating that the statement does not at all represent the way they
normally carry out their tasks, and seven denoting that the statement characterizes
extremely well the way they normally carry out their tasks. Two sample items are:
(1) “When faced with a problem, I use my own ideas and strategies to solve it”
(legislative style).
(2) “I like to figure out how to solve a problem following certain rules” (executive
style).

The administration of this questionnaire was predominantly used to test the

prevalence of the thinking performer deficit.
 The second part of the questionnaire elicited participants’ personal characteristics The thinking
(age, gender, educational level, length of service in their then-current job, previous styles of human
work experience in other organizations), actual work environments (size of the
organization in which one was employed, type of organization, work function, salary resource
level, and work position), and perceived work environments (view of one’s salary level,
perceived autonomy at work, and perceived level of future success). The
administration of this questionnaire allowed the authors to ascertain both the nature 281
of the actual workplaces that the participants worked in and their perceptions of it.

Focus group interviews

In considering further the participants experiences of their workplace, six
post-questionnaire focus group[1] interview sessions comprising approximately a
third of the participants in total were facilitated by the first author to examine a range
of issues relating to their work practices and experience, relationship with managers
and job motivation[2]. These included a discussion of: the participants’ general
preference to follow prescribed procedures as opposed to using their own creativity, the
participants’ perceived level of discretion at work, the extent to which participants feel
they were gravitated towards the HR position because it suited them compared with
being socialised by the experience and the extent to which they felt they could
challenge the views of senior management. During the focus group interview sessions,
participants were encouraged to share their HR work experiences, to bounce ideas and
issues off one another and to probe one another’s viewpoints so that their points could
be justified. In terms of data capture and analysis, notes were taken during the event
with tape recordings also made and key content transcribed verbatim for analysis.
Finally, to guard against undue influence and domination of some participants, the
focus group interviewees were also invited to submit by email any other comments to
the researcher for further consideration. After all of the information from the focus
group sessions had been collected, the material was examined to identify content about
the issues at hand and these were extracted from the reviews and subject to further
analysis and comparison.

Reliability: thinking styles inventory-revised II

Reliability estimates for the TSI-R2 were obtained using Cronbach’s (1951) alphas. The
alpha coefficients obtained for the TSI-R2 scales were 0.80 (legislative), 0.78 (executive),
0.71 (judicial), 0.64 (global), 0.618 (local), 0.86 (liberal), 0.81 (conservative),
0.73(hierarchical), 0.66 (monarchic), 0.78 (oligarchic), 0.70 (anarchic), 0.66 (internal),
and 0.79 (external). These internal scale reliabilities are similar in magnitude with
those reported in previous studies using the TSI-R (Fan, 2006; Zhang and Higgins,
2008), except that the alpha coefficient for the anarchic style has been improved
dramatically from a typical low of 0.40.

Thinking styles – examining the thinking performer deficit

The mean scores and standard deviations of participants’ thinking styles were
calculated and the results are presented in Table I. Considered as a whole, a
particularly noticeable trait amongst the participants was that they displayed an
external (working with others) rather than an internal (working on their own) thinking
style, with a preference also for prioritising their tasks (hierarchical), albeit with
TLO
Thinking style and Type I, II or III Meana (high to low) d
16,4
Hierarchical I 5.15 0.8725
External III 5.09 0.9715
Executive II 4.73 0.9733
Legislative I 4.55 0.9864
282 Judicial I 4.54 0.8439
Liberal I 4.52 1.0849
Conservative II 4.38 1.0437
Local II 4.24 0.8568
Anarchic III 4.20 0.9496
Monarchic II 4.14 0.9766
Table I. Internal III 4.00 0.8950
Rank order of means Oligarchic III 3.97 1.0791
and standard deviations Global I 3.87 0.8846
of participants’ thinking
styles Note: aRounded to two decimal places

prescribed rules and procedures (executive). On average, the participants scored the
lowest on the global thinking style, indicative of a non-holistic outlook, though both the
liberal (taking new approaches to tasks) style and judicial (evaluative of other people or
products) style were higher up the scale.
At first glance, the participants’ mean average scores for thinking styles suggests
that they demonstrated a slightly greater propensity to display Type I as opposed to
Type II thinking styles. This conclusion can be interpreted from the rankings provided
in Table I which reveal that four out of the five Type I thinking styles are located in the
upper half of the table, whereas three of the four Type II thinking styles are located in
the lower half of the table. Such a finding could, therefore, question the claim that HR
practitioners seeking graduate and/or chartered CIPD membership are necessarily
lacking in their “thinking performer” prowess. Before reaching this conclusion,
however, it is necessary to consider the influence of the participants’ workplace on their
actual HR practice. In doing this, recourse to some of the insights gained from the focus
group exercises will also be reported.

