Department of Electrical Engineering

Faculty Member:_Dr. Mohaira Ahmad______ Dated: __9th March 2021_____

Course/Section:__BEE-11B Signals And Systems_ Semester: __4th________________

EE-232 Signals and Systems

Lab #2 Signal Ploting and Matrix operatons in Matlab

Name Reg PLO4-CLO5

Total marks/15
Nihal Ahmad 303249

Ehsan Ahmad 290446

Khan
Lab21: Introduction to MATLAB
Objectives

1. How to plot signals

2. How to perform Product, division and power of vectors
3. How to handle 2D-Matrices in MAtlab

Lab Report Instructions

All questions should be answered precisely to get maximum credit. Lab report must ensure following
items:
 Lab objectives
 MATLAB codes
 Results (graphs/tables) duly commented and discussed
 Conclusion
 Signals and Systems Lab

EXPERIMENT # 2

1. Plotting Elementary Functions

Suppose we wish to plot a graph of y = sin3πx for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1. We do this by sampling the

function at a sufficiently large number of points and then joining up the points (x, y) by straight
lines. Suppose we take N+1 points equally spaced a distance h apart:
>> N =10; h =1/N; x =0:h:1;
defines the set of points x = 0, h, 2h, . . ., 9h, 1.The corresponding y values are computed by
>> y =sin(3*pi*x);
and finally, we can plot the points with
>> plot(x,y)

The result is shown in Figure 1, where it is clear that the value of N is too small.

On changing the value of N to 100:

> N =100; h =1/N; x =0:h:1;
> y =sin(3*pi*x); plot(x,y)

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1.1 Plotting—Titles & Labels

To put a title and label the axes, we use

> title(’Graph of y =sin(3pi x)’)
> xlabel(’x axis’)
> ylabel(’y-axis’)
The strings enclosed in single quotes, can be anything of our choosing.

1.2 Grids

A dotted grid may be added by

>> grid
This can be removed using either grid again, or grid off.

1.3 Line Styles & Colors

The default is to plot solid lines. A solid white line is produced by

>> plot(x, y, ’w-’)
The third argument is a string whose first character specifies the color (optional) and the second
the line style. The options for colors and styles are:

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1.4 Multi–plots

Several graphs can be drawn on the same figure as:

>> plot(x,y,’w-’,x,cos(2*pi*x),’g--’)
A descriptive legend may be included with
>> legend(’Sin curve’,’Cos curve’)
which will give a list of line–styles, as they appeared in the plot command, followed by a brief
description.
Matlab fits the legend in a suitable position, so as not to conceal the graphs whenever possible.
For further information do help plot etc.
The result of the commands
> plot(x,y,’w-’,x,cos(2*pi*x),’g--’)
> legend(’Sin curve’,’Cos curve’)
> title(’Multi-plot ’)
> xlabel(’x axis’), ylabel(’y
axis’) >>grid

1.5 Hold

A call to plot clears the graphics window before plotting the current graph. This is not
convenient if we wish to add further graphics to the figure at some later stage. To stop the
window being cleared:
> plot(x,y,’w-’), hold
> plot(x,y,’gx’), hold off
“hold on” holds the current picture; “hold off” releases it (but does not clear the window, which
can be done with clf). “hold” on its own toggles the hold state.

1.6 Subplot

The graphics window may be split into an m × n array of smaller windows into which
we may plot one or more graphs. The windows are counted 1to mn row–wise, starting from the
top left. Both hold and grid work on the current subplot.

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> subplot(221), plot(x,y)

> xlabel(’x’),ylabel(’sin 3 pi x’)
> subplot(222), plot(x,cos(3*pi*x))
> xlabel(’x’),ylabel(’cos 3 pi x’)
> subplot(223), plot(x,sin(6*pi*x))
> xlabel(’x’),ylabel(’sin 6 pi x’)
> subplot(224), plot(x,cos(6*pi*x))
> xlabel(’x’),ylabel(’cos 6 pi x’)

subplot(221) (or subplot(2,2,1)) specifies that the window should be split into a 2 × 2 array and
we select the first sub-window.

1.7 Zooming

We often need to “zoom in” on some portion of a plot in order to see more detail. This is
easily achieved using the command
>> zoom
Left-Click on plot = Zoom in
Right-Click on plot = Zoom out
Selecting a specific portion of the plot using the mouse will zoom in to the selected portion of the
plot.

1.8 Controlling Axes

Once a plot has been created in the graphics window you may wish to change the
range of x and y values shown on the picture.
> clf, N =100; h =1/N; x =0:h:1;
> y =sin(3*pi*x); plot(x,y)
> axis([-0.5 1.5 -1.2 1.2]), grid

The axis command has four parameters, the first two are the minimum and maximum values of x
to use on the axis and the last two are the minimum and maximum values of y.
Note the square brackets. The result of these commands is shown in Figure 4. For more info,
check out help axis.

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2. Products, Division & Powers of Vectors

2.1 Scalar Product (*)

We shall describe two ways in which a meaning may be attributed to the product of two
vectors. In both cases the vectors concerned must have the same length.
The first product is the standard scalar product. Suppose that u and v are two vectors of length n,
u being a row vector and v a column vector:

We can perform this product in Matlab by

>> u =[ 10, -11, 12], v =[20; -21; -22]
>> prod =u*v % row times column vector
Suppose we also define a row vector w and a column vector z by
>> w = [2, 1, 3], z = [7; 6; 5]
and we wish to form the scalar products of u with w and v with z.
>> u*w

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??? Error using ==> *

Inner matrix dimensions must agree.
An error results because w is not a column vector.
Recall that transposing (with ’) turns column vectors into row vectors and vice versa. So, to form
the scalar product of two row vectors or two column vectors,

>> u*w’ % u & w are row vectors

>> u*u’ % u is a row vector

>> v’*z % v & z are column vectors

2.2 Dot Product (.*)

The second way of forming the product of two vectors of the same length is known as the
Dot product. It is not often used in Mathematics but frequently used in Signals & Systems. It
involves vectors of the same type. If u and v are two vectors of the same type (both row vectors
or both column vectors), the mathematical definition of this product, is the vector having the
components:

The result is a vector of the same length and type as u and v. Thus, we simply multiply the
corresponding elements of two vectors. In Matlab, the product is computed with the operator .*
and, using the vectors u, v, w, z defined previously,
> u.*w

> u.*v’

> v.*z, u’.*v

Example 2.1 Tabulate the function y = x sinπx for x = 0, 0.25, . . ., 1.

It is easier to deal with column vectors so we first define a vector of x-values: (see Transposing)
> x =(0:0.25:1)’;
To evaluate y we have to multiply each element of the vector x by the corresponding element of
the vector sin πx:
x × sin πx = x sin πx
0×0=0
0.2500 × 0.7071 = 0.1768
0.5000 × 1.0000 = 0.5000
0.7500 × 0.7071 = 0.5303
1.0000 × 0.0000 = 0.0000
To carry this out in Matlab:
> y =x.*sin(pi*x)

Note: a) the use of pi, b) x and sin(pi*x) are both column vectors (the sin function is applied to
each element of the vector). Thus, the dot product of these is also a column vector.
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2.3 Dot Division of Arrays (./)

There is no mathematical definition for the division of one vector by another.

However, in Matlab, the operator ./ is defined to give element by element division—it is
therefore only defined for vectors of the same size and type.
> a =1:5, b =6:10, a./b

> a./a

> c =-2:2, a./c

The previous calculation required division by 0 --- notice the Inf, denoting infinity, in the
answer.
> a.*b -24, ans./c

2.4 Dot Power of Arrays (.^)

To square each of the elements of a vector we could, for example, do u.*u. However,
a neater way is to use the .^ operator:
> u.^2
> u.*u
> u.^4
> v.^2
> u.*w.^( -2 )

Recall that powers (.^ in this case) are done first, before any other arithmetic operation.

3. Matrices --- 2-DArrays

Row and Column vectors are special cases of matrices. An m×n matrix is a rectangular array of
numbers having m rows and n columns. It is usual in a mathematical setting to include the matrix
in either round or square brackets—we shall use square ones. For example, when m = 2, n = 3
we have a 2 × 3 matrix. To enter such an matrix into Matlab we type it in row by row using the
same syntax as for vectors:
>> A =[5 7 9;1 -3 -7]

Rows can be separated by a new line rather than a semicolon.

> B=[-125
905]

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> C = [0, 1; 3, -2; 4, 2]

> D =[1:5; 6:10; 11:2:20]
So A and B are 2 × 3 matrices, C is 3 × 2 and D
is 3×5.
In this context, a row vector is a 1 × n matrix and a column vector a m ×1 matrix.

3.1 Size of a matrix

We can get the size (dimensions) of a matrix with the command size
> size(A), size(x)

> size(ans)

So A is 2×3 and x is 3 ×1 (a column vector). The last command size(ans) shows that the value
returned by size is itself a 1 × 2 matrix (a row vector). We can save the results for use in
subsequent calculations.

> [r c] =size(A’), S =size(A’)

3.2 Transpose of a matrix

Transposing a vector changes it from a row to a column vector and vice versa. The extension of
this idea to matrices is that transposing interchanges rows with the corresponding columns: The
1st row becomes the 1st column, and so on.
> D, D’

> size(D), size(D’)

3.3 Special Matrices

Matlab provides a number of useful built–in matrices of any desired size. ones(m,n) gives
an m × n matrix of 1’s,
>> P =ones(2,3)

zeros(m,n) gives an m × n matrix of 0’s,

>> Z =zeros(2,3), zeros(size(P’))

The second command illustrates how we can construct a matrix based on the size of an existing
one. Try ones(size(D))

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An n×n matrix that has the same number of rows and columns is called a square matrix.
A matrix is said to be symmetric if it is equal to its transpose (i.e. it is unchanged by
transposition):
> S =[2 -1 0; -1 2 -1; 0 -1 2],

> St =S’

> S-St

3.4 The Identity Matrix

The n × n identity matrix is a matrix of zeros except for having ones along its leading
diagonal (top left to bottom right). This is called eye(n) in Matlab (since mathematically it is
usually denoted by I).
>> I =eye(3), x = [8; -4; 1], I*x

Notice that multiplying the 3 × 1 vector x by the 3 × 3 identity I has no effect (it is like
multiplying a number by 1).

3.5 Diagonal Matrices

A diagonal matrix is similar to the identity matrix except that its diagonal entries are not
necessarily equal to 1.
D=
300
040
002
is a 3 × 3 diagonal matrix. To construct this in Matlab, we could either type it in directly
>>D=[-300;040;002]

But this becomes impractical when the dimension is large (e.g. a 100 × 100 diagonal matrix). We
then use the diag function. We first define a vector d, say, containing the values of the diagonal
entries (in order) then diag(d) gives the required matrix.

>> d =[-3 4 2], D =diag(d)

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On the other hand, if A is any matrix, the command diag(A) extracts its diagonal entries:
> F=[0187;3-2-42;4211]
> diag(F)

Notice that the matrix does not have to be square.

3.6 Building Matrices

It is often convenient to build large matrices from smaller ones:

> C=[0 1; 3 -2; 4 2]; x=[8;-4;1];

> G =[C x]

> A, B, H =[A; B]

so we have added an extra column (x) to C in order to form G and have stacked A and B on top
of each other to form H.

> J =[1:4; 5:8; 9:12; 20 0 5 4]

> K =[ diag(1:4) J; J’ zeros(4,4)]

The command spy(K) will produce a graphical display of the location of the nonzero entries in K
(it will also give a value for nz—the number of nonzero entries):

>> spy(K), grid

3.7 Extracting Bits of Matrices

We may extract sections from a matrix in much the same way as for a vector. Each element of a
matrix is indexed according to which row and column it belongs to. The entry in the ith row and
jth column is denoted mathematically by Ai,j and, in Matlab, by A(i,j). So
> J
> J(1,1)

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> J(2,3)

> J(4,3)

> J(4,5)

> J(4,1) =J(1,1) + 6

> J(1,1) =J(1,1) - 3*J(1,2)

In the following examples we extract

i) the 3rd column,
ii) the 2nd and 3rd columns,
iii) the 4th row,
and
iv) the “central” 2 ×2 matrix
>> J(:,3) % 3rd column

> J(:,2:3) % columns 2 to 3

> J(4,:) % 4th row

> J(2:3,2:3) % rows 2 to 3 & cols 2 to 3

Thus, : on its own refers to the entire column or row depending on whether it is the first or the
second index.

3.8 Dot product of matrices (.*)

The dot product works as for vectors: corresponding elements are multiplied together—so the
matrices involved must have the same size.
> A,
BA=
579
1-3-7
B=
-125 9
05

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> A.*B
> A.*C
> A.*C’
3.9 Matrix–Matrix Products

To form the product of an m × n matrix A and a n×p matrix B, written as AB, we

visualize the first matrix (A) as being composed of m row vectors of length n stacked on top of
each other while the second (B) is visualized as being made up of p column vectors of length n:
(m× n) times (n ×p) = (m × p).
Check that you understand what is meant by working out the following examples by hand and
comparing with the Matlab answers.
> A=[579;1-3-7]
> B =[0, 1; 3, -2; 4, 2]
> C =A*B
> D =B*A
> E =B’*A’
We see that E = C’ suggesting that (A*B)’ = B’*A’

Exercise
Draw the following:

1. x(t) = 2 sin (2πt - π/2) for 0 ≤ t ≤ 4

2. Draw graphs of the functions
y = cos(x)
y=x
for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 in the same window. Use the zoom facility to determine the point of
intersection of the two curves (and, hence, the root of x = cos(x)) to two significant
figures.

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3. Draw graphs of the functions for x =0:0.1:10 and label y
4. Plot our graph properly.

i. y = sin(x)/x
2
ii. u = (1/(x-1) )+x
2 2
iii. v = (x +1)/(x -4)
1/3 2 1/2
iv. z = ((10-x) -1)/(4 - x )
Task 1:
Code:
clc;
clear all;
t=0:0.001:4;
x=2*sin(2*pi*t - (pi/2));
plot (t,x,'r-')
title('Sine curve')
xlabel('Time(s)')
ylabel('Y(radians)')

Plot:
Task 2:
Code:
clc;
clear all;
x=0:0.001:2;
y1=cos(x);
y2=x;
plot (x,y1,'g-',x,y2,'r-')
legend('Cos Curve','y=x line')
xlabel('x')
ylabel('y')
grid
Plot:

After zooming in we can see that the curves intersect at x=0.74, y=0.74
 Task 4:
Code:
clc;
clear all;
x=0:0.1:10;
subplot(221),plot(x,sin(x)./x ,'r-'),xlabel('x'),ylabel('y')
subplot(222),plot(x,(1./((1-x).^2)+x),'g-'),xlabel('x'),ylabel('y')
subplot(223),plot(x,((x.^2)+1)./((x.^2)-4),'b-'),xlabel('x'),ylabel('y')
y4= ((10 - x).^(1./3) - 1)./(4 - x.^2).^(1./2),xlabel('x'),ylabel('y')
subplot(224),plot(x,real(y4),'b-',x,imag(y4),'r'),xlabel('x'),ylabel('y')

Figure: