Unit-1

Fundamentals of Design

❑ Machine design is defined as the use of scientific

principles, technical information and imagination to
describe a machine or mechanical system to perform
a specific functions.

❑ It refers to create new and better machines along

with improvement and updation of existing
machines. E.g. Design of shaft, axle, spring, screw
jack, joints, couplings, etc.

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GENERAL PROCEDURE OR STEPS INVOLVED IN DESIGNING A
MACHINE COMPONENT:-

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 TYPES OF LOADS
a) Dead or Steady load:
A gradually applied load, which does not change in magnitude,
direction or point of application w.r.t. time.
e.g. Load acting on column or strut.
It can be a force, torque or twisting moment, B.M. or
combination of these.
b) Variable or fluctuating load: Also called as fatigue load.
e.g. Forces in I.C. Engines valve spring, B. M. on rotating shaft.
c) Impact load: Suddenly applied with initial velocity.
e.g. Blow of a hammer.
d) Shock load: It is applied or removed suddenly.
e.g. Leaf spring of automobile.

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Stresses and Strains

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Problem1: A mild steel rod of 12 mm dia. Was tested for tensile
strength with gauge lenth of 600 mm. Following observations were
recorded . Final lenth = 800 mm, Final dia = 7 mm, Yield load =
4KN, Ultimate load = 6 KN. Calculate:
a) Yield Stress. b) Ultimate stress. c) Percentage reduction in area
and percentage elongation
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 Types of Stresses:
1) Tensile stress (σt):

2) Compressive Stress (σc):

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3) Bending or Flexural Stress (σb max):

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4) Transverse Shear Stress: Single shear failure of a lap joint

Fig.7- Single shear failure of a lap joint

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5) Torsional shear stress:

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 6) Crushing Stress:
It is a localized compressive stress induced at the surface
of contact between two components of a machine,
which are relatively at rest.

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7) Bearing Stress Or Bearing Pressure:
It is a localized compressive stress induced at the surface of contact
between two components of a machine, which have relative motion
between them.

What will be the difference between Crushing stress and bearing

stress?
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 Principal Stress:
Principal Plane: A plane on which only normal stresses act and no shear stress acts.
Principle stress: The magnitude of normal stress acting on principal plane.
Major principal stress and Minor principal stress:

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 Creep and Creep Curve:
Creep is a slow and permanent progressive deformation of a material with time
when a component is subjected to constant stress at high temperature over a long
period of time.
e.g. Bolts and pipes in thermal power plant.

Creep curve: Strain on Y-axis and time on X-axis

First stage:
Second stage:
Third stage:

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Creep curve:

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 Fatigue:
➢ When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses
below yield point stresses. Such type of failure is called as fatigue failure.

➢ It causes due to progressive crack formations.

➢ Such failure may occur even without any prior indication.

➢ Regions where crack is more likely to occur:

➢ Crack propagation:

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Notch Sensitivity: Degree to which, theoretical expected effect of stress concentration
is reached.

Increase of actual stress over nominal stress

Notch sensitivity=
Increase of theoretical stress over nominal stress

Endurance or Fatigue Limit: Defined as maximum value of completely reversed

bending stress, which a standard specimen can withstand without failure, for
infinite no. of cycles of loads.

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 Maximum stress
Working or design stress(σ𝑡 ) =
Factor of safety

Factor of safety: Ratio of Maximum stress to working or design stress

σ𝑦𝑡
(F.O.S.)ductile materials =
σ𝑡

σ𝑢𝑡
(F.O.S.)brittle materials =
σ𝑡

Factors to be considered while selecting F.O.S.:

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 In what situations F.O.S. will be higher and when it will be Lower?

▪ For uncertain environment such as high temperature and corrosive

atmosphere F.O.S. is taken higher as the component is designed at
standard atmospheric conditions.

▪ F.O.S. for type of loading:

Static load: 1.5 to 3, Variable load: 3 to 6, Impact/shock load: 6 to 12

Stress concentration and its causes:

Def. The irregularity in stress distribution caused by abrupt
changes of form.

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Causes of Stress concentration:

• Concentrated loads applied at minimum areas of machine parts,

such as contact between gear teeth, a beam and its supports.
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Methods to reduce stress concentration:

1) By providing fillets, undercutting and notches.

2) By providing additional notches and holes.
3) By reducing stress concentration in case of threaded members. e.g. Screw
and Nut.

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Theoretical stress concentration factor (Kt):
▪ Is defined as the ratio of maximum stress or ultimate stress in member (i.e.
stress at a notch or fillet) to the nominal stress at the same section based
upon net area.
▪ When a component is made up of brittle material is subjected to static
loading, Kt is used for safe design.

Fatigue stress concentration factor Kf :

▪ Is defined as the ratio of endurance limit without stress concentration to the
nominal stress.
▪ When a component is made up of ductile material is subjected to variable
loading such as cyclic or fatigue or fluctuating loads, Kf is used. Because
endurance strength of a component is greatly reduced.

Introduction of strain energy as resilience:

Resilience: The property of a material to absorb strain energy, while
resisting shock or impact loads.
▪ The resilient material absorbs energy within elastic range without
any permanent deformation.
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Modulus of Resilience: Is defined as the maximum strain energy stored in a
member per unit volume, when loaded within elastic limit.
▪ It is required to stress the specimen in tension test up to elastic limit.

Proof Resilience: Is defined as the maximum strain energy stored in the body up
to elastic limit, without being permanently deformed or strained.

Factors to be considered for selection of material in designing

machine element:
a)Availability: Material should be available easily in the market.
b) Cost: the material should be available at cheaper rate.
c) Manufacturing Consideration: the manufacturing play a vital role in
selection of material and the material should suitable for required
manufacturing process.
d) Physical properties: like colour, density etc.
e) Mechanical properties: such as strength, ductility, Malleability etc.
f) Corrosion resistance: it should be corrosion resistant.

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Materials possessing specific mechanical properties:
Mechanical Property Material
Elasticity Steel, Rubber
Ductility Mild steel, Aluminium, Copper, Tin
Brittleness Cast iron
Malleability Lead, Soft steel, Aluminium

List of machine parts with suggested materials:

Sr. M9achine Parts Suitable Material
No.
1 Crank shaft Alloy steel like 35Mn2Mo28
2 Helical Spring Oil tempered carbon steel/ chromium vanadium
3 Bushes for knuckle pin Phosphor bronze, Grey C.I.
4 Lathe bed Grey C.I.
5 Spring for I.C. Engine valve Carbon steel
6 Screw of screw jack Carbon steel, low alloy steel
7 Nut of screw jack Phosphor bronze
8 Bearing bushes Bronze (Alloy steel)
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 List of machine parts with suggested materials:

Sr. Machine Parts Suitable Material

No.
9 Shaft Mild steel
10 Body or casing of centrifugal pump Cast Iron
11 Balls for ball bearing Chrome steel
12 Hydraulic cylinder Plain carbon steel, steel casting or AL alloys
13 Machine tool spindle High quality steel
14 Heavy duty gear Ferrous metal
15 Connecting rod Drop forged heat treated steel
16 Turbine blade Chromium steel like 7Cr13
17 Clutch spring Plain carbon steel with magnese like 60C4
18 Locomotive carriage or Wagon Fe290 or FeE230, plain carbon steel
wheels

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 Designation of different materials:
1) Magnetite: Fe2O3
2) Grey cast ion:
FG300 :- Grey C.I. with ultimate tensile strength 300 Mpa (N/mm2)

3) Malleable cast iron:

BM300:- Black malleable C.I. with 300 N/mm2 tensile strength

4) Nodular or spheroidal C.I.:

SG450/10: Spheroidal graphite C.I. with minimum tensile strength 450
N/mm2 followed by 10% elongation.

5) Steel designation bases on mechanical properties:

Fe290: Steel with minimum tensile strength 290 N/mm2
FeE230: Steel with minimum yield strength of 230 N/mm2

6) Steel designation bases on chemical composition:

35C8: Steel with 0.35% carbon and 0.8 % manganese.
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7) Free cutting steels:
10C8S10: Steel with 0.1 % carbon, 0.8 % manganese and 0.1 % sulpher
e.g. 14C14S14
8) Alloy steel:
▪ Figure indicating 100 times the percentage of carbon.
▪ Chemical symbol for alloying elements followed by figure for its avg. %
content multiplied by a factor as below-

Alloying Element Multiplying Factor

Cr, Co, Ni, Si, W, Mn 4
Al, Be, V, Pb, Cu, Ti, Zn and Mo 10
P, S and N 100

For e.g. 40Cr4Mo2: Alloy steel having 0.4 % carbon, 1 % chromium and 0.2 %
Molybdenum.
e.g. 40Ni2Cr1Mo28
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9) High Alloy steel:
▪ Designated as letter X
▪ Figure indicating 100 times the % of carbon content.
▪ Chemical symbol for alloying elements followed by a figure for its average %
content rounded off to nearest integer.
▪ e.g. X20Cr18Ni2 : High alloy steel having carbon 0.2 %, chromium 18 %,
Nickel 2 %.
▪ E.g. X10Cr18Ni9Mo4Si2:

10) High speed tool steel:

▪ Letter XT
e.g. XT72W18Cr4V1: High speed tool steel with carbon 0.72 %, Wax 18 %,
Chromium 4 %, Vanadium 1 %.
e.g. XT72W18CoCr4V1:

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Standardization :
Is the process of establishing standards so as to minimize the
varieties in the characteristics.

Standard:

Purpose of standardization: To establish the norms intended to

achieve uniformity, specified quality, interchangeability, safety
and to put reasonable limit on the variety.
BIS:
Standards used in design:

Categories of standards:
1) Company standards:
2) National standards:
3) International standards:
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Advantages or Benefits of standardization:

▪ Helps in mfg. the components quickly and economically.

▪ Saves efforts of design engineer to design and manufacture
new machines, as standard components are readily designed by
experts.
▪ Helps in mfg. the components on mass production.
▪ Interchangeability of components is possible.
▪ It ensures a minimum specified quality.
▪ Effective utilization of available resources is ensured.
▪ Easy and quick replacement of components possible
▪ Ensures safety, protection from hazards, accidents etc.

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Theories of elastic failure:
Theories of failure play a key role in establishing the relationship between
stresses induced under combined loading conditions and properties obtained
from tension test like ultimate tensile strength (Sut) and yield strength (Syt).
Some examples of such components are as follows:
1) I.C. engine crankshaft 2) Shaft used in power transmission

1) Maximum principal stress theory or Normal stress theory or Rankine theory:

According to this theory, the elastic failure occurs when the greatest principal
stress reaches the elastic limit value in a simple tension test irrespective of the
value of other two principal stresses.

Taking factor of safety (F. S.) into consideration, the maximum principal or normal
stress (σt) is given by,

σt = σyt / F. S. (for ductile materials)

σt = σu / F. S. (for brittle materials)

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▪ where, σyt = Yield point stress in tension as determined from simple tension
test
σu = Ultimate stress
▪ This theory ignores the possibility of failure due to shear stress, therefore it is
not used for ductile materials.
Application: 1) Used for brittle materials
2) For machines spindle design
3) For machine bed design
4) For overhang crank design
Maximum Shear Stress Theory or Guest’s theory or Tresca’s
theory:

According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point

in a member when the maximum shear stress reaches a value
equal to the shear stress at yield point in a simple tension test.

Mathematically, τmax = τyt / F. S.

▪ where, τmax = Maximum shear stress
τyt = Shear stress at yield point as determined from simple tension
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 ▪ Since the shear stress at yield point in a simple tension test is equal to one
half the yield stress in tension, therefore
▪ τmax = σyt / (2 x F. S.)

▪ Applications:
1) This theory is mostly used for designing members of ductile materials.
2) Crank shaft design
3) Propeller shaft design
4) Design of ‘C’ frame.

Ecological considerations:
Ecological design is an approach to designing products with special consideration
for the environmental impacts of the product during its whole lifecycle.

Environmental aspects which ought to be analyzed for every stage of the life
cycle are:
•Consumption of resources (energy, materials, water or land area)
•Emissions to air, water, and the ground (our Earth) as being relevant for the
environment and human health
•Miscellaneous (e.g. noise and vibration)
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 Product design:
▪ Product design is to create a new product to be sold by a business to its
customers.
▪ The set of strategic and tactical activities, from idea generation to
commercialization, used to create a product design.
▪ In a systematic approach, product designers conceptualize and evaluate ideas,
turning them into tangible inventions and products.
▪ The product designer's role is to combine art, science, and technology to create
new products that people can use.
▪ Set of activities includes:
1) Initial inspiration of new product vision.
2) Business and technological feasibility study.
3) Engineering design of product.
4) Evaluation or validation of product design.
5) Planning of mfg. process of product.
6) Planning for distribution of products into market.
7) Planning for use of product by consumer.
8) Planning for retirement of product.

▪ Product design has impact on product cost, product quality and product life
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cycle time.
 Ergonomics: The word ergonomics is coined from the two Greek words ‘ergon’
which means ‘work’ and ‘nomos’ which means ‘ natural laws’.
•Ergonomics is defined as the scientific study of the man-machine-working
environment relationship and the application of anatomical, physiological and
psychological principles to solve the problems arising from the relationship.

•Ergonomics is related to the comfort between the man and machine while
operating the machine.
•The objective of ergonomics is to make the machine fit for user rather than to
make the user adapt himself or herself to the machine.

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From design consideration, the topics of ergonomics studies are as follows:
1. Anatomical factors in the design of driver's seat:
The design of driver's seat of an automobile is such that it is adjustable and
comfortable to the end user.
2. Layout of instrument dials and display panels for accurate perception by the
operators:
The basic objective behind the design of displays is to minimize the fatigue to the
operator, who has to observe them continuously. The ergonomic considerations
in the design of displays are as follows:
A. The scale on the dial indicator should be divided into suitable numerical
divisions like 0-5-10-15 OR 0-10-20-30 and not 0-5-25-35
B. The number of subdivisions between numbered divisions should be minimum.
C. The size of letter or number on indicator is given as Height of letter or
number ≥Reading distance/200
D. Vertical figures should be used for stationery dials, while radially oriented
figures are used for rotating dials.
E. The pointer should have a knife edge with a mirror in the dial to minimize
Parallax Error.

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3. Design of hand levers and hand wheels:
The controls used to operate the machines consist of levers, hand wheels, knobs,
switches, push buttons and pedals. Most of them are hand operated. When a
large force is required to operate the controls, levers and hand wheels are used.
When the operating forces are light, push buttons or knob are used.

The ergonomic considerations in the design are as follows:

A. The controls should be easily accessible and logically positioned.

B. The shape of the control component, which comes in contact with the hands,
should be in conformity with anatomy of human hands.

C. Proper colour produces beneficial psychological effects. The controls should be

painted with grey background of machine tools to call for the attention.

4. Lighting, noise and climatic conditions in machine environment:

1) Lighting: The amount of light that is required to enable a task to be performed
effectively depends upon the nature of the task, the cycle time, the reflective
characteristics of the equipment involved and the vision of the operator.
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•The intensity of light in the surrounding area should be less than that at the task
area. This makes the task area the focus of attention.

•Operators will become less tired if the lighting and colour schemes are arranged
so that there is a gradual change in brightness and colour from the task area to
the surroundings. The task area should be located such that the operator can
occasionally relax by looking away from the task area towards a distinct object or
surface. The distinct object or surface should not be so bright that the operator's
eyes takes time to adjust to the change when he or she again looks at the task.
II. Noise:
The noise at the work place cause annoyance, damage to hearing and reduction of
work efficiency.
If the noise level is too high, it should be reduced at the source by maintenance,
by the use of silencers and by placing vibrating equipment on isolating mounts. If
required, ear plugs should be provided to the operators to reduce the effect of
noise.
III. Temperature:
For an operator to perform task efficiently, he should neither feel hot nor cold.
When heavy work is done, the temperature should be relatively lower and when
the light work is done, the temperature should be relatively higher.
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IV. Humidity and Air circulation:
•At high temperatures, the low humidity may cause discomfort due to drying of
throat and nose and high humidity may cause discomfort due to sensation of
stuffiness and over sweating in a ill-ventilated or crowded room.
•The proper air circulation is necessary to minimize the effect of high
temperature and humidity.
Aesthetic Design:

The word Aesthetics is defined as a set of principles of beauty.

• It deals with the appearance of the product.

• The growing realization of the need of aesthetic consideration in the product

design given rise to a separate discipline known as industrial design.

• The industrial designer is to create new forms and shapes which are
aesthetically pleasing.

• Ex- chromium plating of an automobile component improve the corrosion

resistance along with appearance.
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• The appearance should contribute to the performance of the product e.g. the
aerodynamic shape of a automobile will decrease air resistance results in
improve fuel economy by decreasing fuel consumption.

• The appearance should reflect the function of the product e.g. the
aerodynamic shape of car indicate the speed.

• The appearance should reflect the quality of the product.

• The appearance should not be at too much of extra cost unless it is the
prime requirement.

• The appearance should be suitable to the environment in which the product

is used.

• The appearance should be achieved by the effective and economical use of

the material.

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Aspects of Aesthetic Design:

The various aspects of the aesthetic design are

1. Shape (form)
2. Colour
3. Symmetry and balance
4. Material and surface finish
5. Impression and Purpose
6. Contrast
7. Variety
8. Continuity
9. Style
10. Tolerance
11.Noise
12.Proportion
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1). Shape (form):
• There are basic five shapes of the product namely step, taper, shear,
streamline and sculpture.

2. Colour:
• Colour is one of the major important factor to the aesthetic appeal of the
product.
• Such as creating interest, eliminating eye fatigue, assisting memory, directing
attention.
• The choice of colour should be compatible with the conventional ideas of
the operator.
• Morgon has suggested the meaning of the colour as shown in the table.
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3. Symmetry and balance
• Symmetry suggest a state of order but asymmetry can create a greater
sense of interest.

• Both have been used successfully in architecture.

• Symmetrical arrangement of identical component on a board contributes to

an impression or order and tidiness.

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4. Material and surface finish:
• The material and surface finish of the product contribute significantly to the
appearance.

• The production of smooth and harder surface is necessary for greater strength
and bearing load is depend upon the property of material e.g. the material like
stainless steel gives better appearance than the cast iron, plain carbon steel or
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low alloy steel.
• It was found that the bearing properties, wear qualities and fatigue life of
any machine component have a directly related to surface texture.

• Hence to increase the life of any machine component subjected to various

types of load the working and non working surfaces must be very good
finish.

• The component or the product with better surface finish are always
aesthetically pleasing.

• The surface coating processes like spray painting, electroplating, anodizing

etc. greatly enhance the aesthetic appeals of the product.

5) Impression and purpose:

• The product designed with aesthetic not only look nice but should also
create an impression that it work more efficiently.

• The product should gives the impression of the satisfactory performance or

purpose.
• The taper shape gives the impression of strength and stability as shown in
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 6) Contrast:
• Contract is distinction between adjustment elements of the product which
have clearly different characteristics and functions.

• The contrast improves the appearance of the product.

• The choice of the colours can be particularly important.

7) Variety:
• Variety is particularly important in marketing range of products like
refrigerator, fans, stereo system, vehicles, etc.

8) Continuity:
• A product which has good continuity of element is aesthetically appealing.
Continuity is thus associated with the order or tidiness of the product.

• For example – a fillet radius at the change of cross section adds the continuity
to the product and hence improve the appearance.

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9) Style:
• Style is visual quality of the product which set it apart from the rest of the
functional identical products. Good style, with skillful work increase the
product attraction.

10) Tolerance:
• Proper tolerancing of the mating parts improve the aesthetic appeal of the
product.

11) Noise:
• Unwanted noise is disturbing and is suggestive of some malfunction within
the product and hence it greatly reduces the aesthetic appeal.
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 12) Proportion:
• Proportion is concerned with the relationship in size between connected
component or elements of items.
• The spanner shown in fig.(a) satisfies the functional requirement and can
be easy to manufacture. But it is out of proportion hence poor in
appearance. The spanner shown in fig.(b) is in proportion and aesthetically
pleasing.

13) Size:
• Due to advancements in electronic fields, designers can use previously unaccepted
housing for integrated items, so freeing then from many of design constraints.
• Now, design of telephone is an example of integrating the entire telephone circuitry
in a single component providing good balance, proportion and ergonomic styling.

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