Workplace experiences: insights from focus group exercise

First, although the participants expressed a preference for prioritising tasks
(hierarchical) evidence from the focus group sessions gave some insight into the
type of constraints that followed thereafter. This was particularly noticeable in terms
of being required to carry out many of their HR tasks in with prescribed procedures
(executive) thus leading to a combined hierarchical and executive approach as reported
from the questionnaire responses. One such example of this workplace behaviour
drawn from the focus group exercise is as follows:
Naturally, I would want freedom to deal with tasks using my own initiative, yet in the
company I work in I am the opposite I want to make sure I am following best practice because
I am always aware of the implications of getting things wrong.
Note the interesting use of the term “best practice” in this previous quote. Best practice
in this context means following established procedures rather than adhering to the
values of the “thinking performer” construct. Another participant added: “In HR you The thinking
are supposed to ensure that you follow the rules, although you can also be given
discretion about precisely in what order you must do things”.
styles of human
Perhaps, the most striking finding that came out of the focus groups was an almost resource
total rejection of the idea that one could challenge the views of senior management in
any meaningful way. This sentiment can be summarised by the following comment
raised by a focus group participant: 283
Unless you are senior management your suggestions are not taken on board and you are often
given lower grade work to complete. You are not given any time to work on improving your
job or finding better ways of providing services.
Another focus group participant similarly added: “Within my HR department, you are
not able to make real decisions and middle management and below do the ‘bitty’ work
that does not contribute in a meaningful way to the big picture”.
A third focus group participant, meanwhile, took a slightly different view: I see the role of
HR to advise the managers what to do it is ultimately their decision. But you have to tell them
the consequences of the decision but it is their choice to make. As HR experts we manage the
risks. That’s our job to do that. They ultimately make the decisions we are risk managers.
In either case, many of the focus group respondents agreed that the nature of their
HR job is awash with detailed procedures and rule-bound behaviours with too much
paperwork, mundane activity and too little variety, all indicative of a lack of real
discretion. For example, one participant explained:
When I am working I like to do things very methodically and if I do that it requires time, but
there are deadlines and constraints which means that I cannot do it as thoroughly as I would
like to and that does impact on how I work.
In many respects, findings from the latest (fifth) Workplace Employment Relations Survey
(Kersley et al., 2006), a nationally representative account of the state of employment
relations and working life inside British workplaces, provide support to the types of
comments raised by the focus group participants. In addition to identifying personnel
management as a fairly low status occupation that is disproportionately represented by
females in the more junior jobs, Kersley et al. (2006) found that local managers expressed
more discretion when making decisions about the quantity and quality of the products
than when they made decisions about employment relations matters.
What tentatively emerges from the questionnaire and focus group evidence then is
that whilst the participants reported a preference for Type I, thinking performer-type
styles, the constraints of their workplace prevented them from practicing this potential.
This view was summarised by one focus contributor by reference to what she saw as
the ideal properties of a new HR recruit: “If you were going to recruit a new person for
HR you would not recruit a creativity-type person”.
Before reaching any conclusions, however, it is important to mention the findings
that emerged from the analysis of the relationships between the overt and covert
socialization variables and participants’ thinking styles. As demonstrated below, this
exercise led to a more interesting picture.

Insights from correlations

Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated to measure the relationships between
the overt and covert socialization variables and participants’ thinking styles.
TLO Results indicate that the most striking correlations occurred between certain thinking
16,4 styles and age, length of service with current organization and perceived autonomy at
work. As can be seen from Table II, the participants’ age was negatively correlated
with the executive, local, conservative, oligarchic and anarchic thinking styles. The
length of time participants had been working in their current organisation was
negatively correlated with the executive and conservative thinking styles but
284 positively correlated with the global and liberal thinking styles. Perceived autonomy at
work was negatively correlated with the executive and conservative thinking style but
positively related to the judicial, global, liberal, hierarchical, anarchic and external
thinking styles.
In terms of the age dimension, the analysis suggests that the older the respondents
were, the more likely it was they were to have discretion at work and consequently the
less inclined they were to use a traditional approach to tasks and also without the need
to prioritise them. Older respondents also appeared to express less need to work both
on “whatever tasks come along” and in “prescribed ways with concrete details”. This
behaviour is arguably a function of their relative experience and maturity in contrast to
younger participants and which might be further conflated with the length of time the
participant has been in their current organisation[3].
Moving on to the number of years participants had been in their current
organisation this was also found to be negatively correlated with an executive style
(prescribed rules) and using the traditional approach (conservative) but was positively
correlated with a preference for the global (holistic) style and a liberal (new approaches)
style – both a function of relative seniority and maturity perhaps. Thus, the tentative
picture that emerged from the analysis of these first two overt socialisation variables
was the growth and progression of an employee as they move up the hierarchy in their
organisation.
Finally, the perceived autonomy at work (covert) variable was correlated, at
a significant level, with many more of the thinking styles than the other two (overt)
variables and the relationships were somewhat stronger too. Again, the identified
correlations make substantive sense with greater perceived autonomy at work
positively correlated with creative (legislative), evaluative (judicial), holistic (global)
and liberal Type I styles but negatively correlated with conservative and executive
Type II styles.
In summary, then, although working at the top-level of HR departments may
require high levels of creative thinking such as in decision making and designating
priorities to tasks to be dealt with, lower level workforce serving at HR’s departments
might not normally be in a position to engage in strategic decision making or to try
new strategies in dealing with their work situations. On the contrary, they are more
likely to find themselves being responsible for adhering to rules and procedures rather
than for determining them. Even in situations where members of the ordinary HR
workforce are given the opportunity to think creatively, such as in designing training
packages, they might still tend to be constrained by senior management objectives.

Conclusions and implications

This paper began by providing an outline of the CIPD’s “thinking performer” matrix
which has been created as part of a broader attempt to change the “mindset” of the HR
profession by “upgrading” it in a more strategic direction. In tune with this aim, a key
 LEG EXE JUD GLOBA LOCA LIB CON HIER MONA OLI ANA INT EXT

Age 2 0.041 2 0.183 * 20.118 0.081 2 0.210 * 0.085 20.174 * 2 0.143 2 0.120 2 0.228 * * 20.209 * 20.041 20.102
No. of years in org 0.078 2 0.288 * * 20.047 0.198 * 2 0.124 0.205 * 20.278 * * 2 0.003 2 0.114 2 0.153 20.052 20.058 20.010
Freedom 0.433 * * 2 0.245 * * 0.315 * * 0.254 * * 2 0.067 0.429 * * 20.306 * * 0.332 * * 0.024 0.242 * * 0.295 * * 0.134 0.424 * *
Note: Correlation is significant at the *0.05 and * *0.01 level (2-tailed), respectively

variables and thinking

striking socialisation
Correlation between most

styles
Table II.
styles of human
resource
The thinking

285
TLO purpose behind CIPD-accredited training programmes is to allow candidates to address
16,4 a thinking performer deficit so that they can add value to their workplace. This aim
has proven to be controversial, however, and in seeking to get to the heart of the matter,
this paper delved into the establishing the current picture with respect to reported
thinking styles and workplace practices amongst HR practitioners pursuing CIPD
membership.
286 Although the findings from the paper did not identify a thinking performer deficit
amongst research participants by revealing an overall tendency amongst the
participants to report a preference for Type I thinking styles, the coefficient
correlations revealed a slightly more complicated picture. In particular, an age and
experience effect was identified with the conditions prevalent in many HR positions, as
voiced via the focus group exercises, simply not considered to be conducive to the kind
of thinking performer behaviour promoted by the CIPD. Indeed, the most striking
finding to emerge from the focus group exercise was the view amongst the majority of
participants that they cannot challenge the views of senior management – they are
simply not allowed to or are simply not listened to. Thus, whilst a number of HR
practitioners expressed behaviour in their workplace that was consistent the “wish-list
dreamer” the propensity for them to keep their ideas to themselves was not necessarily
a function of inadequacy but of contextual constraints.
Given these findings, it seems that the CIPD’s aim to upgrade the HR profession as a
whole, via its thinking performer construct, needs to be rethought in such a way as to
accommodate the workplace reality that characterises much of the HR experience and
to tailor courses accordingly. One suggestion in this regard, is that the “thinking
performer” construct is used not to reflect the types of behaviour that is necessary for
all HR functions, as currently designed, but rather to enhance the personal and career
development of qualifying CIPD members by allowing them, via training and academic
learning of the sort accredited by the CIPD, to move out of their low-level operational
jobs and onto something more strategic in orientation. In this way, the important
day-to-day operational work of the HR department could be retained and performed by
those not yet sufficiently qualified. This reinterpretation of the rationale for the
thinking performer matrix gains strong support from this study in that those
participants with greater experience tended to demonstrate greater propensity to
display Type I thinking behaviour. A summary of this alternative rationale for the
thinking performer construct, replacing Figure 2, is provided in Figure 3. It visualises

Qualifying candidate progression

Strategic Qualified

Organisational CIPD thinking

hierarchy performer

Figure 3.
Alternative rationale for Candidate progression Unqualified
CIPD’s “thinking
performer” construct Operational
the role of the “thinking performer” construct within a new aim to enhance the The thinking
individual opportunities of candidates as they progress up the hierarchy. styles of human
What then, finally, are the implications of these findings for future CIPD candidates,
as well as people educating and certifying HR managers and senior managers in resource
companies? In terms of CIPD candidates undertaking CIPD programmes it is
recommended that they use the channels available to them to express their concerns
about the relevance of CIPD course content to their workplace experiences and 287
developmental needs. In reflexively adopting thinking performer type behaviour they
should themselves question taken for granted claims about workplace reality by more
fully expressing their experiences of being an HR practitioner in ways not always
depicted in the text books (Sennett, 1999; Williams, 2007).
The present findings could also be helpful to people educating and certifying HR
managers by making them realise that the emphasis on strategic matters in CIPD
courses might need to be balanced with a greater recognition of the operational and
routine reality of much HR practice, particularly at the far bulkier lower level.
Moreover, in making CIPD-accredited qualifications better match the actual
experiences of those engaged in HR this also means accommodating the tricky and
critical subjects of power and employee voice (Higgins and Croucher, 2008). In this
way, qualifying-CIPD practitioners might just be able to better apply what they have
learnt via accredited study into practice rather than necessarily feeling that they have
abstracted from reality with recalls to some marginal strategic orientation that affects
only a small elite. Otherwise, HR practitioners working at a very junior level of HRM
could “feel alienated” from the image of the thinking performer as depicted as someone
working at a strategic decision-making level. This point is particularly important to
bear in mind if CIPD-accredited academic programmes and training courses are
intended to allow students to put theory into practice.
Finally, in terms of senior management in companies, it is perhaps important that
they first recognise the implications of sending their employees on courses to gain
CIPD-accreditation given what their employees are likely to learn and the likely
relevance and appropriateness of this learning to the workplace. When such
investments are made it is recommended that senior managers create work
environments that are conducive to allowing such thinking styles to thrive in their
organisation – styles that are critical to the successful operation of an organisation. In
particular, they could become more mindful of listening to their employees and made
aware that thinking styles could also be shaped by work context.

Notes
1. “Focus groups are a form of group interview in which a process of dialogue and discussion
between a number of participants about a particular topic provides data to help answer your
research question” (Anderson, 2004, p. 158).
2. Researchers recommend aiming for homogeneity within each group in order to capitalise on
people’s shared experiences. One advantage of using pre-existing groups is that friends and
colleagues can relate to each other’s comments to incidents in their shared daily lives
(Kitzinger, 1995).
3. A variable which incidentally and reassuringly correlates strongly with age (0.584
significant at 0.01 level).
TLO References
16,4 Anderson, V. (2004), Research Methods in Human Resource Management, Chartered Institute of
Personnel and Development, London.
CIPD Professional Standards (2004), available at: www.cipd.co.uk/mandq/standards/profess
ionalstandardsfullversion.htm?IsSrchRes ¼ 1. (accessed February 2008).
Cronbach, T.J. (1951), “Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests”, Psychometrika,
288 Vol. 16, pp. 297-334.
Fan, W.Q. (2006), “Thinking styles among university students in Shanghai: comparing
traditional and hypermedia instructional environments”, unpublished doctoral
dissertation, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.
Francis, H. and Keegan, A. (2006), “The changing face of HRM: in search balance”, Human
Resource Management Journal, Vol. 16 No. 3, pp. 231-49.
Guest, D. and King, Z. (2004), “Power, innovation and problem-solving: the personnel managers’
three steps to heaven?”, Journal of Management Studies, Vol. 41 No. 3, pp. 401-23.
Higgins, P. and Croucher, R. (2008), “Employment relations”, in Muller-Camen, M., Croucher, R.
and Leigh, S. (Eds), Human Resource Management: A Case Study Approach, Chartered
Institute for Personnel and Development, London, pp. 317-37.
Hope-Hailey, V., Farndale, E. and Truss, C. (2005), “The HR department’s role in organisational
performance”, Human Resource Management Journal, Vol. 15 No. 3, pp. 49-66.
Kersley, B., Alpin, C., Forth, J., Bryson, A., Bewley, H. and Dix, G. (2006), Inside the workplace:
Findings from the 2004 Workplace Employment Relations Survey, Routledge, London.
Kitzinger, J. (1995), “Introducing focus groups”, British Medical Journal, Vol. 311, pp. 299-302.
Sennett (1999), The Corrosion of Character the Personal Consequences of Work in the New
Capitalism, W W. Norton, New York, NY.
Sternberg, R.J. (1988), “Mental self-government: a theory of intellectual styles and their
development”, Human Development, Vol. 31, pp. 197-224.
Sternberg, R.J. (1997), Thinking Styles, Cambridge University Press, New York, NY.
Sternberg, R.J. and Wagner, R.K. (1992), “Thinking styles inventory”, unpublished test,
Yale University, New Haven, CT.
Sternberg, R.J., Wagner, R.K. and Zhang, L.F. (2007), “Thinking styles inventory-revised II”,
unpublished test, Tufts University, Medford, MA.
Whittaker, J. and Johns, T. (2004), “Standards deliver”, People Management, June, pp. 32-6.
Williams, C. (2007), Rethinking the Future of Work: Directions and Visions, Palgrave Macmillan,
Basingstoke.
Zhang, L.F. and Higgins, P. (2008), “The predictive power of socialization variables for thinking
styles among adults in the workplace”, Learning and Individual Differences, Vol. 18 No. 1,
pp. 11-18.
Zhang, L.F. and Sternberg, R.J. (2005), “A threefold model of intellectual styles”, Educational
Psychology Review, Vol. 17 No. 1, pp. 1-53.
Zhang, L.F. and Sternberg, R.J. (2006), The Nature of Intellectual Styles, Lawrence Erlbaum,
Mahwah, NJ.

Further reading
CIPD website (2005), available at: www.cipd.co.uk/mandq/standards/_means.html.(accessed
February 2008).
About the authors The thinking
Paul Higgins is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Public and Social Administration,
City University Hong Kong. He teaches and researches in the areas of human resource styles of human
management and public sector management. His research has been published in a number of resource
internationally recognised human resource management, educational psychology and public
sector management journals.
Li-fang Zhang is an Associate Dean (Research Higher Degrees) in the Faculty of Education,
The University of Hong Kong. She has published extensively in the field of intellectual styles and 289
in related areas of study, including cognitive development, creativity, giftedness, and
psychosocial development. Her contributions to the scholarly community are widely recognized.
One such recognition is her appointment to the editorial board of Educational Psychology
Review and that of Educational Psychology, two of the top refereed international journals in
educational psychology. Li-fang Zhang is the corresponding author and can be contacted at:
[email protected]

To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: [email protected]

Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints