Goat Meat
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Goat Meat Production and Quality
Edited by
0. Mahgoub
Department of Animal & Veterinary Sciences, College of Agricultural & Marine
Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, Sultanate of Oman
I.T. Kadim
and
E.C. Webb
0 bi www.cabi.org
CABI is a trading name of CAB International
CABI CABI
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SF383.M35 2011
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2011026537
Contributors
Preface
0. Mahgoub, I.T. Kadim and E.C. Webb
vii
viii Contributors
J.H. Lee Georgia Small Ruminant Research and Extension Center, Fort Valley State Univer-
sity, Fort Valley, GA 31088, USA; E-mail: leej@fvsu.edu
C.D. Lu College of Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resource Management, University of
Hawaii, Hilo, Hawaii 96720, USA; E-mail: chrislu99@gmail.com
0. Mahgoub Department of Animal & Veterinary Sciences, College of Agricultural & Marine
Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, PO Box 34, Al-Khod 123, Sultanate of Oman; E-mail:
osmahgob@squ.edu.om
B.A. McGregor Institute for Technology, Research & Innovation, Deakin University, Gee-
long, Victoria 3217, Australia. Formerly: Livestock Systems Group, Victorian Depart-
ment of Primary Industries, Attwood, Victoria, 3049, Australia; E-mail: bmcgregor@sub.
net.au
K.W. McMillin School of Animal Sciences, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center,
Baton Rouge, Louisiana, LA 70803, USA; E-mail: KMcmillin@agcenter.lsu.edu
P. Morand-Fehr UMR 791 INRA/AgroParisTech, 16 rue Claude Bernard, 75231 Paris cedex
05, France; E-mail: duspiwa@agroparistech.fr
N.H.I. Osman Sudan Open University, Obeid Khatim Street, Arkaweet, Khartoum, Sudan;
E-mail: hudaisam@yahoo.co.uk/hudaisam@gmail.com
F. Pinkerton Retired, Langston University, USA; E-mail: Fpinkerton@austin.rr.com
M. Rekik Ecole Nationale de Medecine Veterinaire, 2020 Sidi Thabet, Tunisia; E-mail:
rekik.mourad@iresa.agrinet.tn
D. Sanchez-Macias Animal Science Department, Veterinary Faculty, Las Palmas de Gran
Canaria University, Arucas, 35413 Las Palmas, Spain; E-mail: dsanchez@becarios.ulpgc.es
J.N.B. Shrestha Dairy and Swine Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-
Food Canada, PO Box 90, Lennoxville Station, 2000 College Street, Sherbrooke, Quebec,
Canada DM 1Z3; E-mail: Jap.Shrestha@agr.gc.ca
L. Simela New Emerging Red Meat Producers Organization, Lynnwood, Pretoria, Republic
of South Africa; E-mail: fsd@nerpo.org.za
E.C. Webb Department of Animal and Wildlife Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria
0002, Republic of South Africa; E-mail: edward.webb@up.ac.zA/Edward.webb@up.ac.za
Preface
Goat Meat Production and Quality consists of 15 chapters and was compiled with the aim
of providing information on basic as well as more advanced aspects of goat meat science to
the wide range of scientists and professionals concerned with goat meat research and edu-
cation. It is also intended to serve as a textbook for university and college students on meat
production from ruminant animals. The goat industry, which has been lagging behind
other livestock industries such as cattle, sheep and pigs, would also benefit from this book.
Goat Meat Production and Quality has been meticulously written by internationally recog-
nized experts and includes the most recent advances in goat meat science. The contributing
authors hail from various parts of the world including Africa, Asia, North and South Amer-
ica, Australia and Europe. The goat was one of the earliest animals to be domesticated.
Over many centuries, goats have served human communities around the world to provide
food, fibre and other products such as leather and manure. For decades, the goat has been
regarded as a major cause of environmental destruction by overgrazing leading to desertifi-
cation. However, more recently, there has been growing recognition of the goat as an ani-
mal that provides sustainable livelihoods for many people, especially in the most deprived
regions of the world. Goats provide valuable animal protein at a very low cost by utilizing
marginal land usually rejected by other livestock to support low-income people in Asia,
Africa and other underdeveloped parts of the world. In Europe, particularly southern Euro-
pean countries, the goat has been used commercially for milk production and cheese mak-
ing, while goat kids serve as a by-product for meat production.
In recent years, a large volume of research has been carried out on goats in various
parts of the world covering a number of production aspects including: nutrition, breeding,
reproduction, health, production and quality. Research findings have been published in
journals and presented at scientific meetings. It is now high time to produce a comprehen-
sive book on goat meat production and quality to benefit goat research, education and the
broader goat industry. Research on goats has been carried out worldwide under different
climates and in different animal production systems. The latter range from intensive dairy
goat systems in Europe to extensive traditional systems in Africa and Asia. The basic ele-
ments of meat production include breeding, reproduction, nutrition and growth, which are
similar across meat-producing species and are of significant economic importance. For
instance, in intensive systems, the cost of animal feed would comprise almost two-thirds
ix
x Preface
of production costs. Under extensive goat production systems, the cost of feeding is much
lower and goat production may be a secondary activity to cropping.
Meat is the major product of the goat, as all goats can produce meat. However, goat
meat is less well known to consumers compared with other meats around the world. None
the less, in some regions in Africa and Asia, goat meat is preferred compared with that from
other livestock. In contrast, meat from young goats (Capretto) is considered a delicacy in
southern Europe and South America. With the wide movements of human populations
across continents in recent times, goat meat markets have expanded to areas such as North
America and Europe. The goat meat industry is not as well developed as that of other spe-
cies such as beef cattle, sheep and pigs. This is mainly because societies consuming goat
meat are mostly in developing countries where the meat industry is not as developed as in
the developed world. None the less, goat meat has been recognized as being leaner than
that from cattle, sheep and pigs. This could make it more attractive to consumers who are
conscious of the health hazards of consuming meat with a high fat content. However, there
are certain aspects regarding goat meat production that affect the perceived quality of goat
meat. Goat meat, especially from mature male goats, has the reputation of having a strong
flavour and smell. In addition, goats are often slaughtered at an older age, usually under
poor pre- and post-slaughtering conditions, which may compromise meat quality.
Goat Meat Production and Quality will cover the most important aspects of goat meat
production and quality. The chapters are essentially detailed reviews with the most up-to-
date publications summarized, integrated and discussed, rather than original papers with
results only from research laboratories. The book comprises two parts: goat meat produc-
tion and goat meat quality. The subjects covered in the book include an extensive review
of the latest situation in the global meat goat sector, followed by a description of production
systems, as well as the potential of tropical goat breeds for meat production, to complement
the global overview. Goat Meat Production and Quality also includes chapters on funda-
mental principles of goat production including genetics and breeding, reproduction and
nutrition. It also covers areas of normal and manipulated growth and development, and
carcass conformation and composition. A chapter with a more practical nature on the role
of subjective and objective evaluation in the production and marketing of meat goats is also
included. The section on goat meat quality addresses the nutritive value and quality char-
acteristics of goat meat, including fatty acids and mineral composition, as well as carcass
characteristics and linear body measurements. The role of nutrition in young goats, such as
the use of milk replacers, and the effect of the feeding system on goat carcasses are also
discussed.
We hope that Goat Meat Production and Quality will add to the currently published
information on goats and become a useful reference on goat meat production and quality.
The editors would like to thank CABI for publishing the book and sincerely acknowl-
edge the contributions of the authors and their collaborators. We would also like to thank
everybody who supports the goat meat production and quality cause around the world,
including goat owners, technical and research staff and students worldwide.
the majority of goats are found in the latter and the least-developed countries (270,123,867).
(Sahlu and Goetsch, 2005). Research is This accounts for 44, 86 and 31% of the total
needed for the development of a more effi- world goat population, respectively (Table 1.1).
cient meat production system while improv- The goat distribution by continent is
ing meat attributes such as carcass and meat presented in Fig. 1.1 (FAOSTAT, 2011).
quality in developing regions. A multidisci- The majority of the goats in the world
plinary approach has been suggested to (60%) are found in Asia. Africa comes sec-
characterize animal production systems for ond with almost one-third of the world's
various interrelated production traits goat population. The Americas and Europe
with special reference to parameters of have 4 and 2%, respectively, while Oceania
interest to farmers (Morand-Fehr et al., has a negligible proportion. Goats are
2004; Alexandre et al., 2010). reported to represent about 30% of Africa's
ruminants and produce about 17% of its
meat and 12% of its milk (Lebbie, 2004).
The major concentration of goats in Africa
1.4 The Worldwide Goat Population is in the sub-Saharan region with 60% of
the total goat population (147 million
The world population and distribution of heads) representing about 80 indigenous
major red-meat-producing animals are pre- breeds raised under various production
sented in Table 1.1 as reported by the Food systems (Lebbie, 2004).
and Agriculture Organization of the United When the statistics are examined by
Nations (FAO) (FAOSTAT, 2011). The total continent, they indicate the importance of
goat population in the world in 2009 was goats in developing regions, particularly in
estimated at 867,968,573 heads. This was Asia and Africa. Goat numbers in Asia and
behind cattle (1,382,241,378), sheep Africa are comparable to those of other live-
(1,071,274,348) and pigs (941,212,507) but stock species. In Africa, the western and
was far more than camels (25,385,468). When eastern parts of the continent are the most
these figures are expressed as domestic herbi- populated with goats, whereas in Asia, the
vore biomass (Wilson, 1984), calculated as southern and eastern parts are the most pop-
population numbers multiplied by mean ulated (Table 1.1). Southern Europe has the
weights (18 kg for goat, 30 kg for sheep, highest goat population within this conti-
206 kg for cattle, etc.), goats are also ranked nent. The high goat population in this region
after cattle and sheep. A significant propor- is mainly composed of dairy goats producing
tion of the world goat population is found in milk primarily for cheese-making in France,
countries defined by the FAO as net food- Italy, Spain and Greece. France, Greece and
importing countries (385,232,718), low- Spain supply about 83% of total goat milk
income food-deficit countries (748,264,358) produced in the EU (Castel et al., 2010).
Table 1.1. Population (number of animals) and distribution of major meat-producing animals in the
world in 2009. (From FAOSTAT, 2011.)
Oceania, 3,404,339
0%
Europe,
15,911,631
2% Africa, 294,871,078
34%
Americas,
Asia, 516,660,762 37,120,763
60% 4%
The goat population in this region has been conventional goat production systems. This
maintained, and in some cases increased, includes meat from male and female young
compared with other livestock species. Goats kids, castrated or intact males and culled
have been moved to areas with reduced soil females. Meat from the latter categories is of
fertility that are therefore not suitable for lower quality. Goat meat is classified
more intensive systems such as cereal crop- according to the age of the goat and is
ping or cattle ranching (Rancourt et al., known as capretto from young animals
2006). Spain is ranked second in terms of (weaned goats) and chevon from older
goat population and third in terms of goat goats.
milk yield within the EU (Castel et al., 2010). The total goat meat production in 2008
The EU has 1.6% of the world's goat popula- was approximately 5 million t (Table 1.3)
tion but produces 13.2% of goat milk and and was far less than mutton, beef and pork
2.0% of goat meat (Castel et al., 2010). (8.3, 65.7 and 103 million t, respectively).
Trends in the numbers of goats, sheep Goat meat contributed approximately 2.7%
and cattle in the world between 1980 and of total red meat production worldwide.
2009 are shown in Fig. 1.2 (FAOSTAT, 2011). This could be attributed to the less devel-
There has been a steady increase in goat num- oped production and marketing systems in
bers in the world over the past three decades. goats compared with other species. Asia
Over the same period, the numbers of sheep produced 70% of the world goat meat
have declined slightly, especially during the (3.5 million t), followed by Africa with
last decade, whereas those of cattle have 23.4% (1.2 million t), while Europe contrib-
increased slightly. The increase in goat num- uted only 2.5% of total world goat meat
bers over the past few decades has been attrib- production (124,139 t). In Asia, the largest
uted to their higher capacity to adapt to contribution came from East Asia (1,882,897
various environments, the development of t). These figures match the pattern of distri-
goat farming in developing countries and the bution of live goats in the world discussed
improved ecological image of goat farming above.
and its products in developed countries Table 1.4 describes goat meat produc-
(Morand-Fehr et al., 2004). tion around the world in terms of heads
Table 1.2 lists 18 countries with the slaughtered, carcass weight and total pro-
highest goat populations in the world, with duction in t. The total number of goats
a range between 1 and 17% of the total slaughtered in 2008 was close to 400 million
world goat population. The top four coun- head around the world, with Asia contribut-
tries are all from Asia, with 45% of the total ing 279 4 million, followed by Africa with 96
world goat population. China and India million. Europe contributed 11 5 million
have the largest goat populations, constitut- head, with the majority in southern Europe.
ing approximately 32% of the total world These numbers come from different produc-
goat population. With Pakistan and Bangla- tion systems and would yield meat of vari-
desh included, the Indian subcontinent has ous qualities. For instance, Asian (3 5 million
a sizeable goat population amounting to t) and African (1.2 million t) goat meat would
approximately 28% of the total world goat generally come from lower-grade carcasses
population. In Africa, Nigeria and Sudan produced from unfinished range animals
have the highest goat populations, followed and would have been obtained from male
by Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Niger, Tanza- goats of various ages, castrated and non-cas-
nia, Burkina Faso and Mali. trated, as well as from older females, which
are culled. Goat meat from Europe would be
a by-product from milk/cheese production
1.5 Contribution of the Goat systems usually in the form of capretto meat
to the Meat Market from young kids. However, there are some
signs of innovation in goat production sys-
Meat is one of the major products from goats tems in some parts of the world, which are
and is the major commodity income under targeting niche markets such as those of
The Global Goat Meat Sector 7
1600000000
1400000000
1200000000
1000000000
0
E 800000000
600000000
400000000
200000000
0 lir a
G1980 G1990 G2000 G2009 S1980 S1990 S2000 S2009 C1980 C1990 C2000 C2009
Animal species/year
E World Africa II America II Asia Europe Oceania
Fig. 1.2. Numbers of goats (G), sheep (S) and cattle (C) in the world between 1980 and 2009
(FAOSTAT, 2011).
Table 1.2. Countries with the highest goat population around the world in 2008
(from FAOSTAT, 2011).
intensive goat production in southern Africa. towards more intensive ones (Primov, 1984).
There is some evidence that traditional goat Meat from such improved systems would be
farmers in northern Brazil have shifted of a higher quality and safer, and would
from opportunistic management strategies involve better processing and packing.
8 O. Mahgoub et al.
Table 1.3. Contributions of goats to world meat production (t) in 2008 (from FAOSTAT, 2011).
Beef and
Region Goat buffalo Sheep Camel Pig Poultry Turkey
Although goat meat supply has increased tering of increasing numbers of young stock
consistently over the past few decades, it still with a consistent erosion of the breeding ani-
cannot meet the demand in many countries mals base, resulting in a higher meat price for
(Devendra, 2010). This has led to the slaugh- goats than for other ruminants (Devendra,
The Global Goat Meat Sector 9
Table 1.4. The world goat meat production in the form of slaughtered heads, yield per carcass and
total production (t) in 2008 (from FAOSTAT, 2011).
Yield/carcass weight
Region Slaughtered (head) (kg/animal) Production (t)
2010). In some countries, the high demand factors ranging from their population to
for goat meat has also led to overslaughtering annual rainfall and natural conditions
and the export of breeding females. (Seleka, 2001). Goat meat production is a
commercial enterprise in only a few coun-
tries in the world including southern Africa
1.6 Goat Production Systems (South Africa, Namibia and Botswana), the
and Marketing southern states of the USA and Mexico
(Casey and Webb, 2010). Goats have an
Goats are mostly kept under traditional, important role in self-sufficient agricultural
extensive and semi-intensive systems systems in many parts of the world. This
around the world. There are four major goat includes milk and cheese in northern coun-
production systems in developing countries: tries and meat production in countries in
rural landless, extensive, crop-based and the tropics and subtropics. Systems of goat
rangeland-based (Devendra, 2010). The production differ around the world. In
small ruminant supply is influenced by the tropics, extensive systems prevail
10 O. Mahgoub et al.
climatic conditions, with animals housed Acceptance of goat meat varies widely
indoors for a significant part of the year. around the world. For instance, goat meat
These systems are also supplemented in was rated by 61% of the Japanese house-
some cases with upland and mountain graz- wives as 'not commonly eaten at home' and
ing in summer under marginal conditions `smelly', and they 'never thought about goat
and share resources with other agricultural meat' (Ozawa et al., 2005). In a survey car-
enterprises (Dyrmundsson, 2006). The cost ried out in Japan, only 16% of respondents
of production and the type and quality of had eaten goat meat. However, it was rated
products under these systems differ greatly by those who consumed it as being more
from those of extensive pastoral tropical tender than pork (Ozawa et al., 2005). On
systems with milk being the major product the other hand, in the developing world,
and meat a by-product. goat meat is well accepted and is purchased
There may be an opportunity for goat on a small scale and in traditional markets.
meat marketing in the developing world In certain parts of the developing world,
because of the declining profitability of tra- such as the humid tropics of Africa, goat
ditional production systems such as tradi- meat is the most important type of meat, as
tional ranching in the USA (Lupton et al., cattle and pig rearing is not practised due to
2008). A promising approach would be disease and religious beliefs (Oludimu and
based on a multiproduct complementary Owokade, 1995).
system. Lupton et al. (2008) investigated a
high-quality mohair-, meat- and hide-
producing system from Angora goats. Spe-
cial housing, feeding and watering facilities 1.8 Marketing of the Meat Goat
allowed the production of clean mohair due
to separation from faeces and urine. Auto- Marketing of goat meat includes marketing
mation of feeding and watering systems live goats as well as carcass and non-carcass
reduced the labour requirements. Under components. Marketing of edible parts of
feedlot and elevated floor systems, the goats the goat is influenced by consumer prefer-
grew faster than those on pasture. Goats ences due to differences in culture, reli-
raised under the elevated floor system pro- gious beliefs and competition with other
duced cleaner fibres, which were suitable meats. Marketing of meat-producing live-
for hand-spinning niche markets. The net stock including goats is done in different
income per head was at its highest for goats ways around the world, with meat moving
raised under elevated floor systems for a along different channels to consumers
niche market. (Roets and Kirsten, 2005). Goat producers in
non-commercialized farming systems use
informal and less reliable marketing sys-
1.7 Acceptability of Goat Meat tems that hold many risks for producers and
consumers compared with commercial sys-
Compared with mutton, beef and pork, goat tems that use well-organized systems with
meat is not as widely distributed, marketed or capital resources, a better infrastructure,
accepted in major world markets for various institutions, legal frameworks and markets
reasons. Even in countries with a high goat (Roets and Kirsten, 2005).
population, the consumption of goat meat is Goats are marketed in traditional sub-
not as high as for meats from other species. sistence markets around the developing
For instance, in Kenya, beef was found to world where most goats are found and their
form the highest proportion of red meats con- meat consumed. These markets are charac-
sumed at home, whereas chevon and mutton terized by a small number of animals sold
were negligible (Cana li Gamba, 2005). In on market days by goat owners or their fam-
Sudan, which is ranked among countries with ily members. Women are mostly responsi-
a high goat population, goat meat is regarded ble for goat rearing and marketing. Oludimu
as inferior to mutton and beef. and Owokade (1995) reported that 95% of
12 O. Mahgoub et al.
goat sellers in a local market in Nigeria were Often, the demand by consumers of particu-
women. Only 20% of them were owners, lar ethnic and religious groups cannot be
while the others were apprentices, agents or met due to the absence of a reliable supply
relatives of the owners or were learning of goat meat, especially in urban areas of the
the trade. USA. Meat goats are rarely the primary ani-
Animal weight is not the only consider- mal production enterprise in the USA, but
ation for the marketing of goats and, surpris- they are becoming increasingly important
ingly, is not commonly determined in contributors to the income of many produc-
traditional and subsistence markets. Goat ers (Glimp, 1995). Meat-goat marketing is
sellers in Nigeria estimate the goat price on highly unstructured in the USA, yet prices
the basis of size, hair coat condition, age, are generally higher per unit weight than
health, meat formation and sex (Oludimu other red meat-producing species (Glimp,
and Owokade, 1995). However, studies 1995). Capretto, meat from milk-fed kids, is
have revealed that the major factors that known to be in high demand and short sup-
determine goat prices in traditional markets ply in northern Mexico.
are weight, sex and age (Oludimu and There is an opportunity for goat meat to
Owokade, 1995). Risk, in the form of theft be marketed in niche markets. One of these
and mortality, is borne solely by the traders. growing markets is organic meat produc-
Some goat meat products are character- tion, with Australia and China being the
ized by 'typicality', which indicates that a most important producers (Lu et al., 2010).
product is made in a specific area with spe- There are no obvious differences in effi-
cific characteristics (Rubino et al., 1999). ciency of production in terms of carcass
These include small goat carcasses in some yield and conformation between organic
countries and some types of preserved and non-organic goat meat systems (Lu
meats in Africa. The consumer's attitude et al., 2010). However, consumers perceived
and consumption behaviour can affect the organic goat meat to be safe and healthy, and
growth of livestock sections (Juma et al., to support production systems that empha-
2010). The demand for small ruminant meat size animal welfare. Organic goat produc-
increases concomitant with increasing tion contributes to the alleviation of poverty
income or cost, as consumers perceive small for producers who rely on marginal land for
ruminant meat to be a quality meat com- their livelihoods, while meeting the increas-
pared with beef (Juma et al., 2010). Market- ing demand for organic products globally.
ing of goats and their products is also Nutritional strategies that are naturally
affected by changes in economic trends occurring, low cost and easy to apply can
such as globalization, which add new chal- improve the productive performance of
lenges to goat meat marketing. Globaliza- goats and render organic production profit-
tion has initiated new demands by retailers able and successful (Lu, 2011). Adequate
as a result of the demand from consumers protein intake enhances immunity and
for tractability, quality and consistency of improves both resistance and resilience of
supply. Consumers prefer specialized and the host to endoparasites and diseases.
relatively low-volume food products (Roets Organic goat production relies on high-
and Kirsten, 2005). forage systems; therefore, understanding
The major factors that hinder goat meat plant biomass accumulation, eating behav-
marketing may be sociologically related iour, seasonal fluctuations and environmen-
(Morand-Fehr et al., 2004). For instance, in tal interactions can lead to more sustainable
some countries, rearing of goats or eating organic production while maintaining
goat meat are related to the lower-income diverse plant landscapes. Legumes are desir-
able for organic goat production because
classes of society. These issues have to be
addressed when marketing of meat and they contain high levels of protein and are
meat products from goats is considered. suitable browsing for goats. Secondary plant
In northern America, the demand for compounds at a concentration below the
goat meat is believed to exceed the supply. level of toxicity can be utilized for disease
The Global Goat Meat Sector 13
prevention, control and treatment, and may metabolic disorders associated with preg-
fill the vacuum from the absence of the use nancy, parturition and lactation (Lu et al.,
of chemicals in organic goat production. In 2005). The use of bioactive plants, tradi-
combination with other naturally occurring tional herbal or ethno-veterinary medicine
materials, they have the potential to improve may present economic and sustainable
nutrient digestion and utilization in goats. alternatives if a greater understanding of the
Goats are versatile at harvesting plants and mechanisms, interactions with other nutri-
able to survive under adverse foraging con- ents and levels of toxicity can be achieved.
ditions (Lu, 1988). The tolerance of goats Chinese herbal medicines, many of which
towards the bitterness of secondary plant have antibacterial, antiviral and antipara-
compounds can play an anthelmintic role sitic properties, merit further studies and
and make goats more suitable for high-forage verification, and may be promising in
organic production systems than other rumi- organic goat production (Lu, 2011).
nant species. Rapid fetal growth associated There are also niche markets for young
with the physical fill of forage limits feed kids in Jordan, southern Turkey and south-
intake during late pregnancy and therefore ern Syria, often coupled with fattening sys-
presents a challenge for nutritional balance tems because of the high value of kid meat
in goats under high-forage organic produc- (Ihiguez, 2004). Another niche market for
tion systems. Understanding regulation of goat meat is medicinal use. For instance, the
intake, fibre digestion and utilization can Korean native black goat is used in Korea
lead to nutritional balance, minimizing for its medicinal properties.
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2 Goat Meat Production Systems
characteristics (Galal, 2005; Shrestha and subsistence enterprise, and the benefits of
Fahmy, 2005). According to the Food and such systems still surpass the disadvan-
Agriculture Organization of the United tages (Lebbie, 2004).
Nations (FAO, 1999), there are now about It is now estimated that 90% of the cur-
570 breeds of goats in the goat database. The rent world goat population of about 650 mil-
domestication of goats signalled the start of lion occur in Asia, Africa, Central America
goat production in different systems and and the Caribbean, where goat production is
placed significant responsibility on goat associated primarily with subsistence agri-
keepers; hence the need to study and under- culture (Casey et al., 2003). Asia (71%) and
stand goat production systems, as well as Africa (22%) produce most of the world's
the quality of products from animal origin. goat meat (FAO, 1999). The collapse of the
It is important to understand the goat fibre industry in Australia during the
domestication of goats because this pro- 1800s resulted in the release of goats in feral
cess, as well as the migration of goats to dif- flocks and this is regarded as the origin of
ferent parts of the world, influenced the Australian feral goats (Werdi Pratiwi et al.,
type of production systems that developed 2007). It is estimated that there are now
over the centuries. However, in most live- between 4 and 6 million feral goats in
stock production systems, goats were Australia.
regarded as easy-care animals and thus
received little attention in terms of selec-
tion and breed improvement. The well-
known Bezoar, Savannah and Nubian goat 2.3 What do We Mean by a 'System'
breeds descended from the Bezoar (Capra of Goat Production?
aegagrus), Markhor (Capra aegagrus fal-
coner]) and Ibex (Capra aegagrus ibex) dur- A 'system' in the context of livestock pro-
ing the migration of nomadic pastoralists duction can be considered as the integration
from Asia to the west (Mediterranean coun- of all the factors that influence the manage-
tries), east (Iran and Afghanistan, Turkistan, ment of the goat and entire goat enterprise.
Mongolia and North China) and later via An existing system of goat production and
the Khyber Pass to India (Shrestha and the way the goats are managed might be the
Fahmy, 2005). Many of the later goat breeds result of the way things were created, a
still share similar phenotypic features, result of the 'balance of nature' or a result of
although they are kept in a variety of pro- experience after many years of 'trial and
duction systems. error'. In the evaluation of a system of goat
Colonists from Spain and Portugal production, we should also consider whether
took Anglo-Nubian goats to the Americas, the production system is improving, deterio-
while those from France and the UK took rating or stable, and whether it is productive
similar goats to North America, Australia, and sustainable. Humans play an important
New Zealand and South Africa. The devel- role in the management of goat production
opment of the Boer goat in the Eastern systems, and management decisions often
Cape in South Africa during the 1920s is have far-reaching consequences for the
regarded as one of the cornerstones of the animals and the environment.
international goat industry because it Management of goat production sys-
emphasized the possibilities of selection tems will include decisions about the breed
for carcass and production characteristics or type of goat, housing systems, breeding
in goats. Many countries are now import- and feeding methods, and health manage-
ing more prolific breeds of goat to increase ment (Donkin et al., 1996). All these factors
the growth characteristics and meat yields will result in a system of management that
of local goats by crossbreeding and breed determines the production system. Overall,
improvement programmes (Casey and the key factor of any goat production system
Webb, 2010). However, goat production for lies in the competence and commitment of
meat remains a predominantly small-scale the owner or manager.
Goat Production Systems 17
The success of a production system kid production and purebred buck and doe
depends on the following aspects: production. Herd sizes range from five to
several thousand does, depending on the
Long-term sustainability
factors mentioned above. According to
Appropriateness for the environment Casey et al. (2003), small-scale farmers can
Profitability
keep from two to three breeding does, with
Personal satisfaction. an average of between five and eight does
and one buck, in tropical and subtropical
parts of Africa. Larger commercial herds
2.4 Goat Production Functions often consist of several hundred breeding
and Production Systems does in a ratio of one buck to 25 does.
Emphasis should be placed on the role of
Goats are equally well adapted to consume does in production because of the influ-
and utilize leaves, grass, forbs and shoots of ences on reproduction and growth that
shrubs - goats are thus regarded as grazers they contribute. Well-managed production
and browsers (Du Plessis et a/., 2004). Goats systems can generate weaned kid crops in
also possess unique characteristics to adapt excess of 130% per year, so the prolificacy,
to harsh environments (Alexandre and milk production and pre-weaning growth
Mandonnet, 2005). These unique character- contributions by does are important in
istics enable them to thrive in a large variety achieving this level of productivity.
of ecological regions around the world and Goats represent a small niche in many
in different production systems. developed countries, but they contribute
The varying levels of financial commit- significantly to the livelihoods of rural peo-
ment, physical resources and site-specific ple across the globe, and form a viable link
management fall into several general types, in the agricultural production chain to gen-
including: (i) smallholder intensively man- erate an income and provide employment
aged; (ii) smallholder purebred; (iii) large- opportunities for women, children and the
scale extensively managed; (iv) hobby-type elderly. Small ruminants have a large
for personal enjoyment; and (v) specialized impact on the economy and food supply of
herds for production of show stock or con- people in subtropical and tropical coun-
trol of brushy, weedy or forest areas. Start- tries. This benefit is often not shown in
ing the goat enterprise may be the most national statistics because of informal trad-
difficult aspect because of all of the deci- ing and slaughtering.
sions that must be made. Fundamental to Goats are often neglected but have
success in any livestock enterprise is the served mankind with meat, milk, hair,
gathering of sufficient useful information so leather and products including manure for
that wise decisions on management and many centuries (Webb et al., 2005). It is also
production practices can be made. Failures widely accepted that goats serve as a source
often occur because, for example, the enter- of high-quality protein for rural families
prise starts with excessive ambition or mainly because of their small size and
grows beyond the management ability; the affordable nature. The relatively small size
numbers or kinds of goats do not match the of goat carcasses is beneficial for small-scale
fencing, facility, geography and climatic farmers because the carcass can be con-
conditions; marketing - an important aspect sumed within a short period of time and the
of the production system - is not adequately risk of meat spoilage is reduced. A less well-
carried out; or incorrect information is known fact is that people in many rural
received. countries consume more goat milk than cow
Commercial meat-goatenterprises milk. Traditional milk goats and their
account for an overwhelming majority of crosses are also used for meat production
the meat-goat production systems because (Braker et al., 2002). Many poor people and
of the desire and need for economic small-scale farmers use goats as a financial
returns. The primary types are slaughter reserve, often due to a lack of access to
18 K.W. McMillin et al.
financial institutions. In commercial and systems, but much of the land is either
communal systems, goats are often used as under- or overutilized, leading to degrada-
controllers of bush encroachment. These tion. The misperception is that 'small scale'
ubiquitous animals often outnumber cattle is often viewed as non-productive, non-
and other production animals in many commercial subsistence agriculture. How-
regions. Their role in sustaining agricultural ever, the evidence is that small-scale
production systems in many resource-poor agriculture has the potential to generate
areas clearly shows that goats are vital to employment and income opportunities in
economic development. rural areas irrespective of limited access to
Environmentalists generally consider land and credit. Commercial farming for
a sustainable livestock system to be an oxy- metropolitan markets is increasing in Asia,
moron (Basset and Crummey, 1993) Africa and central and South America
because such systems are perceived to (Casey et al., 2003). Security of land tenure
cause severely overgrazed hillsides or and ownership influences the ability and
compacted tropical soils, particularly willingness of farmers to adopt new tech-
where there is individual livestock owner- nologies that will improve their production
ship but the animals are kept on communal and therefore should never be underesti-
grazing lands (Bembridge, 1987). In devel- mated. Land is a scarce resource that needs
oped countries, livestock are often associ- to be conserved.
ated with human health problems that are Goats account for about 30% of Africa's
a result of overconsumption of animal fat. ruminant livestock, with sub-Saharan
Livestock are blamed for both their direct Africa accounting for 60% of the total goat
and indirect negative impact on the envi- population in Africa. Goats are important in
ronment, but even livestock critics admit marginal agricultural land areas and play a
that, if managed correctly, livestock can significant role in the food chains and over-
play an important role in agricultural all livelihoods in poor resource-households.
development without any negative impact Poverty, combined with a lack of modern
on the environment. The fact is that in agricultural skills and low-input practices,
many countries the largest part of the coun- results in poor productivity due to inade-
try is suitable only for extensive livestock quate animal nutrition, prevalence of dis-
production, and in most of these regions eases and parasites, and poor milk and meat
goats are particularly well adapted. production (Lebbie, 2004). Tick diseases
Goats are more often poorly managed may cause high mortality, which will coun-
and this is attributed to their ability to sur- ter high incidences of twinning (Masika and
vive under harsh conditions and also Mafu, 2004).
because most people in rural areas rear
goats for their subsistence purposes to sup-
port their families (Braker et al., 2002). This
explains why goat farmers seldom consider 2.5 Types of Goat Production
the possibilities of increasing production Systems
through either cross-breeding or artificial
insemination. A very important aspect in 2.5.1 Subsistence rearing
this regard is the awareness of risk by
resource-poor farmers and their emphasis Subsistence rearing is when livestock activ-
on minimizing it. Under such conditions, ity is the sole activity of the herder and his
animals that are hardy against the vagaries family. They raise animals to support their
of droughts, disease and poor management families and the surplus is exchanged in
are more attractive options than more pro- order to procure household necessities,
ductive breeds that are vulnerable to these with the use of money reduced to the mini-
conditions (Braker et al., 2002). mum. Animals have a social role, such as
In the largest part of Africa and Asia, being used as loans, passing them on as an
goats form part of subsistence farming inheritance, gifts and lobola (`bride price').
Goat Production Systems 19
exercise or unbalanced diet and feet prob- herd is communal, while individuals or one
lems may arise through excessively long or more families own the livestock.
hooves (Kilgour and Dalton, 1984). How- Livestock in many rural areas in the
ever, these conditions can be limited by pre- developing countries are regarded as
venting inbreeding (Webb and Mamabolo, wealth, and a man's social standing is mea-
2004). Intensive systems provide maximum sured by the size of his flock rather than
protection from uncontrollable environ- money or other possessions (Poostchi,
mental factors and give complete control 1987). Many livestock herders use livestock
over the destructive aspects of the goats' for the payment of bride price (Poostchi,
feeding habits. 1987; Maree and Casey, 1993). Here, the
bridegroom's family is socially required to
present animals to the bride's family before
2.6.3 Tethering the marriage ceremony takes place. Large
numbers of livestock are kept as a form of
Tethering is the practice where goats are insurance against drought and famine.
confined or movement is controlled in order
The aim of most communal goat own-
to prevent them from wandering and dam- ers is an unlimited increase in the number
aging neighbouring crops. In this system, of animals owned. Therefore, numbers and
goats are often pegged to rope about 3 m in not productivity is the main objective. Each
length and by this they are forced to browse stockowner finds that he gains by maximiz-
weeds or other undesirable plants. The dis- ing the number of his animals, even though
advantage of this system is that water is the result is deteriorating resources. Maree
and Casey (1993) confirmed that each stock-
only provided when goats are shifted to
shelter at night. Very few or no concentrate owner often appears to prefer to take the
salt or mineral licks are provided. It is only chance that his animals will survive, rather
occasionally that supplements, household than reduce numbers in anticipation of
scraps, small quantities of grain or their by- deteriorating conditions.
products are given. There are some recom- Usually, stocking rate is not related to
mendations that regular changing of the carrying capacity, and livestock productiv-
tether will introduce goats to new pasture ity falls far below the genetic potential. The
and that a running tether is preferable to a problem is that, where collective action to
fixed one.
control stock numbers is socially and eco-
nomically possible, collective effort is sel-
dom individually attractive and hence will
occur rarely unless there is deliberate inter-
2.7 Farming Systems vention by external agencies. Voluntary
agreement to reduce stock numbers is not in
2.7.1 Communal system an individual's interest unless everyone has
to do the same or there is local agreement or
In this system, the relationship between collective action. Malnutrition is the most
communal goat farmers/owners and their important cause of low production rates
animals is not only an economic one; social and high mortality rates in communal sys-
security is the main objective, not produc- tems. Often, not even the most patent and
tivity (Maree and Casey, 1993). Livestock obvious need for supplementary feeding is
are not raised primarily for meat but as a adopted to prevent mortalities.
way of capital savings and as an important
source of milk and manure. Livestock are
only slaughtered on special occasions such 2.7.2 Communal goat production
as weddings and festivals or when it is felt
that they are about to die. Animals are also In communal goat production systems, the
slaughtered for religious purposes. Nor- focus is generally on free-ranging goats, graz-
mally, the land or grazing area used by the ing around the village, old cultivated fields
Goat Production Systems 21
Table 2.1. Performance of indigenous and cross-bred (Thai native x Anglo-Nubian) goats raised
under village and improved management systems (adapted from Milton et al., 1991).
Production (females)
Birth weight (kg) NA 1.7 2.0
Weight at:
3 months 6.8 9.2 11.2
6 months 10.0 12.4 16.1
12 months 13.0 20.0 26.7
18 months 17.3 24.1 32.4
24 months 21.5 29.5 38.0
Reproduction
Kidding rate ( %) 190 161 171
Pre-weaning kid mortality ( %) 29.1 5.0 6.3
Annual adult mortality ( %) 7.2 4.7 1.7
Body composition (males)
No. goats 10 23 12
Dressing ( %) 45.1 45.7 45.2
Saleable ( %) 70.9 71.4 71.9
Muscle ( %) 70.7 68.4 66.6
Bone ( %) 18.0 18.2 17.6
Total fat ( %) 5.1 8.4 8.7
Muscle:bone ratio 4.0 3.8 3.8
of stock routes with watering points temporary feeding until the next move
and rest areas. Control posts can then (Poostchi, 1987).
be installed to ensure that animals
being moved are appropriately pro-
tected against the most important dis- 2.9 Problems Experienced by
ease problems they might carry or be Small-scale Goat Farmers
exposed to en route. The aim is to
reduce contact between groups in tran-
sit and with stock in the areas through The problems experienced by small farmers
which they pass. include: insecure and fragmented land
rights, non-viable and small farm units,
overstocking and deterioration of land and
general lack of support infrastructure, water
2.8.2 Transhumance and sedentary supplies, a transport network, financial
pastoralism support, and extension and support ser-
vices. Legislative policy and institutional
`Transhumance' is where a farmer moves development have been inequitable and
his animals between two (or more) specific have aggravated the plight of the disadvan-
climatically different farms or areas accord- taged. These problems have contributed to
ing to a fixed seasonal pattern. In South low levels of production and underutiliza-
Africa, livestock farmers used to have a tion of arable land resources, despite the
`summer farm' on the highveld and a 'win- relatively high agricultural potential of
ter farm' on the lowveld. This strategy some of these areas. This was supported by
solved the problems related to the decreas- the International Fund for Agricultural
ing nutritional value of the sourveld on the Development (IFAD, 1992), which stated
highveld in winter. that traditional 'African' land tenure sys-
tems lead to underutilization of high-
potential land, thus putting pressure on
2.8.3 Primitive herding marginal land, which then degrades rap-
idly. This has resulted in rural areas becom-
This system of agriculture represents a ing more dependent on food imports. A
study of commercial goat production opera-
step forward and is an improvement on
the system of gathering. Here, the product tions in north-eastern Brazil showed that
is the animal and the investment is low-income families and families of average
labour that is needed to increase the income produced the same meat product
types, while cooperatives of small-size rural
supply of the product. Most primitive
herding occurs in regions where shrubs, families produced meat of higher quality
bunch grasses and short grasses grow and and price, and small rural families who
where humidity is low, rainfall unreliable partnered with slaughterhouses produced
and the climate arid. Goats constitute the processed and higher-value products (Vidal
and Dias, 2000).
major herds of livestock found in desert
regions.
In the semi-arid and arid regions,
vegetation is sparse and the amount of 2.9.1 Infrastructure
feed available for animals and their fodder
is very limited, so the search for fodder The term 'infrastructure' in this context is
is never-ending. The herdsmen leave usually taken to mean the existence of
their animals in one place to graze on roads, electricity and water supplies in a
any type of vegetation they can find district of the country. It can also be used in
until there is no more to graze; then they a more restricted sense to mean these
move to another place where the meagre resources at the farm level. For example, the
supply of forage and water provides development of an efficient grazing system
24 K.W. McMillin et al.
traditional leaders. However, in such a case, 2. The price of land may bear little rela-
the communal ownership of land is a para- tion to its productive potential.
dox when compared with the individual
Therefore, the short-term economic
ownership of livestock. Because grazing is
perceived to be 'free' and without cost, ani- forces that apply to a farmer may have
mal numbers increase to well above the sus-
effects that are detrimental to long-term
tainable carrying capacity. Deterioration of sustained productivity, especially to the
the vegetation and poor productivity of the natural vegetation.
animals are almost inevitable.
In addition, particularly at the level of
A distinction should be made between the subsistence or small-scale farmer, the
different concepts relating to communal usual economic criteria may not be appli-
grazing: cable. In the context of 'household econom-
ics', the allocation of time to work or
1. Open-access grazing. This refers to obligatory social activities may be more
communal grazing where there is no important than the economic (monetary)
control over animal numbers or system factors usually considered (Low, 1986).
of usage. The environment becomes
degraded. Marketing
2. Communal grazing with controls. It is
possible to have communal grazing For a farmer to enter the commercial envi-
where the community agrees among ronment, a market of some sort is required.
themselves to limit the number of ani- This may depend on infrastructure (e.g.
mals, and to ensure that some form of roads, communications) and on a distribu-
rotational grazing is practised. tion network for the products. There is no
value in producing things for which there is
Nevertheless, the communal form of
land tenure is often perceived to be a major no market (beyond subsistence require-
limitation in efforts to improve productivity ments). Marketing is a skilled profession,
of the natural vegetation and the animals and farmers may have little aptitude or
using it as a source of feed. Land tenure is a experience in this aspect, as they are
highly sensitive political issue (Bembridge, normally fully committed to production
1987).
activities. The development of profitable
marketing channels is critically important
Economics for the sustainability of farming systems.
Such channels are often lacking in develop-
Economics has sometimes been classified as ing areas, contributing to overpopulation of
a human behavioural science. It is therefore livestock, deterioration of the environment
an important social factor. Money is usually and continuing poverty. Cattle in these
the main measure of economic activity or the areas are usually kept for reasons other than
value placed on goods or services. In some commercial gain, such as for social customs,
countries, the government may have consid- religious ceremonies or as a store of wealth.
erable control over agricultural activities Cattle are usually owned by the wealthier
through legislation. This control can bring members of society, and goats are therefore
stability in pricing and production but at the more likely to be associated with those of
cost of reduced efficiency and reduced lower social rank, who have few resources.
growth. The concept of market economics is
in favour more recently and is supposed to
bring greater efficiency. However, these con- 2.10 Production Systems and Natural
cepts may be less applicable in terms of farm- Resources
ing systems, because of two main factors:
1. Many farming developments are long- Natural resources consist primarily of soil,
term by their very nature (e.g. develop- climate, vegetation and animals. The land
ing a breeding herd). available for use may be limited in an area
26 K.W. McMillin et al.
or in its productive capacity. Farming sys- redroot pigweed and crabgrass grown in full
tems are influenced by the soil in a particu- sun or in pecan tree shade indicated that
lar area, and soil fertility depends mainly there was competition for moisture between
on the geological formations from which the the herbaceous forages and trees in periods
soil was derived. Other soil factors that of low rainfall, and forbs tended to survive
need to be considered include soil type, pH longer in full sun mixed forages than in
and erosion. tree-shaded mixes, while grasses increased
The climate of a region or farm may in the pastures over time (Goodwin et al.,
vary greatly in terms of rainfall, environ- 2002). The average daily gains of buck kid
mental temperature and humidity. The goats was higher on oak browse and rice
quantity, frequency and reliability of rain- straw than on pine browse or fermented
fall are extremely important in planning pine browse due to the higher daily forage
and managing a production system, because intakes associated with the types of browse
these factors influence the type and quality giving the highest weight gains (Choi et al.,
of vegetation. Water supplies are important 2006). Goats prefer some tropical legume
not only for the growth of natural vegetation forages more than others, which affects
but also as drinking water for animals. In their intake and thus body weight gain
some areas, the availability of water from (Kanani et al., 2006).
boreholes or water from riverbeds for use in Forages often lack sufficient protein for
water points is a limiting factor. growth. Protein supplementation of hay fed
Vegetation influences the growth, ad libitum increased total dry matter intake,
development and production characteris- decreased feed conversion, increased
tics of goats (Table 2.2). The available growth rate and gave higher proportions of
vegetation can be subdivided in two catego- lean meat percentages (Mtenga and Kitaly,
ries, natural vegetation and developed 1990). Dry matter intake was similar, but
vegetation. Natural vegetation varies greatly average daily gain was greater for 13.8 and
between regions and even on different parts 22.1% crude protein in consumed dry
of the same farm, depending on soil, climate matter than for 9.3% crude protein, although
and topography. Developed vegetation the benefit from more than 14% crude
includes planted forests, crops and pas- protein was minimal (Prieto et al., 2000).
tures. Developed vegetation can provide a Boer x Spanish kid goats preferred pelleted
significant resource that will influence the supplements over meal or liquid supple-
type of production system. However, if the ments, and supplements based on maize or
natural vegetation is replaced, this must be soybean meal over those based on molasses
justified by improvements in productivity or fishmeal. Consumption of dry matter was
or improvements of the environment that higher with stored forages than with fresh
will warrant the expenditure. forages, with fresh cereal grain forages pre-
In general, goats will prefer browse ferred over clover or Brassica spp. forages
over grasses, while body weight gains will (Bateman et al., 2004). The growth rate of
be higher with more concentrated diets. indigenous Greek goat kids was higher
However, goats will also usually have a when treated with an anthelmintic or sup-
higher proportion of fat in their body com- plemented with dietary protein, which
position with increased energy intakes. The would provide nutritional protection for the
consumption of forages was found to be body against parasites (Arsenos et al., 2009).
positively related to the forage dry matter Goats kids raised in an intensive sys-
content (Bateman et al., 2004). The average tem (concentrates and enclosed area) had
daily gain of Spanish kid goats was higher heavier slaughter weights than those on
when fed chopped lucerne compared with semi-intensive management systems (Bahia
mixed grass hay, with no influence on grass, millet, oats, crimson clover, browse
carcass characteristics due to diet or sex and forb pastures), but carcass composition
(Wildeus et al., 2007). Grazing studies with was not affected by the diet/management
Boer x Spanish does on mixes of legumes, system (Johnson and McGowan, 1998). The
Table 2.2. Average daily gain (g) of kid meat goats with different forages and diet supplements.
Dietary treatment
SS with
Sorghum-Sudan hay intake-limited
Complete feed supplement Intake-limited supplement (SS) SS with supplement supplement
5-month-old Boer <-> Spanish 152 123 22 181 172
doesb
average daily gain and feed efficiencies of goats grazed and fed a commercial pellet
goat kids were higher with increased con- was found to be more tender and juicy than
centrates (maize and barley) than with from goats fed hay and a commercial pellet
increased forages (lucerne hay) (Haddad, feed (Carlucci et al., 1998).
2005), but the degree of carcass fatness with There are many different breeds of
relative dietary forage:concentrate ratios goats, as discussed earlier in the chapter.
was not given. Goats fed ad libitum on con- Some of these breeds belong to defined
centrate pellet diets and Rhodes grass hay breeds, where the owners are members of
in a feedlot grew rapidly and had decreased breed societies, which keep records and
muscle:fat ratios with increased weight promote the interests of the breed and the
(Mahgoub et al., 2005). owners. However, in many parts of the
Boer crossbreeds had higher post- world, no such organizational structures
weaning average daily gains and dry matter exist, and the concept of 'breed' is therefore
intake than Spanish goats consuming a con- less closely defined. Nevertheless, distinct
centrate diet (Cameron et al., 2001). Con- types of goat can be identified, and there are
centrates at 50% of the diet (the remainder clear differences between the types, which
was lucerne hay) had improved weight are usually adapted to specific areas (Table
gain, while dry matter intake was less in 2.3). Registered breeds usually have distinc-
Boer crossbred kid goats fed in confinement tive features (e.g. coat colour), agreed upon
than with 70 and 90% levels of dry-rolled by the members of the breed societies, and
maize as the concentrate (Corrigan et al., goats not meeting these standards are not
2008). accepted. The appearance of a breed is
Feeding intensively (concentrate and
leaves) or weaning at 3 months increased important to establish the 'brand' of the
the weight gain and costs of the weight gain breed, which distinguishes it from other
in kid goats compared with a semi-intensive breeds. Some breed societies specify mini-
system (same diet plus 8 h grazing daily) mum production characteristics in terms of
or weaning at 2 months of age (Nagpal performance, and this should be a desirable
et al., 1995). Grainless diets varying in characteristic for any breed. In this way, the
concentrate:roughage ratios under feedlot breed may be 'developed' to become very
conditions affected average daily gain, but efficient at production. For example, the
carcass traits were similar except for the recognized dairy breeds are efficient milk
dressing percentage (Sebsibe et al., 2007). producers. However, 'indigenous' types of
Meat goats fed high energy levels have animals may never have been consciously
increased juiciness, tenderness and texture selected by their owners but can still have
of goat meat, but the fat content is also valuable characteristics such as disease
increased, resulting in lower consumer resistance, which will have been estab-
acceptability of the meat than if their diet lished in the breed by 'survival of the fittest'
contains higher amounts of roughage over a long period of time, perhaps hun-
(McMillin and Brock, 2005). Meat from dreds of years.
Table 2.3. Growth and gain efficiency of kid goats of different meat-goat breeds.
aWether kid goats (4 months old) were fed 75% concentrate for two consecutive 12-week periods (Urge et al., 2004).
bADG, Average daily gain.
bEfficiency was defined as weight gain per weight of feed.
Goat Production Systems 29
Goats have adapted to different tropical plants and predators that occur in the
climates. Goats in arid and semi-arid cli- region. It is important to be aware of these
mates tend to be larger in size (30-50 kg) and to incorporate this knowledge in all
with long legs and ears and increased mobi- management decisions. Many diseases can
lization of fat during periods of feed short- be controlled with modern medications and
age, and will browse over long distances vaccines, while the use of disease-resistant
due to resistance to dehydration and faecal or disease-tolerant animals also provides a
desiccation. Goats adapted to subtropical way to ensure a high level of productivity.
environments are intermediate in size and Other options include the strategic and sci-
have a lower water turnover. The adapta- entific use of anthelmintics and manage-
tions of goats to humid and subhumid cli- ment programmes such as the FAMACHA
mates have resulted in small or dwarf sizes system for control of internal parasites (Bath
(10-25 kg) with reduced panting and evapo- et al., 2001).
rative cooling, low metabolic rates and Within a goat herd, a clearly estab-
reduced walking ability due to increased lished and stable hierarchy order develops
forage availability (Devendra, 1987). and is maintained, and the dominant and
Reproduction is among the more impor- subordinate animals become more selective
tant aspects of goat production for meat with available forages, while the differences
because the small animal size results in in feeding become more general in nature
minimal meat per animal. Profitability when forages are in shorter supply. Surpris-
relies on having numerous kid goats born ingly, the middle range of does in the hier-
and raised so that marketing efficiencies archy are more productive in terms of milk
and economies are obtained. production, number of kids, kid birth
The number of young produced during weight and pre-weaning weights (Barroso
the lifetime of a breeding female is of major et al., 2000).
economic importance in Africa, as indi- Most farming systems impose con-
cated by Wilson (1992). The productivity of straints on the behaviour of the livestock
small ruminants during their lifetime can be being farmed, but an understanding of the
improved by lowering the age of first partu- animal by the farmer can reduce stress and
rition and by increasing litter size provided improve productivity. The following
that parturition intervals are less than a should be encouraged: evaluation of stock-
year. There is a time in the life of the animal ing density relative to animal age, size and
when the advantage of producing more class; separation of sexes except during
progeny becomes an inconvenience. Partu- breeding; prevention of isolation of indi-
rition intervals become longer with age and viduals; avoidance of regrouping; sufficient
litter size remains stable or is reduced. It feed trough space; minimization of human
then becomes profitable to cull the aged ani- manipulation of newborn kid goats; not
mals to enable a larger number of young weaning until kid goats are 6-7 weeks of
animals to be kept in the flock. age; allowing older and more experienced
Other aspects that need to be consid- goats to become herd leaders in extensive
ered in any production system include dis- grazing systems; and daily contact between
eases that affect low stock numbers, internal humans and goats (Miranda-de la Lama and
parasites, external parasites, poisonous Mattiello, 2010).
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3 Carcass Traits of Hardy Tropical Goats
it may be argued that production efficiency programmes economically viable for local
should be evaluated for whole integrated producers. Particularly when considering
systems rather than for individual animals rapid growth and heavy carcasses, the ques-
(Alexandre et a/., 2010). In that respect sev- tion that frequently arises is the importance
eral elements must be taken into account: of body size (Andersen, 1978; Dickerson,
1978; Ogink, 1993). Tropical animal pro-
Many native tropical breeds, particu- duction systems are characterized by a large
larly goats, are not only dual-pupose variety of breeds that differ widely in
but multi-purpose (Wilson, 2009). Gen-
mature size combined with variable farming
erally, goats are defined as multifunc- systems (Ogink, 1993; Wilson, 2009). To
tional animals. For instance, Peacock overcome what is considered as poor meat
(1996) has listed at least 20 useful prod-
production potential, attempts have been
ucts and services from goats.
made to increase low output levels by intro-
The capacity of livestock of the tropics
ducing breeds of larger size. This was based
to utilize low-quality feed and convert on the belief that exotic breeds are superior
it to high-quality protein for human in terms of high yields and growth rates.
use is essential to enable farmers to The latter approach overlooks performance-
make more efficient use of available limiting effects of a variety of environmen-
local feeds (e.g. local roughages or non-
tal factors on specialized exotic breeds
conventional feeds). This was highly (Ogink, 1993). Over the past 70-80 years,
recommended by Preston and Leng there has been controversy about the size
(1987), who called for matching live- of animals. For example in sheep, Dicker-
stock systems with available resources,
son (1978) reported that larger or smaller
which is even more relevant today.
body size may have important biological
Food production systems in developing
advantages for adaptation to climate, feed
countries are moving into marginal resources, predators and diseases, maternal
areas for which sustainable farming and paternal use in crossbreeding schemes,
systems and the most adapted livestock
species and breeds have yet to emerge.
and marketing. In hot, dry climates with
sparse seasonal grazing, the genetically
These must be developed while paying
smaller individuals within a species pre-
due attention to the environmental, sumably are better able to forage and reach
economic and equity aspects of eco- final market weights and reproduce earlier
systems. Wilson (2009) noted that, in than larger ones. In cattle, Andersen (1978)
the tropics, the right animal is not argued that larger genotypes normally have
always the one that produces the most.
the highest production capacity for milk
Moreover, preservation of biological and beef but also the highest maintenance
diversity not only determines survival requirements. He concluded that the opti-
(Alexandre and Mandonnet, 2005;
mal size of cattle will depend on market
Kosgey and Okeyo, 2007) but also demands and on climatic conditions and
determines adaptation to changing
husbandry systems. Many researchers (e.g.
environments (Hoffmann, 2010),
Andersen, 1978; Dickerson, 1978; Ogink,
including changes in consumer prefer- 1993) were influenced by the rule of Berg-
ences (Glowatzki-Mullis et al., 2008).
mann and Allen, which states that 'in
warm-blooded animals, races from warm
regions are smaller than races from cold
3.3 Meat Production Issues regions'.
With special reference to goats, Ogink
There are still some researchers (e.g. Shres- (1993) developed one of the first extended
tha and Fahmy, 2007a) who support the studies on genetic size and growth. Many
concept of using exotic breeds within cross- hypotheses on meat animals state that the
breeding programmes in the tropics to pro- variation between animals can be explained
mote high-yielding systems and make such to a large extent by differences in scale,
Carcass Traits of Tropical Goats 35
expressed by genetic size. However, while contrasting body sizes (Lambe et al., 2007),
questioning the genetic size scaling theory, it was concluded that slaughtering SB lambs
Ogink (1993) noted that introducing larger- at lighter weights than Texel ones was more
sized breeds as such did not improve the beneficial, because the SB lambs would not
biological efficiency of production. In fact, become over-fat and muscle proportions
improvement of production efficiency would be maintained at a higher level,
should involve adjustment of size of the although total muscle and carcass weights
breeding female to suit a particular environ- would be lower. SB lambs at lighter weights
ment. For beef production, Dickerson (1978) carry a higher proportion of total muscle in
noted that the primary focus should be on the economically more important leg region
improvement of genetically variable func- and have rounder muscle shapes in the
tional components of performance/repro- hind leg and loin, whereas heavier lambs
ductive rate, growth rate (relative to will deposit increasing proportions of mus-
metabolic weight) and body composition in cle in the lower-priced thoracic area and
meat animals. Dickerson (1978) recom- will have a flatter muscle shape in the more
mended choosing a mature body size that is valuable carcass regions.
more adapted to the environment, suitable In breeding programmes, especially in
breeding systems and market factors for the small ruminants, exotic breeds usually per-
species and the area of production. Dicker- form well during the active periods of proj-
son (1978) concluded that 'each biological ects (Ayalew et al., 2003) where external
type should be evaluated under the manage- supervision is available (Ahuya et al., 2005).
ment-marketing conditions for which it is Success is usually measured in terms of
best suited.' The qualities required in the increases in animal performances or in
right animal in the right place, if it is to suc- household income. There is, however,
ceed, are adaptation to local physical, nutri- hardly ever a full cost-benefit analysis that
tional and management environments takes into account the opportunity cost of
(Wilson, 2009). In an analysis of growth pat- labour and loss of land that is transformed
terns in indigenous Kambing Katjang goats from food to feed production. For instance,
and its crosses (F1, F2 and backcross) with raising animals with a larger body size
the German Fawn goat, Tsukahara et al. results in higher feeding requirements need-
(2008) found that backcrossed goats per- ing a larger area of land, i.e. more feeding
formed better than the pure German breeds. resources. Once direct support in breeding
However, the authors stated that the fast programmes ends, it is only a matter of time
maturing rate of backcrossed goats should before the exotic breeds disappear and are
be matched with the environment, which is replaced by indigenous breeds (Ahuya
only possible under intensive management. et al., 2005), sometimes with a high risk of
In smallholder farms in developing coun- loss of biodiversity (Ayalew et al., 2003;
tries where management is suboptimal, Alexandre et al., 2009). Therefore, the ques-
backcrossed goats might be poorer in growth tion that arises is how to promote the use of
performance than the other crosses. Conse- local breeds for meat production versus
quently, high growth rate or a heavy carcass importing breeds of larger size to the trop-
(i.e. large body size) must not be considered ics. This chapter aims to discuss these
as the most important trait for meat- issues pertinent to meat production from
producing animals in the tropics, as goats in the tropics.
adaptive traits or fitness (sensu lato) charac-
ters are of paramount importance for
tropical livestock (Menendez-Buxadera and 3.4 Fitness: Adaptation
Mandonnet, 2006; Wilson, 2009). and Reproduction
For meat output, muscle and fat parti-
tioning must be taken into account. For Meat output is a product of complex
instance, in a study comparing Texel and traits and is dependent on numerous abi-
Scottish Blackface (SB) lambs of two otic, biotic and socio-economic factors
36 G. Alexandre and 0. Mahgoub
(Alexandre et a/., 2010). One of the most Mandonnet, 2005). One of the most
prominent attributes of goats as meat pro- important adaptations of goats to ecological
ducers is their high reproductive capacity, conditions is their variable body size. One
specifically under harsh conditions (Deven- of the best examples known in marginal
dra and Burns, 1983; Bosman et al., 1997). environments is the West African Dwarf
Another important attribute is 'fitness'. goat, which remains the only domestic spe-
Menendez-Buxadera and Mandonnet (2006) cies that is able to survive in its particular
studying genotype-environment interac- region of West Africa (Daramola and Ade-
tions under tropical conditions developed loye, 2009). Among its physiological fea-
the concept of fitness defined as follows: tures are small body size and low metabolic
In natural conditions, the best-adapted requirements, which are important traits to
animals will be those that utilize the enable the animal to minimize its require-
available resources in the most efficient ments in an area or season where food
way to face the adverse environmental resources are limited in quality and quan-
conditions. As all living organisms require tity. Daramola and Adeloye (2009) reported
energy to carry out their vital cycle, the that hereditary dwarfism is common in the
surviving individuals will be those that humid tropical zone. This complies with
have a metabolism more specialized in the rule of Bergmann and Allen, which can
functions of resistance, adaptation, and be interpreted as a correlation between
therefore, will be the best prepared and
active during the mating season.
morphological variation (body surface area)
Consequently, such adapted individuals and ambient temperature (heat dissipation).
will be the greater contributors of genes to Other findings reviewed by Daramola and
the next generation (with higher quantity Adeloye (2009) suggest that body size is
of offspring produced). This property is also correlated with primary plant produc-
called fitness and is the basis of the tivity, drought resistance, and type and
population evolution process. Fitness is quality of food. Selection pressure towards
the result of a group of functions and a smaller size explains the widespread
physiological properties that cumulatively dwarfism in domestic ruminants occupying
offer a specific genotype a higher adaptive the same niche. In accordance with Berg-
functional component.
mann's rule, even non-dwarfed breeds of
According to Wilson (2009), many fit- ruminants in the humid tropics are, in most
ness characters of tropical livestock are cases, much smaller than tropical exotic
poorly developed or are absent in temper- breeds (Devendra and Burns, 1983). The
ate breeds These include a lower meta- small size of many tropical breeds is
bolic rate that generates less heat, reduced directly associated with other important
panting but more readily sweating to con- traits such as early maturity, quality of
serve energy, a feed intake that is less products (meat, milk) and nutrient require-
affected by high temperatures, a higher ments for maintenance. Low per-head
intake of poor-quality feed, higher digest- nutrient requirements mean that the dwarf
ibility and efficiency of feed conversion, a goat fits the limited resources of small farm-
reduced water requirement, a greater abil- ers or marginal grazing lands, which cannot
ity to retain feed and water in the large sustain large ruminants throughout the
intestine, and better resistance to parasites production cycle.
and some diseases. Research on small or medium-sized
It is well known that goats are kept goat breeds such as the West African Dwarf
under a wide range of production and farm- or Caribbean Creole goat indicates very high
ing systems throughout the tropics. This reproductive abilities (Alexandre et al.,
could be attributed to their high adaptive 1999; Baiden, 2007; Khanum et al., 2007;
capacity (Silanikove, 2000) and also to Mahieu et a/,. 2008) and disease resistance
levels of fitness. Goats are able to produce (Mandonnet et al., 2001, 2006; Bambou et al.,
under varying and frequently unfavourable 2009; Chiejina et al., 2009; Nnadi et al.,
environmental conditions (Alexandre and 2009), which emphasize their high fitness
Carcass Traits of Tropical Goats 37
50-
45-
40-
35-
30-
25-
20-
15-
10-
5-
0 "
<8 8-12 12-16 16-20 20-24 24-28 28-32 32-36
1-1
36-40
1-1
40-44
Slaughter weight (kg)
(a) 60.0 -
EISW (kg)
D P (%)
50.0 - I I
I
I 49.9
40.0 -
46.3
I 47.8
30.0 - 35.9
39.0 I
28.4
20.0 -
19.1
10.0 - I
11.7
0.0
1 2 3 4
SW (kg)
(b) 60.0 - Carcass yield (%)
T T
50.0 I 53.3
53.8
I
54.6
40.0 49.7
T
30.0
32.2
T
20.0 24.3
18.2
-r
10.0
10.6
0.0
1 2 3 4
Fig. 3.2. Values of goat carcass yields calculated as (a) dressing percentage (DP) = carcass weight/
slaughter weight (SW), and (b) carcass output = carcass weight/empty body weight, according to SW
class (1-4).
Carcass Traits of Tropical Goats 39
Table 3.1. Descriptive statistics of carcass weights and yield of growing kids of different genotypes fed
various feeding regimes.
classes, given that these three criteria are minimum and maximum values amounted
interrelated (Fehr et al., 1976; Prasad and to 160%. Although the sets of data for calcu-
Kirton, 1992). Oman et al. (1999) attempted lations of carcass index and carcass/leg
to describe the US goat carcass conforma- compactness (n = 75 versus n = 25) were not
tion based on muscle shape and thickness similar and did not cover the same range of
of the leg, loin, rack and shoulder adapted carcass weights, it was possible to conclude
from the US Department of Agriculture that the shape of the goat carcass differs
(USDA) sheep grading system. However, in greatly from one genotype x system to
the absence of an official US goat grading another.
system, even in most recent work, sheep The evolution of the carcass index
grading systems are still used for goat according to the carcass weight is given in
carcasses (Ryan et al., 2007). In the French Fig. 3.3. Three groups of data were sepa-
West Indies (where meat is not a by-product rated according to range of variation in car-
of milk production systems, in contrast to cass weight: light (6.8 ± 2.1 kg), medium
France, the 'mother country'), there is no (10.1 ± 2.9 kg) and heavy carcasses
official grading standard designed specifi- (12.3 ± 4.1 kg). Regression equations were
cally for the French goat carcasses. There- computed (PROC REG program; SAS, 2000)
fore, it is generally accepted that the light to predict carcass index according to car-
lamb grid employed in the Mediterranean cass weight (Table 3.3). The quadratic terms
regions within production systems with were all significant (P < 0.05) in the differ-
some similarities to those employed in ent groups, with R2 approaching 0.89, 0.92
tropical regions could be suitable for goat and 0.77, respectively.
grading. An effective grading system for meat
Given that it is difficult to compare con- goats is needed to standardize the descrip-
formation scores because of scarcity of data tion and allow comparisons between breed-
and differences in grading methods, differ- ing values and/or system differences. There
ent indices have been calculated: is a lack of information on this specific and
Carcass index: weight/length multifactorial concept of carcass conforma-
Carcass compactness: width/length tion and meat yield in tropical regions.
Leg compactness: width/length. Therefore, the use of criteria such as car-
cass cuttability, yield of lean meat and
It appears that there is a wide variabil- muscularity is of paramount importance.
ity within the literature (Table 3.2) for car- Tatum et al. (1998) noted that the intrinsic
cass indices, which varied from 0.076 to value of a feeder animal is appreciated
0.297 with a 32% coefficient of variation. owing to its optimal proportions, at a
For carcass compactness and leg compact- preferred market weight, of the different
ness (Table 3.2), the difference between carcass cuts. As for goat carcass cut
40 G. Alexandre and 0. Mahgoub
Table 3.2. Descriptive statistics of carcass shape and cuts of growing kids of different genotypes fed
various feeding regimens.
0,350 -
/
0,300 -
0,250 -
/
, /
/
/
/
I
/ "
,/ / /
/ -- 1
/
/
/4 / .....
, '''.
.4- *\
/ // zf
e///
riYI '/ /r//r//e
0,200 - /
/ /
/
/ , ' //
// ,i . // ' 40
0,150 - / /dol
/
, " '/ /
/i_. z --
/
// ,0 //'to
0,100 -
/ ,4 ---
/
0,050 -
0,000
0 5 10 15 20 25
Carcass weight (kg)
Fig. 3.3. Evolution of carcass index (weight/length, kg/cm) according to carcass weight (kg) in goat
studies (description of three groups) (Limea, 2009).
Table 3.3. Regression equations to predict carcass index (weight/length; y) according to carcass weight
(kg; x) .
Lodge, 1996; Sheridan et al., 2003; Sen Conclusions on the differences among
et al., 2004). breeds are generally inconclusive because
of the effects of degrees of maturity. This
was reported in sheep and cattle (Sellier et
3.8 Tissue Dissection al., 1992), but studies on effects of breed
maturity are scarce in goats. In this species,
The carcass of a meat animal is composed the accretion of fat and muscle regulation
of varying proportions of muscle, fat and and their relative body partitioning within
bone. Muscle, being more edible, is usually the perspective of meat potential assess-
regarded as the most important carcass tis- ment have been insufficiently studied (e.g.
sue to the consumer, while fat is more Mahgoub and Lodge, 1996; Mahgoub and
related to health issues, especially in Lu, 1998). Two of the main reasons for this
developed countries. Based on consumer are thought to be:
expectations, the goat carcass and goat 1. Meat production in many cases is a
meat are very well qualified as lean meat
secondary product of the milk or fibre
(Webb et al., 2005). Consequently, it is
sector.
important to give factual data on tissue 2. There are not many specialized goat
proportions. The shoulder and leg are meat breeds.
known to have the highest percentage of
muscle within carcass cuts (Tahir et al., However, some results can be high-
1994; Dhanda et a/., 2003a). The results of lighted from the database generated for this
dissections of the whole carcass, shoulder study. Proportions of lean vary from 60 to
and leg into lean, bone and fat (subcutane- 65% (within treatments and cuts) and those
ous + intramuscular) reviewed from the lit- of fat vary from 9 to 14%, which indicates a
erature are shown in Table 3.4. There was a satisfactory meat potential for goat, which is
great variability in the proportion of fat generally defined as a multifunctional ani-
dissected in the carcass, the shoulder or mal (Peacock, 1996).
the leg 39, 42 and 45% of coefficient of In the tropics, a high proportion of
variation, respectively. This is most proba- bone in the carcass is considered a negative
bly due to the effects of different feeding characteristic. This indicates a lack of mus-
regimes. cularity, which characterizes most local
Tissue partitioning is also known to breeds, rendering them poorly rated due to
differ among genotypes and according to a small frame/size. An additional feature
animal age. Since the pioneering work of that would help in describing the meat
Hailu Hammond (1962), it has been shown potential of small stock is the muscle:bone
that maximal growth rate is attained first by ratio (Hopkins et al., 1997). Many studies
bone, then muscle and lastly by fatty tissue. with sheep have shown that a fleshy sheep
42 G. Alexandre and 0. Mahgoub
Table 3.4. Descriptive statistics on carcass dissection of growing kids of different genotypes fed various
feeding regimes.
breed would be graded as 'superior' for its the abdominal cavity, than the carcass
muscularity while it could be 'inferior' for (Kempster, 1981; Warmington and Kirton,
its muscle:bone ratio. For instance, Purchas 1990) and therefore carcass fat parameters,
et al. (1991) demonstrated that, although as used for sheep, might not be appropriate
these two characteristics often change for grading goat carcasses.
together, there are situations where differ-
ences in muscularity are not accompanied
by differences in muscle:bone ratio and
vice versa. In goat studies, the lean:bone 3.9 Case Studies
ratios calculated either in the whole carcass,
shoulder or leg reached values ranging from 3.9.1 Indigenous Caribbean goats
2.68 to 2.97 (Table 3.4). As with lean:fat
ratios, the values were higher and very In many countries of the Caribbean and
satisfactory, in contrast to sheep. In fact, Latin American region, the local popula-
differences in levels of fatness, rather than tions of goats are frequently named `Chevre
muscle weight distribution, account for Creole', Creole goat or `Criollo' (Devendra
most differences in carcass grading between and Burns, 1983). They are derived mainly
sheep breeds (Butler-Hog et al., 1984; from crossbreeding between various West
Laville et al., 2002). Poor fat accretion and African, European and sometimes Indian
leggy conformation of goat carcasses breeds (Naves et al., 2000). Over time, the
(Colomer-Rocher et al., 1992; Mahgoub and native population has evolved naturally
Lu, 1998; Oman et al., 1999) support the through adaptation to agroecological condi-
assumption that these criteria are not suit- tions. Goat farming systems in the French
able for grading goat carcasses. Goats are West Indies are based on the use of the Cre-
known to have more fat deposits, mainly in ole goat breed (Alexandre et al., 1999) on
Carcass Traits of Tropical Goats 43
grazed pastures (Mahieu et al., 2008). This output) were very similar to performance of
influences meat production aspects such as other meat breeds (Table 3.1).
live weight, growth performance and car- When fed intensively, the kids reached
cass abilities. The Creole goat is known for the slaughter weight of 22 kg 3 months
its high weaver productivity (Mahieu et al., sooner than their counterparts fed forage
2008) and its genetic ability to resist gastro- only. Comparing the HL and LL diets in kids
intestinal parasites (Mandonnet et al., 2001, at the same age, the increase reached 120-
2006). The Creole goat is a medium-sized 140% for slaughter weights and 153-179%
meat breed with a traditional slaughter for cold carcass weights. Undoubtedly, the
weight of 18 kg, which can be reached at proportion of fat was affected by the level of
6-18 months of age, depending on the sys- energy in the diets (Limea et al., 2009b),
tem (Mahieu et al., 2008). The local goat although the absolute values remained at a
industry in the French West Indies faces a very adequate levels compared with values
`fundamental' threat to its very existence in the literature (Table 3.4).
that will eventually result in loss of genetic The distribution of prime cuts (not tab-
diversity (Alexandre et al., 2009), a guaran- ulated) remained similar (-50%), irrespec-
tee for its future. The trend of importing live tive of the conditions and attained values of
exogenous animals or frozen carcasses has the well-conformed genetic breeds reported
resulted in a gradual decline in the ratio of by Dhanda et al. (2003a). Given that the
local production:local demand (Alexandre shoulder and leg are reported to have the
et al., 2008). To effectively reverse this highest percentage of muscle (Dhanda et al.,
trend and to stop the anarchic crossing of 2003b) within carcass cuts, dissection of
native goats with exogenous breeds, a their tissues can give an assessment of the
genetic improvement programme for this potential of the meat production from the
breed is presently under way (Alexandre animals. In the present set of data, the val-
and Mandonnet, 2005). ues were in favour of the leg compared with
Studies have begun with Creole male the shoulder (2-4 points more) where the
goats to study carcass characteristics and values ranged from 71 to 78%. In other
meat quality in relation to feeding systems studies, values ranged from 68.5 to 71.4%
(Limea et al., 2009a) and slaughter condi- and from 65.3 to 67.6% in the leg and shoul-
tions (Limea et al., 2009b). This has facili- der, respectively. The higher muscle per-
tated accumulation of a database on many centage in the Creole goat leg and shoulder
of the carcass traits (yield, quality scores, is most probably due to the lower fat con-
carcass cuts and linear measurements). The tent (3-7%), compared with a value of
database includes 131 intact male kids of 10-13% reported by Dhanda et al. (2003b).
the Creole genotype raised indoors. Two Similar trends were observed by comparing
contrasting groups were discriminated the Creole and New Zealand Saanen goat
according to their feeding level. The low within a similar slaughter weight range
level (LL) group (n = 65) received a basal (Colomer-Rocher et al., 1992). However,
diet (green tropical forage) without concen- these differences may have arisen not only
trate, while the high level (HL) group (n= from a higher fat but also from a higher bone
66) received, in addition, a concentrate diet percentage, which was 23-26% in the New
(280-320 g/day on average). Animals were Zealand Saanen goats compared with
slaughtered when they reached either their 18-24% in the Creole goats.
final live weight or age. Standardized proce- A trait that better describes the meat
dures of carcass measuring and cutting production potential is the muscle:bone
(Colomer-Rocher et al., 1987) were fol- ratio, which is particularly relevant for Cre-
lowed. The different carcass data obtained ole male goats. Values of 2.8-4.2 fell within
are shown in Table 3.5. The carcass weight the upper range of values reported in the lit-
and yield in the Creole goat steadily erature. The carcass indices followed a sim-
increased within ages as expected. The val- ilar trend of slaughter weight, i.e. an
ues (up to 30 kg carcass and 62% carcass increase with age and better diets. Creole
44 G. Alexandre and 0. Mahgoub
Table 3.5. Carcass weight, yield, cuts, measurements and dissection of Creole kids according to their
feeding level (LL, low level, basal green tropical forage; and HL, high level, an additional 300-350 g
concentrate/day) and their age at slaughter (from Lim 6a et al., 2009a,b).
LL HL
kids, when compared within a similar range The small-sized Creole goat breed
of carcass weights, exhibited very good car- could be a valuable meat producer based on
cass indices that were similar to or even satisfactory carcass and leg indices,
higher than the larger Boer crossbreds, con- muscle:bone ratios and carcass yield and
trary to the widely held belief in their cuttability. These descriptors for carcass
inferiority in the French West Indies meat conformation and meat potential suggest
sector (Alexandre et al., 2008). that Creole goats, although not yet geneti-
The leg indices may be regarded as a cally improved, may be comparable to some
similar concept to 'muscularity', a trait used fleshy meat breeds, and provide a prospec-
for sheep by Purchas et al. (1991) based on tive potential incentive for the local goat
femur length and the weight of surrounding meat sector. However, more research on
muscles. Comparing our findings (not tabu- genetic improvement is needed for the
lated) with other available studies, our val- future.
ues of 0.036-0.048 are comparable to those
of other breeds such as Florida kids (0.029-
0.047; Pena et al., 2007), Italian Jonica 3.9.2 Omani native meat goats
(0.035-0.044; Marsico et al., 1993) and
Canary caprine (0.022-0.053; Marichal Goats are the most important meat-producing
et al., 2003) but were lower than Omani animal in many Asian and African coun-
breeds (0.070-0.078; Kadim et al., 2003). tries. Goats are the most numerous livestock
Carcass Traits of Tropical Goats 45
and their meat is preferred over other meats Dhofari goat's reproductive performance
in Oman. There are three major goat breeds was found to be above average. Al Ojai li
of importance in Oman including Al-Jabal (1995) reported a conception rate of 65%, a
Al-Akhdar, Batina and Dhofari goats. The twinning rate of 23% and a litter size of
Dhofari goat contributes about 44% of goats 1.29. Dhofari goat males are reputed for
in the country and has the smallest body having a markedly high precocity and they
size (Mahgoub, 1997a). It is a hardy breed, reach sexual maturity early in life (Mah-
living mostly in the southern mountainous goub and Lu, 1998). The breed has also been
region of Dhofar, and resembles the Somali reported to have better milk production per-
goat. It is used here for comparative pur- formance than the other Omani goat breeds
poses with the Creole goat of the French (Chesworth and Horton, 1996). This is an
West Indies as it is of similar body weight important meat production characteristic,
range. The Creole goat has been described as it enables dams to nurse their kids for a
as a medium-sized meat breed traditionally better growth performance.
slaughtered at 18 kg, which is reached at Very few studies have been carried out
6-18 months of age, depending on the on the breed to evaluate its potential for
system (Mahieu et al., 2008). meat production under improved manage-
Apart from a limited experimental ment systems (Mahgoub, 1997a,b; Kadim
genetic improvement programme in Wadi et al., 2003). Some of the published data are
Qurayat Research Station and limited cross- presented in Table 3.6. Both sets of data
breeding with Anglo-Nubian goats (Al originated from animals raised under inten-
Ojai li, 1995) and cashmere goats (M.G. El sive management with concentrate feed
Hag, personal communication), the Dhofari being offered besides ad libitum Rhodes
goat has not been subjected to major genetic grass hay feeding.
improvement. Dhofari goats are raised When fed intensively, kids can reach
mainly under transhumant systems, the slaughter weight of 16 kg at 5 months of
depending mainly on natural range grazing, age, a faster rate than that of range-fed kids.
which is characterized by lush green sea- The carcass weight and yield in Dhofari
sonal grass in the south of the country for goats steadily increased within ages as
about 3-4 months. Supplementary feeding expected. The carcass weight of the Dhofari
is customarily given to fattened goats and goat (9.2 kg at 5 months) was comparable to
lactating does in the form of Rhodes grass that of tropical breeds (Table 3.6). However,
hay, dates, concentrates, banana leaves, bar- there was only an increase of 3 kg of carcass
ley and household leftovers (Mahgoub and weight at the age of 17 months (Table 3.6).
Lodge, 1996). Natural selection has been The values for carcass output (64.9 and
carried out on the breed mainly for survival 56.5% at 18 and 30 kg body weight, respec-
traits. tively) are comparable to those mentioned
The breed is the smallest of the local previously for Creole goats in the French
breeds with a mature weight of 30-35 kg but West Indies, as well as for other meat breeds
fattened males are usually slaughtered at (Table 3.6). The dressing percentage value
6 months of age at 18-22 kg body weight. of 56.5% reported by Mahgoub (1997a,b)
The small size of the breed is regarded as a was higher than those elsewhere reported
favourable characteristic, as the whole for goats but had been calculated on fasted
roasted goat carcass would comfortably fit body weight. The dressing percentage of
on a tray of rice. This is important from a 41.8% at 30 kg live weight (17 months) of
cultural food traditional point of view in the Dhofari goats was below the average
Arabia Gulf region. (46.1%) computed for tropical breeds
The genetic diversity of the breed is (Table 3.6).
relatively conserved, although increasing The Dhofari goat showed different
numbers of the Somali goat, which resem- indices from that of pooled data (Table 3.6)
bles the Dhofari, have been imported in the or Creole goats (Table 3.5). The value for
country. Under improved management, the carcass compactness was much higher for
46 G. Alexandre and 0. Mahgoub
Table 3.6. Carcass weight, yield, cuts, measurements and dissection of Dhofari Omani kids fed Rhodes
grass hay and a concentrate (from Mahgoub, 1997a,b; Kadim et al., 2003).
Number of kids 10 14
Age at slaughter (months) 5 17
Slaughter weight (kg) 16.3 29.9
Empty body weight (kg) 14.3 22.1
Hot carcass weight (kg) 9.2 12.7
Cold carcass weight (kg) 12.5
Dressing percentage (%) 56.5 41.8
Carcass output ( %) 64.9 56.6
Carcass indices
Carcass compactness 7.48
Carcass index 0.291
Carcass dissection
Muscle ( %) 70.0
Bone (%) 13.2
Fat (%) 12.9
Muscle:bone ratio 5.35
Muscle:fat ratio 5.64
Shoulder (% of carcass) 43
Leg (% of carcass) 32
the Dhofari goat, indicating longer car- This was mainly because of the lower bone
casses. The carcass index for Dhofari was content. They were above the upper range
also higher than for tropical goat breeds of values reported in the literature. How-
(Table 3.6). ever, the muscle:fat ratio was similar to that
The prime cuts of shoulder and leg con- of the pooled data (Table 3.4).
tributed to a large proportion of the carcass Mahgoub and Lu (1998) compared
in the Dhofari goat (Table 3.6). The shoul- Omani goats of large size (Batina) and small
der and leg are reported to have the highest size (Dhofari) for meat production. Although
percentage of muscle (Dhanda et al., 2003b). Batina goats grew faster and reached the
The values for the Dhofari goat carcass destined slaughter weights earlier, the
tissue contents (Table 3.6), which can give smaller Dhofari goat had higher growth
an indication of the potential of the meat rates relative to final body weight. At 18 kg
production from the animals, differed from body weight, Dhofari goats had a higher
those of tropical breeds (Table 3.1) and Cre- dressing percentage, carcass muscle con-
ole goats (Table 3.5). The higher muscle tent, and carcass and non-carcass fat con-
percentage in the Dhofari goat is due to the tent but a lower bone content. There were
lower bone content (13.2%) compared with differences in muscle distribution, with
23% for pooled data (Table 3.4), as fat con- Dhofari goats having higher proportions of
tents were similar. A high bone percentage muscle in the proximal hind limbs and
of 23-26% was reported for New Zealand around the vertebral column, which are
Saanen goats (Colomer-Rocher et al., 1992) regarded as muscles of higher value.
and 18-24% for Creole goats (Limea et al., Similar to the Creole goat, the small
2009a,b). size of the Dhofari goat breed could favour it
The muscle:bone ratio describes the to become a valuable meat producer based
meat production potential. Values for the on the satisfactory carcass indices,
Dhofari goat were much higher than those muscle:bone ratios, and carcass yield and
in the pooled data or for the Creole goat. cuttability. These descriptors for carcass
Carcass Traits of Tropical Goats 47
conformation and meat potential suggest Indigenous hardy goat breeds such as
that Dhofari goats, although not yet geneti- those in the tropics should not be
cally improved, may be comparable to some automatically replaced with imported
larger meat breeds, and offer a prospective large breeds for meat production under
potential for the local goat meat sector. local systems.
Despite the increasing interest in
indigenous livestock, breed evaluation
schemes for tropical goats are relatively
3.10 Conclusions scarce (Shrestha and Fahmy, 2007b).
Production efficiency should be
The fitness and meat production evaluated for the integrated system
potential of hardy indigenous does are (Alexandre et al., 2010), not just the
superior compared with modern single- individual animal.
purpose breeds in the tropics, espe- Analyses of published work on body
cially if modern husbandry techniques sizes and/or carcass frames are some-
are not available. what inconclusive when tissue parti-
There is no universal genotype for use tioning is insufficiently studied.
in all environments (Tsukahara et al., Consumer expectations should be taken
2008; Wilson, 2009). into account at the local sector level.
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4 Genetics and Breeding of Meat Goats
J.N.B. Shrestha
Dairy and Swine Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food
Canada, Quebec, Canada
yield in goats assembled from numerous and poultry utilized in the production of
studies offer theoretical promise in direct milk, meat, eggs, fibre and power. General
selection for efficiency of meat production. principles have included breed evaluation,
Likewise, purebred selection has benefited crossbreeding, formation of composite popu-
from a greater proportion of additive genetic lations and selection criteria based on realis-
variance associated with economically tic economic values. Goats in general have
important production traits. As additive not benefited from scientific achievements
genetic variance is exhausted, the role of made in genetics, nutrition and husbandry to
direct selection for non-additive genetic the same extent as other livestock and poul-
covariance among crossbred offspring needs try species. Furthermore, depiction of the
to be exploited. The breeding of populations goat as evil in medieval ages, along with con-
with as broad a genetic base as possible is troversy and ignorance ascribed to the
therefore critical in sustaining the genetic destructive nature of the goat species, has not
response to selection. Improvement in meat helped their development. Prior to the 1970s,
quality and production in goats can be the use of the goat as an experimental animal
accomplished with a comprehensive and in biomedical research was the primary
technically sound assessment of important source of scientific knowledge (Gall, 1982).
production traits that have sufficient flexibil- The majority of research that followed,
ity to meet diverse environmental and mana- although negligible compared with other
gerial conditions in harmony with social, livestock and poultry species, was from
religious and cultural attributes. An integral developing countries. In the goat species,
and indispensable part of breeding strategies more attention has been and continues to be
to maximize production efficiency in other directed towards dairy and pashmina goats
domestic livestock and poultry has been the (Fahmy and Shrestha, 2000). The limited
establishment of optimal breeding objectives number of studies on genetics and the envi-
along with the use of multi-trait mixed ani- ronment influencing production traits of eco-
mal model methodology to obtain precise nomic importance has impeded efforts to
estimates of genetic parameters and the pre- develop the goat as a meat animal (Shelton,
diction of breeding values of the offspring 1978). Only in the last three decades has the
and their parents. In practice, genetic genetics of goat meat production been fea-
improvement of meat goats can be accom- tured in the scientific literature (Shrestha and
plished by a simple procedure that involves Fahmy, 2005, 2007a,b).
the identification, measurement, recording, Goat numbers and production statistics
selection criteria based on realistic economic and their relation to human populations as
values, estimation of genetic parameters and well as economic standing are important
prediction of breeding values intended for parameters necessary for the development
pertinent morphological characteristics and of national policies worldwide in support of
production performance. In the future, novel development activities. Countries have
technology based on molecular markers been grouped according to gross national
associated with economically important income (GNI) per capita into low (US$995
morphological characteristics and produc- or less), lower middle (US$996-3945), mid-
tion performance could be integrated into dle (US$3946-12,195) and upper middle
genetic improvement of productivity in meat (US$12,196 or more) according to the World
goats. Bank. Furthermore, countries are classified
according to economies into emerging and
developing, and advanced as described in
4.2 Introduction the World Economic Outlook Database -
WE0 Groups and Aggregates Information of
In the last century, advances in the theory the International Monetary Fund. The num-
and application of quantitative genetic prin- ber of goats worldwide (in 1980, 1990, 2000
ciples have played an important role in and 2008), goat breeds (2008), human
exploiting the biological potential of livestock population (2008) and GNI per capita
54 J.N.B. Shrestha
(World Bank, http://databank.worldbank. for 1980 are compared with those in 1990,
org/) for individual countries, continents 2000 and 2008: a recurring increase of 27,
(Africa, Asia, Europe, America and Ocea- 61 and 86%, respectively can be seen
nia), countries grouped according to GNI (Table 4.1). Emerging and developing econ-
per capita (low, lower middle, middle and omies with 85% of the human population
upper middle) and economies (emerging share 75% of all breed populations and
and developing, and advanced) are pre- 97% of goats worldwide, distributed mainly
sented in Table 4.1. Worldwide statistics in the continents of Asia (59%) and Africa
illustrating the number of goats slaughtered, (34%). The ratio of goats to humans is 1:7 in
average carcass weight and total meat pro- emerging and developing economies in con-
duction are presented in Table 4.2. trast to 1:5 in advanced economies. Notably
In 1994, the European Union produced goats are concentrated in some of the poor-
75,000 million t of meat from more than 11 est countries with the highest human popu-
million goats in Greece (50%), Spain (25%), lations, demonstrating their importance to
Italy (10%), France (8%) and other coun- the livelihood of the poor and landless. The
tries (Carbo and del la Calle, 1995). Spain countries that raised the largest number of
produced 16,000 million t of meat from 2.8 goats in 2008 were China (17%), India
million goats of the Serrana (30%), Murci- (15%), Pakistan and Bangladesh (7% each),
ana Granadina (20%), Malaga (10%), Canary Nigeria (6%), Sudan (5%), Iran and Ethiopia
Island (6%) and Verata (4%) breeds, while (3% each), and Mongolia, Indonesia and
20% were crossbreds. France with 1 million Kenya (2% each).
goats in 1996 produced goat meat as a by- In emerging and developing economies,
product of the dairy industry (Decoster and farmers with smallholdings and the landless
Berinstain-Bailly, 1996). Australia was the through the ownership of goats utilize milk
leading exporter of goat meat from the for domestic consumption while meat and
Angora, Cashmere, Dairy, Feral, Boer and meat products provide much-needed cash
Boer x Cashmere populations valued at accounting for 70-80% of the total income
about A$20 million annually (B.A. of the household. Sources of goat meat tend
McGregor, Victoria, Australia, 2004, per- to vary according to the husbandry prac-
sonal communication). Currently, the total tised, with no specific age or weight require-
production of goat meat in the world, ment for slaughter. This is because little
4,938,655 million t (FAOSTAT, 2010, attention is paid to quality, as much of the
http://faostat.fao.org/), represents only a meat produced is either for home consump-
fraction of the meat produced by other live- tion or sold at local markets. Previously, the
stock: 5% of pig meat and 8% of cattle meat. total number of goats, number slaughtered,
Nevertheless, there has been a steady rise in average carcass weight and total goat meat
the consumption of goat meat, as a result of production in the world (FAO, 1999)
a growing appetite for food of exotic origin revealed that the continents of Asia (71%)
and an influx of ethnic populations into the and Africa (22%) produced most of the
developed countries where goat meat tends world's goat meat. These figures exclude
to be a by-product of the dairy and fibre informal slaughter and consumption of goat
industry. meat. In 2008, the number of goats slaugh-
The first inventory of domestic animal tered in the emerging and developing
diversity in the world listed 570 goat breeds, economies was 97% of goats worldwide,
types, populations and landraces, of which distributed mainly in the continents of Asia
187 (33%) were in Europe, 146 (26%) in (69%) and Africa (25%), being concentrated
Asia and the Pacific region and 89 (16%) in in the dry and humid, and tropical and sub-
Africa (Scherf, 2000). Goat numbers con- tropical climates (Table 4.2). The major
tinue to increase worldwide, although the countries that slaughtered goats for their
resources allotted for their development has meat and skins were China (34%), India
been negligible (French, 1970; Devendra, (12%), Bangladesh (8%), Nigeria (5%),
1998). This is apparent when goat numbers Pakistan and Sudan (4% each), and Ethiopia,
Breeding Meat Goats 55
Table 4.1. Countries, continents, gross national income (GNI) per capita and economies for the years
indicated in relation to numbers of goats, goat breeds, human populations and GNI per capita.
Human
population
Number of goatsa (x1000) Breedsb (x1000)c
GNI per
Source 1980 1990 2000 2008 2008 2008 capita (US$)d
Africa
Algeria 2,723 2,472 3,027 3,751 8 34,373 4,260
Angola 1,270 1,500 2,150 2,478 3 18,021 3,340
Bahrain 15 16 19 19 776 25,420
Benin 931 872 1,234 1,472 4 8,662 700
Botswana 638 2,092 1,900 1,980 5 1,921 6,760
Burkina Faso 3,400 6,580 9,104 11,805 8 15,234 480
Burundi 657 927 855 1,650 2 8,074 140
Cameroon 2,340 3,520 4,410 4,400 7 19,088 1,120
Cape Verde 65 109 109 202 499 2,830
Central African 956 1,242 2,614 4,069 3 4,339 410
Rep.
Chad 2,620 2,838 5,179 6,288 8 10,914 540
Comoros 87 113 113 118 3 644 750
Congo Democratic 2,681 3,850 4,131 4,046 7 64,257 150
Rep.
Congo, Rep. of the 159 278 280 295 1 3,615 1,810
Cote d'Ivoire 900 888 1,116 1,282 1 20,591 980
Djibouti 545 502 511 512 2 849 1,210
Egypt 1,451 2,400 3,425 4,473 10 81,527 1,800
Equatorial Guinea 7 8 9 9 1 659 14,980
Eritrea 1,700 1,730 6 4,927 300
Ethiopia 8,598 21,884 26 80,713 280
Ethiopia 17,180 17,200
PDR
Gabon 78 80 91 92 1 1,448 7,320
Gambia 162 180 145 374 1 1,660 400
Gaza Strip 1,527
Ghana 1,934 2,019 3,077 4,405 2 23,350 680
Guinea 405 525 1,008 1,696 1 9,833 350
Gunea-Bissau 183 208 325 393 1 1,575 250
Kenya 8,000 10,186 9,923 14,478 10 38,765 730
Lesotho 784 844 830 917 5 2,049 1,060
Liberia 200 230 220 285 1 3,793 170
Libyan Arab 1,500 1,100 1,263 2,500 1 6,294 12,380
Jamahiriya
Madagascar 1,438 1,256 1,033 1,260 3 19,111 420
Malawi 650 853 1,689 3,106 7 14,846 260
Mali 6,750 6,086 7,087 10,150 9 12,705 610
Mauritania 2,597 3,400 5,087 5,610 8 3,215 980
Mauritius 70 95 73 26 3 1,269 6,720
Mayotte 191
Morocco 6,154 5,335 4,931 5,178 7 31,606 2,520
Mozambique 335 2,000 4,900 4,325 7 22,383 380
Namibia 1,917 1,860 1,850 2,100 9 2,130 4,210
Niger 9,132 6,240 9,327 12,641 3 14,704 330
Continued
56 J.N.B. Shrestha
Human
population
Number of goatsa (x1000) Breedsb (x1000)c
GNI per
Source 1980 1990 2000 2008 2008 2008 capita (US$)d
Continued
Breeding Meat Goats 57
Human
population
Number of goatsa (x1000) Breedsb (x1000)c
GNI per
Source 1980 1990 2000 2008 2008 2008 capita (US$)d
Continued
58 J.N.B. Shrestha
Human
population
Number of goatsa (x1000) Breedsb (x1000)C
GNI per
Source 1980 1990 2000 2008 2008 2008 capita (US$)d
Continued
Breeding Meat Goats 59
Human
population
Number of goatsa (x1000) Breedsb (x1000)C
GNI per
Source 1980 1990 2000 2008 2008 2008 capita (US$)d
Netherlands 21 14 14 14 1 195
Nicaragua 6 6 7 7 5 5,667 1,050
Panama 6 5 5 6 4 3,399 6,290
Paraguay 115 148 123 130 6 6,238 2,140
Peru 1,699 1,722 2,023 1,904 4 28,837 3,990
Puerto Rico 25 21 9 3 1 3,955
St Kitts and Nevis 10 10 14 9 6 49 11,210
St Lucia 10 12 10 9 5 170 5,430
St Pierre and 0.04
Miquelon
St Vincent and 4 6 6 1 109 5,130
Grenadines
Suriname 6 10 7 4 2 515 4,760
Trinidad and 50 57 58 60 6 1,333 15,580
Tobago
USA 1,400 1,900 2,300 3,118 16 304,375 48,190
Uruguay 12 14 15 17 5 3,334 8,020
US Virgin Islands 6 4 4 4 110
Venezuela, 1,338 1,650 1,205 1,415 7 27,935 9,170
Bolivar Rep.
Oceania
Australia 65 1,630 1,905 3,000 14 21,432 41,890
Cook Islands 3 5 3 1 3
Fiji 110 170 241 250 1 844 4,060
French Polynesia 12 14 17 17 266
Guam 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.7 176
Micronesia, 4 4 110 2,460
Fed. States
New Caledonia 8 17 10 8 247
Continued
60 J.N.B. Shrestha
Human
population
Number of goatsa (x1000) Breedsb (x1000)c
GNI per
Source 1980 1990 2000 2008 2008 2008 capita (US$)d
Iran and Indonesia (2% each). The ranking of Somalia, Afghanistan, Turkey, South Africa,
countries based on total goat meat produced Tanzania, Burkina Faso, Yemen, Brazil,
was as follows: China (38%), India (10%), Uganda and Saudi Arabia.
Nigeria (6%), Pakistan (5%), Bangladesh In the years following World War II,
and Sudan (4% each) and Iran (2%). The fol- more emphasis was placed on improving
lowing countries each share 1% of the total efficiency to encourage the production of
goat meat production in the world: Indone- cheaper commodities to meet the growing
sia, Ethiopia, Greece, Philippines, Niger, demand of the increasing number of afflu-
Mongolia, Kenya, Nepal, Mexico, Mali, ent families worldwide. This has increased
Table 4.2. Countries, continents, gross national income (GNI) per capitaa and economiesb in relation to the number of goats slaughtered, average carcass
weight and total meat productionc.
Goats slaughtered (x1000) Average carcass weight (kg) Total meat production (million t)
Source 1980 1990 2000 2008 1980 1990 2000 2008 1980 1990 2000 2008
Africa
Algeria 926 841 1,230 1,410 10 10 10 10 9,259 8,405 12,300 14,100
Angola 380 450 645 743 9 9 15 15 3,420 4,050 9,675 11,149
Bahrain 60 25 10 380 15 15 15 15 900 375 150 5,700
Benin 279 305 408 491 10 10 10 10 2,792 3,050 4,076 4,914
Botswana 219 460 440 460 12 12 12 12 2,630 5,520 5,280 5,520
Burkina Faso 1,100 2,105 2,913 3,736 7 8 8 8 7,700 17,053 23,594 30,259
Burundi 197 370 324 610 10 10 9 10 1,971 3,700 2,850 6,100
Cameroon 702 1,254 1,570 1,570 10 10 10 10 7,020 12,540 15,700 15,700
Cape Verde 23 39 45 85 10 10 10 10 230 394 450 846
Central 170 267 530 809 16 16 19 19 2,720 4,278 10,000 14,800
African Rep.
Chad 700 760 1,557 1,970 13 12 12 12 9,100 8,740 18,684 23,640
Comoros 27 35 35 38 10 10 10 10 270 350 350 380
Congo Dem. 736 1,492 1,638 1,602 10 11 12 11 7,300 17,097 19,000 17,753
Rep.
Congo Rep. 48 83 85 87 9 9 9 9 430 749 760 783
Cote d'Ivoire 470 395 314 370 10 10 9 9 4,700 3,950 2,919 3,471
Djibouti 220 178 188 188 13 13 13 13 2,744 2,222 2,350 2,350
Egypt 1,176 1,528 1,351 970 18 18 19 19 21,000 27,500 25,000 18,000
Equatorial 2 3 4 4 11 11 11 11 22 31 42 44
Guinea
Eritrea 680 683 9 9 5,800 5,800
Ethiopia 3,007 7,600 9 9 25,560 64,600
Ethiopia PDR 6,800 7,850 9 8 57,800 66,700
Gabon 21 23 27 28 10 10 10 10 210 225 270 280
Gambia 49 54 36 94 11 11 11 11 534 592 394 1,028
Ghana 480 505 769 1,035 10 10 13 13 4,560 4,794 10,150 13,662
Guinea 84 118 398 678 16 16 11 12 1,344 1,887 4,459 8,426
rn
Continued
Table 4.2. Continued.
Goats slaughtered (x 1000) Average carcass weight (kg) Total meat production (million t)
Source 1980 1990 2000 2008 1980 1990 2000 2008 1980 1990 2000 2008
Continued
rn
Table 4.2. Continued.
Goats slaughtered (x1000) Average carcass weight (kg) Total meat production (million t)
Source 1980 1990 2000 2008 1980 1990 2000 2008 1980 1990 2000 2008
Continued rn
Table 4.2. Continued.
Goats slaughtered (x 1000) Average carcass weight (kg) Total meat production (million t)
Source 1980 1990 2000 2008 1980 1990 2000 2008 1980 1990 2000 2008
rn
68 J.N.B. Shrestha
Table 4.3. Goat breeds in the world by speciality, climate-environment and country of origin.
(From Shrestha and Fahmy, 2005, 2007a.)
The rise and the expansion of the with similar morphological characteristics,
Roman Empire were characterized by Euro- and established Coates' Herdbook for Short-
pean goats with large body size (Bokonyi, horn Cattle and Herd Societies in England.
1974). It has been suggested that hornless This was followed by registration of animal
goats first appeared during this period. Fol- ancestry and the maintenance of herd books
lowing the demise of the Empire, body size to restrict introductions contributing to the
decreased in the 3rd to 6th centuries, development of a large number of pure
remaining small during the Middle Ages to breeds (Lush, 1945). Dairy goats from Swit-
the 14th century. In the 5th century sc, goats zerland were introduced into England lead-
with scimitar-shaped horns, which origi- ing to the development of the Saanen,
nated in Egypt, migrated into areas adjoin- Toggenburg and Alpine breeds. Purebred
ing Syria and Palestine. Migration of goats goats also accompanied voyages, which
from north to south in East Africa and east contributed to their introduction into the
to west in North Africa was followed by colonies where a large number of goat herds
subsequent dispersal across the African currently remain. The rapid expansion of
continent. Currently, Savannah-type goats the goat numbers in the newly established
are widespread across the African continent colonies could be attributed to favourable
where the majority of animals are raised for climatic conditions, an abundance of vege-
their meat and milk by pastoralists. Nubian- tative growth and the absence of communi-
type goats raised by sedentary agriculturists cable diseases as well as predators.
in North Africa possibly originated from Domestication and the history of goats have
goats in India or Iran that subsequently been described in comprehensive reviews
migrated into Syria and Egypt. It has been on the subject (Harris, 1962; Epstein, 1971;
suggested that Anglo-Nubian goats were Bokonyi, 1974; Devendra and Nozawa,
derived from crosses between prick-eared 1976; Nozawa, 1991).
goats indigenous to the UK and Nubian- In the mid-20th century, Mason (1951)
type Zaraibi, Chitral and Jamunpari goats published the first edition of A World Dic-
from Africa and India. tionary of Livestock Breeds, Types and Vari-
Goats indigenous to Europe accompa- eties. This has been complemented with
nied voyages from Spain and Portugal to the further details on distribution, morphologi-
Americas; from France and England into cal characteristics and production perfor-
North America; from England to Australia, mance of goats in China (Phillips et al.,
New Zealand and South Africa; and from 1945; Epstein, 1969; Cheng, 1984; Ying,
Africa to the Caribbean countries. Conse- 1995), India (Acharya, 1982), Pakistan
quently, large populations of feral goats were (Hasnain, 1985), Turkey (Yalcin, 1986) and
established in Australia and New Zealand. Europe (Simon and Buchenauer, 1993). This
In the USA, Spanish goats account for 20% was followed by the development of the
of the population and produce most of the Global Animal Genetic Data Bank (Simon,
goat meat in the country. These goats, of 1990) and the publication of the Animal
Mexican origin, are distinct from the Angora Genetic Resource Information by the Food
or dairy breeds. Natural selection and contri- and Agriculture Organization of the United
bution from the Nubian (syn. Anglo-Nubian) Nations (FAO). Centuries of evolution and
or Toggenburg breeds have resulted in a vari- skilful breeding practice have established
ety of morphological characteristics. specific genetic combinations contributing
to the development of a colossal amount of
goat genetic resources distributed world-
wide across all ecosystems. These goats
4.3.1 Concept of breed have adapted to varying production envi-
ronments (Mason and Maule, 1960; Gall,
In the early 18th century, Robert Blakewell, 1982, 1996; Gala', 1987; Simon, 1990; Simon
known as the father of animal breeding, and Buchenauer, 1993; Mason, 1996; Scherf,
developed the concept of combining stocks 2000; Morand-Fehr et al., 2004) and exhibit
Breeding Meat Goats 71
diversity in performance providing clear White goat, Matou and Nanjiang yellow.
evidence of their potential for genetic Further details on issues relating to the con-
improvement of productivity. servation of goat genetic resources have
been described in detail in the textbook
Goat Science and Production and a compre-
hensive review on the subject (Shrestha and
4.3.2 Classification of indigenous goats Galal, 2010, 2011).
in the domestic market within an industry food of exotic origin. This has contributed
that varies among countries (Le Jaouen, to research on silvopastoral production sys-
1997). In Tunisia, sedentary goat keepers of tems based on a high proportion of browse
the oases of Nefta and Tozeur usually keep in diets composed of herbage from several
five does in smallholdings together with species of the genus Paulownia (Mueller
sheep or dairy cattle to provide income for et al., 2001). In the north and west central
the household from the sale of meat while regions of Argentina, 50,152 farms have 3.7
the milk is used for human consumption million Criolo (syn. Creole) and Anglo-
(Rekik et al., 1996). This production system Nubian goats on pasture for meat produc-
appears to be highly efficient, despite a low tion (Angel-Neelem and Nel lem, 1998). In
return from a negligible investment of capi- Mexico, Galina et al. (2000) reported that
tal and labour. In 1991, Algeria had 2.5 mil- goats grazing on semi-arid woody brush
lion goats, which were located mostly in the (Caducifolio espinoso) rangeland were more
eastern and southern regions of the country profitable when supplemented with a com-
and raised together with multiple species in plex catalytic feed containing non-protein
herds of 20-200. Larger herds of more than nitrogen compared with those fed tradi-
50 goats were common in the mountains of tional rations balanced by feeding supple-
the Kabylie region of central Algeria. In gen- ments. In Guadeloupe, Creole meat goats on
eral, indigenous goats of the Barber breed a semi-intensive production system based
were kept for meat, whereas those of the on breeding cycles of 8 months and grazing
Arabia breed provided both meat and milk. on fertilized and irrigated pastures of Digi-
In 1985, approximately 20,000 million t of taria decumbens, weaned 1.4 kg of kid
goat meat was produced in Morocco, dem- weight/ha (Alexandre et al., 1997, 1999).
onstrating the importance of goats to the Creole goats attained 90% fertility, a prolifi-
economy. In 1989, drought, along with the cacy of 2.25 and 78% viability to weaning,
implementation of a regressive legislation to doubling their productivity. The authors
protect forests, decreased the goat popula- concluded that meat production in the
tion dramatically, from 8 million in 1960 to humid tropics should be assessed in rela-
5 million in 1999. In France, the endangered tion to agronomic sources of variation that
Rove goat raised under a transhumance sys- included grazing systems, animal manage-
tem is being promoted to produce meat from ment and ingestion levels other than inci-
feed based on wild flora. This concept is dence of gastrointestinal parasitism.
based on the idea of safe keeping of the for-
est diversity while protecting employment
in areas where rural exodus is rampant.
Details and descriptions of the herding sys- 4.5 Breed Evaluation
tems including transhumance and sedentary
herds, breed, vegetation, grazing and pro- Important information pertinent to the
duction management, as well as socio-eco- genetic improvement of morphological
nomic and marketing aspects of goat-meat characteristics and production performance
production and processing in Europe, have of goats maintained under specific manage-
been reviewed (Flamant and Morand-Fehr, ment conditions is available from world-
1990; Morand-Fehr et al., 1992; El-Aich wide studies, which include performances
et al., 1995; d'Avant, 2001). of pure- and crossbred goats kept under
varying management practices across all
ecosystems. Worldwide, 28% of goat breeds
and populations either have not been
4.4.3 The Americas reported or are of unknown origin. Com-
pared with other ruminant livestock, this
In the eastern USA, demand for goat meat is represents the largest proportion (Galal,
from the increasing population of ethnic 2005). The problem can be attributed to dif-
origin and the growing appreciation for ficulties encountered in collecting census
74 J.N.B. Shrestha
data from remote regions of the world. Only Also included in the study were growth rate
a fraction of the 1183 goat breed popula- and milk production of crossbred offspring
tions worldwide as reported by DAD-IS from bucks of the Alpine, Saanen and
(2010, http://dad.fao.org/) have been sub- Anglo-Nubian breeds and does of the Mala-
jected to evaluation. The majority of studies bari, Beetal, Assam Hill, Black Bengal and
are based on a small number of offspring Jamunapari breeds. At the National Dairy
derived from few sires. These studies are Research Institute in India, Alpine x Beetal
often confounded with feeding and manage- and Saanen x Beetal produced crossbred
ment practices that are not consistent with offspring that exceeded their indigenous
smallholder farming systems in the country. parental breeds in body weight and dressing
In developing countries, income from car- percentage (Acharya et al., 1982). The Jamu-
cass weight should not be considered as the napari breed characterized with large body
only saleable product for meat goats because size weighed significantly more at maturity
non-carcass components have economic than the Beetal, Barbari, Jhakrana, Sirohi
and religious significance. While the repro- and Marwari breeds (Taneja, 1982). At the
ductive rate of the doe and kid survival are Haryana Agricultural University in India,
considered important, there is no conscious Alpine x Beetal and Anglo-Nubian x Beetal
effort to improve growth rates and meat kids fed individually to 5 months on feedlot
quality. This is because increased numbers exceeded their purebred contemporaries in
of animals in the household are indicators body weight, hot carcass weight and dress-
of wealth and status in the community. ing percentage. Bucks of the Jamunapari
Haenlein (1996) reported that improved and Beetal breeds crossed with does of the
goat breeds, such as the Alpine breeds from Black Bengal, Beetal and Sirohi breeds pro-
continental Europe, recognized for their duced offspring that were more productive.
mature body size and higher milk yield In addition, Jamunapari-sired Black Bengal
when crossed with the Anglo-Nubian, Boer does produced offspring that weighed sig-
and Jamunapari breeds, have demonstrated nificantly more than their smaller parent.
potential for increasing meat and milk pro- The Beetal breed, known to be highly
duction. Galal (2005) assessed the produc- fecund and better adapted when crossed
tivity of goat breeds worldwide and with does of the smaller Sirohi breed, pro-
concluded that breeds in Europe were more duced large goats for meat production
prolific with a higher milking ability and (Misra et al., 1980).
heavier body weight compared with those In Nepal, Jamunapari-, Barbari- and
in Latin America. Breeds in Africa, Asia, the Beetal-sired indigenous does produced kids
Pacific and Near East regions, and North that grew rapidly to 6 months, weighing
America were intermediate, whereas those more than their indigenous contemporaries;
in the Caribbean were smallest (Table 4.4). however, at 12 months of age, the indige-
Meat breeds in India have a mature weight nous goats were heavier (Sainju et al., 1994).
ranging from 19-37 kg at 15-18 months of Crossbred kids from Jamunapari x Khari
age in contrast to large breeds that weigh and Saanen x indigenous goats weighed
58-60 kg, while dwarf breeds weigh more than their parental breeds at 15 weeks
15-25 kg at the same age (Taneja, 1982). of age by 3.4-3.5 and 5.9-13 kg, respec-
Evidence has been presented that sug- tively. In Malaysia, crossbreeding of the
gests the presence of significant diversity German Fawn breed with the indigenous
among breeds for economically important Katjang goats produced large difference in
traits associated with goat meat production. growth rate (Hirooka et al., 1997). In China,
In India, meat goats such as the Sirohi, Kan- the productivity of the Banjiao, Chengdu
naiada, Black Bengal and Assam Hill breeds Ma, Du An, Fuqing, Guizhou White, Hai-
and their crosses, as well as the Jamunpari, men, Huai, Leizhou, Longlin, White goat,
Beetal, Barbari and Black Bengal breeds, Matou and Nanjiang yellow breeds and
were evaluated for growth, feed conversion their crosses, considered as meat goats, has
and carcass characteristics (Acharya, 1988). been assessed (Jiang, 1982, 1995). In Japan,
Breeding Meat Goats 75
Table 4.4. Diversity in the production performance of goats by region of the world (from Gala!, 2005).
America
Milk yield Africa 3 126 ± 116 50 500
(kg/lactation)
Asia and 63 136 ± 109 16 550
Pacific
Europe 41 299 ± 225 40 775
Latin America 2 63 ± 4 60 65
and
Caribbean
Near East 32 150 ± 97 35 460
Shinjo and Toma (1985) reported that indig- the Nubian and Saanen breeds resulted in
enous Okinawa meat goats were more pro- kids that were 8% heavier in post-kidding
lific with year-round kidding than the body weight compared with those sired by
Japanese Saanen goats, whereas fecundity the Toggenburg breed (Montaldo et al.,
was lower. 1995). Also, litter weights of kids sired by
In the Bahamas and Fiji, indigenous the Alpine breed were 18% heavier at birth
goats sired by the Anglo-Nubian breed pro- than those sired by the Granadina breed.
duced kids with superior body conforma- The performance of goats indigenous to
tion and larger body size, demonstrating an Africa such as the Bornu White, Red Sokoto,
advantage in favour of the exotic sire breed Small East African, Sudanese Desert and
(Wilson et al., 1980; Hussain et al., 1983). In West African Dwarf breeds has been
Mexico, indigenous Mexican goats sired by described in detail (Quartermain, 1991). In
76 J.N.B. Shrestha
Egypt, kids of Alpine x Rove surpassed their efficiency and dressing percentage were
parental breeds for weight gain from 30 to similar. The advantage of crossbred off-
90 days of age, carcass yield, width and spring under an abundance of feed has also
shape but produced more internal fat (Mou- been reported in Fiji, where stall-fed
rad and Anous, 1998). Alpine x Beetal, Anglo-Nubian x Beetal and
There has been a wealth of information Saanen x Beetal goats not only grew rapidly
on breed evaluation published in the sec- but had heavier pre-slaughter weight and
ond half of the last century, demonstrating hot carcass weight to 5 months of age.
the opportunity to identify breeds with In the USA, kids of the Boer breed fed a
potential genetic merit for increased goat diet based on high-quality forage weighed
meat production. These studies are com- more than Spanish kids, whereas the feed-
prised of crossbreeding the Damascus with ing of diets based on medium-quality forage
the Anglo-Nubian and Jamunapari in Oman; resulted in a reduction or reversal of the
the Katjang with the Saanen, Anglo-Nubian, advantage in growth rate (Blackburn, 1995).
British Alpine and Jamunapari in Malaysia; In another study, Mislevy et al. (2000) was
the Boer with the Small East African in not able to demonstrate any association
Kenya and Malawi; the Creole with the Saa- with type and quality of grass when
nen and the Barbados in Puerto Rico, and Spanish x Boer kids foraged Argentine,
with the Nubian, French Alpine and Paraguay-22 and Tifton-9 Bahia grasses and
Toggenburg in Venezuela; the Anatolian Florico stargrass. Boer x Spanish and
Black with the Saanen and Maltese, and the Boer x Angora kids fed a concentrate-based
Saanen with the Sardinian and the Kilis in diet resulted in similar early post-weaning
Turkey; and the Jamunapari with indige- growth rates, whereas Boer crosses exceeded
nous goats in Sri Lanka. Further evaluations Spanish crosses (Cameron et al., 2001).
encompass the Alpine, Anglo-Nubian and Boer x Alpine kids gained substantially
Saanen breeds with the Beetal goat in India more with better feed conversion at
and Fiji; the Jamunapari, Saanen, Barbari 31 weeks than at 50 weeks of age, suggesting
and Beetal breeds with indigenous goats in that growth rate tended to decrease as kids
Nepal; the German Fawn breed and Katjang grew older (Luo et al., 2000). Kids slaugh-
goats in Malaysia; the Alpine and Rove tered at a constant age showed that a
breeds in Egypt; the Japanese Saanen breed Boer x Spanish cross compared with the
with Okinawa meat goats in Japan; the Spanish breed produced heavier body
Nubian, Saanen, Toggenburg, Alpine and weight and hot carcass weight, whereas
Granadina breeds with indigenous goats in Boer x Spanish and Spanish x Angora were
Mexico; and the Boer breed with the Span- similar, and the Angora breed was signifi-
ish and Angora, and the Nubian and Alpine cantly lighter (Oman et al., 2000). Breeds
breeds in the USA. did not vary in lean colour, surface discol-
A number of studies have reported that oration, overall appearance or off-odour,
offspring derived from breeds with genetic although kids of a Spanish x Angora cross
potential for increased growth rate have a tended to have a higher proportion of lean
requirement for a high-quality diet, signify- and less fat than those of the Angora breed,
ing the importance of breed x nutrition suggesting crossbreeding as an option to
interaction. Glimp (1995) suggested that improve carcass characteristics.
increased productivity could be achieved
by providing better nutrition for crossbred
kids from any improved breed. In India,
kids of Beetal x Sirohi raised extensively on 4.6 Crossbreeding
range failed to demonstrate any advantage
in body weight at 12 months of age over Progressive breeders made use of cross-
those of the Sirohi breed. When kids were breeding long before the importance of het-
raised on feedlot, performance was signifi- erosis was well recognized by the scientific
cantly superior, whereas mortality, feed community, recommended by specialists
Breeding Meat Goats 77
and willingly accepted for commercial pro- the combination of specific breeds and rota-
duction. Previously, breeding strategies in tional crosses.
livestock and poultry were patterned some- The breakdown of desirable combina-
what after methods employed by plant tions of segregating alleles inherited from
breeders to produce hybrid maize. Commer- many of the parental breeds during cross-
cial producers not only benefited from out- breeding or the development of synthetic
standing genetic merit in the parental populations could lead to a loss of desirable
breeds but also profited from heterosis prev- morphological characteristics and produc-
alent among complementary breed crosses. tion performance (Dickerson, 1969a,b;
There has been irrefutable evidence from Kinghorn, 1980). This may be attributed to
researchers worldwide to suggest that cross- the inter-breed recombination among non-
bred offspring obtained in a systematic allelic genes (epistasis) decreasing the pro-
manner grew more rapidly, were more portion of retained heterosis, both direct
fecund and survived better than their pure- and maternal. In addition to recombination
bred contemporaries. loss, selection over subsequent generations
Studies with pigs and sheep have con- increases the loss of within-breed variabil-
firmed that heterosis improves the maternal ity, decreases the effective population size
environment and enhances milk production and hastens the rate of inbreeding. Research
in the crossbred female parent, as well as results on recombination loss in the parents
the growth performance of their offspring and their offspring have often been conflict-
(Shrestha, 1973; Shrestha and Heaney, ing because precise estimates require a large
2003, 2004). Multiparous domestic mam- number of breeds and their crosses indepen-
mals, which include meat goats, benefit dent of environmental influence. Shrestha
from the maternal environment provided (2010) has discussed in detail heterosis
during gestation and the nursing of their off- retention and inter-breed recombination
spring. In industrial nations, the practical among non-allelic genes associated with
importance of heterosis in improving crossbreeding and synthesis of breeds.
efficiency of production for livestock and In practice, breeders are faced with the
poultry has been widely appreciated by difficulty of simultaneously improving a
commercial producers. Therefore, breeders number of economically important charac-
should opt for crossbreeding to maximize teristics to increase efficiency of goat meat
production efficiency for the commercial production. Therefore, genetic and environ-
production of goat meat. ment components associated with produc-
Earlier studies using single crosses tion traits of economic importance need to
derived from two divergent inbred popula- be considered. There have been several
tions authenticated the benefits from heter- reports suggesting substantial improvement
osis. Unlike plants, the concept of inbred in the productivity of offspring from crosses
lines is not practical in the livestock spe- between exotic breeds and indigenous
cies. This is because substantial loss in pro- goats, leading to the myth that exotic crosses
ductivity can result from lower inherent are more productive under prevailing con-
potential for reproduction in the inbred par- ditions and requirements (Shrestha, 1998).
ents, along with an increase in inbreeding In developing countries, this approach has
and susceptibility to diseases in their off- contributed to successive generations of
spring. In livestock and poultry species, unintentional crossbreeding, which has
approaches to crossbreeding that have been often resulted in upgrading indigenous
widely practised are contingent on the goats to resemble the exotic breed. On the
number of parental breeds or populations, other hand, the lack of adequate nutrition
and the order of mating among specialized and husbandry has contributed to loss of
pure breeds and their crosses. These include adaptability, fecundity and disease resis-
a number of approaches, such as specific or tance, while the genetic base has been
rotational crosses involving multiple reduced by repeated use of the same parents
breeds, backcrossing to the male parent, and to the detriment of performance in the
78 J.N.B. Shrestha
crossbred population. The success or failure resources or for their inherent potential
of the breeding programme to a large extent without jeopardizing the animal health sta-
depends on socio-economic values, fiscal tus of the country. There is always the pos-
constraints, religious rituals, responsive- sibility of a disadvantage associated with
ness to indigenous knowledge and the tradi- the imported breed, due to restrictions asso-
tional skills acquired by the producer. ciated with the test environment and inad-
Of the large number of breeds world- equacy of nutrients necessary for expression
wide, some have considerable merit for of the full inherent potential in the cross-
meat production while others have shown bred offspring. The problem is more pro-
promise in crossbred combinations (GarcOa nounced with incidence of mortality. This
and Gall, 1981; Devendra, 1982, 1988; Gall, is because goat production tends to be con-
1982, 1996; Devendra and Burns, 1983). centrated in marginal lands that are not
The lack of inherent potential for lean suitable for crossbred offspring with higher
muscle yield among established or indige- nutritional requirements.
nous goats demonstrates prospects for Reproductive technology, which
complementing with exotic breeds that includes collection, processing, storage and
excel in genetic merit. Potential sources of use of fresh and frozen buck semen and
exotic breeds have demonstrated consider- embryos from does, has achieved success in
able promise in improving efficiency of controlling the spread of diseases. Cur-
production when used for crossbreeding rently, semen and embryos can be trans-
and development of composite popula- ported with relative ease while minimizing
tions. Some of the popular goats in the the risk of introducing diseases. This ave-
Asia-Pacific region with potential genetic nue provides an opportunity to sample a
merit are the Barbari, Beetal, Damani, Daira large number of unrelated goats and estab-
Deen Panah, Jamunapari and Kamori lish a foundation herd consisting of as broad
breeds for milk and meat; the Black Bengal, a genetic base as possible. Achieving accept-
Fijian, Kambing, Katjang, Kheri, Marwari, able fertility will reduce associated costs
Ma'tou, Nubian, Sirohi, Teddy and Terai incurred during the importation of exotic
breeds for meat; the Chyangra, Kashmiri breeds and their propagation. The choice of
and Singhal breeds for meat and pashmina; animals within breeds selected for cross-
and the Black Bengal, Malabari, Barbari breeding may depend largely on previously
and Ma'tou breeds for fecundity (Shrestha acquired knowledge and the availability of
and Fahmy, 2005). The Alpine, Saanen and a healthy breeding stock of appropriate age.
Toggenburg dairy breeds from continental Experience has shown that fiscal constraints
Europe and the Boer breed from South usually result in the introduction of a lim-
Africa have considerable merit for use in ited number of unrelated animals, mostly
goat meat production. bucks. Details and descriptions of findings
In each country, the sources of animals from studies worldwide presented in the
selected for crossbreeding need to be following sections substantiate the advan-
assessed carefully. If breeds must be tage of crossbreeding complementary breeds
imported, consultation with breed associa- to maximize production efficiency for com-
tions or societies as well as producer organi- mercial production of goat meat.
zations before making any decision on their
importation is essential. It is important to
note that breeders, besides having raised
goats for a number of years, are privy to a 4.6.1 Backcrosses
great deal of information on the goats'
genetic background, health status, behav- A common practice among goat breeders in
iour and previously available knowledge on developing countries is to produce purebred
their performance. Breeding animals may offspring necessary for herd replacement
be introduced into the population chosen from about one-third of the superior female
either as a source of divergent genetic parents, while the remaining two-thirds are
Breeding Meat Goats 79
crossed with bucks of an alternative breed to sis estimates for body weight were 0.16, 1
produce two-breed-cross offspring. Selected and 1.4 kg, respectively, and for kid mortal-
two-breed-cross does are mated to bucks of ity was 3%. Maternal heterosis had a sig-
the sire breed to produce backcross offspring nificant influence on weaning weight,
for market. The operational advantage lies in demonstrating the advantage of using cross-
keeping a single breed in the farm or house- bred dams for goat meat production. In
hold and purchasing only bucks of an alter- order to reduce the high mortality in cross-
native breed to produce both the single- and bred offspring, management issues need to
backcross offspring. In this procedure, there be addressed.
is an advantage from heterosis in maternal In Egypt, Barki x (Zaraibi x Barki) and
performance and survival of the crossbred Barki x (Damascus x Barki) goats exceeded
female parent, along with growth rate and the Barki breed in productivity (Abdelsalam
survival of their offspring. The drawback is et al., 1994). Barki x (Zaraibi x Barki) com-
associated with the inability to benefit from pared with Zaraibi x Barki goats weighed
the full complement of heterosis, which can -15 to 11% from birth to market, and pro-
result in lower performance of the backcross duced 21% less total 16-week milk yield.
than that of a single cross. In addition, the Similarly Barki x (Damascus x Barki) com-
genetic superiority associated with parental pared with Zaraibi x Barki goats weighed
breeds may not be optimal. It is important to 12-4% less from birth to market, and pro-
note that backcross combinations involving duced 5% more total 16-week milk yield
exotic breeds may result in offspring that (Table 4.8). At the same time, the Zaraibi
may not be well adapted to their new envi- breed was more productive than the Damas-
ronment unless there is provision for ade- cus breed (Abdelsalam et al., 2000). Does
quate nutrition and husbandry. of the Barki breed compared with those of
A number of studies worldwide revealed Zaraibi x Barki and Damascus x Barki pro-
that productivity of crossbred kids exceeded duced 47 and 71% less total 16-week milk
that of their contemporary purebred parents. yield than the Barki breed. In addition, does
In India, Saanen x (Saanen x Malabari) com- of the Barki breed compared with those of
pared with Saanen x Malabari goats weighed Barki x (Zaraibi x Barki) and Barki x (Damas-
-5 to 17% from birth to 6 months of age cus x Barki) produced 16 and 54% less total
(Acharya, 1982). Similarly, Angora x (Angora 16-week milk yield. These results suggest
x Sangamaneri) compared with Angora x that crossbred does with a higher propor-
Sangamaneri goats weighed -11 to 4% from tion of the Barki breed produced less milk
birth to 12 months of age (Table 4.5). In con- from a shorter lactation period.
trast, Taneja (1982) reported that Beetal x In Sri Lanka, the Boer, Jamunapari and
(Beetal x Sirohi) compared with Beetal x Kottukachchiya breeds and 50% Boer cross
Sirohi goats weighed 7-19% less from birth weighed 3, 2.8, 2.2 and 2.7 kg, respectively
to 9 months of age (Table 4.6). at birth (Premasundeba et al., 1998). Back-
In the USA, Gebrelul et al. (1994) crossing with the Boer breed resulted in off-
reported that the Alpine and Nubian breeds spring with heavier birth weight, while
and their single crosses varied in body inter se mating of Boer crosses did not
weight at birth, weaning and 6 months by decrease body weight.
4-11, 8-17 and 3-5% of their dam breed, In Thailand, the Thai breed, Anglo-
respectively, while mortality to 90 days Nubian x Thai and Anglo-Nubian x (Anglo-
increased substantially (Table 4.7). Corre- Nubian x Thai) slaughtered at 6, 11 or
sponding estimates for backcross kids were 14 months of age produced carcasses with
-3 to 6, 8-16 and -1 to 16%, respectively, similar yield and percentage of fat and bone
while mortality to 90 days was variable. (Pralomkarn et al., 1995). Correspondingly,
Estimates of direct heterosis for body weight Anglo-Nubian x (Anglo-Nubian x Thai)
at birth, weaning and 6 months of age were compared with the Thai breed and Anglo-
0.24, 1.9, 0.6 kg, respectively, and for kid Nubian x Thai produced lower lean muscle
mortality was 4%, whereas maternal hetero- by 1 and 4%, respectively.
Table 4.5. Means (± sEM) for body weight at birth (kg) and at various ages, age at first kidding, kidding interval, service period and litter size for various goat co
breeds and crossesa (from Acharya et al., 1982 and Acharya, 1988).
Sire breed Beetal Alpine Saanen Malabari Alpine Saanen Saanen Sangamaneri Angora Angora
Saanen x Angora x
Dam breed Beetal Beetal Beetal Malabari Malabari Malabari Malabari Sangamaneri Sangamaneri Sangamaneri
Anglo
Sire breed Alpine Nubian Beetal Alpine Saanen Sangamaneri Angora
Dam breed Beetal Beetal Beetal Beetal Beetal Sangamaneri Sangamaneri
Slaughter
Age (months) 5 5 9 9 9 9 9
Live weight 14.1 ± 1.70 23.9 ± 3.40 15.2 ± 0.65 18.3 ± 0.41 18.8 ± 0.81 11.5 ± 1.46 12.9 ± 0.50
(months)
Hot carcass (%) 5.3 ± 0.83 9.3 ± 1.48 7.7 ± 0.30 9.5 ± 0.36 9.4 ± 0.44 5.1 ± 0.16 4.4 ± 0.42
Dressing 38 39 50 52 50 44 38
percentage
Table 4.6. Means (± sE) for body weight of single born kids at birth (kg) and at various ages by breed and their crossesa.
1978-1979
Sirohi Sirohi 309 2.8 ± 0.02 (0) 288 9.9 ± 0.12 (0) 190 13.6 ± 0.17 (0) 167 17.1 ± 0.18 (.0) 164 21.3 ± 0.18 (0)
Beetal Sirohi 261 3.1 ± 0.04 (11) 244 10.3 ± 0.13 (4) 163 14.3 ± 0.19 (5) 142 17.1 ± 0.19 (0) 138 22.3 ± 0.20 (5)
Year: 1980
Sirohi Sirohi 57 2.9 ± 0.04 (0) 55 9.6 ± 0.29 (0) 34 12.5 ± 0.33 (0) 39 17.0 ± 0.41 (0)
Beetal Sirohi 36 3.1 ± 0.06 (7) 33 10.4 ± 0.43 (8) 22 13.3 ± 0.44 (6) 21 17.6 ± 0.52 (4)
Beetal Beetal x 24 2.9 ± 0.08 (-6) 19 8.4 ± 0.46 (-19) 13 12.4 ± 0.47 (-7) 10 16.2 ± 0.53 (-8)
Sirohi
Black Black 65 1.2 ± 0.03 (0) 44 2.1 ± 0.10 (0) 41 3.0 ± 0.16 (0) 29 3.8 ± 0.30 (0) 24 4.4 ± 0.37 (0)
Bengal Bengal
Jamunapari Black 135 1.4 ± 0.04 (17) 64 2.5 ± 0.12 (19) 56 3.3 ± 0.14 (10) 38 4.4 ± 0.21 (16) 27 5.5 ± 0.40 (25)
Bengal
No.
Sire Dam kids Birth 3 months 6 months 12 months
Black Black 131 1.8c ± 0.07 (0) 7.6ab ± 0.28 (0) 11.4b ± 0.40 (0) 16.5b ± 0.55 (0)
Bengal Bengal
Beetal Beetal 274 2.5a ± 0.04 (0) 8.6a ± 0.18 (0) 12.9a ± 0.23 (0) 19.0a ± 0.34 (0)
Beetal Black 115 1.9c ± 0.07 (6) 7.9ab ± 0.30 (4) 12.4ab ± 0.43 (9) 18.7ab ± 0.58 (13)
Bengal
Black Beetal 96 2.3b ± 0.06 (-8) 7.2b ± 0.28 (-16) 12.7ab ± 0.40 (-2) 18.2ab ± 0.54 (-4)
Bengal
co
Continued
Table 4.6. Continued.
Age at first
No. conception Age at first kidding First service First kidding
Sire Dam does (days) (days) period (days) interval (days)
Black Black 91 307a ± 12 (0) 451b ± 13 (0) 151b ± 3 (0) 294b ± 3 (0)
Bengal Bengal
Beetal Black 241 395a ± 12 (29) 543a ± 12 (20) 167a ± 3 (11) 314a ± 3 (7)
Bengal
Alpine Alpine 89 2.7 ± 0.08 (0) 68 13.2 ± 0.4 (0) 54 19.9 ± 0.7 (0) 1.8 ± 2 (0)
Nubian Nubian 47 2.6 ± 0.11 (0) 24 12.7 ± 0.7 (0) 17 18.3 ± 1.1 (0) 4.5 ± 4 (0)
Alpine Nubian 48 2.7 ± 0.11 (4) 33 13.7 ± 0.6 (8) 27 18.8 ± 0.9 (3) 10.9 ± 4 (142)
Nubian Alpine 79 3.0 ± 0.09 (11) 62 15.5 ± 0.4 (17) 47 20.9 ± 0.7 (5) 5.3 ± 3 (194)
Alpine Alpine x Nubian 25 2.8 ± 0.16 (4) 16 15.9 ± 0.9 (16) 13 20.3 ± 1.3 (8) 13.1 ± 5 (20)
Alpine Nubian x Alpine 57 2.9 ± 0.11 (-3) 41 14.8 ± 0.5 (-5) 29 20.7 ± 0.8 (-1) 5.2 ± 3 (-2)
Nubian Alpine x Nubian 26 2.8 ± 0.15 (4) 14 13.8 ± 0.9 (1) 11 21.9 ± 1.3 (16) 11.4 ± 5 (5)
Nubian Nubian x Alpine 24 3.2 ± 0.16 (6) 17 14.2 ± 0.8 (-8) 13 20.6 ± 1.3 (-1) 11.2 ± 5 (111)
Spanish Spanish 38 1.46a ± 0.1 (0) 38 2.8a ± 0.1 (0) 13.6a ± 0.4 (0)
Boer x Spanish Spanish 31 1.40a ± 0.1 (-4) 31 3.1b ± 0.1 (11) 15.8b ± 0.5 (16)
Table 4.8. Means (± sE) for body weight (BW) at birth and at various ages, and reproductive traits by breed and their crossesa.
Sire Dam No. kids BW at birth No. kids 4 months No. kids 9 months
1982-1985
East African East African 189 2.0 ± 0.06 (0) 95 8.8 ± 0.33 (0) 21 11.9 ± 0.64 (0)
Toggenburg East African 218 2.2 ± 0.06 (10) 98 9.7 ± 0.33 (10) 31 14.2 ± 0.64 (19)
Anglo-Nubian East African 98 2.2 ± 0.06 (10) 55 9.5 ± 0.33 (8) 20 13.0 ± 0.64 (9)
Galla Galla 75 2.6 ± 0.06 (0) 43 9.1 ± 0.33 (0) 19 13.1 ± 0.64 (0)
Toggenburg Galla 139 2.6 ± 0.06 (0) 57 10.2 ± 0.33 (12) 26 13.9 ± 0.64 (6)
Anglo-Nubian Galla 91 2.8 ± 0.06 (8) 44 10.4 ± 0.33 (14) 25 15.1 ± 0.64 (15)
Total 16 weeks'
56 days Mortality to Litter weight at Milk intake milk yield
Sire Dam No. kids Birth (kg) (kg) Market (kg) 56 days (%) No. does weaning (kg) per 1 kg gain (kg)
Barki Barki 146 2.1 (0) 6.2 (0) 12.6 (0) 24 (0) 47 7.6 ± 0.78 (0) 9.17 ± 0.45 (0) 80.0 (0)
Zaraibi Zaraibi 309 2.1 (0) 6.3 (0) 10.9 (0) 31 (0) 38 9.2 ± 0.78 (0) 7.43 ± 0.45 (0) 116.5 (0)
Damascus Damascus 225 3.1 (0) 9.1 (0) 17.5 (0) 35 (0) 73 11.9 ± 0.78 (0) 6.78 ± 0.45 (0) 146.0 (0)
Zaraibi Barki 52 2.6 (24) 7.1 (15) 13.2 (5) 25 (4) 19 10.2 ± 0.78 (29) 7.70 ± 0.45 (-16) 117.7 (47)
Damascus Barki 80 2.6 (24) 7.8 (26) 15.6 (24) 33 (38) 20 10.4 ± 0.78 (33) 7.70 ± 0.45 (-16) 136.8 (71)
Barki Zaraibi 32 2.2 (-15) 7.5 (6) 14.7 (11) 34 (36) 16 7.9 ± 0.78 (-22) 8.73 ± 0.45 (13) 93.0 (-21)
x Barki
Barki Damascus 66 2.3 (-12) 7.5 (-4) 14.8 (-5) 21 (-36) 29 10.4 ± 0.78 (-1) 8.20 ± 0.45 (6) 123.0 (5)
x Barki
Proportion in dam
Generation Breeds utilized A
AB
B.AB 3/4
NB AB) 0 34
Y6 1y6
Proportion in dam
Generation Breeds utilized A B C
Fig. 4.2. Rotational crossbreeding based on three breeds (A, B and C).
Breeding Meat Goats 87
of indigenous goats to produce purebred of age than the Xuhuai breed. Consequently,
goats for herd replacement. The remaining Zhou et al. (2001) recommended Boer-sired
indigenous goats are crossed with bucks of offspring for meat production.
an improved dairy breed to produce cross- In Kenya, indigenous East African and
bred does for milk production. Finally, the Gal la goats and their crossbreds sired by the
mating of crossbred does to bucks of a meat- Toggenburg and Anglo-Nubian breeds were
type breed produces specific three-breed- evaluated for body weight from birth to
cross kids with rapid growth rate deemed 9 months of age, including their growth
suitable for meat production. rates (Table 4.8). Ruvuna et al. (1988)
In India, Acharya (1988) summarized ranked East African goats as the lightest,
the performance of the Beetal, Malabari and Anglo-Nubian x Gal la as the heaviest and
Sangamaneri breeds and their crosses sired Gal la, Toggenburg x East African, Toggen-
by the Alpine, Saanen and Angora breeds burg x Gal la and Anglo-Nubian x East Afri-
and concluded that crossbred offspring sired can as intermediate. Toggenburg- and
by dairy breeds tended to exceed the female Anglo-Nubian-sired East African and Gal la
parent in body weight from birth to does exceeded the dam breed in body
12 months of age, age at first kidding, kid- weight at birth by 10 and 0-8%, respec-
ding interval, service period, litter size and tively, and at 9 months by 9-19 and 6-15%,
weight, age and weight at slaughter, hot car- respectively. In another study, Ruvuna
cass weight and dressing percentage (Table et al. (1992) reported that kids born to Gal la
4.5). According to Taneja (1982), the Beetal does compared with those from East Afri-
and Sirohi breeds with marginal differences can does produced 2.3 kg heavier live
in mature weight produced Beetal x Sirohi weight, 3.2% greater hot and chilled car-
and Sirohi kids that were similar in average casses at 14.7 months, 0.9% more internal
body weight from birth to 12 months of age, fat, 1.4% more lean at 7.2 months and 2%
feed efficiency and dressing percentage at more lean at 14.7 months. Toggen-
6-7 months of age, whereas overall mortali- burg x Gal la goats slaughtered at 2 years of
ties were 3.5-11.9 and 2.4-10.1%, respec- age compared with those of Toggen-
tively (Table 4.6). Misra (1983) evaluated burg x East African, Anglo-Nubian x East
Jamunapari x Black Bengal, Beetal x Black African and Anglo-Nubian x Gal la pro-
Bengal and Black Bengal kids for body duced significantly more carcass lean con-
weight and carcass traits. The author con- tent by 3.1, 3.4 and 3.8%, respectively. Kids
cluded that the larger Jamunapari and Beetal from Toggenburg- and Anglo-Nubian-sired
breeds had potential merit for improving does had a similar growth rate, slaughter
meat production when crossed with small weight and carcass composition, while
and medium-sized goats in India. Black Gal la does exceeded East African does in
Bengal and Beetal x Black Bengal goats had producing heavier and leaner kids.
a similar age at first conception and, in the In Bangladesh, the Black Bengal, Bar-
latter, age at first kidding, first service period bari and Anglo-Nubian breeds and Bar-
and first kidding interval were significantly bari x Black Bengal breeds weighed 1.4, 2.2,
longer (Singh et al., 2000). The Beetal breed 3.2 and 1.6 kg at birth, 7.7, 11.5, 19 and
exceeded the Black Bengal breed, as well as 10.6 kg at 6 months, and 11.3, 21.9, 31.9 and
their reciprocal crosses, in body weight at 16.5 kg at 12 months of age, respectively
birth, 3, 6 and 12 months of age, resulting in (Mia et al., 1993). The body weight of Bar-
heterosis estimates of -2, -7, 3 and 4%, bari x Black Bengal goats was intermediate
respectively (Singh et al., 2002). These find- to their parental breeds with heterosis esti-
ings further support the use of bucks from mates of -11% at birth, 10% at 6 months
breeds characterized by larger body size and and -1% at 12 months of age.
mature weight to produce heavier crossbred In Oman, male kids of Anglo-
offspring. Nubian x Dhofari compared with the Dho-
In China, Boer x Xuhuai crossbreds fari breed were significantly heavier from
weighed more at birth, 2, 6 and 12 months birth to 1 year of age, with greater wither
88 J.N.B. Shrestha
height and body length (Al-Ojaili, 1995). empty), more muscle and less subcutaneous
The author concluded that crossbreeding and intermuscular fat at each of the three
does of the Dhofari breed with bucks of a slaughter weights. The reduction in inter-
temperate breed demonstrated potential for muscular fat was presumed to be detrimen-
increasing meat production. tal to eating quality. Boer x British Saanen
In Egypt, the Alpine breed compared compared with the British Saanen breed
with the Rove breed was more fecund with slaughtered at 28 or 33 kg live weight pro-
a lighter body weight and similar carcass duced carcasses with proportionately more
traits. The estimate of heterosis for body intermuscular fat. Those slaughtered at
weight increased from 7% at 10 days to 38 kg live weight showed a little increase in
27% at 210 days for female kids, 12% at 90 internal and intermuscular fat deposition,
days of age for male kids, and -9 to 4% for resulting in carcasses with slightly more
lean yield, width and shape of carcass and subcutaneous fat and lower overall fat con-
internal fat (Anous and Mourad, 1993). Het- tent. The authors recommended mating
erosis estimates for length, width and con- bucks of the Boer breed to a proportion of
formation of gigot were not significant. The does of the British Saanen breed to produce
authors concluded that crossbreeding the kids for market. Dairy-goat producers were
Alpine breed with the Rove breed produced encouraged to grow kids to a live weight of
does that were more prolific, while their 38 kg or more for slaughter in order to take
kids grew rapidly with wide and compact advantage of heavier carcasses without
carcass but more internal fat. Heterosis esti- incurring excessive fat.
mates of Zaraibi x Barki goats for body In the USA, Johnson et al. (1995)
weight at birth, 56 days and market age reported that Nubian x Florida native com-
were 24, 14 and 12%, respectively, and for pared with Florida native and Span-
mortality to 90 days was -9%, whereas ish x Florida native goats weighed
those for Damascus x Barki goats were 0, 2 significantly more at slaughter (22 versus 19
and 4%, respectively, with 12% for mortal- and 19.3 kg, respectively) with a heavier
ity to 90 days (Table 4.8). The authors con- carcass weight (10.9 versus 9.5 and 9.6 kg,
cluded that Zaraibi x Barki and respectively) and larger rib eye area (8.3
Damascus x Barki were intermediate versus 7.42 and 7.11 cm2, respectively),
between those of their parental breeds for whereas Florida native compared with
body weight at birth, 56 days and market Nubian x Florida native and Spanish x Flor-
age (Abdelsalam et al., 1994). Barki goats ida native goats were significantly lower in
sired by the Damascus breed were more the percentage of bone (20.4 versus 21.7 and
productive than those sired by the Zaraibi 21.2%, respectively) and had more fat than
breed, resulting in more milk from a longer Nubian x Florida native (11.6 versus 9.3%).
lactation, heavier litter weights and better Boer x Spanish goats compared with the
milk conversion ratio, while contributing Spanish breed weighed more at birth and
towards improved performance of kids 90-day weaning by 0.26 and 0.67 kg, respec-
(Abdelsalam et al., 2000). At the same time, tively, and at 8 months (either on pasture or
the crossbreds had an advantage over the feedlot by 2.1 and 4.1 kg, respectively),
Barki breed by producing more milk and whereas feed consumption, subcutaneous
heavier litters. backfat thickness and longissimus muscle
In the UK, castrated male kids of the area adjusted for carcass weight were simi-
British Saanen breed were heavier than lar (Waldron et al., 1995).
Boer x British Saanen kids at 8 weeks of age Feedlot trials revealed that
and when slaughtered at 28, 33 and 38 kg Boer x Spanish compared with Spanish
live weight, whereas the latter were heavier goats resulted in kids that had significantly
than the Anglo-Nubian breed (Gibb et al., heavier live and carcass weights, as well as
1993). The Anglo-Nubian breed compared greater actual and adjusted fat thickness,
with the British Saanen breed resulted in carcass conformation score and leg circum-
kids with heavier carcasses (hot, cold and ference (Oman et al., 1999). Only actual
Breeding Meat Goats 89
and adjusted fat thickness and carcass con- In a Northern Mexican farm, Alpine,
formation remained significant when Granadina, Nubian, Saanen and Toggen-
adjusted for live weight. Again, kids on burg goats raised in a stall-fed system were
feedlot compared with those on pasture grouped according to the proportion of
were significantly heavier in live and car- exotic breed into high-grade (Y/8) and low-
cass weights, with more fat and lean but grade (<7) goats (Sanchez et al., 1994). The
less bone as a percentage of carcass weight. high- and low-grade Alpine, Saanen and
In another study, the Angora breed com- Toggenburg goats compared with Nubian
pared with the Spanish breed, Boer x Span- goats were similar in birth weight (Table
ish and Spanish x Angora resulted in kids 4.10). In another study under stall-feeding
that had significantly lighter live and hot conditions, high- and low-grade Alpine,
carcass weights, smaller longissimus mus- Saanen and Toggenburg goats compared
cle area and leg circumference, a lower per- with local Mexican goats produced more
centage of lean and a higher percentage of milk from a longer lactation period, while
fat (Oman et al., 2000). In addition, kids of increasing their efficiency, litter size and
Boer x Spanish goats exceeded those of the weight (Montaldo et al., 1995). The authors
Spanish breed in live and hot carcass suggested the need to estimate heterosis for
weights and carcass conformation score economically important traits based on fur-
(P < 0.05) but were similar to Span- ther studies of crossbred goats raised under
ish x Angora goats. In general, the Spanish varying goat production systems. Potential
breed and Boer x Spanish compared with merit consistent with bioeconomic effi-
the Angora breed and Spanish x Angora ciency indices of performance for stall-fed
breeds produced carcasses with a higher systems resulted in Montaldo and Meza
percentage of lean and a lower percentage (1999) proposing crossbreeding local goats
of fat. Again, Spanish x Angora compared in Mexico with the Granadina and Nubian
with the Angora breed produced carcasses breeds for meat production, and with the
with more lean and less fat in most side and Alpine and Saanen breeds for both meat
primal cuts (Table 4.9). There was no dif- and milk production.
ference among breeds and their crosses for In Australia, capretto (6-10 kg carcass
lean colour, surface discolouration, overall of pink meat from suckling kids) production
performance and off-odour. The authors from Boer x Saanen (BS) and Saanen x Feral
concluded in favour of crossbreeding due (SF) compared with Feral (FF) and Saa-
to an advantage associated with large body nen x Angora (SA) goats resulted in signifi-
size, rapid growth rate and carcasses with a cantly higher daily gain (165 and 162 versus
greater proportion of lean. 128 g/day), reducing the time to reach
In Canada, preliminary evaluation market weight (77 and 83 versus 99 and
revealed that bucks of the Boer breed com- 101 days), and longer carcasses (49 and
pared with those of the Alpine breed 49.9 versus 46.7 and 47.9 cm), while
resulted in kids that were 9% heavier at Boer x Angora (BA) goats (19 g/day, 88 days
birth, whereas the Alpine breed and 38.4 cm) were similar or lower (Dhanda
(Alpine x Saanen and Boer x Alpine) kids et a/., 1999a). Also, SA produced 0.9%
had similar body weights at weaning and more kidney and pelvic fat, and 1% more
160 days (Goonewardene et al., 1998). omental fat measured as a ratio of empty
There was a significant breed of dam effect body weight, while BA compared with
for body weights, while the Alpine breed other crossbreeds and FF produced 2.6 cm
and crosses with Saanen does had a similar more subcutaneous fat. Chevon (16-22 kg
dressing percentage and rib eye muscle carcass from older kids) production from BS
areas. The authors suggested that research and SF compared with BA and FF resulted
based on a larger sample size was necessary in a significantly higher average daily gain
to verify why carcass traits of Boer-sired (140 and 130 versus 106 and 95 g/day),
kids failed to demonstrate an advantage reducing the time required to reach market
over Alpine-sired kids. weight (238 and 257 versus 282 and
Table 4.9. Least squares means (± sE) for carcass yield and quality measures of Boer x Spanish, Spanish, Spanish x Angora and Angora goats on range and
feedlot.
Range Feedlot
Source Boer x Spanisha Spanisha Boer x Spanisha,b Spanisha,b Spanish x Angorab Angorab
No. of kids 12 12 12 12 6 6
Live weight (kg) 20.5z ± 1.4 18.4z± 1.4 38.2a,x± 1.4 33.5b,y ± 1.4 36.5ab ± 2.0 28.0c ± 2.0
Hot carcass weight (kg) 10.0z ± 0.7 8.8z ± 0.7 21.7a,x ± 0.7 19.2b,y ± 0.7 20.1ab ± 1.0 14.5c ± 1.0
Longissimus muscle area (cm2) 6.3y ± 0.7 5.3y ± 0.7 12.5a,x ± 0.7 11.5a,x ± 0.7 11.5a ± 0.5 9.3b ± 0.5
12th rib (cm)
Actual fat thickness 0.03y ± 0.01 0.03y ± 0.01 0.12a,x ± 0.01 0.07b,x ± 0.01 0.13a ± 0.02 0.12a ± 0.02
Adjusted fat thickness 0.04z ± 0.02 0.04z ± 0.02 0.16ab,x ± 0.02 0.11b,y ± 0.02 0.23a ± 0.03 0.22a ± 0.03
Body wall thickness (cm) 0.62y ± 0.09 0.53y ± 0.09 1.32x ± 0.09 1.40x ± 0.09 1.55 ± 0.12 1.40 ± 0.12
Carcass conformation scorec 3.3z ± 0.8 1.8z ± 0.8 11.4a,x ± 0.8 8.3b,y ± 0.8 10.7ab ± 1.1 9.0ab ± 1.1
Carcass length (cm) 92y ± 1.1 90y ± 1.1 107a,x ± 1.1 105a,x ± 1.1 103b± 1.6 94c± 1.6
Leg circumference (cm) 44z ± 0.6 43z ± 0.6 55a,x ± 0.6 53ab,y ± 0.6 53a ± 0.9 48b ± 0.9
Lean maturity scored 1.4x ± 0.15 1.4x ± 0.15 1.4x ± 0.15 1.5x ± 0.15 1.9 ± 0.21 1.4 ± 0.21
Skeletal maturity scored 1.4y ± 0.08 1.5y ± 0.08 1.7x ± 0.08 1.7x ± 0.08 1.5 ± 0.12 1.5 ± 0.12
Marbling scoree 1.7y ± 0.23 1.8y ± 0.23 3.4ab,x ± 0.23 3.1b,x± 0.23 4.1a ± 0.32 4.1a ± 0.32
Frank streaking scoree 2.0y ± 0.17 1.8y ± 0.17 3.6b,x ± 0.17 3.4b,x ± 0.17 4.3a ± 0.24 4.2ab ± 0.24
Buckiness score' 1.6y ± 0.3 1.3y ± 0.3 4.4a,x ± 0.3 4.0a,x ± 0.3 4.8a ± 0.4 3.2b ± 0.4
Local 30 299c±34 288c ± 11 42.7c ± 1.3 7.2bc ± 0.7 1.72ab ± 0.11 5.2ab ± 0.4
Low-grade
Alpine 290 3.2ac ± 0.04 91 459ab ± 20 251bc ± 7 43.2bc ± 0.8 10.5a ± 0.4 1.73ab ± 0.07 5.5ab ± 0.2
Granadina 192 2.9c ± 0.05 52 353c ± 26 237bc ± 9 43.5bc ± 1.0 8.3bc ± 0.6 1.57ab ± 0.08 4.6ab ± 0.3
Nubian 355 3.2ef ± 0.03 105 370c ± 19 230c ± 7 46.3ab ± 0.8 8.0bc ± 0.4 1.77a ± 0.06 5.5ab ± 0.2
Saanen 240 3.3ab ± 0.04 71 428bc ± 23 244bc ± 8 43.5bc ± 0.9 9.9ab ± 0.5 1.79ab ± 0.07 5.6ab ± 0.2
Toggenburg 180 3.1ef ± 0.05 54 422bc ± 26 259abc ± 9 41.9c ± 1.0 10.0ab ± 0.4 1.53ab ± 0.08 4.8ab ± 0.3
High-grade
Alpine 871 3.3b ± 0.03 330 469ab ± 13 270ab ± 4 44.6bc ± 0.5 10.6a ± 0.3 1.65ab ± 0.04 5.6a ± 0.1
Granadina 601 2.7d ± 0.03 186 370c ± 16 230c ± 5 43.6bc ± 0.6 8.4b ± 0.3 1.70ab ± 0.05 4.8b ± 0.2
Nubian 1062 3.1f ± 0.02 180 339c ± 15 228c ± 5 48.1a ± 0.6 7.0c ± 0.3 1.69ab ± 0.05 5.3ab ± 0.2
Saanen 454 3.3ab ± 0.03 160 513a ± 16 283a ± 5 45.9ab ± 0.6 11.2a ± 0.3 1.61ab ± 0.05 5.4ab ± 0.2
Toggenburg 378 3.3b ± 0.03 165 450b ± 16 263ab ± 5 42.7c ± 0.6 10.6a ± 0.3 1.51b ± 0.05 5.1 ab ± 0.2
295 days) and longer carcasses (62.1 and Surplus milk in summer and a growing
60.3 versus 54.9 and 56.4 cm). Also, SF pro- niche market for goat meat were expected
duced 1.3% more kidney and pelvic fat, to increase farm family earnings by 18.5%
and 2.1% more omental fat. Capretto pro- annually.
duction from BS compared with other Modelling based on economic and
crossbreeds and FF resulted in significantly genetic parameters has been helpful in
paler longissimus muscle, a desirable qual- developing crossbreeding strategies for the
ity with a mean objective score of 1.4 on a raising of livestock and poultry. Bett et al.
scale of 1-5, chromameter values of 53.6, (2011) used bioeconomic models to study
8.6 and 6.2 for lightness (L*), redness (a *) profit and the economic values of four
and yellowness (b*) (Hunter scale), and a breeding groups: purebreds (indigenous
fibre optic probe value of 53 (Dhanda et al., goats and German Alpine breed), single
1999b). In addition, BS compared with SA crosses, backcrosses, and second back-
resulted in significantly more muscle in the crosses with the objective of defining breed-
flank (57.7 versus 52.1%) and ribs, and ing objectives to determine optimum
compared with FF and SA leg length (64.3 crossbreeding levels for goats in small-
versus 68.8 and 67.7%) was lower (Dhanda holder production systems. The authors
et a/., 1999c). Chevon production from FF concluded that crossbred goats derived
compared with other crosses resulted in from backcrossing would increase the prof-
43-73% more muscle (P <0.05) and various itability of the smallholder production in
primal cuts in carcasses, while BA and SF Kenya, whereas crossbreeding to a higher
compared with FF produced more subcuta- proportion of the German Alpine breed
neous fat (6.2 and 6 versus 4.5%) and with second backcrossing was not
intermuscular fat (8.2 and 7 versus 5.5%). recommended.
Capretto production in the carcass side
from SA compared with BS and SF resulted
in more subcutaneous fat (6.6 versus 4.1 4.7 Composite Populations
and 4.2%) and intermuscular fat (5.3 versus
3.3 and 3%), whereas BS resulted in a bone An integral part of breeding approaches
content of 23-38% (P < 0.05) and various employed by livestock and poultry breed-
primal cuts. Capretto and chevon produc- ers for commercial production of eggs,
tion from FF compared with other cross- meat, and fibre has been the concept of
breeds resulted in higher muscle to bone composite populations (Figs 4.3 and 4.4).
ratios of 2.7:1 and 3.6:1, respectively. Con- This is because it may be possible to
currently, BA had a longissimus thoracis achieve the same level of performance in a
muscle with 7.2% more extractable fat con- single composite population with a much
tent compared with 5% for BS and 3.2% for simpler breeding structure compared with
SF, while the proportion of individual fatty the crossbreeding of two or more breeds.
acids varied significantly among the cross- The operational advantage arises from the
breeds and FF (Dhanda et a/., 1999d). The reduced risk of introducing diseases
authors concluded that growth rate, carcass because all replacements are produced
characteristics and composition were in within the farm. There is also a lower
favour of crossbred goats with no important resource requirement from having to man-
influence on meat quality and chemical age a single population with no require-
composition. ment to purchase breeding stock. A large
In Norway, Asheim and Eik (1998) pro- number of newly developed breeds world-
posed an alternative source of revenue to wide have been described by Mason (1996)
cashmere production for a specialized and Gall (1996). However, the more recent
dairy goat farm. This approach would methods differ from the older principally
require kidding in the month of May and in their intensity and deliberate application
raising offspring for slaughter at about of a greater store of scientific knowledge on
8 months of age or 16 kg live weight. qualitative genetics and complementing
Base population
Generation I BA
Generation II
Generation III
Generation IV
Fig. 4.3. Flow chart showing crossbred combinations of two breeds (A and B) leading to the development of a composite population (Shrestha, 2005).
Parents Sire Dam Sire Dam Sire Dam Sire Dam Sire Dam Sire Dam
Base population A B B A A C C A
Generation I C AB BA B AC B CA A BC A CB
AB C BA C AC B CA B BC A CB A
441
Generation 1ff AB C.AB BA C.BA AC B.AC CA B.CA BC A.BC CB A.CB
C.AB AB C.BA BA B.AC AC B.CA CA A.BC BC A.CB CB
AB AB.0 BA BA.0 AC AC.B CA CA.B BC BC.A CB CB.A
AB.0 AB BA.0 BA AC.B AC CA.B CA BC.A BC CB.A CB
1011111
'40
Generation III b C.AB AB(C.AB) C.BA BA(C.BA) B AC AC(B.AC) B CA CA(B.CA) A.BC BC(A.BC) A.CB CB(A.CB)
AB(C.AB) C.AB BA(C.BA) C.BA AC(B.AC) B.AC CA(B.CA) B.CA BC(A.BC) A.BC CB(A.CB) A.CB
C.AB (C.AB)AB C.BA (C.BA)BA B.AC (B.AC)AC B.CA (B.CA)CA A.BC (A.BC)BC A.CB (A.CB)CB
(C.AB)AB C.AB (C.BA)BA C.BA (B.AC)AC B.AC (B.CA)CA B.CA (A.BC)BC A.BC (A.CB)CB A.CB
AB.0 AB(AB.C) BA.0 BA(BA.C) AC.B AC(AC.B) CA.B CA(CA.B) BC.A BC(BC.A) CB.A CB(CB.A)
AB(AB.C) AB.0 BA(BA.C) BA.0 AC(AC.B) AC.B CA(CA.B) CA.B BC(BC.A) BC.A CB(CB.A) CB.A
AB.0 (AB.C)AB BA.0 (BA.C)BA AC.B (AC.B)AC CA.B (CA.B)AC BC.A (BC.A)BC CB.A (CB.A)CB
(AB.C)AB AB.0 (BA.C)BA BA.0 (AC.B)AC AC.B (CA.B)AC CA.B (BC.A)BC BC.A (CB.A)CB CB.A
Offspring Offspring Offspring Offspring Offspring Offspring
Generation IV C.AB{AB(C.AB)I C.BA{BA(C.AB)} B.AC(AC(B.AC)) B.CA{CA(B.CA)} A.BC{BC(A.BC)1 A.CB{CB(A.CB)}
{AB(C.AB)1C.AB {BA(C.AB)1C.BA {AC(B.AC)}B.AC {CA(B.CA)}B.CA {BC(A.BC)}A.BC {CB(A.CB)}A.CB
{(C.AB)AB}C.AB {(C.BA)BA}C.BA {(B.AC)AC}B.AC {(B.CA)CA}B.CA {(A.BC)BC}A.BC {(A.CB)CB}A.CB
C.AB {(CAB)AB} C.BA{(C.BA)BA} B.AC{(B.AC)AC} B.CA{(B.CA)CA} A.BC{(A.BC)BC} A.CB{(A.CB)CB}
AB.C{AB(AB.C)) BA.C{BA(BA.C)} AC.B{AC(AC.B)1 CA.B{CA(CA.B)} BC.A{BC(BC.A)I CB.A(CB(CB.A))
{AB(AB.C)1AB.0 {BA(BA.C)IBA.0 {AC(AC.B)}AC.B {CA(CA.B)}CA.B {BC(BC.A)}BC.A {CB(CB.A)} CB.A
AB.C{(AB.C)AB} BA.C{(BA.C)BA} AC.B{(AC.B)AC} CA.B{(CA.B)AC} BC.A{(BC.A)BCI CB.A{(CB.A)CB)
{(AB.C)AB}AB.0 {(BA.C)BA}BA.0 {(AC.B)AC}AC.B {(CA.B)AC}CA.B {( BC.A)BC}BC. A {(CB.A)CB}CB.A
Fig. 4.4. Flow chart showing crossbred combinations of three breeds (A, B and C) leading to the development of a composite population (Shrestha, 2005).
aCrossbred parents with genetic contribution from two or three breeds. bCrossbred parents with genetic contribution from three breeds.
Breeding Meat Goats 95
Country Composite breed No. foundation breedsa Country Composite breed No. foundation breedsa
Lanka and the USA, as well as many other the number of traits considered in the selec-
countries, have imported this breed to meet tion criteria reduces the annual increment
the growing demand for increased produc- of genetic response to selection for each
tion of goat meat. Nevertheless, claims stat- trait. There is agreement among researchers
ing that Boer goats have resistance to in the scientific community that perfor-
specific diseases need to be substantiated. mance traits known to be highly heritable
benefit from mass selection by exploiting a
greater proportion of additive genetic varia-
tion. Genetic gains realized from selection
4.8 Selection for performance traits of economic impor-
tance, which are primarily associated with
Morphological characteristics and produc- additive genetic variance, are permanent
tion performance considered by the breeder and cumulative. At the same time, lowly
to be of economic importance for improving heritable traits benefit more from family
productivity are numerous. Studies in many selection that could make the most of non-
goat breeds and their crosses fed diets that additive genetic variation.
vary in nutritive value and raised under An important issue in goat breeding is
conditions of sedentary, nomadic and semi- how selection should be exploited for the
nomadic management substantiate the recurrent improvement of performance
importance of environmental influences on traits considered to be of economic impor-
performance (Guha et al., 1968; Moulick tance for commercial production of goat
and Syrstad, 1970; Mavrogenis et al., 1984; meat. Years of intensive selection in popu-
Nicoll, 1985; Bakshi et al., 1986; Herrera lations derived from narrow genetic bases
et al., 1987; Gebrelul et al., 1994; Gerstmayr could eventually exhaust additive genetic
and Horst, 1995). The general statement of variance available for selection. Breeding
environment influencing many of the eco- populations with large effective numbers of
nomically important traits may be summa- parents comprised of sufficient genetic vari-
rized as follows: bucks are heavier than ability for economically important traits
does; single-born kids are heavier than allow increased intensity of selection while
twins, which are heavier than triplets; and reducing the rate of inbreeding. There is
body weight tends to increase with age of evidence to suggest that selection will even-
the dam up to 5-6 years of age, declining at tually exhaust additive genetic variation in
older ages. In addition, location, year of the population when a greater proportion of
birth, season of kidding, parity and weight genes influencing a quantitative trait is
at slaughter, as well as diet, have an impor- additive and a smaller proportion is non-
tant influence on productivity. The inci- additive. Possibly, breeding populations
dence of mortality has been reported to be today may already have experienced a
lower in goats raised under range condi- reduction in reproductive rate and perfor-
tions and in arid and semi-arid regions of mance traits. Therefore, it is pertinent that
the country that are well drained with ways and means of exploiting variance
sandy soil compared with those in hot, associated with dominance and epistasis
humid environments. In contrast, mortality are explored. When overdominance is pres-
is higher in confinement and stall feeding as ent, even in a few loci, the value of progeny
a result of the concentration of animals and testing and family selection for improving
diseases. The influence of environment on performance could become inadequate.
performance has been described in detail in In animal breeding, the practical impor-
a number of publications and is important tance of heterosis has long been appreci-
but is beyond the scope of the present ated, and meat from crossbred animals is
review. well accepted by the consumer. Conse-
In theory, any breeding plan that is quently, in developed countries, the major-
most efficient for one performance trait may ity of the meat animals marketed today
be less efficient for another. Also, increasing are of crossbred origin. Researchers have
98 J.N.B. Shrestha
Table 4.12. Estimates of heritabilities and repeatabilities (± sE) for age at first kidding, litter size, multiple
births, daily gain from birth to 150 days and bone content in the whole carcass.
Estimates from a number of studies have direct and maternal heritabilities for body
shown direct and maternal heritability for weight at birth were 0.14 and 0.17, and at
body weight range from low to moderate, 60-day weaning were 0.26 and 0.01, respec-
while genetic correlations between direct tively. In Angora goats, direct and maternal
and maternal effects were low to moderate in heritability estimates for body weight were
magnitude, varying from negative to positive 0.29 and 0.09, respectively, while pheno-
in direction (summarized in Table 4.14). Pro- typic and genetic correlation between body
cedures developed by Dickerson (1969a) and weight and greasy fleece weight were 0.57
Kinghorn (1980, 1983) resulted in similar and 0.56, respectively (Snyman and Olivier,
estimates. In Turkish Angora goats, estimates 1996). In Boer goats, estimates of direct and
of direct and maternal heritability for body maternal heritability for body weight at birth
weight at birth and 100 days, yearling fleece and weaning were in the range of 0.16-0.33
weight, litter size and total weight of kids at and 0.05-0.60, respectively, while genetic
100 days were low, while genetic correla- correlations between the direct and maternal
tions between the direct and maternal effects effects of body weight were small to moder-
for body weight at birth and weaning varied ate and in the desired direction (Schoeman
from 0.18 to 0.91, for yearling and adult et al., 1997). Corresponding estimates for the
fleece weight varied from -0.91 to -0.95, for Adelaide herd were smaller compared with
litter weight was -0.07, and for kid weight at the combination of Adelaide and Omatjenna
100 days was -0.98 (Gerstmayr et al., 1989, herds. In local Malaysian goats and their
1992; Gerstmayr and Horst, 1995). In Can- crosses with the German Fawn breed, esti-
ada, field records on 11 breed types consist- mates of direct and maternal heritability for
ing of Alpine, Angora, Nubian, Saanen, body weight at birth, 3 and 6 months of age,
Toggenburg, non-descript goats and their as well as genetic correlations between the
crosses were assessed (Nadarajah and Burn- direct and maternal effects, were low to
side, 1994). Corresponding estimates of moderate and in the desired direction
Table 4.13. Estimates of heritabilities (± sEM) for body weights from birth to 12 months.
Black Bengal 0.07 ± 0.01 0.15 ± 0.04 0.21 ± 0.21 0.32 ± 0.08 Guha et al. (1968)
Saanen 0.63 (1 month) 0.48 0.49 (5 months) 0.49 (7 months) Ricordeau et al. (1972)
Sirohi 0.29 ± 0.16 0.11 ± 0.12 0.32 ± 0.18 Misra (1983)
Black Bengal 0.40 ± 0.24 0.09 ± 0.18 (4 weeks) 0.25 ± 0.56 (wean) Ali (1983)
Damascus 0.31 ± 0.08 0.27 + 0.07 (70 d) 0.24 0.07 (140 d) Mavrogenis et al. (1984)
Osmanabadi 0.10 ± 0.03 0.75 ± 0.03 0.66 ± 0.6 0.02 ± 0.01 Siddiqui et al. (1981)
Ganjam 0.19 ± 0.14 0.34 ± 0.23 0.36 ± 0.26 Madeli and Patro (1984)
Angora 0.59 ± 0.38 (wean) 0.23 ± 0.14 0.40 ± 0.28 Nicoll (1985)
Sirohi, Beetal x Sirohi 0.59 ± 0.38 CIRG (1986)
Indigenous x Exotic 0.30 ± 0.11 0.17 ± 0.23 (2 months) 0.10 ± 0.11 0.08 ± 0.10 de Souza et al. (1987)
Alpine x Beetal 0.27 ± 0.03 0.93 ± 0.12 0.71 ± 0.10 1.00 ± 0.14 0.60 ± 0.09 Nagpal and Chawla (1987a)
Beetal 0.24 ± 0.03 0.43 ± 0.10 0.86 ± 0.17 0.40 ± 0.16 Nagpal and Chawla (1987a)
Black Bengal 0.16 ± 0.12 0.16 ± 0.15 Singh et al. (1991)
Jamunapari 0.55 ± 0.18 0.42 ± 0.18 Singh et al. (1991)
Beetal x Black Bengali 0.12 ± 0.12 0.09 ± 0.15 Singh et al. (1991)
Teddy 0.05 ± 0.02 0.10 ± 0.01 Tahir et al. (1995)
(weaning)
Jamunapari 0.46 ± 0.15 0.43 ± 0.15 0.25 ± 0.13 0.13 ± 0.10 0.13 ± 0.17 Misra (1995)
South African Angora 0.29 ± 0.06 - Snyman and Olivier (1996)
(8 -9 months)
Superscripts in parentheses represents the age when weight was measured, if different from column heading.
Breeding Meat Goats 101
Table 4.14. Estimates of direct and maternal heritability (± sE) and heritability (± sE) of feed
conversion.
Heritability
Correlation
Breed Direct Maternal (direct x maternal) Reference(s)
'Estimates are based on Dickerson (1969a), while those in parentheses are based on Kinghorn (1980, 1983).
(Hirooka et a/., 1997). In Saudi Aradi and respectively (Khalil et al., 2010). Corre-
Damascus breeds and their crosses, estimates sponding estimates of direct heterosis were
of direct additive genetic effects were signifi- significant for growth traits in the Jouf and
cantly greater and in favour of the Damascus Qassim experiments, ranging from 0.16 to
breed in the Jouf and Qassim experiments 1.39 kg, and from 0.31 to 1.56 kg, respec-
(Table 4.15), for body weight from birth to 24 tively. Maternal heterosis estimates were
weeks by 12-32 and 17-34%, respectively, generally favourable in the Jouf experiment
and for daily gains from birth to 24 weeks in for body weight by 2-11% and for daily
4-week intervals by 14-31 and 12-37%, gains by 2-8%, suggesting that crossbred
Table 4.15. Estimates (± sE) for direct additive effect, direct and maternal heterosis for growth traits, carcass and meat composition of Saudi Aradi (A) and
Damascus (D) goats at breeding stations at Jouf and Qassim (from Khalil et al., 2010)a.
Direct additive effect (DI = DIA - DID) Direct heterosis Maternal heterosis
Growth traits
Weight (kg) at:
Birth -0.4 ± 0.06 (-12) -0.9 ± 0.16 (-25) 0.16 ± 0.05 (5) 0.31 ± 0.14 (9) 0.12 ± 0.05 (4)
4 weeks -2.5 ± 0.08 (-29) -2.7 ± 0.48 (-34) 0.76 ± 0.06 (9) 0.52 ± 0.21 (7) 0.93 ± 0.08 (11)
8 weeks -3.8 ± 0.12 (-29) -3.3 ± 0.82 (-26) 0.93 ± 0.07 (7) 1.39 ± 1.04 (11) 0.33 ± 0.08 (3)Ns
12 weeks -5.0 ± 0.13 (-32) -2.7 ± 1.09 (-17) 1.20 ± 0.09 (8) 1.48 ± 0.48 (10) 0.38 ± 0.07 (2)Ns
16 weeks -5.6 ± 0.15 (-30) -3.8 ± 1.51 (-21) 0.79 ± 0.10 (4) 1.44 ± 0.69 (8) 0.45 ± 0.12 (2)Ns
20 weeks -6.2 ± 0.15 (-28) -4.8 ± 1.54 (-23) 0.55 ± 0.10 (2)Ns 1.80 ± 0.81 (9) 0.46 ± 0.20 (4)
24 weeks -4.2 ± 0.19 (-17) -4.9 ± 1.64 (-21) 1.39 ± 0.13 (6) 1.56 ± 0.46 (7) 0.98 ± 0.23 (4)
Daily gain (g)
0-4 weeks -47 ± 7.1 (-27) -52 ± 4.1 (-34) 12 ± 3.0 (7) 14 ± 2.1 (9) 15 ± 6.1 (8)
4-8 weeks -21 ± 6.2 (-14) -36 ± 8.2 (-24) 7 ± 2.0 (4) 14 ± 5.2 (9) 5 ± 8.2 (3)Ns
8-12 weeks -39 ± 6.3 (-31) -54 ± 5.2 (-37) 8 ± 3.1 (6) 17 ± 4.1 (12) 5 ± 2.3 (4)
12-16 weeks -24 ± 6.1 (-17) -26 ± 4.1 (-21) 7 ± 2.2 (5) 15 ± 6.1 (12) 16 ± 5.2 (7)
16-20 weeks -47 ± 4.2 (-25) -34 ± 2.2 (-26) 6 ± 2.9 (3)Ns 19 ± 2.2 (15) 5 ± 9.1 (2)Ns
20-24 weeks -40 ± 3.1 (-23) -16 ± 4.1 (-12) 9 ± 3.2 (5) 16 ± 1.1 (12) 14 ± 6.2 (6)
Carcass traits
Pre-slaughter weight (kg) -6.3 ± 0.6 (-22) 1.4 ± 0.34 (5)
Hot carcass weight (kg) -7.1 ± 1.2 (-49) 0.8 ± 0.13 (6)
Dressing percentage -5.5 ± 1.4 (-12) 1.2 ± 0.32 (2)Ns
Weight of carcass components (g)
Head -0.48 ± 0.05 (-24) 125 ± 90 (6)
Skin -0.08 ± 0.22 (-4)Ns 93 ± 230 (4)
Viscera -0.01 ± 0.02 (-1)Ns 126 ± 136 (1)Ns
Heart -27 ± 11 (-21) 62 ± 12 (4)
Liver -128 ± 18 (-25) 13 ± 34 (0.5)Ns
Lungs -52 ± 8 (-15) 12 ± 52 (0.2)Ns
Kidneys 14 ± 4 (15) 16 ± 3 (6)
Spleen -17 ± 2 (-30) 12 ± 92 (3)NS
Meat chemical compositon (%)
Moisture 0.2 ± 0.12 (0.2)Ns -0.6 ± 0.23 (-0.8)Ns
Crude protein 0.4 ± 0.56 (0.5) 0.7 ± 0.56 (0.9)NS
Ether extract 0.5 ± 0.38 (3)NS -0.5 ± 0.64 (-2.5)Ns
Ash content 0.1 ± 0.23 (2)NS -0.3 ± 0.05 (-6.1)
aThe percentage deviation from the average of the purebreds is shown in parentheses.
All estimates are significant except where indicated as NS (P> 0.05).
104 J.N.B. Shrestha
dams were marginally superior to their pure- European and Boer breeds known to exceed
bred contemporaries in growth. In the Qas- 100 kg in body weight (Warmington and
sim experiment, estimates of additive genetic Kirton, 1990) have considerable potential
effects for carcass traits were significant and for use in crossbreeding and the formation
in favour of the Damascus breed; in contrast, of composite populations to facilitate the
chemical composition of meat traits were in commercial production of meat from goats
favour of the Saudi Aradi breed. Estimates of (Shrestha 2005; Shrestha and Fahmy,
direct heterosis were positive and in the 2007a).
desired direction for pre-slaughter weight, In Barbari, Beetal, Osmanabadi, Mala-
hot carcass weight and weight of head, skin, bari and Bengal breeds, estimates of herita-
heart and kidneys. The wider range of varia- bility for reproductive trait, although
tion in these estimates warrants further negligible in magnitude, were positive.
studies to establish the nature of the genetic These estimates are indicative of prospects
relationship between direct and maternal for improvement of reproduction. Despite
effects associated with performance traits of the potential for genetic improvement,
economic importance. The difficulty in breeding strategies have often ignored the
obtaining consistent estimates of genetic cor- value of year-round kidding. According to
relation arises from the inability to obtain Devendra and Burns (1983), the income and
large amounts of data necessary to increase profitability associated with the commercial
precision. production of goat meat to a large extent
An important constraint for the depends on the reproductive rate of does.
improvement of economically important The authors suggested that fecundity should
performance traits in meat goats is the be included as a selection criterion for
absence of precise estimates of genetic goat meat production, along with body
parameters and response to selection that weight and meat quality. Correspondingly,
would have been possible with large data any measure of body weight close to market
sets and long-term studies such as those in age would benefit from including repro-
developed countries for other livestock and ductive rate, maternal ability and resistance
poultry species. Genetic parameter esti- to diseases in the selection criteria. An
mates and their standard errors derived alternative approach that could be consid-
from different procedures using the same ered is to include body weight at 6 months
data set tend to vary (Henderson, 1953; or older along with age at kidding to
Dickerson, 1969a; Patterson and Thompson, augment the number and weight of kids
1971; Rao, 1971; Hemmerle and Hartley, marketed.
1973; Henderson, 1984; Meyer, 1989, 1991; In Bangladesh, the Black Bengal breed
Gilmour et al., 1995; van Tassell and van selected for body weight at 6 months of age
Vleck, 1996). The pooling of additive exceeded the random-bred Black Bengal
genetic variance estimates from pure breeds and Jamunapari x Black Bengal in body
and their crosses may be questionable in weight per doe at birth and 60 days (Amin
terms of scientific merit. This is because et al., 2001). Concurrently, no detrimental
additive genetic variance within breeds and influence on fertility, age and weight at first
additive genetic covariance among breeds oestrus, litter size and kidding interval was
are considered alike. Nevertheless, in prac- observed. In the same study, crossbreeding
tice, additive genetic variance and covari- did not offer any advantage as a result of
ance components are combined to reduce delayed sexual maturity and post-partum
the sampling variance associated with service period, leading the authors to favour
genetic parameter estimates. selection over crossbreeding. In Black Ben-
There is the opportunity to increase the gal and Jamunapari x Black Bengal goats,
body weight of goats by exploiting additive chilled carcass weight, loin eye area and
genetic variability from genetically diverse edible body parts were similar, leading
breed populations based on the use of indi- Das et al. (2001) to favour selection for
vidual and family selection. This is because commercial chevon production. According
Breeding Meat Goats 105
genetic resources worldwide, along with National breeding programmes for the
evaluation of breeds and their crosses (Shres- evaluation of genetic merit in breeding
tha and Fahmy, 2005). The genetic base animals usually adopt mixed animal
should be as broad as possible to provide suf- model methodologies to determine esti-
ficient genetic variation in performance traits mated breeding values for multiple traits.
to sustain the genetic response to selection The evaluation of parents along with their
over a number of generations. One should offspring has achieved considerable suc-
also consider the prior selection history of cess in other livestock and poultry spe-
the base population for economically impor- cies, demonstrating potential merit in
tant production traits, the relative magnitude meat-goat production. Precise estimates
of non-additive to additive genetic effects of genetic parameters, performance
and the possible role of stress environments records of parents and their siblings,
during the choice of sire and dam breeds. pedigree relationships among animals and
Likewise, the decision to continue with performance across herds have improved
either selection or crossbreeding must take the accuracy of predicting breeding val-
into consideration the time and resource ues. Information processing along with
requirements necessary for breed evaluation software, lowered costs of processing,
and the benefit achieved from genetic gain. memory and storage requirements has
In the short run, crossbreeding has an advan- made the application of mixed model
tage whereas selection of replacement par- methodology feasible for breeding meat
ents based on genetic merit of the individual goats. Likewise, goats with sufficient
accelerates the genetic response, enhancing genetic merit should rapidly be dissemi-
performance with either crossbreeding or nated among herds under sedentary,
composite breed formation. In this context, nomadic and semi-nomadic management
parameter estimates in a number of meat across the country to multiply genetic gain
breeds and their crosses for traits including for the production of goat meat.
body weight at various ages, age at kidding, India, with one of the world's largest
kidding interval, service period, litter size, goat populations, has no breeding pro-
live weight at slaughter, hot carcass weight, gramme for improvement of productivity of
dressing percentage and feed conversion goats (Acharya, 1988). In practice, central
have been assembled from numerous studies and state government farms maintain small
and are presented in Tables 4.12-4.15. herds of goats, while animals surplus to
Goat breeders may employ simple means breeding requirements, usually unproven in
of identifying, measuring and recording per- terms of their genetic merit, are sold as
formance on the farm for use in the genetic potential breeding stock to breeders. It has
evaluation of their breeding stock. In general, been suggested that goat meat production
the genetic potential of goats under uniform could be improved in India by increasing
feeding and management conditions are eval- reproduction and kid survival without
uated on the basis of growth rate of their off- increasing the total number of breeding ani-
spring or in combination with reproduction mals in the country. At the same time,
of their dam. Furthermore, bucks and does China, with one of the largest goat popula-
are evaluated on the basis of productivity and tions in the world, has no organized breed-
the contemporary performance of their kids. ing activity for improvement of goats across
In some instances, bucks from a number of the country (Wenxiu, 1988). The prospects
adjoining farms are evaluated for their perfor- for West African Dwarf goat production in
mance under more uniform environments in the south-eastern region of Nigeria appear
test stations located at a convenient distance uncertain. Nevertheless, it has been sug-
from herds. In practice, bucks and does with gested that women producers can benefit
superior genetic merit are often certified by a from vertical integration of goat production
government agency or breed organization from the producer to the market.
based on their performance and are sold at The past few decades have seen a rise
auctions across the country. in goat improvement programmes around
Breeding Meat Goats 107
the world, although mostly for dairy and tion performance based on the application
fibre production (Devendra, 1988; Wilson, of mixed model methodologies, breeders
1992; El-Aich et al., 1995; Delfosse and can rely on simple measures for genetic
Jaouen, 1998). In South Africa, the National improvement similar to those used to deter-
Small Stock Improvement Scheme provides mine ewe productivity (Shrestha et al.,
the stud and commercial farms with the 2002), which may include body weight of
breeding values of all the animals assessed kids at weaning or an older age adjusted to
based on their performance records and a male equivalent basis. The efficient use of
pedigree information. The organization not a selection index is based on the emphasis
only maintains breed standards but also placed on several production traits relative
encourages breeders to improve production to their economic value necessary to opti-
performance. In Canada, Ontario has imple- mize breeding objectives. Prevailing mar-
mented breeding programmes for genetic kets, either in the region or across the
improvement of meat goats (Nadarajah and country, could help in determining costs
Burnside, 1994). The USA is in the process and benefits associated with meat, milk and
of developing breeding programmes for fibre production in order to derive appro-
meat goats. priate weighting factors for economically
Evaluation of production performance important production traits. An aggregate
based on available records of the individual breeding value derived from a combination
goat along with those of their parents should of relative economic weights and produc-
be adequate for the identification of goats tion traits will be meaningful for improving
with potential genetic merit. These include meat goats. Further details on breeding and
body weight at birth and 6 months of age, genetics for goat production have been
dams' litter size and milk yield, survival, explained in the textbook Goat Science and
dressing percentage, hot carcass weight, fer- Production (Shrestha and Crow, 2010).
tility, prolificacy and mortality. Breed orga-
nizations or governments could possibly
encourage breeders to establish a hierarchi-
cal structure, which might include nucleus, 4.10 Future Considerations
multiplier and commercial goat breeders, or
group breeding schemes similar to those Prediction of performance of breed crosses
available for other livestock species. In from the evaluation of the performance of
India, there are proposed Group Breeding all possible two or more breed cross combi-
Schemes with nucleus herds comprised of nations can be useful to predict the perfor-
selected bucks and does for producing mance of the optimum cross approaching
breeding stock (Acharya, 1988). In Malay- maximum efficiency of production. Unfor-
sia, accelerating genetic gain based on open- tunately, when more than two breeds are
nucleus herds along with embryo transfer considered, the number of possible two-
has been proposed for milk and meat goats breed-cross combinations that need to be
(Mukherjee et al., 1996). An alternative evaluated can be cumbersome. Even the
would be to establish an open-nucleus testing of two- and three-breed crosses
structure where the nucleus herd produces alone, neglecting reciprocals, can be a for-
bucks for the replacement male parent in midable task, and for a large number of
commercial herds, while both the nucleus breeds it soon becomes impossible. Carmon
and commercial herds contribute replace- (1960) predicted the performance of specific
ment females for the nucleus herd. This three-breed cross, i.e. A x (B x C), where A,
approach will reduce inbreeding (James, B and C are the parental breeds from the
1977), as well as the lag associated with the average of (A x B) and (A x C). This includes
transfer of genetic gain from the nucleus to the two possible combinations of the breeds
the commercial herds. being crossed with the exception of (B x C),
In the absence of genetic evaluation of which is the female parent. Similarly, the
morphological characteristics and produc- performance of a four-breed cross, i.e.
108 J.N.B. Shrestha
(Ax B) x (C x D), where A, B, C and D are the stressful to purebreds due to unfavourable
parental breeds, can be predicted from the climate, grazing condition and diseases.
average of (A x C), (A x D), (B x C) and This is because purebred bucks may not be
(B x D) crosses. These crosses represent all able to express their full genetic potential
possible two-breed crosses among the four under extensive and harsh environments,
parental breeds with the exception of habitats typical of a large proportion of
(A x B) and (C x D), which are the male and goats worldwide. In practice, it is possible
female parents. The success in the predic- to raise one fecund-type goat breed within
tion of performance of the multiple breed the farm and to purchase crossbred bucks
crosses depends largely on the nature of from meat-type breeds for breeding.
genetic variability associated with the eco- Specific three-breed-cross offspring can
nomic trait in the two-breed cross. Prefera- also be produced by mating a crossbred
bly, management and environmental buck based on two meat-type sire breeds
conditions should be alike. with a purebred doe of a fecund-type breed.
The combination of rotational and spe- A drawback can occur from the lower per-
cific crossbreeding may be based on mating formance associated with the absence of
of fecund-type crossbred does derived from maternal heterosis and favourable genes in
a two or more breed rotation to bucks of an the crossbred dams including the rearrange-
unrelated meat-type sire breed. In theory, an ment of genetic combinations between the
advantage in performance associated with chromosomes of crossbred parents. In a pre-
two-thirds of the maximum maternal hetero- liminary study, (Boer x Spanish) x Spanish
sis as well as individual heterosis can be compared with the Spanish breed weighed
achieved. The drawback is the need to fol- more at birth and 90 days by 11 and 16%,
low a complex breeding protocol, which respectively (Table 4.7), whereas prolificacy
requires a large number of animals from was similar (Lopez-Perez et al., 1998).
diverse breeding populations. In practice, Specific four-breed-cross offspring may
the replacement females for rotational cross- be produced by mating does derived from
breeding and crossbred does are usually two fecund-type dam breeds with bucks
raised within the premises of the farm and from two meat-type sire breeds. In theory,
derived from about one-third of the cross- this approach could capitalize on the full
bred offspring. The remaining two-thirds of potential of maternal, paternal and individ-
the crossbred offspring are mated to bucks of ual heterosis. In this procedure, goats from
a meat-type breed purchased from highly one or two parental breeds and their crosses
reputed breeders to produce specific breed may be kept within the farm premises to
cross offspring that are marketed. produce does to be female parents. Cross-
The use of crossbred males as sires has bred bucks of alternative breeds, as required,
received little attention in animal breeding. may be purchased to be male parents.
In theory, crossbred male parents could Despite the drawback of having to maintain
capitalize on possible hybrid vigour in more than two breeds for crossbreeding,
terms of libido and sperm production, as there may be potential merit from increased
well as realized paternal heterosis from productivity in commercial goat meat pro-
optimization of gene frequency for categori- duction. However, no research results are
cal or composite traits in the livestock spe- available on goat meat production based on
cies. According to Notter (1987), the use of the use of three- and four-breed-cross off-
crossbred males may be optimum at the spring.
production system level, e.g. net effect of The use of hill and lowland breeds of
heterosis for male fertility, non-linearity sheep in the UK demonstrates regional seg-
between individual traits, optimized gene mentation of production to support com-
frequencies of sire and dam combinations plex and efficient crossbreeding. In
and overall profit. One would expect cross- developing countries, efficient meat-goat
bred bucks to exhibit increased vigour that production from the crossbred combination
may be more appropriate in environments of indigenous goats with productive exotic
Breeding Meat Goats 109
breeds is possible (Ruvuna et a/., 1992). The significant role in maintaining cultural heri-
authors proposed producing specific breed tage and sustaining biodiversity, can con-
combinations to complement breed differ- tribute to alleviation of poverty.
ences in carcass merit with segmentation of Alpine, Saanen and Toggenburg dairy
varying production systems and established breeds have benefited from research
markets for meat and meat products. In directed towards their genetic improvement
remote or tribal communities, there is the (Flamant and Morand-Fehr, 1982). Evi-
opportunity to produce crossbred does for dence presented from a number of studies
use, as a terminal cross to be sold for imme- support the use of dairy breeds of goats from
diate cash, or under intensive production in continental Europe for crossbreeding with
areas adjoining urban markets. Further- indigenous goats to produce offspring with
more, the infrastructure for the transporta- a rapid growth rate and potential for
tion and marketing of extra kids from increased milk production. Besides produc-
crossbreeding is crucial. ing more milk for sale, there is the opportu-
Breeders of goats of nomadic and semi- nity for meat-type breeds to sire crossbred
nomadic origin that receive a substantial does to produce terminal-cross offspring for
portion of their income from meat and meat meat production.
products are not aware of the scientific The influx of ethnic populations in
accomplishments in the field of genetics, developed countries and the growing appe-
nutrition and husbandry that have helped tite for food of exotic origin have resulted in
other livestock and poultry become more increased demand for goat meat. Goat meat
productive. Emerging and developing econ- from domesticated feral populations in New
omies with 85% of the human population, Zealand and Australia (Horton and Dawson,
75% of the breed population and 97% of 1987; Kelly, 1988; B.A. McGregor, personal
goats worldwide could benefit from communication) is being exported to help
increased productivity of meat goats raised meet the demand from increased consump-
by the poor and landless at the end of the tion. This is indicative of potential for
social scale that are not only illiterate but import replacement by promoting commer-
also lack the necessary husbandry skills and cial production of meat from goats. Physi-
finances. The difficulty of establishing cal, chemical and sensory properties of
breed improvement programmes in devel- meat from kids of Boer and Cashmere breeds
oping countries lies in establishing produc- and their crosses compared with those from
tion criteria in the absence of an industry lambs were of less intense flavour, tender-
structure with no specific advantage from ness and juiciness, while panellists
rapid growth rate, early maturity and accepted curries and patties made from goat
favourable meat quality (Norman, 1991). meat (Swan et al., 1998), demonstrating the
Large numbers of bucks, possibly with opportunity to market more meat to con-
potential genetic merit, continue to be sacri- sumers in developed countries. Neverthe-
ficed for religious rituals in accordance with less, goat meat continues to be a by-product
the tradition and culture of the region. of the dairy and fibre industries in devel-
According to Purohit (1982), private or oped countries (Decoster and Berinstain-
cooperative ventures to increase goat meat Bailly, 1996; Asheim and Eik, 1998).
production in the villages of India could The application of quantitative genetic
benefit from periodic culling of less produc- methodologies in combination with
tive animals followed by the feeding of advances in molecular methodologies could
high-energy diets in feedlots to culled ani- accelerate genetic progress in selection,
mals starting one month before slaughter. while developing more efficient means for
Developing breeding strategies for goats commercial production of meat from goats.
raised under sedentary, nomadic and semi- Constraints due to the seasonality of pro-
nomadic management presents a real chal- duction and labour shortages may be
lenge. Adding value to meat and meat avoided with controlled reproduction based
products, as well as recognizing their on induction and synchronization of
110 J.N.B. Shrestha
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5 Reproductive Efficiency for Increased
Meat Production in Goats
under temperate latitudes (above 40°N), the For Damascus goats reared under desert
female experiences a period of anoestrus conditions in Egypt, oestrus occurrence is
from the beginning of spring to late sum- correlated with the decrease in day length.
mer, with no behavioural or ovarian activ- The percentage of goats manifesting oestrus
ity. In the northern hemisphere, the is high from July to October, while the per-
breeding season starts in the summer and centage of kidding is high in January, Febru-
autumn months and ends in winter. In con- ary and March (Shalaby et al., 2000).
trast, tropical breeds do not appear to be It has often been assumed that the goat
seasonal breeders (Devendra and Burns, is similar to the sheep with regard to repro-
1983). duction, but differences between the two
In Argentina, based on the monthly dis- species exist, and extrapolation from one
tribution of parturition, Creole goats reared species to the other could be misleading.
under range conditions were classified as Seasonal variation in reproductive activity
non-seasonal breeders (Molina et al., 1997). in Australian goats was investigated and
Conversely, other results (Rivera et al., showed that does did not begin spontane-
2003) based on the systematic recording of ous ovulation until April, with peak inci-
oestrus and ovulations indicate that Argen- dence occurring in June (90%), and no
tine Creole goats, maintained under natural ovulations were recorded between Septem-
photoperiod and controlled nutritional lev- ber and February (Restall, 1992). In con-
els, are seasonal breeders. Transitions trast, the sheep began to ovulate in February
between seasons were gradual, with maxi- with a peak incidence in March (95%), and
mum and minimum levels of sexual activity the proportion ovulating remained high
concentrated at about the winter and sum- until July and then declined with no
mer solstice, respectively. For the Creole ovulations observed between August and
goats under southern latitudes in South December.
America, a shorter breeding season with In Tunisia, the breeding season of local
concentration of sexual activity during the goats occurred from September to March
months of June and July has been reported (Lassoued and Rekik, 2005), during which
(Santa Maria et al., 1990). For feral goats at 80% of the nanny goats exhibited oestrus at
similar latitudes in Australia, spontaneous least once and 53% of all oestrous cycles
ovulation was shown beginning in April, were accompanied by ovulations. The pro-
with peak incidence occurring in June and portion of ovulations increased gradually
no ovulation between September and Feb- from September to reach 100% during
ruary (Restall, 1992). December, and then declined to reach a
122 M. Rekik et al.
minimum of 14% during March. This season dual-purpose goats of north Senegal, most
preceded a period of sexual inactivity goats (65%) kid once a year, but some (22%)
(March-August) that was distinctly longer fail to reproduce, while others (13%) repro-
than for local breeds of sheep in the same duced three times in 2 years (reviewed by
environment (Khaldi, 1984). The trends for Walkden-Brown and Bocquier, 2000).
the local Tunisian goat are similar to what The social environment, in particular
has been reported for the Bedouin goat native the presence of bucks, is an important factor
to the Algerian Sahara, where seasonal that affects the length of the breeding sea-
anoestrus extends from the end of winter to son. In Australian goats, exposure to males
the end of summer (Charallah et al., 2000). extended the period of ovulatory activity
Some examples related to sexual activity in both before and after the period of sponta-
several goat breeds in tropical, subtropical neous ovulation. In the absence of males,
and temperate zones are reported (Table 5.2). does only ovulated between April and
Unlike most goat breeds, Boer goats are August, but exposure to bucks, either inter-
partially seasonal breeders. Anoestrus does mittently or continuously, extended the
not occur and Boer does will cycle virtually ovulatory period from March to September
all year round if favourable rearing condi- (Restall, 1992). Other results support the
tions are provided (Greyling, 1990). This is suggestion that continuous exposure to the
similar to indigenous goats in Zimbabwe, male prolonged, to some extent, the ovula-
which exhibit ovarian activity throughout tory period and also an earlier initiation of
the year (Llewelyn et al., 1993). the ovulatory activity in Creole goats than
At locations close to the equator and in in females kept isolated from male stimuli
the tropics, local breeds of goats either are (Rivera et al., 2003). This may suggest that
non-seasonal breeders or exhibit only a weak the annual ovulatory rhythm in does reflects
seasonality of reproduction (Chemineau, a changing sensitivity to exteroceptive stim-
1986). Under these conditions, seasonal uli that initiate reproductive activity.
reproductive patterns relate more to The effects of season on reproduction
variations in rainfall, available nutrition and in sheep and goats are mediated by similar
temperature than to day length (Devendra mechanisms. The change in the duration of
and Burns, 1983). In the Mediterranean and the night-time melatonin pattern alters the
tropical areas, the majority of goats are hypothalamic responsiveness to oestradiol,
maintained in extensive or semi-extensive and this leads to changes in the frequency of
systems and may be mated more than once a LH pulses. A low pulse frequency switches
year and subject to seasonal variations in off the reproductive system and a high fre-
food availability. It is often thought that quency switches it on. During the sexual
nutrition is responsible for the seasonal season, the hypothalamus shows little
reproductive pattern; in particular, insuffi- response to oestrogen and the LH pulse fre-
cient nutrition is often responsible for pro- quency is high, whereas, during anoestrus,
longed anoestrous and anovulatory periods, the hypothalamus is very responsive to oes-
a reduction in fertility and prolificacy. In the trogen and the LH pulse frequency is low.
Table 5.2. Examples of seasonality of sexual activity of some goat breeds in tropical, subtropical and
temperate zones.
At the onset of the breeding season, the ovulation time) and remain high until day
secretion of gonadotropins, particularly the 15 (SimOes et al., 2006).
frequency of LH pulses, increases to more Starting on days 16-17 of the oestrous
than three pulses every 6 h in mid-September cycle, the prostaglandin Fla (PGF2e)
(Chemineau et al., 1988). These seasonal released from the non-pregnant uterus,
changes in pulse frequency are mediated by most likely influenced by ovarian oxytocin
melatonin-induced differences in respon- (Homeida, 1986), will induce luteolysis.
siveness to gonadal feedback (Chemineau The rapid decline of plasma progesterone
et al., 1988). This gradual enhancement of concentrations is associated with an accel-
gonadotropic activity stimulates ovarian eration of the frequency of LH pulses and an
folliculogenesis and therefore may be increase in their amplitude (Mori and Kano,
responsible for the gradual onset of cyclic 1984). This is the major event triggering the
ovarian activity. start of the ovulatory follicular phase during
which there is stimulation of the growth of
follicles with a mean diameter >1 mm
(Akusu et al., 1986). These growing follicles
5.2.3 The ovarian cycle and related will increase their steroidogenic activity
endocrine events and hence start secreting oestradiol 1713 at
high concentrations >10 pg/ml (Rubianes
During the natural breeding season, female and Menchaca, 2003). The sustained
goats are seasonally polyoestrous with a increase in oestradiol concentration will in
spontaneous ovulation. When the does are turn induce a positive feedback action on
not pregnant, they will display a succession the pituitary gland, culminating in the pre-
of oestrous cycles lasting 21 days on aver- ovulatory LH surge. This surge usually lasts
age, which can be very irregular as we will between 8 and 10 h; its maximum is reached
discuss later. At each cycle, the doe can 3 h after the peak of oestradiol and 10-15 h
ovulate producing one or more oocytes at after the onset of oestrus (Chemineau and
approximately 30-36 h after the beginning Delgadillo, 1994). Ovulation usually occurs
of oestrus (Gonzalez-Stagnaro et al., 1984). 20 h after the pre-ovulatory LH surge with
Following ovulation, the Graafian follicle some variation, as will be discussed later.
transforms into the corpus luteum (the These endocrine events are those that
luteinization process), which is active in have been reported for natural oestrous
secreting progesterone during the luteal occurrence or when oestrus has been
phase, which lasts 16 days. If the female induced following luteolysis with exoge-
does not conceive, the corpus luteum nous PGF2ec. Nevertheless, it is worth men-
regresses (luteolysis) and a new follicular tioning that when oestrus is induced with
phase starts. equine chorionic gonadotropin (eCG),
Several hormonal changes are associ- growth of the follicles is faster and some
ated with the main events of the oestrous features of the endocrine changes are modi-
cycle. These hormonal changes are mainly fied, such as a longer interval between the
the result of interactions between the ova- peak of oestradiol 1713 and the pre-ovulatory
ries, the hypothalamic-pituitary axis and surge of LH, which occurs earlier in relation
the uterus. Throughout the luteal phase, the to the onset of oestrus (5.6 versus 15.7 h;
frequency of LH pulses is negatively corre- Chemineau and Delgadillo, 1994).
lated (r = -0.97) with the level of circulating In parallel to the endocrine changes,
plasma progesterone (Sutherland, 1987). the doe oestrous cycle is also characterized
These concentrations exert a very potent by major changes in follicular turnover.
negative feedback on LH secretion during Useful information on this topic can be
the luteal phase, hence keeping the ampli- found in recent reviews (Rubianes and
tude of LH pulses to less than 1 ng/ml. The Menchaca, 2003; SimOes et al., 2006) and
maximum plasma progesterone concentra- we shall report here the main characteris-
tions are attained around day 10 (day 0 is tics of follicular dynamics in the doe.
124 M. Rekik et al.
The use of ultrasonography has facili- Schwarz and Wierzchos, 2000) and in
tated a rapid increase in our knowledge of Saanen goats (7.3 ± 0.9 days; de Castro
animal reproductive physiology and its et al., 1999).
control. The efficiency of transrectal ultra- Some of the more frequently observed
sonography to study ovarian function in characteristics of the follicular waves are
goats provides a means for repeated, direct, as follows: (i) the diameter of the largest
non-invasive monitoring and measuring of follicle of a wave differs between waves;
follicles >2 mm, regardless of their depth commonly the largest follicles of waves
within the ovary. The results of daily two and three attain smaller maximum
ultrasonographic studies indicate that the diameters than both the largest follicle of
inter-ovulatory cycle of goats is character- wave one and the ovulatory follicle; (ii)
ized by a wavelike pattern of follicular two or more follicles per wave frequently
development, as has been reported for other attain 5 mm or more; (iii) the growth rate
ruminant species. A follicle wave involves between the day of emergence (i.e. first day
the emergence of a group of small antral with a size of 3 mm) and the day of maxi-
follicles from which commonly one or two mum diameter is around 1 mm/day; (iv) as
follicles are selected to grow to >5 mm in the luteal phase progresses, follicular turn-
diameter. According to different authors, over increases and the inter-wave intervals
the number of follicular waves ranges are shorter than during the early luteal
between two and five waves per cycle, but phase; (v) during the mid- to late luteal
the predominant pattern for goats that phase, the follicles that do not grow
developed an inter-ovulatory cycle of nor- beyond 4 mm often are not a part of the
mal length (19-22 days) is of four waves wave phenomenon and it is suggested that
(Fig. 5.1). The emergence of waves one, two, they represent a dynamic underlying pool;
three and four (the ovulatory wave) occurs (vi) most of the ovulatory follicles are the
on days 0, 5-6, 10-11 and around day 15 largest follicles on the day of luteolysis;
post-ovulation, respectively. However, (vii) in most double-ovulatory goats, the
some breed differences have been reported ovulatory follicles emerge as part of the
and the duration of the first inter-wave same follicular wave but in a few cases
interval in Serrana goats (5.6 ± 0.3 days; also as a part of different waves; and (viii)
SimOes et al., 2006) was between the values double ovulations occur on the same day
observed in Boer goats (4.0 ± 1.4 days; in most cycles.
70 -
60 -
50 -
40
0 30-
20 -
10- a
0
3 4 5
Number of waves per oestrous cycle
Fig. 5.1. Distribution of the number of follicular waves per oestrous cycle in goats. Different letters within
columns (a versus b) show that the difference was significant (P < 0.001) (SimOes et al., 2006).
Reproduction of Meat Goats 125
Table 5.3. Mean length (days) of the oestrous cycle for some breeds of meat-producing goats.
Length of oestrous
Breed Country cycle (days) Specific information Reference
phase and the rapid fall in progesterone onset of oestrus (86.7% of does ovulating by
plasma concentrations. On the day of oes- 38 h after the onset of oestrus), with the
trus, progesterone plasma concentrations mean time interval between the LH peak
are very low, i.e. <0.5 ng/ml. The duration of and ovulation being 24.7 h (Greyling, 2000).
the oestrous period in goats appears to be The timing of the LH peak relative to the
variable in length, but on average it lasts onset of oestrus was recorded as being
36 h, with a variation of between 22 and between 4 and 20 h after the onset of oes-
60 h (Riera, 1982). The mean duration of the trus. These data on the Boer goat are similar
natural oestrous period in the mature Boer to what have been reported for the Jakhrana
goat is 37.4 ± 8.6 h, with a variation of goat for which ovulation occurred 28 h after
24-56 h among individuals (Greyling, 2000). the onset of oestrus (towards the end of the
No significant difference was recorded oestrous period) and reached its peak at
between multiparous, biparous and primip- 36 h post-oestrus (Goel and Agrawal, 2003)
arous does (38.2, 34.0 and 38.6 h, respec- and also for local Egyptian goats for which
tively). When in oestrus, the doe is more ovulation occurred at about 27 h after the
expressive than other females of mammalian onset of oestrus (Salama, 1972).
domestic species (Fabre-Nys, 2000). During Timings of oestrus and ovulation are
the first phase of oestrus, behaviour known hastened when the does are hormonally
as `proceptivity' or pro-oestrus occurs, when treated. Knowledge of time, rate and syn-
the female seeks partners for stimulation chrony of ovulation after treatment with
through intermittent approaches. The female intravaginal devices is important to establish
then moves on to the second phase of 'recep- a suitable schedule in fixed-time artificial
tivity' or oestrus, when she is in heat, insemination programmes. For the Tunisian
expressing the following signs: seeking out local goat, it has been found that treatment
bucks more frequently, wagging of the tail, of the does with eCG advances oestrus by
mounting behaviour, bleating, clear mucous approximately 10 h (N. Lassoued and
discharge from the vulva, urine emission, M. Rekik, 2010, unpublished results). This is
and reddening and swelling of the vulva. similar to other results (Ritar et al., 1989)
These signs will end with the female accept- showing that ovulation had occurred by the
ing mounting. When in oestrus, the female final laparoscopy (65-75 h) in all females
goat can express a homosexual behaviour by (n = 22) injected with 200 or 400 interna-
mounting other goats in heat. The intensity tional units (IU) eCG at 0 or -48 h in relation
of the oestrous signs may vary; this often to withdrawal of the progestogen treatment,
happens with young does for which these whereas only seven of the does not injected
behaviours are not so obvious. with eCG (control) had ovulated by this time.
The time of ovulation in the goat is
reported as occurring towards the end of the
oestrous period (van der Westhuizen et al., 5.2.5 Ovulation rate and reproductive
1985). Ovulation is a complex process, initi- wastage
ated by the surge of gonadotropins, and is
characterized by resumption of meiosis, For meat production breeds of goats, ovula-
culminating in rupture of the follicular sur- tion rate has a major impact on their litter
face, release of a mature fertilizable (sec- size and hence on their reproductive effec-
ondary oocyte) ovum and restructuring of tiveness. A high ovulation rate is an impor-
the follicular wall. To decide the precise tant characteristic, referring to the number of
time of mating and also to make effective ova liberated and eventually the number of
use of modern reproductive tools such as kids born per doe kidding. Physiologically,
artificial insemination and embryo transfer the number of ova shed by a goat at each
technology for improving goat production, ovarian cycle is the interaction between
information on ovulation profiles is essen- three levels of regulatory mechanisms: the
tial. In the Boer goat doe, the time of ovula- concentrations of circulating gonadotropins
tion is recorded as occurring 36.8 h after the (mainly FSH), the response of the follicles to
Reproduction of Meat Goats 127
these hormones and the internal regulations environmental factors such as nutrition
at the ovarian level, whether paracrine (Delgadillo et al., 1997) or health status.
(between follicles) or autocrine (within a fol- Breed is also a major variation factor for
licle) (Driancourt et al., 1990). Ovulation rate ovulation rate. The Boer doe with a mean
is influenced by the stage of breeding season, ovulation rate of 1.72 is considered one of
genotype, parity and nutrition. the more prolific breeds in the world
When studying seasonal variations of (Greyling, 2000). In terms of litter size, the
reproductive traits of the local Maure goat percentage of singletons, twins, triplets and
in central Tunisia, an important effect of quadruplets born in the Boer goat are quoted
season on ovulation rate was reported as being 24.5, 59.2, 15.3 and 1%, respec-
(Lassoued and Rekik, 2005). Ovulation rate tively (Campbell, 1994). Because of the close
dropped from a mean value of 1.51 at the relationship between ovulation rate and
start of the breeding season in September- litter size, we would expect most of Boer
October to <1.25 at the end of the breeding goats to shed twin ovulations. The ovulation
season towards January and February. rate of the Boer goats is higher than that
These findings are consistent with other quoted for Malawian goats (1.68; Campbell,
published data (Restall, 1992) reporting a 1994) or Jakhrana goats native to semi-arid
decreasing gradient of ovulation rate India (1.33; Goel and Agrawal, 2003). Other
between the beginning and the end of the breeds can have much higher ovulation
breeding season for Australian goats, with a rates, such as the Black Bengal goat with a
trend for the ovulation rate to be higher for mean rate of 4 (Rao and Bhattacharrya, 1980).
does kept in the presence of males. When For the prolific Matou breed in China, it is
ovulation rate shows seasonal variation, anticipated that ovulation rate, although not
maximum prolificacy in the flocks can be measured, would be high on the basis of
obtained by presenting does to bucks at the litter sizes recorded in the flocks: mean litter
start of the breeding season. For breeds that size was reported to be 2.09 (Moaeen-ud-Din
are not seasonal, as in the case of the Creole et al., 2008), with the percentages of single-
goat in Guadeloupe (Chemineau, 1986) or tons, twins, triplets and quadruplets being
the D'Man in Morocco (Derquaoui and El 27.4, 45.4, 16.3 and 10.9%, respectively.
Khaledi, 1994), seasonal variations of Lower frequencies of does gave birth to quin-
ovulation rate are less important. However, tuplets or sextuplets. However, the survival
under such conditions, this trait can rate of kids was 90.8% and was negatively
show variations associated with other associated with litter size (Fig. 5.2).
120 -
100 -
80 -
2
E 60-
Ts
>
2 40-
(/)
20 -
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Litter size
Fig. 5.2. Association of survival rate at puberty of kids with litter size in the Matou breed (redrawn from
Moaeen-ud-Din et al., 2008).
128 M. Rekik et al.
diseases, it was shown that a severe reduc- effect on gestation length (Greyling, 1988).
tion in the energy allowances well below The influence of nutrition on fetal develop-
the requirements of goats through the third ment during certain months of pregnancy
month of pregnancy was associated with does tend to shorten or lengthen the gesta-
increased embryo loss (Mani et al., 1992). tion period, but the variation due to this fac-
In late gestation, an energy deficit, particu- tor was only 1.5 days (Riera, 1982).
larly for does carrying multiple fetuses, The endocrine balance during preg-
will result in pregnancy toxaemia (ketosis) nancy in goats is complex and involves
and fetal death. Signs of ketosis are anorexia several hormones such as progesterone, oes-
(off feed), lethargy and pain. Caught early, trone sulfate, cPL and pregnancy-associated
ketosis can be treated with propylene glycol glycoproteins (PAGs). Progesterone is
given orally. required to maintain pregnancy (Meites
et al., 1951). Early during pregnancy, pro-
gesterone facilitates the implantation pro-
cess and thereafter maintains pregnancy by
5.2.6 Gestation and uterine involution ensuring closure of the cervix. During gesta-
tion, there is little evidence of any dramatic
For a pregnancy to be established, commu- increase in serum progesterone concentra-
nication between conceptus and mother tion above the levels attained during the
(maternal recognition) and implantation of luteal phase of the oestrous cycle, suggest-
the conceptus on the uterine wall must ing the corpus luteum as the only source of
occur. The establishment of intimate progesterone (Wango et al., 1991). A posi-
contact between the embryo and the tive relationship between multiple pregnan-
mother follows a succession of common cies and maternal serum progesterone levels
critical steps whose chronology and timing was not observed (Thorburn and Schneider,
may vary considerably from species to spe- 1972).
cies. In goats, implantation begins around cPL is somewhat related to prolactin
days 14-17 of pregnancy (Bazer et al., and growth hormone and is secreted
1997) when the embryo starts placentation. by the placenta. The hormone becomes
The placentome serves as immunological detectable in the maternal circulation from
barrier membrane and mediates gas and day 44 of pregnancy (Currie et al., 1990).
micronutrient exchange (Wani, 1996). The The hormone is important for the develop-
placenta secretes steroid hormones (oestra- ment and activity of the mammary gland,
diol and progesterone) and placental lacto- and its secretion increases between weeks
gen (cPL). The latter plays a major role in 10 and 16 of pregnancy, coinciding with the
maintaining pregnancy and in growth of development of the epithelial tissue of the
the mammary gland (Hayden et al., 1979). mammary gland (Hayden et al., 1979).
The length of pregnancy is called the PAGs are of feto-placental origin and
gestation period. For goats, the gestation are detected in the peripheral circulation of
period is about 149 days with a usual range pregnant animals. PAGs are immunosup-
of 145-153 days. The length of gestation is pressants and are believed to play a role in
variable according to breed and the individ- preventing the immune system of the preg-
ual. The mean gestation period for the Boer nant female from attacking the embryo
goat is recorded as being 148.2 ± 3.7 days (Shaw and Morton, 1980; Bose et al., 1989).
(Greyling, 1988). In Black Bengal does, the These proteins are secreted by trophoblastic
length of gestation is 144 days (Jainudeen cells and are found in the peripheral circu-
et al., 2000). Gestation may be shorter in lation of pregnant dairy and beef cows (Zoli
twin-bearing does and in extreme weather. et al., 1992), goats (Benitez-Ortiz, 1992) and
However, for Boer goats, there was no sig- in Churra, Merino and Assaf ewes (Ranilla
nificant difference in the gestation length et al., 1994, 1997). During pregnancy of
between does bearing singletons or triplets, Moxto and Caninde goats, PAG was detected
and the season of mating had no significant on day 24 after artificial insemination
130 M. Rekik et al.
(Sousa et al., 1999). The profiles for PAG tion of its epithelial layers during the pro-
were not different between the breeds cess of uterine involution (Hunter, 1981).
throughout pregnancy. However, a signifi- The interval from parturition to a subse-
cant effect of the stage of pregnancy and the quent pregnancy is a factor of major eco-
number of fetuses on PAG concentrations nomic importance and hence the involution
was found (Fig 5.3). of the post-partum uterus must be seen as
Morphological changes or their delay one of the important limitations in achiev-
in the post-partum uterus and ovaries of ing the goal of optimal reproduction effi-
farm animals exerts limitations on the ciency. The time required for uterine
reproductive performance of females fol- involution in goats is not very precise. In
lowing parturition. After distension and the Boer goat, macroscopic changes of the
distortion of uterine tissues during preg- post-partum uterus show a rapid decline in
nancy and the heightened glandular devel- weight and volume from parturition to
opment for support of the conceptus, the approximately day 12 post-partum. This is
uterus must undergo contractions and loss demonstrated by the fact that, by day 12
of weight, together with extensive regenera- post-partum, the uterus weight is 15% of its
(a)
250
200
E
--E3) 150
< 100
50
5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21
Weeks of gestation
(b)
250
200
--(3) 150
< 100
50
5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21
Weeks of gestation
Fig. 5.3. Pregnancy-associated glycoprotein (PAG) profiles during pregnancy in Moxoto (a) and
Caninde (b) goats with either single (-) or multiple (x) pregnancies. Significant differences (P < 0.05) in
PAG concentrations between prolificacy levels are indicated by asterisks (*) (Sousa et al., 1999).
Reproduction of Meat Goats 131
400
380
360
340
320
300
280
260
240
220
200
0 10 15 20 25 30 35
Latitude (C)
Fig. 5.4. Relationship between the length of the kidding interval and the latitude of the geographical
area where the breed of goat originates from (each point represents a breed) (redrawn from Delgadillo
et al., 1997).
suckled kids and parity. Another factor that The uniqueness of these two latter breeds,
has a role to play in resumption of ovarian rendering them more sensitive to post-
activity is the presence of the male. The partum endocrine interactions, may be
practical applications of the buck effect will one of the reasons for the large interval
be discussed later. between parturition and the occurrence of
One explanation for a delayed resump- first oestrus. Dwarf goats are also known to
tion of reproductive activity following kid- have a shorter period of post-partum anoes-
ding is an interaction between seasonal trus than other meat breeds (e.g. Black
anoestrus and post-partum anoestrus. For Bengal, West African Dwarf or Malaysian
local goats of North Mexico, 50% of females Katjang). For Dwarf goats in Pakistan, a
resumed reproductive activity 3.5 months mean post-partum anoestrous period of
after parturition in May, while the same only 28 days (range 15-59 days) was
percentage was reached at 5.5 months if reported (Khanum et al., 2007).
parturition occurred in January (Delgadillo In several mammalian species, the
et al., 1997). Intervals for resumption of presence of the young strongly inhibits the
reproductive activity after kidding are resumption of post-partum sexual activity,
therefore shorter when the kidding season and the sensory stimulation caused by suck-
coincides with the natural breeding season, ling is an important component in this
and this can be the basis for management process, although its mechanisms of action
practices to accelerate kiddings in meat- may vary between species. In domestic
producing breeds. ruminants, there is also some effect of the
Breed of goat is another factor that alters young on post-partum anoestrus duration.
length of the post-partum anoestrus. In Bra- For example, in sheep, there is a positive
zil, local Caninde and mixed breeds of goats correlation between nursing activity and
resumed post-partum reproductive activity post-partum anoestrus duration (Fletcher,
on average between 46 and 52 days after kid- 1971), and ewes separated early from their
ding (Freitas et al., 2004); this interval was young and submitted to milking return to
much shorter than for Anglo-Nubian and heat sooner than the mothers that keep
Saanen goats raised in the same environment. nursing, an effect partly due to an inhibitory
Reproduction of Meat Goats 133
affected the mass motility, progressive the pastures in the dry season (Clariget et al.,
motility, percentage of abnormal sperm and 1998). The effect of seasonal weight loss on
volume of ejaculate. Additionally, different several reproductive parameters has been
trends in seasonality of ejaculate volume described extensively for several goat breeds
have been reported for Murciano-Granadina such as Damascus (Al-Ghalban et al., 2004)
(at latitude 37°) and Verata (at latitude 40°) and Zairabi (Barkawi et al., 2006) goats. For
bucks (Roca et al., 1992; Perez and Mateos, Boer bucks in arid areas of South Africa, the
1996). In these studies, higher semen vol- feeding of non-supplemented winter veld
umes were recorded in summer and autumn hay significantly reduced the reproductive
(June-November). As has already been dis- performance in the Boer goat buck (de Waal
cussed for the doe, changes in photoperiod and Combrinck, 2000). From this study, it
are the primary cue for the seasonal changes was possible to conclude that the feeding of
in neuroendocrine activity. Photoperiod only winter veld hay had a significant detri-
would act through the secretion of mental effect on testicular development and
melatonin from the pineal gland, hence semen quality in the young Boer goat buck.
modulating the sensitivity of the hypotha- Such interactions between nutrition and
lamic-pituitary axis to feedback by steroids. reproduction have also been well described
Differences between breeds with regard for Cashmere bucks receiving a lucerne-
to seasonal variation of reproduction can based diet, which had a frequency of seven
also have a genetic component. Under the LH pulses in 7 h in comparison with only
same environment, photoperiod did not two pulses in their counterparts fed a
have the same effect on semen characteris- tropical grass with a low protein content
tics of the Verata and Malaguetia bucks. The (Walkden-Brown, 1991).
Verata breed was more affected by photope- Age is also considered an important
riod, with higher semen production and factor affecting the reproductive efficiency
better semen quality during the decreasing of bucks. Mature bucks of the Damascus
photoperiod (Perez and Mateos, 1996). breed were heavier, with a greater scrotal
circumference, total number of sperm per
ejaculate and sperm concentration when
compared with yearling bucks (Al-Ghalban
5.3.2 Other factors affecting reproduction et al., 2004). This is in line with previous
in bucks reports (Osinowo et al., 1988), showing that
mature rams generally have higher ejaculate
Nutrition is one of the factors of utmost volumes, sperm concentrations and total
importance in the expression of the repro- number of sperm per ejaculate than younger
ductive characteristics. Nutrition can have rams. The percentage of abnormal sperm
long-, medium- and short-term effects on the was lower in mature bucks compared with
reproductive function of small ruminants. yearlings (Al-Ghalban et al., 2004), although
To alter reproduction, nutrition can act on other workers (Osinowo et al., 1988) found
the hypothalamic-pituitary axis through no significant differences in this trait
changes in gonadotropin secretion or between yearlings and mature rams.
directly on the gonads, interfering with the Although the male goat has an excep-
processes of gamete production. It is well tionally high libido, particularly during the
established that the effects of nutrition are breeding season, infertility is reported only
mediated through a number of metabolites in polled bucks, which are, in reality,
and metabolic hormones, such as insulin, intersex (hermaphroditism and pseudo-
leptin, insulin-like growth factors, glucose hermaphroditism). The presence of horns
and amino acids. In most tropical and (as an indication of masculinity) has a sig-
subtropical climates, undernutrition poses nificant effect on sperm concentration, total
serious limitations on animal production sperm per ejaculate and viable sperm
and animals may lose up to 40% of their concentration for all breeds. This statement
body weight because of the poor quality of is in agreement with other results showing
Reproduction of Meat Goats 135
that fertility improved when using horned One major factor explaining variation
rather than polled Damascus bucks during of sexual behaviour in the buck is the level
the breeding season (Hasan and Shaker, of testosterone. In temperate zones, sexual
1990). In addition, the number of live kids behaviour is usually preceded by an
per litter was greater in the case of horned increase in the concentration of testoster-
bucks. Polledness was also associated with one approximately 6 weeks earlier (Ahmad
an increasing incidence of intersexuality in and Noakes, 1995). The two parameters
goat kids (Hancock and Louca, 1975). remain high during autumn and winter,
Because of the genetic link between the after which testosterone concentrations
locus for the presence of horns and the start to decline. This is followed by a dimi-
fertility characteristics of bucks (Devendra nution of sexual behaviour a few weeks
and Burns, 1983), it is suggested that afterwards.
replacement sires should preferably be Other factors are also implicated in the
horned, and all bucks from two polled control of sexual behaviour of the buck. The
parents should be excluded from the effect of age and previous experience are
breeding flock. difficult to dissociate in the young buck.
Only 40% of young bucks show an interest
in females at the age of 12 weeks (Ahmad
and Noakes, 1996). At 21 weeks of age, all
5.3.3 Sexual behaviour in bucks bucks will mount the females and collec-
tion of semen becomes possible at the age of
In the buck, the level of sexual activity fluc- 24 weeks.
tuates during the year in relation to the con- If bucks are raised exclusively in groups
centration of testosterone. However, such of males, they can develop homosexual
dependence is less accentuated than in behaviour at the adult age and a sexual inhi-
other species and can be modulated by the bition in the presence of receptive females
social environment, such as the presence of (Price and Smith, 1984). In the adult, sexual
other males and regular exposure to recep- behaviour shows little improvement with
tive females. Sexual behaviour of the buck age. Nevertheless, regular stimulation of
has been reviewed extensively (Fabre-Nys, bucks with receptive females maintains a
2000) and we report here the major elements high level of sexual activity, even outside
of this review. The first step of the buck sex- the breeding season (Khaldi, 1984). The
ual behaviour is illustrated, as in the ram, same author also reports that males kept
by the adoption of a posture where the head near other males expressing sexual behav-
is stretched to the front with the ears in a iour will have a shorter period of inactiva-
down position. It is then followed by sniff- tion between two ejaculations and a higher
ing of the anogenital area of the female, and frequency of ejaculations than males kept
the buck urinates and displays the charac- alone.
teristic 'flehmen' reaction. If the doe shows
signs of receptivity, then the buck moves on
to a courtship behaviour, rotating his head
in the direction of the female, emitting brief 5.3.4 Photoperiodic treatment of bucks
sounds at a low frequency and striking the and semen biotechnology
doe with his foreleg.
The second sequence of steps starts by Bucks kept under photoperiodic treat-
copulation attempts, ending with the ments, initially developed for rams, would
following sequence of events: erection, suppress the problem of seasonality of
mounting, intromission and ejaculation. In reproduction, particularly sperm produc-
the buck, ejaculation follows the first intro- tion. Accelerated alternation of treatments
mission and usually lasts a few seconds. of increasing photoperiod (1-2 months
Following ejaculation, the buck usually of long days:16 h light:8 h dark) and
turns to feeding if available. decreasing photoperiod (1-2 months of
136 M. Rekik et al.
short days: 16 h dark:8 h light) has been semen production in artificial insemination
shown to abolish seasonal variations of centres.
testicular weight and sperm production
(Chemineau et al., 1999). Over a period of
3 years, all reproductive traits were 5.3.5 Managing bucks for reproduction
improved for treated in comparison with
untreated bucks maintained under a natu- Bucks must be in excellent condition at
ral photoperiod (Delgadillo et al., 1993). mating, otherwise mating performance and
For photoperiodically treated bucks col- subsequent kidding performance could be
lected twice a week, sperm yield was depressed. Bucks must be capable of serv-
improved by 61% and the total number of ing at least ten does each day when intro-
doses for artificial insemination over a duced during the second oestrous cycle of
2-year period was increased by 62%. How- the breeding season. Spermatogenesis is
ever, the fecundity of the bucks tested on susceptible to outside influences such as
artificially inseminated does was not elevated temperature, the season of the year
improved by the treatment. and nutrition, and breeding males need to
The increase of sperm output by be evaluated for reproductive soundness
photoperiod-treated bucks can be explained 3-4 weeks prior to the mating season
by improvement of the biological efficiency
(Memon et al., 2007), while other actions
of spermatogenesis. Spermatogonia and are required several months before the
spermatogenic divisions in treated bucks breeding season:
reach maximum yields similar to those
usually observed during the breeding . Sufficient feed.
season (Delgadillo et al., 1995). . Fresh, clean water.
A specific problem during conservation . Adequate shade during summer and in
of buck sperm in artificial insemination the time leading up to mating. If this is
centres is the deleterious effect of the semi- not done, semen production will be
nal plasma on the viability of spermatozoa reduced and sperm numbers may be
after freeze-thawing when milk- or egg inadequate for fertilization of more
yolk-based diluents are used. There is an than a few does.
enzyme in the seminal plasma that reduces . Regularly trimming of bucks' feet to
survival of the spermatozoa in vitro (Corteel, make sure they are kept in good order.
1975; Memon et al., 1985). The protein that Bucks place most of their body weight
is incriminated in these deleterious effects on their hind legs and feet during
is found in the fraction of the seminal mounting. If they are in pain from bad
plasma that is produced by the bulbo-ure- feet, they will refuse to mate.
thral glands. It is a glycoprotein of 55-60
kDa (named BUSgp60) and causes a reduc- Examination (palpation) of the external
tion in mobile spermatozoa, rupture of the genitalia (scrotum and scrotal content,
acrosome and death of spermatozoa when sheath and penis) for signs of infections and
the semen is diluted in skimmed milk other abnormalities is also an important
(Pellicer-Rubio et al., 2008). So far, a wash- step of the breeding soundness examination
ing step during which the seminal plasma is (Memon et al., 2007). The testes should be
removed prior to sperm conservation is firm and spongy and free of lumps. A male
necessary before cryopreservation of the with large symmetrical testes, free of defects,
bucks' semen. More recently, commercial is likely to produce semen of good quality.
extenders with no biological components There are currently no age and breed stan-
have been developed to improve sanitary dards for scrotal circumference in meat-type
safety in semen processing (Gil et al., 2003). breeds, and there is a need for guidelines to
Techniques of sperm-cell cryopreservation be developed. Alternatively, examination
and fresh semen production require further involves the collection and evaluation of an
studies in order to increase the efficiency of ejaculate. In trained bucks, this is achieved
Reproduction of Meat Goats 137
using an artificial vagina, but in most Social interactions can play an impor-
instances an electroejaculator or battery- tant role in modifying expression of some
operated ejaculator is used (Memon et al., reproductive traits in both sexes. There is
1986). The ejaculate scored is immediately evidence that the presence of the buck may
assessed for sperm motility using a light modify the age of puberty in the goat
microscope and a pre-warmed slide. It is (Grey ling, 1996). In an early study (Amoah
also possible to assess libido by allowing and Bryant, 1984), it was suggested that
the buck access to an oestrous doe as a contact with the male goat has an effect on
teaser Animals deficient in any part of the the timing of puberty and is associated with
examination should be considered ques- rapid and highly synchronous attainment of
tionable and retested after several weeks. puberty in the majority of kids. Similarly,
For young bucks, it is important to on the basis of the oestrous response, it was
ensure that both testicles have descended. shown that the permanent, rather than the
The breeding potential and value of a buck intermittent, presence of bucks had a
are considerably reduced if it has only one marked beneficial effect on the number of
descended testicle. This abnormality (crypt- young kids exhibiting oestrus (Grey ling,
orchidism) can be passed to the next genera- 1996).
tion (Mickelsen and Memon, 2007). Young, Exogenous ly administered melatonin
inexperienced bucks need extra management from continuous slow-release implants has
to ensure that they get on with mating. Young been shown to advance the onset of the
bucks should be confined in yards or small breeding season in sheep and goats by
secure paddocks with mature does in oes- mimicking the stimulatory effect of short
trus. When the young bucks show interest in days. It is well known that melatonin is
mating and staying with the flock, they can implicated in the sequence of events leading
be put into larger paddocks used for mating. to the onset of puberty in small ruminants,
The best method of checking if bucks but there are very few reports on the use of
are working is to use mating crayons. Bucks exogenous melatonin to advance the onset
are fitted with a harness that holds a of puberty. Melatonin implants adminis-
coloured crayon over the sternum. When a tered during the last month of spring in
buck mates, a coloured mark is left on the autumn-born female Damascus goats
rump of the doe. It is essential that the har- advanced their breeding season by about
ness is correctly fitted. Records can be kept 11-12 weeks when joined with young males
of when does are mated for rational manage- also implanted with melatonin (P apa-
ment of kidding. By changing the colours of christoforou et al., 2007). In the anticipa-
the crayons every 21 days, it is easy to deter- tion that such improvement would not
mine when does have conceived. affect later performances with regard to the
earlier breeding of Damascus female kids, it
was found to have positive effects on their
lifetime performance (Mavrogenis and
5.4 Manipulating Reproduction for Constantinou, 1983).
Increased Meat Production Insufficient dietary energy/protein
intake before puberty retards growth and
5.4.1 Induction of puberty delays puberty in livestock. Energy restric-
tion prevents or slows the maturation
Inducing early puberty in young female process at the hypothalamus-pituitary
goats is one way for intensive meat produc- level, and ovarian steroidogenesis may be
tion. Initiation of early reproductive life has compromised in energy-/protein-restricted
been studied extensively in sheep, but little animals. In a study designed to examine
information is available in goats. We sum- the effects of dietary supplementation with
marize below the techniques that have maize and cottonseed cake given at differ-
proved to be promising for early induction ent ratios on the age and weight at first
of puberty in goats. oestrus in nulliparous Savannah Brown
138 M. Rekik et al.
young does (Fasanya et a/., 1992), it was induces ovulation in goats (Chemineau
demonstrated that supplemented animals et al., 1986). The mechanism that can be put
were younger and heavier at the first forward to explain the action of melatonin
pubertal oestrus. Dietary supplementation is that it provides a short-day signal
allowed animals to undergo fairly rapid (O'Callaghan et al., 1989). Short-day treat-
growth, hence attaining a desirable size ment can therefore be replaced by melato-
and weight at an early age. nin treatments so that the maintenance of
constantly high levels of melatonin mimics
a short-day effect.
5.4.2 Out-of-season breeding Melatonin can be supplied either as an
orally active compound, by injection or as a
For seasonal breeds, out-of-season breeding subcutaneous implant for about 3 months
and resumption of post-partum anoestrus (several commercial products are available
are necessary to intensify the rhythms of in many countries), all of which have been
kidding and to increase meat output per shown to be similarly effective to increase
doe per year. In this section, we will the pregnancy rate in Spanish does (Wuliji
address the techniques that are used most et al., 2003). A prerequisite for the advance-
in diverse production systems in order to ment of the breeding season through mela-
induce breeding in anoestrous does. Two tonin treatment is for animals to have
main techniques will be discussed: the use experienced a sufficient period of long
of melatonin and the buck effect. Other days. Two months of photoperiod treat-
pharmacological means to induce breeding ment, followed by melatonin treatment
in anoestrous does such as the association (daily injection or drenching or subcutane-
between progestogens and exogenous ous implants) allows cycles with ovulation
gonadotropins (such as eCG) will be to be maintained for a few months. In the
reported in the section dedicated to the seasonal breeds of sheep and goats, origi-
discussion on oestrous induction and nating from northern Europe, melatonin
synchronization. alone cannot be used too early in the sea-
son and is only able to advance the natural
Use of exogenous melatonin breeding season by about 1.5 months (Eng-
lish et al., 1986). Conversely, in Mediterra-
An alternative pharmacological means of nean breeds of sheep and goats, which are
modifying the seasonal breeding patterns is normally mated in the spring, melatonin
through manipulation of the melatonin can be used alone without previous light
signal. Treatments with exogenous melato- treatment.
nin in sheep and goats have increased the The results indicate that melatonin
duration of melatonin elevation in spring treatment, in comparison with untreated ani-
and summer, which caused an increase in mals, improved the kidding rate (71 versus
gonadotropin secretion and an early onset 36%) and the percentage of kids born (180
of the breeding season, as well as decreased versus 160%) (Wuliji et al., 2003). Further-
prolactin secretion (Lincoln and Clarke, more, the ability of melatonin treatment to
1997). interrupt seasonal or post-partum anoestrus
Exogenous melatonin is administered implies that an accelerated out-of-season
continually to supplement endogenous breeding system with goats, scheduling
release and thus mimic the 'short days' kidding twice, in both the autumn and
associated with the onset of breeding season spring, is feasible. Such a system should
in autumn, while animals' eyes perceive increase the total annual meat-goat produc-
long days of spring and summer (Chemineau tion. However, it must be remembered that
et al., 1988). Giving (orally or by intramus- the type of treatment used and likely rate of
cular injection) a large amount of melatonin success will depend greatly on the extent of
during the early afternoon in June to ani- breed susceptibility to photoperiod, time
mals artificially exposed to long days of the treatment application in relation to
Reproduction of Meat Goats 139
onset of the breeding season year (depth of 1.5 days (i.e. days 4-5). After this short cycle
anoestrus is greatest in late spring/early of highly constant duration (5-6 days), these
summer), physiological state, body-condition females reovulate a second time, around
score and nutritional status. day 29. If does continue to cycle, subsequent
ovulations generally occur at the normal
The buck effect interval of approximately 21 days and are
accompanied by fertile oestrus. The induced
The existence of a two-peak abnormal dis- ovulations are associated with oestrus in a
tribution of lambing and kidding 5 months variable proportion of goats: in 68% of
after the reintroduction of males in sheep Creole goats (Chemineau, 1983) and in 35%
and goat flocks was described very early in of native goats in Tunisia (Lassoued et al.,
the literature. In the 19th century, this tech- 1995).
nique was presented as 'being able to fertil- The first ovulation is usually of low
ize all adult ewes of the flock in the shortest fertility and the second ovulation 5 days
time possible' (Girard, 1813). In Angora later is accompanied by a fertile oestrus
goats, careful description of the distribution with a luteal phase of normal length. The
of lambing and kidding induced by the vol- ovulation rate may be enhanced at this
untary reintroduction of males was given second ovulation (Chemineau, 1987;
(Shelton, 1960). The existence of two peaks Lassoued et al., 1995).
of kidding, clearly separated by some days, Injecting adequate doses of progester-
suggested that the underlying physiological one (i.e. 20 mg per doe) at exactly the same
mechanisms were probably not so simple. time as the introduction of males provokes
They suggested that this reintroduction a delay in the induced ovulations and
probably provoked induction of synchro- prevents short cycles in 85% of females
nous ovulations and oestrous behaviour, (Lassoued et al., 1995). Similarly, progesto-
being able to induce such synchronizations gen pre-treatment through vaginal sponges
of parturitions. This phenomenon has is efficient to control short ovarian cycles in
attracted attention during recent years and 96% of Creole meat goats (Chemineau,
the reasons for this distribution have been 1985).
investigated. A global explanation of the underlying
Many authors have separated the short-, physiological mechanisms controlling these
medium- and long-term responses to the short cycles points to the uterus being
male effect to allow a rationalization in the involved in the early regression of the cor-
understanding of female responses (reviews pus luteum, induced by the bucks through
in goats by Chemineau, 1987 and Walkden- the secretion of PGF2a (Chemineau et al.,
Brown et al., 1999). 2006). However, it appears that the quality
Immediately after introduction of males of the follicles induced to ovulate are poor
(day 0), LH pulse frequency increases and because of the unsustained long-term
remains elevated if the male remains pres- gonadotropin activity during anoestrus.
ent among females in the flock. The gonado- In goats, the reproductive condition in
tropin stimulation of the ovarian follicles the buck seems to be the limiting factor
provokes an increase in plasma oestradiol determining the response of anoestrous does
1713, which centrally triggers the onset of the to the male effect (Flores et al., 2000). A sea-
pre-ovulatory surge of LH, around 20 h after sonal decline in the intensity of the induc-
day 0, and females ovulate before day 3 after tive stimulus from the male may also be
the introduction of males. After the first involved. Treating bucks with long days and
male-induced ovulation, in one group of melatonin increased their teasing capacity
females, the corpora lutea develop and to induce sexual activity in females during
secrete progesterone during normal dura- anoestrus, which indicated that the absence
tion, leading to a second ovulation around of response to teasing at this time of the year
day 23 in goats. The second group of females is not due to female unresponsiveness but to
experience a very early luteolysis, after only insufficient stimulation from the male.
140 M. Rekik et al.
cycle. In does and ewes, the opportunity for et al., 2007). According to different authors,
control of the cycle is greater during the mean fertility results obtained using this
luteal phase, which is of longer duration protocol combined with the use of semen
and is more responsive to manipulation. refrigerated at 5°C and cervical artificial
Strategies can be employed either to extend insemination performed 43-46 h after pro-
the lifespan of the corpus luteum by admin- gestogen treatment can be variable. Under
istration of exogenous progesterone or to the best experimental conditions, mean fer-
shorten this phase through premature tility rates approaching 60% have been
regression of the existing corpus luteum achieved (Leboeuf et al., 1998). One major
using PGF2a. advantage of the treatment is its potential
Oestrus synchronization allows for use irrespective of seasonal effects (breed-
concentration of breeding time and parturi- ing or anoestrus season). For example, when
tion at suitable seasons to take advantage of inducing oestrus during the non-breeding
the following: season, an 18-day sponge treatment in com-
bination with 150 or 200 IU of eCG at sponge
The use of reproductive biotechnolo- withdrawal allowed 100% of indigenous
gies for the dissemination of genetic Damascus does to be mated, with a 65.8%
improvement (e.g. artificial insemina- conception rate, a 64.1% kidding rate and a
tion, embryo transfer). With oestrus 192.2% kid crop compared with buck use
synchronization, producers are able to alone (no animals expressed oestrus or were
use complementary techniques more mated; Zarkawi et al., 1999).
efficiently for reproductive manage- The most commonly used synchroniza-
ment, including artificial insemination tion protocols include methyl acetoxy pro-
and embryo transfer, so that genetic gesterone (MAP; 60 mg) or fluorogestone
material is more easily obtained or acetate (FGA; 45 mg) vaginal sponges. A
transferred domestically and interna- controlled internal drug-releasing device
tionally. Good examples can be given (CIDR) in the form of a silicone intravaginal
for European dairy goat breeds where progesterone insert is also available for use
synchronization of oestrus has been in goats. Comparison of the use of MAP,
used extensively (up to 10% of the FGA and CIDR vaginal inserts in Boer and
French goat population) to develop South African indigenous goats during the
fixed-time artificial insemination with breeding season showed no influence of
improved bucks while obtaining rea- progestogen treatment on oestrous response,
sonably high pregnancy rates. but time to the onset of oestrus was
Oestrus induction of out-of-season advanced by 3-5 h in the CIDR group com-
breeding. pared with the FGA and MAP groups
Improvement of flock management, (Montlomelo et al., 2002). These results are
taking advantage of niche markets, feed confirmed by those in Nubian goats, indi-
supplies, labour and rising price trends. cating that the use of CIDR, MAP and FGA
treatments plus PGF2a following progesto-
Since the initial introduction of tech- gen withdrawal is equally efficient in syn-
niques based on the use of progestogens to chronizing oestrus, with similar fertility
synchronize the reproductive cycle and between treatments (Romano, 2004). The
eCG to stimulate ovarian follicular growth need for an intravaginal hormone-releasing
in ruminants, reproductive technologies device gives rise to problems such as vagini-
applied to goats have not advanced greatly. tis (Lopez-Sebastian et al., 2007), which has
In goats, the treatments of choice are still adverse effects on fertility as a result of
those based on administering intravaginal impaired sperm transport and viability.
progestogens for 11 days, followed by an Moreover, the use of intravaginal progesto-
injection of eCG and PGF2a, or their ana- gens has negative implications for the legal
logues, 2 days before withdrawal of the pro- limits established for progestogen residues
gestogen-releasing device (Lopez-Sebastian in milk and meat.
142 M. Rekik et al.
Besides these shortcomings related to single dose in oil) and provoking early cor-
the use of intravaginal devices to deliver pus luteum lysis using cloprostenol (a pros-
progestogens, the development of anti-eCG taglandin analogue) during the non-breeding
antibodies in repeatedly treated does nota- season 9 days after exposure to bucks
bly reduces fertility, particularly in artifi- (Lopez-Sebastian et al., 2007). The pro-
cially inseminated females (Chemineau posed method was an adequate alternative
et al., 1999). Repeated use of eCG delays the for oestrus synchronization prior to artifi-
timing of oestrus as a result of a delayed cial insemination during the non-breeding
pre-ovulatory LH surge with a major draw- season in the absence of previous oestrus
back on fertility (Fig. 5.5). These limitations detection in goats. The outcome of the pro-
have prompted the development of alterna- tocol provided higher fertility rates than
tive methods of synchronizing oestrus in those observed in response to the classic
female goats. method based on the use of progestogens
Recently, a new concept of synchroniz- and eCG.
ing oestrus was developed, based on induc- Another convenient method to admin-
ing ovulation by the male effect in ister progestogens without having the
progesterone-treated goats (injection of a adverse effects of intravaginal devices is
(a)
34
33
32
0
0_ u) 31
(1)
0
o
-2 -
30
To
29
cu 28
27
26
0 2 3
Number of treatments
(b)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
20 40 60 80
Interval from sponge withdrawal to oestrus (h)
Fig. 5.5. Relationship between the interval of withdrawal of sponges to oestrus and the number of
equine chorionic gonadotropin treatments (a) and between the same interval and fertility of the does (b)
(redrawn from Chemineau et al., 1999).
Reproduction of Meat Goats 143
plays an important role in the adaptation For local goats browsing in the harsh
and survival of the West African Dwarf goat conditions of central Tunisia, condensed
breed. Selection for breed identification tannins in Acacia cyanophylla Lindl. had a
mark on the basis of coat colour would prob- detrimental effect on ovulation rate (Las-
ably favour the black goats based on the soued et al., 2006). Deactivation of these
results of their performance. Although it is condensed tannins by polyethylene glycol
not immediately known why performance increased the ovulation rate to 1.76 ± 0.60
increased with an increase in coat pigmenta- in comparison with 1.25 ± 0.45 for untreated
tion intensity, it could be associated with goats. The probable increased availability of
the suppressive action of the non-pigmented proteins in the polyethylene glycol-receiv-
(white) gene. The top dominant allele at the ing goats could explain their higher ovula-
agouti locus (Awh), which produces white tion rate. The prospects for nutritional
coat colour, depressed ewe fertility in Ice- manipulation of litter size through altera-
landic sheep by about 0.15 lambs per ewe tion of ovulation rate and embryo survival,
mated (Adalsteinsson, 1975). A similar gene similar to what is currently established in
action could have been responsible for the sheep, should be investigated further for
differences in performance observed in the different genotypes under different produc-
West African Dwarf goat. The production tion systems.
environment is also reported to affect the lit- The effect of the social environment of
ter size of goats. Goats mated in the autumn the doe at mating on later litter size remains
were almost half as likely to present multi- equivocal. There was no beneficial effect of
ple births as does mated in the hottest part of buck stimulation prior to the breeding
the year (summer) (Mellado et al., 2006). period in terms of kidding rate or litter size,
Other studies in hot environments (reported either in goats exposed to bucks immedi-
by Mellado et al., 2006) also report signifi- ately before the breeding period (litter size
cantly larger litters in goats mated in the of 1.30) or goats teased by bucks 15 days
spring or summer compared with cooler sea- prior to the breeding season (litter size of
sons of the year. However, no clear explana- 1.40) (Mellado et al., 1994).
tion of these results can be put forward at Litter size can also be manipulated by
this stage. For Korean native goats (Song pharmacological means. Increases in litter
et al., 2006), mean litter sizes were 1.69 ± 0.03 size have been achieved through the immu-
and 1.78 ± 0.16 at birth and 1.31 ± 0.03 nization of does to steroids. Steroid immuni-
(77.5%) and 1.52 ± 0.17 (85.4%) at weaning zation has become commercially available in
(which could passively be seen as an indica- many countries, for example, using Fecun-
tion of mothering ability) for range and din®, which immunizes females to andro-
intensively managed groups, respectively. stenedione Immunization (active or passive)
For Creole goats in Guadeloupe, a significant is achieved by two subcutaneous injections
correlation was found between prolificacy (2 ml each) administered initially 2-3 weeks
and rainfall 1 month before conception apart and in single annual boosters thereaf-
(Chemineau and Xande, 1982). Prolificacy ter. A period of 3 weeks is suggested between
depends on the feeding conditions during the booster immunization and the time of
mating, which is a consequence of the rela- optimum ovulation. Due to the long-term
tionship between natural feed availability, effects and the relative ease of application of
body condition and ovulation rate of the the product, steroid immunization can be
females. Indeed, ovulation rate was higher used for the improvement of ovulation rate
(P < 0.01) in does with a better body condi- and subsequently litter size in more exten-
tion (1.9 ± 0.1) than in those with a worse sively managed flocks. The animal response
body condition (1.6 ± 0.1) (de Santiago- in terms of ovulation rate and litter size var-
Miramontes et al., 2008). A higher ovulation ies with breed and location, but improve-
rate in ewes with a better body condition is ments of ovulation rate (+1) and litter size
well documented for a wide range of breeds (+0.5) have been achieved in does Immuni-
and under various production systems. zation against androstenedione increases
Reproduction of Meat Goats 145
ovulation rate and does not affect embryo incidence of reproductive wastage (unfertil-
losses. Therefore, prolificacy is always ized ova and early embryo losses).
increased and the improvement is higher in A number of other pharmacological
naturally lowly prolific breeds. For the hardy treatments to manipulate litter size in goats
Greek dairy breed, litter size at birth was are under investigation and development
1.25 ± 0.43 in comparison with 1.63 ± 0.64 under research conditions. However, it is
for untreated and immunized goats, respec- not clear to what extent these approaches
tively (Driancourt et al., 1990). Most treated will be biologically and/or economically
goats tend to have twin pregnancies. feasible. Among the concepts under investi-
When using hormone therapies to gation are: (i) immunization against inhibin,
increase litter size, the association between which selectively suppresses FSH but not
sponges impregnated with a synthetic pro- LH; and (ii) the use of GnRH in conjunction
gestogen followed by the injection of eCG with progestogen-based superovulation
can also yield increases in litter size. Such treatments. Both techniques have the poten-
treatment is classic in sheep and is perhaps tial to be used in superovulation treatments
the most widely used for both synchroniza- as part of embryo transfer programmes.
tion of oestrus and increases in litter size. However, their use to increase litter size
There are limited published data on the use under farming conditions is precluded.
of eCG in goats to increase litter size. Our
unpublished results (N. Lassoued and M.
Rekik, 2010, Fig. 5.6) on Tunisian local
breeds show that, at doses of 200 and 300 IU 5.4.5 Reproductive biotechnologies for
of eCG, there is an improvement in concep- improved meat production
tion rate at the induced oestrus. However,
prolificacy was similar to the does not receiv- The application of assisted reproductive
ing eCG after withdrawal of the sponges. A technologies (ART) in livestock production
substantial increase in prolificacy is obtained allows animals of high genetic merit to pro-
only when the eCG dose is increased to duce more offspring than would be possible
400 IU. However, at this dose, fertility at the by natural breeding. ART present producers
induced oestrus is very low because of a high of breeding stock with unique opportunities
Conception rate
180 -
Prolificacy
0 160
as 140 -
2 120 -
0
100 -
U
80 -
0
0_ 60 -
U
C
O 40 -
20
0 200 I 300 400
Dose of eCG (IU)
Fig. 5.6. The effect of increasing doses of equine chorionic gonadotropin on conception rate and
prolificacy at the induced oestrus of local Tunisian female goats (N. Lassoued and M. Rekik, 2010,
unpublished results).
146 M. Rekik et al.
Table 5.4. Pre- and post-freezing percentage of progressive motility and percentage of live
spermatozoa in Boer goat semen at different seasons of the year (from Tuli and Holtz, 1995).
Within columns, different letters (b, c, d) indicate significant differences (P < 0.05).
Reproduction of Meat Goats 147
in dairy breeds in France (Leboeuf et al., for the onset of oestrus, or can be synchro-
1998), the authors enumerated some of the nized (see oestrus synchronization dis-
factors affecting variation in fertility after cussed above) and should be inseminated
artificial insemination: 12-18 h after the onset of oestrus.
Ovarian response to hormonal treat-
ment: 4.3% of the females had a low Embryo transfer
progesterone concentration, i.e. a prob- The first successful cryopreservation of goat
able lack of ovulation following the embryos was reported by Bilton and Moore
synchronization treatment. (1976). Since then, large numbers of goats
Ovulation time after hormonal treat- have been successfully produced from fro-
ment: variability of the ovulation time zen-thawed embryos (Baril et al., 1989). The
seems to be a limiting factor for the effi-
technique of multiple ovulations and
ciency of hormonal treatment plus arti- embryo transfer (MOET) is often referred to
ficial insemination. as a method of producing more offspring
Repeated hormonal treatments and from a genetically valuable female than
antibodies against eCG: this was dis- would be possible by natural breeding.
cussed in an earlier section. However, MOET has not yet become a wide-
Parity of inseminated females: artificial spread tool for genetic improvement for a
insemination of nulliparous does often variety of reasons including its cost, techni-
yields lower fertility rates than the adult cal demands and variable and unpredictable
goats. These low fertility rates could be efficiency (Baril et al., 1989; Cognie et al.,
caused by factors such as weaning age, 2003). The main factors contributing to the
growth rate, body condition and age at unpredictability of this technique are the
first artificial insemination. variability of the superovulatory response,
Laparoscopic insemination involves poor fertilization associated with high ovu-
the use of a laparoscope and depositing latory responses and early regression of the
fresh or frozen-thawed semen directly into corpus luteum (Cognie et al., 2003). An aver-
the uterine horns. Laparoscopic insemina- age of six to eight transferable embryos per
tion procedures are described for sheep and donor can be produced in a successful goat
goats (Ritar and Ball, 1991) and a >80% con- MOET programme (Baril et al., 1989; Cognie
ception rate has been reported. However, et al., 2003). It is common for the number of
the technique requires a skilled operator. transferable embryos to range from 0 to 30
Due to the high cost of the procedure, lapa- per donor, with up to 30% of the donors fail-
roscopic insemination has a very limited ing to produce any transferable embryos due
use in meat goats. to fertilization failure and early regression of
Semen is usually collected from bucks corpus luteum (ERCL) (Pintado et al., 1998).
trained to serve an artificial vagina. Once a The causes of ERCL are not fully under-
collection schedule is initiated, bucks can stood, but its occurrence has been associated
be collected two to three times daily on with inadequate nutrition (Jabbour et al.,
alternate days. Semen is immediately evalu- 1991) and the use of eCG in superovulatory
ated for quality and the concentration deter- regimes (Pintado et al., 1998).
mined. The semen is then extended in a Techniques used for oestrus synchroni-
medium containing egg yolk, sugars and zation of donor and recipient and for super-
buffer to provide an insemination dose of 20 ovulation of the donor with gonadotropins
million (frozen, laparoscopic intrauterine) (FSH and eCG) are similar to those described
to 300 million (fresh, cervical) spermatozoa, above (see oestrus synchronization discussed
depending on the intended insemination above). Insemination of the donor does
technique. The success of the actual insemi- should occur either naturally or through cer-
nation depends to a large degree on appro- vical rather than intrauterine artificial insem-
priate timing in relation to oestrus and ination, to avoid additional manipulation of
ovulation. Does must be observed closely the uterus and oviducts. For the collection,
148 M. Rekik et al.
the uterus of the donor is flushed 3-5 days suggested for increasing the number of
after mating. Particularly in the case of small recruitable ovarian follicles at the
repeated collections, this may cause adhe- time of FSH treatment, while avoiding the
sions interfering with subsequent collections. presence of large (dominant) follicles.
Recent embryo collection techniques using Among these concepts are: (i) immuniza-
laparoscopy have been developed with suc- tion against inhibin, which selectively sup-
cessful outcome in goats (76% pregnancy). presses FSH but not LH: (ii) the use of GnRH
Following collection, the flushing medium is agonist/antagonists and the administration
examined to identify fertilized (cleaved) of FSH shortly after an induced oestrus/
embryos, determine the recovery of embryos ovulation; and (iii) the use of FSH plus
(based on the number of corpora lutea) and GnRH treatment Immunization of goats
evaluate embryo quality. Only high-grade against inhibin has proved to be a practica-
embryos should be used for freezing and stor- ble means of producing embryos for transfer
age, whereas embryos of less quality may be purposes (Wang et al., 2009). Pre-treatment
used for fresh transfer. Embryos should be with GnRH antagonist for 10 days prior to
transferred into the uterine horn of the same superovulation resulted in an increased
side containing an ovary with a corpus number of small follicles at the time of FSH
luteum. Following a sufficient period of rest, administration and an increased number of
donor does can be repeatedly collected. ovulations (Cognie et al., 2003).
It has been reported that blastocysts can
be cryopreserved better than morulae (Puls- Pregnancy diagnosis
Kleingeld et al., 1992). Goat embryos are
successfully traded internationally using Early and accurate diagnosis of pregnancy is
ethylene glycol, which is a better cryopro- important for effective livestock manage-
tectant than glycerol (35 versus 22% kids ment. While not of immediate concern in
born from embryos thawed, respectively; Le extensive goat operations that utilize
Gal et al., 1993). Vitrification of goat extended natural mating, the early determi-
embryos involving embryo exposure to high nation of pregnancy can be a useful manage-
concentrations of cryoprotectants followed ment tool under more intensive production
by direct immersion in liquid nitrogen has conditions, or when artificial insemination
been reported to be successful (Yuswiati and embryo transfer are employed. Inability
and Holtz, 1990). to detect early pregnancy can result in eco-
nomic losses in milk and kid production
Superovulation is an important part of
a MOET programme and has the potential to due to longer kidding intervals. Lack of
increase the reproductive performance of knowledge of techniques to differentiate
selected donors of goat breeds in high pregnant from non-pregnant animals may
demand. Superovulation accomplished by result in heavy reproduction and produc-
gonadotropins (primarily FSH and eCG), tion losses in the form of abortions, still-
used at higher (pharmacological) doses to births and the production of weak kids. It
elicit a superovulatory response, is com- also results in uneconomical feeding of non-
monly used in embryo transfer programmes. pregnant animals. Pregnancy diagnosis will
eCG is more easily administered than FSH, identify the females requiring repeat breed-
usually as a single injection of up to ing or insemination and/or will allow the
1500-2000 IU,but the superovulatory separation of pregnant and open females for
response to eCG can be quite variable and is differential management. When fetal num-
usually lower than in an FSH-induced bers can be determined as part of the preg-
superovulation. Currently, the major factor nancy diagnosis, different feeding regimes
leading to a variable ovulation rate and can be applied to single- and litter-bearing
embryo output seems to be the follicular females. To be most useful to the producer,
status of the donor at the onset of super- pregnant animals need to be identified as
ovulatory treatment (Gonzalez-Bulnes early as possible in gestation. A variety of
et al., 2004). Several strategies have been approaches have been explored for the early
Reproduction of Meat Goats 149
detection of pregnancy and possibly fetal advances. The gravid uterus or fetus can
numbers. The techniques have either sometimes be palpated through the relaxed
focused on the detection of physical changes abdominal wall by placing a hand on either
resulting from pregnancy (fluid accumula- side of the abdomen and squeezing or lift-
tion and presence of a detectable fetus) ing upwards (Ishwar, 1995). If the doe is
through palpation and ultrasound (Wani pregnant, the fetus is felt to drop on to the
and Sahni, 1980; Buckrell, 1988; Goel and palpating hand (Arther et al., 1982). With-
Agrawal, 1989) or been concerned with the holding feed and water for at least 12 h be-
identification of maternal and fetal physio- fore examination increases the ease of the
logical signals (progesterone, oestrone sul- examination (Ishwar, 1995). It is easier in
fate and pregnancy proteins) associated thin does than in fat animals. Pregnancy
with pregnancy (Restall et al., 1990; Ishwar, can be diagnosed to an acceptable accu-
1995). Only a few methods seem reliable racy (up to 70%) after 80 days of gestation
and applicable under field conditions. by the abdominal palpation method. As the
method is simple and does not involve any
NON-RETURN TO OESTRUS The length of the equipment, it can be used by goat owners to
screen their flock.
oestrous cycle ranges from 19 to 24 days
(average 21 days) in goats. Non-return to
oestrus after breeding is considered a sign ULTRASOUND TECHNIQUES There has been
of pregnancy. During the breeding season, increasing interest in the use of ultrasound
goats return to oestrus within 7-23 days if techniques for pregnancy diagnosis in goats
there is a fertilization failure. The sign of by various workers (Aswad et al., 1976;
non-return to oestrus due to pregnancy is not Wani and Sahni, 1980; Shelton, 1982; Buck-
physically different from seasonal anoestrus
rell, 1988; Goel and Agrawal, 1990; Haibel,
at the end of the breeding season and out-of- 1990). Pregnancy may be detected with all
breeding season. Non-return to oestrus is an three types of ultrasonographics available:
unreliable method when does are synchro- amplitude depth (A-mode), Doppler and
nized and bred during the non-breeding sea- real-time B-mode ultrasonics. Each can be
son. In addition, pathological conditions of used under field conditions. The accuracy
the uterus or ovaries may cause anoestrus in
of diagnosis, timing of examination, fetal
non-pregnant does (Ishwar, 1995). numbers and age and fetal viability vary
Therefore, pregnancy diagnosis based considerably among these techniques. One
on non-return to oestrus is not reliable in of the most important features of ultra-
goats that exhibit seasonality in oestrous sound, when used for tissue examination,
behaviour. The use of vasectomized bucks is its safety to the operator and patient. To-
with raddle harnesses with the does after day, the most used method is the real-time
mating to detect the return to service B-mode ultrasonics.
appeared to be unreliable in detecting preg- Real-time, B -mode ultrasonic scanning
nancy in Thai goats, as 36.5% of pregnant appears to offer an accurate, rapid, safe and
does came into oestrus, as evidenced by practical means of diagnosing pregnancy
raddle marks on the rump, during early and determining fetal numbers. The tech-
pregnancy, and this can lead to serious nique allows visualization of the fetus in
errors (Restall et al., 1990). Non-return
the uterus, fetal numbers and fetal viabil-
determination is a method recommended ity. Two types of scanners are available on
for traditional goat owners only, who do not the market and both are utilized for preg-
have other facilities for pregnancy diagnosis.
nancy diagnosis: (i) linear array scanners;
and (ii) sector scanners. There are a num-
ABDOMINAL PALPATION In the late stages of ber of abdominal/rectal probes. A mid-
pregnancy, does can be examined by ab- range abdominal (5 MHz) or rectal (7 MHz)
dominal palpation. This technique becomes probe is ideal for goats (Goel and Agrawal,
easier and more reliable as pregnancy 1992). Sector scanners provide a much
150 M. Rekik et al.
wider angle of view and the entire uterus HORMONAL ASSAYS Progesterone levels can
can be visualized from either side of the be obtained using a radioimmunoassay
animal. They have some advantages over (RIA) or enzyme-linked immunosorbent
linear scanners: they require less skin sur- assay (ELISA). Assays can be performed on
face contact, have a reduced scanning time serum, plasma or milk samples. The con-
and have superior resolution. In goats, centration of plasma progesterone can be
transrectal ultrasonography with a 5 MHz determined on days 19-23 post-breeding
probe allows visualization of the embryo in does with high accuracy (Gonzalez
vesicle starting from day 19 of pregnancy et al., 2004). Progesterone concentration in
(Martinez et a/., 1998). Nevertheless, it is plasma as well as in milk 21-22 days after
only from day 25 onward that precision artificial insemination in the goats was es-
and sensitivity are >90%. timated (Thibier et al., 1982). The level of
Scanning Thai native goat does by real- plasma progesterone was 7.64 ± 4.17 and
time ultrasonic imaging between 55 and 0.86 ± 0.73 ng/ml in pregnant and non-
65 days post-coitus was 100% accurate in pregnant goats, respectively. Its accuracy
detecting pregnancy using an abdominal in early pregnancy diagnosis was 100 and
probe (Restall et al., 1990). It is therefore 87.5%, for non-pregnant and pregnant
apparent that day 45-50 is the ideal time to does, respectively.
make a pregnancy diagnosis by transab- A progesterone test in does is a good
dominal scanning with a high degree of test for non-pregnancy as it allows early
accuracy (Buckrell, 1988). Accuracy of identification of open does with 80-100%
counting numbers of fetuses with real-time accuracy, but it is only a fair test for preg-
ultrasonography is an advantage over other nancy.
ultrasound techniques. The optimal time Oestrone sulfate is produced by the
for counting fetal numbers is between 45 placenta in sheep and goats. Oestrone sul-
and 90 days of gestation (Haibel, 1990). fate can be detected in the plasma of does
After 90-100 days of gestation, fetuses from around 40-50 days post-breeding.
become too large to be consistently differen- Around day 60 of pregnancy, the average
tiated from each other. concentration is 0.6 ng/ml in non-pregnant
In addition to pregnancy diagnosis, goats and 6.1 ng/ml in those that are preg-
ultrasound scanners may be helpful for nant (Refstal et al., 1991). A positive test
early diagnosis of fetal malformation, indicates a viable fetus.
factors influencing fetal growth and diag- In the pregnant doe, PAG concentra-
nosis of diseases of the reproductive tract tions are detectable from day 17-18, reach-
(Buckrell, 1988). Fetal age in ewes and ing concentrations of 3-5 ng/ml on days
21-22. Pregnancies can be detected by
does can also be determined by the use of
real-time ultrasonics at 40-100 days of day 24 (Humblot et al., 1995) or day 25
gestation by measuring the width of the (Folch et al., 1993). PAG determination was
fetal skull (Reichle and Haibel, 1991). This highly accurate on days 24 and 26 (99 and
technique would be helpful in predicting 100%, respectively) (Gonzalez-Bulnes
parturition date when the actual date of et al., 2004).
breeding is not known. The PAG milk-test provides an accurate
The main limiting factor preventing pregnancy diagnosis from day 32 after
greater use of this technique in developing breeding and, in combination with good
countries is its high cost. In addition, train- management practices, this test would be
ing and considerable experience are suitable under farm conditions to confirm
required to obtain better accuracy in terms pregnancies tentatively identified by
of image interpretation. With a decrease in non-return to oestrus on day 21 after breed-
equipment cost and an increase in practical ing (Gonzalez et al., 2001). A summary of
experience, it may be possible in the future the effectiveness and practical applications
to significantly increase the use of portable of different techniques for pregnancy diag-
ultrasound scanners in goats. nosis is presented in Table 5.5.
Reproduction of Meat Goats 151
Table 5.5. Comparisons of techniques available for pregnancy diagnosis in the doe.
Table 5.7. Compared reproductive and productivity performances of indigenous goat and
its crosses with imported breeds (from Rekik et al., 2005).
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6 Nutrition of the Meat Goat
required to mitigate both nutrient deficien- Feed components are broken down into
cies and the effect of PSM toxicity. smaller particles by the mechanical action
Supplementary feeds include legumi- of the teeth. The tongue helps in mixing the
nous fodders, which can serve as good feed in the mouth and swallowing it. Five
protein and energy sources, cacti, which pairs of salivary glands (parotid, submaxil-
require very little water, and energy sources laries, sublingual, inferior molar and buccal
such as molasses, cereal grains and by- glands) secrete a mixture of serous and
products and oilseed meals. Mineral and mucous fluids, released by the stimulation
protein supplementation of goats consum- of chewing activities including eating and
ing high-fibre/low-protein forages generally rumination (Haenlein and Caccese, 1992).
improves intake and performance. Nutrient- The saliva secreted aids in cud chewing and
specific supplements should take into swallowing, and is needed for buffering and
consideration the protein content and min- maintenance of rumen pH within an opti-
eral profiles of forages in each region. These mal range (pH 6.2-6.8) for microbial growth
should be formulated to be cost-effective (Lu et al., 2005).
and supply those nutrients required to The insalivated feed then enters the
optimize growth and reproduction of range oesophagus, which is a tube-like duct that
goats (Kawas et al., 2010). carries food from the mouth into the stomach
at the reticulum. The feed bolus is forced
down the oesophagus as a result of voluntary
muscular contractions in its proximal por-
6.3 Gastrointestinal Tract tion, while smooth muscles in the remainder
of the oesophagus cause peristaltic contrac-
The goat gastrointestinal tract has evolved tions that transport the bolus further to the
on the basis of adaptation to feed resources. reticulum. During resting, the ball-like bolus
The goat is a ruminant animal with a diges- of fibrous and coarse feed, called the cud, is
tive tract consisting of mouth, oesophagus, regurgitated from the reticulo-rumen into the
a four-compartment stomach, small intes- mouth through the oesophagus. The rumina-
tine (duodenum, jejunum and ileum), and tion process includes regurgitation of the
large intestine (caecum and colon). cud, which is thoroughly chewed and swal-
Accessory organs such as the salivary lowed again. Goats may spend more than 7 h
glands, liver and pancreas contribute to a day ruminating, depending on the fibre
digestion. Ruminant comes from the word content of the feed (Lu et al., 2005). As chew-
`rumen', which is the first major compart- ing or mastication is comprised of both con-
ment of the four-compartment stomach of sumption and rumination, excess fibre in the
goats where microbial fermentation takes diet may increase the latter, affecting the
place. Some anatomical and physiological amount of feed dry matter (DM) the goat can
aspects of the digestive tract of the goat have eat. Chewing aids in particle size reduction,
been discussed by several authors (Haenlein allowing a greater surface area for microbial
and Caccese, 1992; Silanikove, 2000; Lu digestion and for the smaller particles to flow
et al., 2005; Hart, 2008) and will be summa- out of the rumen. Lateral movements of the
rized in this section. jaw allow effective grinding of forage and
The primary prehensile structures of other feed particles (Haenlein and Caccese,
the goat are the mouth, lips, teeth and 1992).
tongue. Like other ruminant animals, goats The four-compartment stomach is com-
lack upper incisor and canine teeth. They prised of the reticulum, rumen, omasum
depend on the hard and rigid dental pad, and abomasum, the latter being the true
lower incisor teeth, lips and tongue to bite stomach (Fig. 6.1) where enzymatic diges-
and take feed into their mouths. The lips are tion occurs. Each of these compartments
important prehensile organs. This charac- has a specific function in the digestive pro-
teristic enables the greater selectivity of cess. When the goat kid is born, the rumen,
goats when grazing under range conditions. reticulum and omasum are underdeveloped,
Nutrition of the Meat Goat 163
Caecum
Small intestine
Pilorus
Large intestine
Colon Oesophagus
Reticulum
Anus
Omasum
Rumen Abomasum
and the abomasum or gastric stomach is the organisms to thrive. Microbial fermentation
largest of the four compartments. The accomplished by millions of microorgan-
abomasum functions similarly to the stom- isms such as bacteria, protozoa and fungi
ach of non-ruminant animals. The utiliza- produce enzymes that break down forage
tion of nutrients and absorption of fibre and other feed components, generating
antibodies (immunoglobulins) from colos- energy precursors know as volatile fatty
trum that bypasses the rumen and reticu- acids (VFAs), and synthesizing B-complex
lum through the oesophageal groove and vitamins and vitamin K and providing pro-
into the abomasum is high during the first tein from microbial origin for post-ruminal
days of life. The four stomach compart- digestion and absorption as amino acids by
ments reach their adult size after 2 months the host animal.
of age. In the adult goat, the rumen is the Carbohydrates are fermented in the
largest of the four stomach compartments. reticulo-rumen producing VFAs, primarily
Feed first undergoes microbial diges- acetic, propionic and butyric acids, which
tion in the rumen and reticulum, and these are absorbed through the rumen wall pro-
compartments are collectively referred to as viding most of the energy requirements.
the reticulo-rumen. The reticulum is sepa- Fermentation by rumen microorganisms
rated from the rumen by the reticulo- also generates gases, primarily methane and
ruminal fold. The capacity of the goat carbon dioxide, which are lost through
reticulum is only 1-2 1, whereas the rumen eructation. With the rapid consumption of
contains a considerable amount of fluid large amounts of lush legumes or grain,
(12-25 1; >20 1 in the adult goat), which goats may be unable to eliminate these
depends on the type of feed consumed accumulated gases, producing a condition
(Silanikove, 2000). Small finger-like projec- known as bloat, which may be lethal.
tions called papillae that cover the rumen After forage has been digested and
surface increase the absorptive surface area. broken down into small particles in the
As goat kids grow, they continuously reticulo-rumen, it passes through the omasum
increase their consumption of solid feed, where water absorption occurs, and then
allowing the rumen to develop and micro- enters the abomasum, the true stomach,
164 J.R. Kawas et al.
plant material and will select shrubs and detergent fibre (NDF) contents of the diet of
browse (Silanikove, 2000). goats during the wet season suggest that
Ruminants have been classified accord- the goats' diet may have been composed
ing to their morphological feeding type into largely of grasses (Kawas et al., 1999).
three groups: the concentrate selectors, the 2. Browsing is the habit of feeding on in-
intermediate type and the grass/roughage tact foliage, buds, flowers, stems and
eaters (Hofman, 1989). As intermediate woody trees. Browsing constitutes the
opportunistic domestic feeders, goats tend main diet of the range goat in the semi-arid
to select more nutrient-dense diets such as regions of north-east Brazil (Schacht et al.,
forbs and shrub foliage, whereas cattle and 1992), north-east Mexico (Ramirez et al.,
sheep may consume grass and roughage 1990) and the state of Texas in the USA
(Lu, 1988). (Askins and Turner, 1972). With this feed-
One theory suggests that the superior ing habit, goats can select and have a great-
digestion capacity of goats, in comparison er availability of the native vegetation than
with other ruminant species, is due to the other ruminants (Malechek and Provenza,
presence of large salivary glands, the large 1983). The CP content of diet samples of
absorptive area of their rumen epithelium goats grazing in a dense stand of caatinga
and the ability to rapidly increase foregut woodland in north-east Brazil was high at
volume when high-fibre feeds are consumed the end of the wet season (12%) in com-
(Silanikove, 2000). However, this advantage parison with the dry season (8.4%). Botan-
appears to be true only for certain breeds or ical analyses indicated that >75% of the
strains having particular anatomical dimen- diet during the dry season was composed
sions and is not a characteristic of the entire of dead herbaceous and fallen tree leaves
goat population (Huston, 1978). (Schacht et al., 1992).
The second theory suggests that the
ability for selective feeding of cattle, sheep Generally, the influence of humans on
and goats is inversely related to their ability the grazing behaviour of goats is limited to
to retain and digest fibre in the rumen. The decisions about the season and location of
lower ability to digest fibrous carbohydrates grazing, carrying capacity and herd compo-
has been attributed to their adaptation for sition (Malechek and Provenza, 1983).
selective discrimination of forages for However, the diet selected in a particular
quality. Thus, high-fibre diets may signifi- situation is ultimately dependent on sea-
cantly affect their energy intake, as organic sonal variations and geography. In addition,
matter digestibility and forage intake may palatability is determined by particular
be lower (Huston et al., 1986). characteristics of each plant, and these have
Although forage quality decreases dur- a wide influence on acceptability or rejec-
tion of forage available to goats.
ing the dry season, diet composition may
depend on availability and the botanical
profile of the rangeland grazed by goats. The
goat diet in the range is variable and con- 6.5 Feed Nutrients
sists of shrubs, herbs and grasses. Feeding
habits have been defined as follows (Askins Feedstuffs commonly consumed by meat
and Turner, 1972): goats are mostly of plant origin. Forages con-
tain varying quantities of water, and the DM
1. Grazing is the habit of feeding on veg- fraction is composed of organic and inor-
etation in its natural state at surface level, ganic components. Organic matter includes
including leaves of deciduous trees and nutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins,
the stems of some shrubs. Goats graze grass fats and vitamins, whereas minerals are
and herbs when they are more abundant inorganic components. Both organic and
and prefer browsing when woody vegeta- inorganic entities may provide nutrients for
tion predominates. In north-east Brazil, body maintenance, growth, reproduction,
low dietary crude protein (CP) and neutral pregnancy and lactation.
166 J.R. Kawas et al.
large amounts of saliva allows them to determined analytically using chemical and
achieve efficient retention of water follow- enzymatic methods, which should repre-
ing rehydration. In addition to a reduced sent nutritionally relevant fractions. On the
need for body water evaporation for other hand, the non-structural carbohy-
maintaining comfort in hot climates, goats drates are comprised of carbohydrates from
can conserve body water by decreased losses the cell contents including monosaccha-
in urine and faeces (Silanikove, 2000; rides, oligosaccharides (low-molecular-
Merck, 2008). weight carbohydrates), fructans and starch.
Physical activity
6.5.3 Fibre fraction
In comparison with confined goats, activ-
ity under grazing conditions is more In nutrition, the term fibre has been defined
demanding for water. Goats need to walk as 'polymeric compounds from plants and
more to obtain the feed they need, and for other feedstuffs that are not digested by the
this additional activity more water is action of mammalian digestive enzymes'
required. (Moore and Hartfield, 1994). This definition
of fibre in the diet has been accepted by
Environmental factors both ruminant and non-ruminant nutri-
tionists. The mammal digestive tract does
Water is also needed for body temperature not secrete enzymes that are able to hydro-
regulation. Ambient temperature and humid- lyse the 131-4 linkages that predominate in
ity are factors affecting water intake. During plant cell wall polysaccharides, and thus
the summer, especially on hot humid days, depend on microorganisms in the ruminant
water evaporation from the organism through gastrointestinal tract to ferment these
sweat may cause greater water consumption structural carbohydrates, producing vola-
than normal. During cold winter days, freez- tile fatty acids that are further absorbed.
ing of water may reduce its availability for Ruminants are among the most specialized
intake. herbivores using this symbiotic relation-
ship to utilize plant cell walls as a source
Feed quality and composition of nutrients (Moore and Hartfield, 1994;
Protein levels in the ration affect water con- van Soest, 1994).
sumption. During protein metabolism, urea Plant cells can be divided into two
is synthesized in the liver and excreted fractions based on their nutritional avail-
through the kidney. With more protein in ability (Fig. 6.3). One of these fractions is
the diet, which may include the use of feed- soluble in a neutral detergent solution
grade urea, water intake is greater as more (plant cell contents), while the other is an
urine is excreted to eliminate the greater insoluble fraction that represents the plant
quantity of urea being produced in the liver cell wall, also known as neutral detergent
(Quinisa and Boomker, 1998). An excess of fibre (NDF). In forages commonly fed to
salt in the ration will also cause an increase livestock, fibre refers to the plant cell wall.
in water consumption. Another chemical entity that represents
the less digestible fibre is acid detergent
fibre, which is obtained from the dry
residue that results from the further solubi-
6.5.2 Fibre and non-fibre carbohydrates lization of hemicellulose with an acid
detergent solution (Moore and Hartfield,
Carbohydrates comprise the greatest 1994).
proportion of the goat's diet. Forages pri- As the biological functions of the
marily contain fibre carbohydrates, whereas plant cell wall have resulted in a chemi-
grains contain mostly non-fibre polysaccha- cal structure of variable and often low
rides. The carbohydrate fractions may be digestibility, it appears obvious that the
168 J.R. Kawas et al.
Sugars
C
0
M Starches
C P
E 0
L N
L E Organic acids
N NFC
T
S Fructans
Hemicelluloses
w
A NDF
L
L
Cellulose ADF
Fig. 6.3. Chemical determination of carbohydrate fractions. NDF, Neutral detergent fibre; NDSF, neutral
detergent-soluble fibre; NFC, non-NDF carbohydrates; ADF, acid detergent fibre (adapted from Hall,
2003).
DIP
NH3 Urea AA
NPN NH3# NH4+
Bacteria
Urea in saliva
Urine Faeces
Fig. 6.4. Nitrogen utilization in the ruminant. AA, Amino acids; DIP, degradable intake protein; NPN,
non-protein nitrogen; UIP, undegradable intake protein (adapted from NRC, 1985).
urea is synthesized and may be further recy- rumen nitrogen, thereby increasing fibre
cled in saliva or excreted in urine. The car- digestibility (Ben Salem and Smith, 2008).
bon skeletons from the protein molecule DM intake and digestibility are reduced if
will provide energy for the goat. As lush for- dietary protein content is <7%, further
ages and silages contain a high concentra- causing an energy deficiency. Studies on
tion of non-protein nitrogen, the use of urea the effect of energy or protein supplementa-
should be limited in these diets or supple- tion have demonstrated a response in feed
ments for meat goats, whereas urea will be intake of beef cattle (NRC, 1987) and goats
more useful when goats are consuming (Negesse et al., 2001) consuming low-level
straw or other low-quality forage. CP diets based on low-quality roughages.
The degradable protein fraction is Supplements that provide non-protein
known as degradable intake protein, nitrogen and true protein may increase for-
whereas the intact protein fraction that age consumption as the minimum nitrogen
resists rumen degradation is known as requirements for rumen microorganisms
undegradable intake protein or bypass pro- are satisfied. Because an important propor-
tein. Microbial protein and feed proteins tion of the protein associated with the
that escape degradation in the rumen are undegradable fibre fraction may not be uti-
further broken down by the action of diges- lized by rumen microbes, setting a mini-
tive enzymes in the abomasum and small mum CP level for normal rumen function
intestine, absorbed in the small intestine may be especially critical with high-fibre/
and used to replace body losses and for the low-protein roughages.
synthesis of new body tissue. Unlike meat As the CP content of forage increases,
goats, a high percentage of bypass protein is the magnitude of the response in produc-
required by high-yield-producing dairy tion with additional protein supplementa-
goats. Meat goats generally do not require tion may be in response to changes in
much bypass protein, except when grazing forage intake rather than digestibility or to
or browsing lush forage that contains a high a greater metabolic efficiency in nutrient
proportion of degradable intake protein. utilization, which includes the effects of
Improvements in the nutritive value intake of degradable or undegradable pro-
of low-quality forage diets for goats tein (NRC, 1987). As forages from temperate
often depend on increasing the supply of areas have a high level of degradable
170 J.R. Kawas et al.
protein, undegradable intake protein sup- lactating dairy goats (Lu, 1993). With dairy
plementation can improve the performance goats, a high dietary fat level may depress
of ruminants under grazing conditions. fibre fermentation, the rumen concentration
After satisfying the degradable protein of acetic acid and milk fat synthesis. Feed-
needs of the rumen, additional feeding ing meat goats high levels of crushed whole
of undegradable protein may improve soybeans (0-33% of the whole diet) signifi-
performance without affecting intake cantly reduced fibre digestibility, which
(Kawas et al., 1997). With range goats appeared to be related to the fat content of
browsing shrub vegetation, protein supple- the diet. Nitrogen retention also increased
mentation may improve performance as as the level of whole soybeans in the diet
consumption of high levels of condensed increased in response to a greater nitrogen
tannins may reduce protein degradability intake (Kadzere and Jingura, 1993). With
due to binding of food proteins and inacti- low-level supplementation of range goats,
vation of digestive tract enzymes (Kumar overfeeding of fat is not common, and the
and Vaithyanathan, 1990). fat level may represent a greater proportion
of the supplement in contrast to its inclu-
sion in a complete feed offered in confine-
ment (Kawas et al., 2010).
6.5.6 Fats
States pharmacological unit (USP) per kg. ammonia in the rumen are utilized in
Synthetic forms of the vitamin are avail- energy metabolism.
able commercially. One milligram of (3- Energy is needed for biochemical reac-
carotene provides 400 IU of vitamin A. tions and for normal daily activities of the
Vitamin D is required for absorption goat. When goats move to select and con-
and metabolism of calcium and phospho- sume their diet, energy is being utilized.
rus for bone growth and development. Energy is also needed for chewing activities,
Vitamin D deficiency results in rickets, a digestion, absorption and metabolism of
disease characterized by lameness, weak feed nutrients. During both cold winters and
bones and bowed and crooked legs. Goats warm summers, energy is required for the
exposed to sunlight can meet their vitamin maintenance of body temperature.
D requirements by the action of ultraviolet Energy is first measured as gross energy
light, which penetrates the skin. Meat goats by the combustion of feed samples using an
continuously exposed to the sun would not adiabatic bomb calorimeter. Oxidation of
normally require vitamin D supplementa- feed organic components generates water
tion. The liver is the main site for storage of and carbon dioxide, with the release of heat.
vitamin D in the body. Vitamin D2 is syn- Ash, the mineral fraction of feeds, will not
thesized during haymaking of sun-cured burn and therefore does not provide energy.
forages. Digestible energy is a term that represents
Both vitamin E and selenium function the gross energy consumed minus the gross
as antioxidants, the requirement of either energy lost in the faeces.
one being partially met by the other; this is Metabolizable energy (ME) is the energy
the reason why vitamin E is important in fraction left after deducting energy losses in
areas in which selenium deficiency has faeces, urine and gases produced during
been detected. A marginal deficiency of rumen fermentation. Another term, net
vitamin E can depress the immune system energy, is the fraction of gross energy con-
and cause reproductive failure. In the goat sumed by the goat that is utilized for body
kid, a vitamin E deficiency may cause maintenance and meat production, after
white muscle disease. Supplementation of considering all body losses including heat
vitamin E will prevent this disease. Vita- generated by body cell metabolism and
min E is commonly supplemented in rela- rumen fermentation, which is known as
tively high quantities in dairy cow and heat increment.
dairy goat diets to stimulate the immune Carbohydrates, especially structural
system, reducing the severity and duration fibre components, supply most of the
of subclinical mastitis. High levels of energy consumed by range goats. Fibre
vitamin E may be found in green grass carbohydrates from browse or grazed for-
and green sun-cured hay. One milligram age are fermented in the rumen and the
of a-tocopherol is equivalent to 1 IU of end products of rumen fermentation are
vitamin E. volatile fatty acids, primarily acetic, pro-
pionic and butyric acids, which are used
as energy precursors (Lu et al., 2005). In
confinement, grain represents an impor-
6.5.9 Energy tant source of energy when included in
the ration.
Energy is obtained from the oxidation of Energy is the major limiting factor in
organic nutrients in the body and is required animal production under grazing conditions
for metabolic reactions. Carbohydrates are prevailing in arid and semi-arid regions.
the main source of energy, but energy may This restriction may increase several fold
also be obtained from protein and fat. The with scarce forage and water conditions.
latter is the most energy-dense nutrient. The Thus, herbage energy availability is a key
carbon skeletons of proteins that remain factor in adaptation to the environment and
after deamination of amino acids to liberate the behaviour and feeding strategies of goats
Nutrition of the Meat Goat 173
(Lachica and Aguilera, 2008). Accurate esti- 2010). Depression of feed intake and reduc-
mates of overall energy expenditure depend tion in production are commonly observed
on the additional energy expenditure and in heat-stressed goats when environmental
heat production due to grazing activity. temperature exceeds 25 -30 °C (Lu, 1989a).
Free-ranging goats may lose weight
during the dry season as forage availability
and quality limit the energy supply for 6.6.1 Forage availability and quality
body maintenance. During the wet season,
the energy consumed by goats will gener- Fibre digestion and utilization in goats has
ally be enough for maintenance, and addi- been thoroughly reviewed (Lu et al., 2005).
tional energy may be used to recover body Under range conditions, the potential for
condition. These changes in body condi- goat meat production is limited by many
tion represent changes in energy balance. environmental and nutritional factors. Sea-
In confinement, with high-level grain sonal fluctuations in forage availability and
diets, excess energy intake may be stored quality are one of the main causes of nutri-
as fat. tional stress that limit animal production in
The nutrient demand of the animal is semi-arid regions of the world. During the
one of the conditions that influences those dry season, inadequate foliage intake occur-
factors used to predict the activity energy ring as a result of reduced availability in the
cost of grazing, and therefore forage intake range, the low protein content and an increase
(Fierro and Bryant, 1990). Forage availability in fibre components and lignification can
can influence both grazing time and reduce the intake of nutrients that are
the nutritive value of ingested forage required by goats for maintenance and
(Seman et al., 1991; Krysl and Hess, 1993; production (Kawas and Huston, 1990; Ben
Herselman et al., 1999). As forage availabil- Salem and Nefzaoui, 2003; Alexandre and
ity decreases, bite size declines, which Mandonnet, 2005; Lachica and Aguilera,
results in at least partial compensatory 2005). Therefore, the physical and chemical
changes in grazing time and rate of biting characteristics of high-fibre feeds may not
(Davies and Southey, 2001). Decreased for- provide enough nutrients for cost-efficient
age quality also increases time spent chew- goat production (Silanikove, 2000; Alexan-
ing (Sahlu et al., 1989). Factors likely to be dre and Mandonnet, 2005).
responsible for increased energy expendi-
ture and the grazing activity energy cost Forage availability
with increasing stocking rate are decreased
forage mass, which elicits increased grazing Frequently, available feed resources fail to
time, and the number of steps or distance satisfy the maintenance requirements of
travelled (Animut et al., 2005). small ruminants. Forage availability may
be as limiting as forage quality to goat per-
formance. In north-eastern Brazil, during
6.6 Nutritional Constraints the dry season, the main component of the
goat diet is the bed of dry leaves from
In semi-arid regions of the world, drastic deciduous trees, which become scarce at
climate changes cause feeding constraints the end of the dry season. As a result of the
that may affect the performance of range reduced availability of feed, seasonal varia-
goats (Lu, 1989a; Silanikove, 2000; Ben tions in body weight of >50% can be
Salem and Nefzaoui, 2003; Alexandre and observed within a period of 5-6 months
Mandonnet, 2005; Ben Salem and Smith, (Figueiredo et al., 1980).
2008). These constraints may include low
forage availability (underfeeding), low for- Forage quality
age quality (low concentrations of nutrients)
and PSMs in browse, which affect nutrient The two most important factors affecting
utilization and parasitism (Kawas et al., forage quality and utilization are forage
174 J.R. Kawas et al.
species and maturity. The cell wall content ficus indica f. inermis) having a CP content
of leguminous fodders is less than that of of <5%. This level of CP may provide less
grasses, and most forages decrease in nitrogen for rumen bacteria than the 7% CP
quality with advancing maturity. The cell needed in the diet for normal rumen func-
wall of legumes has a faster rate of diges- tion (NRC, 1987). The ash content was
tion than that of grasses, which explains reported as 23.8%, of which 5.2% was cal-
why a higher intake is observed for legumes cium and only 0.1% was phosphorus (Ben
(Kawas et al., 1989). When legumes and Salem and Nefzaoui, 2003).
grasses of equal digestibility are fed to ani-
mals, the voluntary intake of legumes
exceeds that of grasses. This has led to the 6.6.2 Plant secondary metabolites
association of cell wall type with feed
intake (Thornton and Minson, 1973). With The nutrient availability and palatability of
forage maturity, the non-structural carbo- certain plant species appear to be affected
hydrates decrease and plant cell wall con- by anti-nutritional compounds, also known
tent increases and becomes more complex as plant secondary metabolites (PSMs),
due to an increase in the presence of poly- such as tannins, phenolic acids and
meric compounds such as lignin and silica. alkaloids (Melechek and Provenza, 1983;
Due to the greater stem:leaf ratio, mature Pfister, 1983; Lu, 1992), which are found at
forages contain more fibre and less soluble higher concentrations in the diet of range
carbohydrate and protein (Kawas, 1983; goats and deer than in that of other rumi-
Kawas et al., 1990).
nants (Silanikove, 2000; Nantoume et al.,
Forage quality is also affected by other 2001). Tannins are heterogeneous polyphe-
factors including cutting date and climate. nolic compounds varying in molecular
The nutritive value of grasses and legumes weight, with the ability to form complexes
generally decreases as temperature increases.
with proteins and other nutrients due to the
Compared with temperate forages, tropical binding properties of their hydroxyl and
forages have increased annual DM yield. carboxyl groups (Silanikove, 2000; Makkar,
However, increased yield is usually associ- 2003). Tannins are usually classified either
ated with decreased forage quality and sub- as hydrolysable tannins or condensed tan-
sequent feeding value (Arthington and
nins; the latter are also known as proantho-
Brown, 2005). Although irrigation is the pri- cyanidins, based on their molecular
mary means of altering climatic constraints structure (MM and Hart, 2003):
in agriculture, physical and economic con-
siderations often limit its use in semi-arid Hydrolysable tannins contain a carbo-
regions where tropical forages are grown hydrate (generally D- glucose) as a cen-
(Sotomayor-Rios and Pitman, 2001). tral core. The hydroxyl groups of these
Cacti are commonly used as an emer- carbohydrates are esterified with phe-
gency feed supplement in semi-arid regions nolic groups, such as ellagic acid or gal-
of countries of the American (Brazil, Chile lic acid. Hydrolysable tannins can be
and Mexico) and African (Morocco, South further metabolized to compounds
Africa and Tunisia) continents (Ben Salem such as pyrogallol by some rumen bac-
and Smith, 2008). Some species of cactus teria involved in these degradative
are high in fibre (up to 58% NDF on DM pathways, which are potentially toxic
basis) and ash (up to 25%) contents, which to ruminants (Min and Hart, 2003).
may reduce energy intake, and a significant However, it appears that goats can
amount of the protein, determined as acid adapt to the consumption of large
detergent insoluble nitrogen, may be associ- amounts of tannins without suffering
ated with the less degradable fraction of the any ill effects (Silanikove et al., 1996).
plant cell walls (Davila-Gutierrez, 1996). Condensed tannins are the most common
Ben Salem and Nefzaoui (2003) reported the type of tannin in forage legumes, trees
composition of spineless cactus (Opuntia and shrubs (Barry and McNabb, 1999).
Nutrition of the Meat Goat 175
normally treated with sulfa drugs. As worm which adult worms thrive and produce eggs
parasites may have acquired resistance over (Knox, 2002; Burke et al., 2004).
decades of use of chemicals, treatment with 3. Condensed tannins. Alternative para-
these chemical dewormers is becoming less site management strategies using forages
effective for parasite control of infected containing condensed tannins have been
goats, sheep and cattle. Therefore, alterna- suggested (Niezen et al., 1995; Barry et al.,
tive treatments have been evaluated to 2001; Min et al., 2002). Condensed tannins
reduce the dependence on these chemical have been reported to reduce gastrointesti-
compounds (Waller, 1994). nal parasite loads in goats by reducing
Nutrition plays a major role in how worm fertility, eliminating adult worms and
well animals are able to withstand the detri- retarding the establishment of incoming
mental effects of internal parasites. In fact, larvae (MM and Hart, 2003; Waller and
signs of parasitism are usually used as a Thamsborg, 2004; Knox et al., 2006; Waller,
symptom of poor nutrition (Wallace et al., 2006). These compounds can be found in
1998). Research has shown that improved leguminous plants and browse. It seems
nutrition increases the animal's ability to possible that the consumption of forage
resist and defend itself against infection. condensed tannins may reduce gastrointes-
Some alternative non-drug methods that tinal parasite numbers and improve animal
appear promising for farm production sys- performance through direct and indirect
tems, especially those focused on organic mechanisms. Direct effects of condensed
goat production (Lu et al., 2010), are nutri- tannins may be mediated through con-
tionally related: densed tannin-parasite interactions, there-
by affecting the physiological functioning of
1. Protein supplementation. Increased pro- the parasites. Condensed tannins extracted
tein intake appears to improve the resistance from various forages can markedly decrease
of the host to gastrointestinal parasites, ap- the viability of the larval stages of several
parently mediated by an enhanced host im- nematodes. Condensed tannins also may re-
munity, which may be especially important act directly by interfering with parasite egg
with selection for immunity to gastrointesti- hatching and the development of infective-
nal parasites (MM and Hart, 2003). Field stage larvae. Indirectly, condensed tannins
studies have shown that supplementation can improve protein nutrition by binding to
with urea molasses blocks can result in plant proteins in the rumen and preventing
increased live weight of lambs at weaning, microbial degradation, thereby increasing
increased reproduction rates in ewes and a amino acid flow to the duodenum. The con-
reduction in faecal egg output of parasites in densed tannins bind proteins and other
grazing sheep. However, pen studies with molecules at the near-neutral pH of the
young goats have shown that urea supple- rumen, dissociating in the acidic pH of the
ments alone gave no production benefits but, abomasum, allowing them to be digested
when accompanied by 100 g/day of cotton- (Min and Hart, 2003). However, condensed
seed meal, beneficial responses were ob- tannins from some plants appear to be effec-
served (Knox and Steel, 1996). tive only against parasites that affect the
2. Copper administration. Copper oxide small intestine and not against those found
wire particle boluses also reduce gastroin- in the abomasums, such as the barber pole
testinal parasite load (Burke et al., 2005, worm.
2007) and were shown to help control
Haemonchus contortus or barber pole worm
in sheep and goats, a highly prolific nema-
tode with a short life cycle. This parasite 6.7 Nutrient Requirements of the Goat
causes a reduction in production and death
losses when severe outbreaks occur during Meat, milk and fibre production are physio-
warm humid months because of its vora- logical processes that require large quantities
cious appetite for blood in the abomasum in of readily available nutrients. A schematic
Nutrition of the Meat Goat 177
Fermentable fibre
Sugars,
Feed Crude protein (cellulose and Fat Minerals
starch
hemice lulose)
DIP
UIP
Bacterial protein
Small Proponic
Amino acids Acetic acid Fatty acids
intestine acid
Fig. 6.5. Feed nutrients, intake, digestion and utilization in the meat goat. DIP, Degradable intake
protein; UIP, undegradable intake protein.
Table 6.1. Nutrient requirements of meat indigenous breeds and Boer goats of various production stages (adapted from NRC, 2007).a
Vitamim Ae Vitamin Ee
Stage MEb (Mcal/kg) CPC (%) MPG (%) DI PG (%) Cad (%) pd (%) (RE/kg) (IU/kg)
One kid 1.91-2.39 9.1-11.5 6.3-7.9 4.8-6.0 0.23-0.47 0.17-0.25 1213-1557 149-192
Two kids 1.91-2.87 9.4-13.6 6.6-9.4 4.8-7.2 0.26-0.65 0.18-0.32 1167-1280 144-158
Three or more kids 2.39-2.87 11.1 -13.4 7.6-9.3 6.0-7.1 0.33-0.62 0.20-0.31 1219-1437 150-177
Lactation
Early
One kid 1.91 5.9 4.1 4.8 0.29-0.56 0.21-0.33 1244-2040 130-214
Two kids 1.91-2.39 5.7 3.9 4.8-5.9 0.39-0.90 0.25-0.50 1216-1660 127-174
Three or more kids 1.91-2.39 5.5 3.8 4.8-5.9 0.43-0.89 0.28-0.49 1216-1450 127-152
Mid
One kid 1.91 6.2 4.3 4.8 0.31-0.62 0.22-0.36 1446-2304 151-241
Two kids 1.91 5.8 4.0 4.8 0.41-0.89 0.26-0.49 1189-1957 101-205
Three or more kids 1.91 5.6 3.9 4.8 0.50-0.89 0.31-0.49 1216-1764 127-185
Late
One kid 1.91 6.5 4.5 4.8 0.34-0.73 0.23-0.40 1726-2660 181-278
Two kids 1.91 6.3 4.3 4.8 0.48-1.10 0.30-0.59 1529-2408 160-252
Three or more kids 1.91 6.2 4.2 4.8 0.60-1.12 0.36-0.61 1605-2261 168-237
Mature bucks
Maintenance 1.91 6.6 4.5 4.8 0.17 0.15 1377-1812 232-306
Pre-breeding 1.91 6.6 4.5 4.8 0.17 0.14 1806-2386 222-294
aNutrient requirement for growing kids and adult does and bucks (greater requirements are for younger does with lower body weight).
'Energy requirements, expressed as metabolizable energy (ME).
'Protein requirements expressed as crude protein (CP), metabolizable protein (MP) and degradable intake protein (DIP). The CP requirement differs with the proportion of
undegradable intake protein because of the minimal DIP required.
dCalcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) are presented as minimum requirements that should be considered in diet formulation.
'Vitamins A, which is often deficient in the diet of goats, is expressed as retinol equivalents (RE = 1.0 g of all-trans retinol, 5.0 g of all-trans (3-carotene and 7.6 g of other carotenoids),
whereas vitamin E is expressed as international units (IU). Inclusion of vitamin E is expensive and is generally not recommended for range supplements.
180 J.R. Kawas et al.
distance travelled are different from those average daily gain for growing goats of
of confined animals (Lachica and Aguilera, 4-8 months of age (Lu and Potchoiba, 1990).
2003). These activities result in greater Average protein requirement based on 144
energy expenditure than in confinement, lactating dairy goats during the first
which can limit the energy available for 16-20 weeks of lactation was 84-100 g CP/kg
maintenance and production. of 4% fat-corrected milk (Lu, 1989b). As the
Huston (1978) suggested that goats can degradable intake protein requirements of
travel greater distances than sheep or cattle. goats have not been well studied, the NRC
For goats, previous recommendations (NRC, (2007), considering several recent studies
1981) suggested an addition of 25% of the with goats (Prieto et al., 2000; Soto-Navarro
suggested ME requirement for maintenance et al., 2003, 2004), estimated a recommended
with light activity, 50% with semi-arid level of 9% of total digestible nutrient intake.
rangeland and slightly hilly conditions, A deficient protein intake may cause sup-
and 75% with sparsely vegetated rangeland pressed oestrus, low conception rates, fetal
or mountainous transhumance pasture. resorption, premature parturition and weak
Because of the close relationship between offspring, whereas an excessive protein
grazing time and energy expenditure (Osuji, intake may cause a low conception rate
1974), predictions based primarily on time (Bearden and Fuquay, 1992; NRC, 2007).
spent grazing and walking, herbage digest-
ibility, distance travelled and terrain rug-
gedness or topography have been suggested 6.7.3 Minerals
(Sahlu et al., 2004).
Presently, the tabulated requirements Drinking water in some semi-arid regions
for goats (NRC, 2007) consider the neces- may contain high concentrations of total
sary muscular activities depending on the dissolved minerals, of which sodium, sul-
availability of feed and water, distance trav- fur, iron, manganese and arsenic are of main
elled and land characteristics to calculate concern. Calcium and magnesium are other
the ME requirements under grazing condi- minerals that should be considered in
tions. When goats satisfy their energy drinking water for diet formulation, espe-
requirements, DM intake starts to diminish; cially in confinement. The deleterious
thus, energy requirement has a relationship effects of high concentrations of minerals in
with the requirements for other nutrients. water include reduced growth and repro-
An inadequate energy intake will cause duction levels. Goats can tolerate a high
delayed puberty, suppressed oestrus and concentration of sodium in water but will
ovulation in females and suppressed libido tend to reduce DM intake and consequently
and spermatozoa production in males. will lose weight.
Excessive energy intake will be reflected in Mineral concentrations required in the
low conception and abortion rates, dysto- diet vary with growth performance,
cia,a retained placenta in females and reproductive status (maintenance, breeding,
reduced libido in males (Bearden and gestation or lactation) and breed (i.e. indige-
Fuquay, 1992; NRC, 2007).
nous breeds versus Boer goats). Some
important facts with respect to excessive or
deficient mineral intake (Bearden and
6.7.2 Protein Fuquay, 1992; NRC, 2007) are listed below:
Calcium and phosphorous deficiency
Meat goats should receive diets with enough will cause anoestrus and irregular oes-
protein to meet their requirements for opti- trus. Prolific does require more calcium
mum performance. Protein requirement is and phosphorus in their diet.
expressed as g/day or percentage of DM. Potassium deficiency will reduce feed
Average requirements for growth derived intake and daily weight gain. A mar-
from regression analysis were 0.26 g CP/g of ginal potassium deficiency is common
Nutrition of the Meat Goat 181
have been reviewed (Lu and Rubino, 1992). content of selected feedstuffs is described in
In traditional livestock production systems, Table 6.3.
feed is the single largest expense. An inter-
national feed nomenclature (Table 6.2) has
been established (NRC, 2000). Feeds can be 6.8.1 Feed additives
classified in two large groups, namely for-
ages or concentrates. Forage feeds include Few feed additives have been approved as
grasses, herbaceous legumes and tree supplements for goats, among them deco-
legumes consumed by grazing livestock. In quinate and monensin, both recommended
confinement, forages can be fed as freshly for the prevention of coccidiosis in young
cut fodder, or offered as hay or silage. Crop animals (Animal Health Institute, 2002).
residues from cereal crops and hulls from Although decoquinate is only used to con-
some oilseeds are also classified as forages. trol coccidiosis, monensin can be included
Whereas forages are high in fibre con- in feeds and supplements to improve the
tent, concentrate feeds are more energy growth rates of goats on high-roughage diets
dense and less fibrous. Energy in the con- (Huston et al., 1990; NRC, 2007; Flythe and
centrate feeds comes primarily from starch, Andries, 2009).
sugars, other non-structural carbohydrates, Monensin, an ionophore, modifies the
and oil. Concentrates include cereal grains movement of ions across the membranes
(maize, grain sorghum, oats and barley), of rumen microbes, altering fermentation
grain milling, brewing and distillation mill- patterns by reducing methane and acetate
ing by-products (wheat middlings, brewers' production and increasing propionate pro-
dried grains, maize gluten feed, distillers' duction (Bergen and Bates, 1984; Schelling,
dried grains, etc.), oilseed meals (soybean 1984). An increase in nitrogen digestibility
meal, cottonseed meal, etc.), molasses, veg- due to monensin was reported with goats
etable and animal fat, vitamin and mineral fed a low-protein diet (Beede et al., 1978).
sources, and feed additives. The mineral Monensin appears to inhibit ammonia
Class Description
Pasture, range plants and forages Forage feeds either not cut, or cut and fed fresh
fed fresh
Silages This class includes ensiled forages such as sorghum, maize,
grass and legumes. It does not include grain or its
by-products, fruits or tubercles
Dry forages and roughages All forages and roughages cut and cured, and fibrous
by-products with >18% CF or >35% NDF (legume and grass
hay, stover and straw)
High protein sources Products with >20% CP (dry basis) of animal or plant origin
such as meat meal, oilseed meals, urea, maize gluten and
other by-product meals
High energy sources Products with <20% CP and <18% FC or 35% NDF, on a dry
basis, such as cereal grains and their by-products, molasses,
tubercles and fats
Mineral supplements Bone meal and other feeds that contain a mineral as the main
component
Vitamin supplements Synthetic supplements of the water-soluble and fat-soluble
vitamins
Non-nutritive additives Antibiotics, dewormers (febendazole), flavours, ionophores
(sodium monensin, etc.), polyethylene glycol, etc.
CP, Crude protein; CF, crude fibre; FC, fibre carbohydrate; NDF, neutral detergent fibre.
Nutrition of the Meat Goat 183
Table 6.3. Mineral content of selected feedstuffs (adapted from NRC, 2007).
Nutrient Concentrations/characteristics
Calcium and Leguminous fodders have high calcium contents, whereas grasses are generally
phosphorus low. Browse and grasses in semi-arid regions with calcareous soils may have
very high calcium levels, and commonly low phosphorus levels. With maturity,
the phosphorus content of forages is reduced. Cereal grains, oilseed meals
and animal by-products have low levels of calcium and moderate to high levels
of phosphorus. Excess calcium in the diet may affect the metabolism of some
mineral elements such as phosphorus, magnesium and zinc. A high calcium
intake may be tolerated by ruminant animals, especially if goats consume
diets with enough phosphorus. Calcium carbonate is commonly used as a
source of calcium, whereas inorganic sources of phosphorus include calcium
phosphates, monosodium phosphate, ammonium phosphates and rock
phosphate
Sodium Animal by-product feeds generally contain more sodium than feeds of plant
origin. Sodium is commonly deficient in the diet of range goats. Salt is generally
supplemented to provide sodium
Potassium Good-quality forages have a high potassium content (1-4%). Cereal grains are
low in potassium, whereas oilseed meals are good sources of potassium.
Potassium chloride is the most common inorganic source of potassium
Magnesium Concentrations vary with forage species, magnesium concentration in soil, stage
of growth, season of the year and ambient temperature. Leguminous fodders
contain more magnesium than grasses. Cereal grains contain 0.11-0.17%
magnesium, whereas oilseed meals contain twice as much magnesium.
Inorganic sources of magnesium include magnesium oxide and magnesium
sulfate
Sulfur When urea is used as the main source of nitrogen, sulfur supplementation is
needed. Mature forages are sulfur deficient, although most confinement diets
are adequate. Sulfur levels in water of >500 ppm can be deleterious to meat
production, especially if feed ingredients are high in sulfur. The maximum
tolerable level in the diet of ruminants is 0.4%. Elemental sulfur and ammonium
sulfate are common sources of sulfur
Manganese The content in forage depends on forage species, soil pH and soil drainage.
Cereal grains contain 5-40 mg/kg, oilseed meals contain 30-50 mg/kg and
animal protein products have 5-15 mg/kg. Manganese sulfate and manganese
oxide are manganese sources included in supplements and feed
Zinc The content in forages depends on plant species and maturity and the zinc
concentration in soil. Legumes have higher zinc concentrations than grasses.
Cereal grains contain 20-30 mg/kg, whereas oilseed protein sources have
50-70 mg/kg. The most common sources of zinc are zinc sulfate and zinc oxide
Copper Legumes normally contain more copper than grasses. Cereal grains contain
4-8 mg/kg, whereas oilseed meals contain 15-30 mg/kg. Milk contains low
levels of copper. Copper sulfate is commonly used as a copper source
Iodine The iodine content in feed ingredients depends on soil concentration. Calcium
and sodium iodide and ethylenediamine dihydroiodide (EDDI) are used as
iodine sources
Cobalt Soils can be deficient in cobalt, and soil pH affects its concentration in forages.
Cobalt absorption is reduced with a soil pH close to 7.0. Legumes contain
more cobalt than grasses. Cobalt sulfate and cobalt carbonate are cobalt
sources
Selenium The selenium content of forages depends on forage species and selenium
concentrations in soils. Some plants such as Astragalus and Stanleya naturally
accumulate selenium (up to 3,000 mg/kg). Sodium selenite is used as a
selenium source
184 J.R. Kawas et al.
reported using a mineral/vitamin pre-mix in energy source is needed for its utilization by
their hand-crafted feed blocks. rumen microbes (van Soest, 1994). For goats
grazing native vegetation in north-eastern
Brazil during both wet and dry seasons, the
6.9.2 Ingredient characteristics growth response was not different when
supplemented with either urea or molasses
The particle size of forages and grain affects alone. During the wet season, when goats
chewing activities and consequently normal consumed a low-fibre/high-protein diet
rumen function. The reduction in forage (44.9% NDF and 12% CP), rates of weight
intake appears to be related to the amount, gain were not improved with a molasses/
form (whole grain versus processed) and urea supplement. As forage quality declined
during the dry season, diet NDF significant-
source (sugars and starch versus rapidly
digestible fibre) of the energy supplement ly increased to 52.1% and CP decreased to
(Galloway et al., 1993).
8.4%, and the liquid molasses/urea supple-
Maintaining an appropriate forage par- ment allowed weight gains to continue
ticle size and including whole or cracked throughout the dry season (Schacht et al.,
1992). As grain alone does not provide
grain helps maintain normal rumen func-
tion in goats fed high-concentrate diets or enough nitrogen for maximum microbial
supplements. Some advantages of on-farm fermentation, additional nitrogen supple-
supplementation of whole grain include mentation is needed to improve fibre diges-
simplicity and lower costs by not grinding tion and roughage DM intake (Abebe et al.,
2004).
the whole grain, fewer hand-labour
expenses and prevention of the negative 2. Substitution response. Consumption
effect of the readily available starch, espe- of high-energy/low-protein supplements
may decrease forage intake. The rate of sub-
cially at high intake levels (Kawas et al.,
2010).
stitution is defined as the unit of change in
forage intake per unit increment in supple-
ment intake (Paterson et al., 1994; Caton
and Dhuyvetter, 1997). As the digestibility
6.9.3 Effect of supplementation of forage increases, the rate of substitution
on forage intake of forage is also incremented. Energy sup-
plementation should not be excessive, as it
Three scenarios with respect to forage DM can take the form of substitution when
intake can be expected with specific nutri- grazing forage nutrients are removed from
ent supplementation of grazing goats (NRC, animal diets in exchange for supplement
2007). Complementary, substitution and (Caton and Dhuyvetter, 1997), so that most
additive responses on forage DM intake may of the energy consumed by range goats
be observed depending on the type and should be provided through fibre fermenta-
quantity of supplement offered: tion of consumed forage (Lu et al., 2005).
As the starch level increased in the diet of
1. Complementary response. Overcoming grazing cattle, the negative effects on forage
mineral, vitamin or rumen degradable nitro- intake were accentuated, possibly as rumen
gen deficiencies may increase forage DM fermentation is negatively affected or in
intake; protein and minerals are utilized by response to a protein and/or energy imbal-
bacteria needed for optimum rumen fer- ance in the diet (Paterson et al., 1994). A
mentation (Wu et al., 2005; Kawas et al., substitution effect, in which forage intake
2010). Protein supplementation may in- was reduced, was also observed in a study
clude true protein sources such as oilseed with range does supplemented with in-
meals or non-protein nitrogen sources such creasing levels of whole sorghum grain
as urea. The latter is commonly used as a (Kawas et al., 1999).
source of nitrogen in ruminant feeds. When 3. Additive response. Supplementation
urea is supplemented, a readily available may not affect forage intake. A decrease in
186 J.R. Kawas et al.
Fig. 6.6. Hand-crafted mineral-protein blocks for small ruminants (Kawas et al., 2010).
(growth, reproduction and milk produc- Blocks have the advantage of self-
tion) will be lower than expected (Bowman limiting supplement intake, which is
and Sowell, 1997; Ben Salem and Nefzaoui, especially important when non-nutritive
2003). Block intake is generally greater additives such as monensin or PEG are sup-
with small ruminants, on a body weight plemented. The advantages of incorporating
basis, in comparison with beef cattle. PEG in lick blocks have been discussed
Initially, block intake may be low, (Ben Salem and Nefzaoui, 2003; Makkar,
until animals become accustomed to it 2003). Under extensive range conditions,
(Birbe et al., 2006). supplementing goats with PEG can be
Factors that affect block intake include labour intensive and complicated to imple-
hardness, season of the year (wet or dry) ment (Villalba and Provenza, 2002; Ben
and the availability and quality of forages. Salem and Nefzaoui, 2003). Range blocks
Temperature and relative humidity affect that contain PEG may have the advantage of
block hardness. Other factors that have an self-regulation of PEG intake, which may
influence on hardness and/or intake are the aid in reducing the cost of PEG treatment
technique used for manufacturing, the tem- (Villalba and Provenza, 2002).
perature and relative humidity, the type
and level of reactant used for compaction,
the particle size of ingredients, ingredient 6.9.6 Preventing urea toxicity
characteristics (i.e. protein, fat or fibre con-
tent), the level of compaction, the time and
type of storage, flavour and odour. If the Urea can be toxic if consumption is exces-
block is too soft, intake may be greater than sive.Urea in feeds and supplements
desired. In contrast, if it is too hard, intake should be used with some precautions
is less than required. A soil penetrometer (Ben Salem and Nefzaoui, 2003; Ben Salem
may be used to measure block hardness and Smith, 2008; Kawas, 2008), including
(Birbe et al., 2006). the following:
A harder block will restrict its intake, Adding salt in mash supplements or
especially during the dry season, so blocks imparting enough hardness to blocks to
should be left to harden before being sup- restrict intake.
plemented (Ben Salem and Nefzaoui, 2003). Allowing for adaptation of rumen
Zhu et al. (1991) observed that, as the hard- microorganisms for utilization of urea
ness index of blocks increased, supplement by gradually increasing the amount of
intake decreased linearly, with a concomi- supplement offered.
tant increase in the CV from 29% for soft Preventing the supplement from getting
blocks to 58% for hard blocks. Kendall et al. wet as urea is very soluble and toxic.
(1983) also observed a greater individual Including an energy source such as
intake CV of molasses/urea block supple- molasses or grain so that nitrogen from
ments offered to sheep, with an individual the urea is better utilized by the rumen
CV of 29% for soft blocks and 50% for hard bacteria.
blocks. Introducing blocks gradually to adapt for
During the dry or winter seasons, for- rumen utilization of urea, and limiting
ages have lower quality and, consequently, the amount or the time blocks are offered.
block intake generally increases. In con-
trast, with good-quality forages, block
intake may be low or negligible. During
the wet season, supplements may not 6.10 Effect of Nutrition
improve fibre digestion as green forages on Reproduction
available during this season are relatively
high in nitrogen and low in fibre (Ben The nutritional status of the goat herd
Salem and Nefzaoui, 2003). is the most important factor influencing
Nutrition of the Meat Goat 189
reproduction (Webb et a/., 2004). Several has been reviewed recently (Lu, 2011).
reviews have discussed various aspects of Rapid fetal growth associated with the
nutrition on fertility in ruminants (Hurley physical fill of forage limits feed intake dur-
and Doane, 1989; Beam and Butler, 1999; ing late pregnancy and therefore presents a
Butler, 2000; Armstrong et al., 2003; Lucy, challenge for nutritional balance in goats
2003; Webb et al., 2004). Nutrition can eas- under high-forage organic production sys-
ily be controlled by the producer by either tems. Understanding regulation of feed
increasing or reducing nutrient consump- intake and fibre digestion and utilization
tion (Webb et al., 2004). can lead to nutritional balance, minimizing
Nutritional status has been correlated metabolic disorders associated with preg-
with embryo survival and is a major fac- nancy, parturition and lactation.
tor controlling efficiency in assisted The body condition of does strongly
reproduction technologies. Nutrition has affects the time at which puberty starts,
an effect on ovarian activity by acting at the conception rate at first oestrus in
various levels within the hypothalamus- young does, the length of the post-partum
pituitary-ovarian axis. This can occur interval and the health and vigour of
without significant variation in circulating newborn kids. Body condition or changes
gonadotropin concentrations but appears to in body condition before and during the
be influenced by changes in other circulat- breeding season affect reproductive per-
ing concentrations of metabolic hormones, formance in terms of services per concep-
including insulin, insulin-like growth fac- tion, lambing and kidding intervals, and
tor 1 (IGF-1), growth hormone and leptin. the percentages of open does. Does should
Nutrition can also affect the expression of be in good body condition at kidding and
mRNA encoding components of the ovarian should maintain a good body condition
IGF system to regulate the sensitivity/ during the breeding season. Increasing the
response of follicles towards gonadotropins. level of energy offered to does should con-
The detailed physiological mechanisms tinue throughout the breeding season and
through which nutrition exerts many of for approximately 30-40 days after remov-
these effects remain to be determined ing the bucks, for adequate implantation
(Webb et al., 2004). of the fetuses in the uterus (Luginbuhl
Undernutrition may cause abortion as a et al., 2009).
response to low blood glucose concentra- Flushing is a reproductive manage-
tion, which can be almost totally prevented ment tool in which a supplement is offered
by adequate nutrition, especially by to does prior to breeding to increase body
supplementing with energy (Wentzel, 1982; weight, ovulation rate and litter size. Body
Morand-Fehr, 1987). Increasing levels of condition is used to determine whether
whole sorghum grain (0, 0.6, 1.2 and 1.8%) flushing will be of benefit to breeding does.
were offered as an energy supplement to Does in extremely good body condition
pre-pubertal female Moxoto does graz- (body-condition score = 7) will tend not to
ing native vegetation in north-east Brazil respond to flushing, whereas does that are
(Kawas et al., 1992). First oestrus was in relatively poor condition (body-condi-
recorded significantly earlier (75-78 days) tion score = 4) as a result of poor feed
for the supplemented groups (0.6-1.8% of quality and supply, being highly parasit-
body weight) than for the unsupplemented ized and with late kidding of twins or trip-
control group (104 days). Fertility, prolifi- lets will respond favourably to flushing by
cacy, fecundity and gestation length were improving their body condition. Flushing
greater for does offered whole sorghum can be accomplished by moving breeding
grain compared with does that were not does to a lush, nutritious pasture or offer-
supplemented. ing a high-energy supplement 3-4 weeks
Nutritional management for reproduc- prior to the introduction of the bucks
ing goats under organic production systems (Luginbuhl et al., 2009).
190 J.R. Kawas et al.
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7 Growth, Development and Growth
Manipulation in Goats
fattening. Selection pressure on different coat colours that can be associated with
production characteristics has resulted in human population groups or tribes. Selection
the development of different types of goat for milk as opposed to carcass characteristics
for different purposes. gave the lean, wedge-shaped doe as opposed
The effects of nutrition on the growth to the square, stocky-shaped meat goat such
and development of goats are well docu- as the Boer goat. A discussion on the growth
mented. These effects are sometimes and development of goats needs to take this
described as 'production system' effects and range into account, although, despite the
include 'intensive' feeding and condition- variety of breeds, as they are of the same spe-
ing, or 'extensive' grazing. Certain goat cies, the inherent traits expressed in their
genotypes respond better to feeding or feed growth and development remain similar
supplementation, and this ability differs
mainly between the dairy and meat types of
goat. Conditioning of goats has a marked 7.3 Growth and Development in Goats
effect on body composition. Consumer pref-
erences for goat carcasses differ among A thorough understanding of growth and
countries and this makes it difficult to development in goats and the factors that
implement universally acceptable grading affect these processes is important, because
or classification systems, as well as stan- it affects the efficiency of production and it
dard carcass cuts. In addition, the variation
has a direct bearing on product quality. The
in subcutaneous fat thickness between goats
rate and efficiency of growth and the subse-
of different ages, sex and types is extremely
limited, which makes it difficult to use fat
quent effects on product quality can be
managed in livestock, and this is a deliber-
thickness for purposes of carcass classifica-
ate, active process that reaches from con-
tion or grading.
ception to consumption (Casey and Webb,
2010). Although the use of growth promo-
7.2 Introduction tants or molecules that change the efficiency
of growth is not generally employed in
goats, other more natural pathways exist to
Domesticated goats are of the class Mamma-
manipulate growth and development. These
ha, order Artiodactyla, family Bovidae, sub-
family Caprina, genus Capra and species
approaches do not detract from product
quality and provide the opportunity to pro-
hircus. This genetic lineage has equipped duce meat, milk, fibre, leather and related
goats with interesting morphological and products that meet the demands of consum-
physiological attributes that make them
ers for more environmentally friendly and
adaptable to virtually all climatic zones. The
natural production systems.
morphology of goats ranges from small
breeds characteristic of the tropical regions
to large breeds found in the Himalayan
regions. Their coat ranges from short-haired, 7.3.1 Principles of growth and
which is more suitable for hot and humid development
regions, to long-haired, suitable for colder
regions. The Angora goat, which originates Growth and development in goats occur in a
from the mountainous regions of Central similar way compared with other land-
Asia, has long, fine, silvery-white hair, which living mammals. Growth genes determine
makes it suitable for both hot and cold growth (size) and development (conforma-
regions but not humid regions. Human inter- tion), but the extent to which these genes
vention has had its influence on both the are expressed is determined principally by
morphology and the physiology of goats. single and interactive multiple factors of the
Morphological characteristics became external and internal environments.
embedded through selection for specific Growth can be illustrated graphically
traits and identities. This yielded the range of by means of a sigmoidal or S-shaped curve
198 E.C. Webb et al.
100
75
Live mass gain
Live mass
50
(kg) Muscle accretion
25
Fat
Bone
4 5 6 7 8 9
Age (years)
Fig. 7.1. Graphical representation of growth in Boer goats, illustrating the typical sigmoidal growth
response over time. Average birth mass is 3.5 kg, and kids are weaned at about 29 kg and slaughtered at
43 kg live mass.
Growth in Goats 199
Fig. 7.2. Histological section through the longissimus dorsi muscle of a Boer goat, illustrating
longitudinal striations and sarcomere lengths as viewed under a visual image analyser
(100x magnification). The lines indicate the distance between five sarcomeres (from Simela, 2005).
Fig. 7.3. Histological section through the longissimus dorsi muscle of a Boer goat illustrating myofibrillar
fragments as viewed under a visual image analyser at a magnification of 40x (from Simela, 2005).
Growth in Goats 201
involved. Of the six isoforms of IGFBPs differences are also noted between sexes
that are known, it appears that IGFBP2, -4, and in different anatomical locations with
-5 and -6 are expressed in skeletal muscle ageing. Subcutaneous and intermuscular fat
tissue. accumulation is limited in males, while
An important contribution to our more accumulation occurs in females and
current knowledge of the characteristics of castrates, but fat also accumulates with age-
muscle tissue in goats is associated with the ing as in other species. Accumulation of
sensitivity of goats to pre-slaughter stress, abdominal fat occurs at an earlier stage
which significantly affects the conversion of compared with subcutaneous fat in all gen-
muscle to meat (Webb et al., 2005). Goats are ders. Louveau and Gondret (2004) showed
prone to peri-mortem stress, as evidenced that the accumulation of fat is due to both
by the high ultimate pH (pad) values of proliferation and differentiation of adipose
carcasses (Simela et al., 2004). Muscle gly- precursor cells in the stromal-vascular frac-
cogen concentrations in goat carcasses tend tion of adipose tissue, and subsequent
to be low (about 33 pmol /g), which results hypertrophy of mature adipocytes. Tri-
in low muscle glucose concentrations and acylglycerols represent the main lipid frac-
inadequate conversion of glucose to lactic tion in adipose tissue of animals, and
acid under anaerobic conditions. The latter fluctuations in this fraction of the adipose
process is crucial for the normal decrease in depots are due to hydrolysis of lipoproteins
muscle pH observed post mortem in most and lipoprotein lipase, uptake of free fatty
bovine and ovine species. This condition is acids, de novo synthesis of fatty acids from
partially due to the relatively high propor- carbon precursors (lipogenesis) and hydrol-
tion of red muscle fibres in goat muscles ysis of triacylglycerols (lipolysis) (Webb
(Fig. 7.4). and Casey, 2005; Webb and O'Neill, 2008).
7.4.3 Growth and development of fat 7.4.4 Effects of ageing on growth and
development
The growth and development of fatty tissue
in goats occur at a lower rate and to a lower Growth is a chronological process and its
extent compared with sheep, although inevitable consequence is an increase in
Fig. 7.4. Histological section indicating muscle fibre types in the m. longissimus thoracis of the Boer
goat (10x magnification). Dark areas are red muscle fibres, grey areas are intermediate fibres and white
areas are white muscle fibres (from Simela, 2005).
202 E.C. Webb et al.
size and ageing. Ageing is associated with banned by the European Union in the 1980s,
an increasing inability to sustain the so virtually no research was done on the
functional integrity of cells, organs and possibilities and effects of these molecules
systems (Webb and Casey, 2005). This is in goats. Even the new-generation products
confirmed by the observations of Chen such as 13-agonists and recombinant GH
(2004) that ageing is associated with a derivatives have not been researched in
noticeable decrease in certain pituitary goats to any extent.
hormones, namely growth hormone (GH), The most significant means of manipu-
prolactin, thyrotropin, luteinizing hormone lating growth and development in goats
and follicle-stimulating hormone. In con- includes genetic selection, castration and
trast, low concentrations of IGF-1 appear to intensive fattening. The latter has been
increase the lifespan of certain organisms employed by farmers for decades to pro-
(Tatar et al., 2003). Neuropeptide Y (NPY) duce big and strong castrates that yield
also plays an important role in the regula- sought-after carcasses with acceptable meat-
tion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone quality attributes. The differences between
(GnRH) secretion in the hypothalamus. genders and the effects of age, pre-slaughter
According to Chen (2004), ageing is associ- conditioning and reducing the effects of
ated with an increase in NPY, which stress have also been listed as ways of
appears to be a compensatory mechanism to improving growth and carcass characteris-
counteract the age-related downregulation tics in goats.
of the GnRH receptor mRNA. One way in
which age-related changes in tissues can be
retarded somewhat is by the restriction of
metabolizable energy intake. Restricting 7.5.1 Effect of genetics and selection on
dietary energy intake increased the lifespan growth and development
of rats by downregulating the expression of
about 19 genes (Chen, 2004), but the effect Genetics certainly plays a major role in any
of short-term restriction appears to be more production programme for goat meat. One
significant compared with long-term restric- of the first objectives should be to select a
tion in most tissues. This may explain why breed that can adapt to the climatic and
indigenous rural goats appear to have a topographic environment, or that is suitable
greater longevity than intensively managed for a particular production system (Casey
dairy-type goats. and Webb, 2010). If the emphasis is on meat
production, then the breed must exhibit
characteristics that are typical of a meat-
producing animal. As most goats are kept
7.5 Factors that Influence Growth and on extensive rangelands, it is vital that the
Development breed is robust, highly fertile and resistant
or tolerant to endemic diseases.
Animal growth is the consequence of com- Selection pressure on different produc-
plex interactions between the genetic poten- tion characteristics has resulted in the
tial of the animal and several hormones, the development of different types of goat for
nutrient supply and the environment. This different purposes. The varieties of goat
complexity is beneficial in terms of manipu- genotypes that are available worldwide
lating growth and development because it attest to the impact and significance of
provides the possibility for many different genetic selection. Genetic selection has sig-
ways of manipulating growth (Webb and nificant effects on the growth and develop-
Casey, 2005). The emphasis of most live- ment of goats; for example, selection for
stock production systems is to improve feed growth and carcass characteristics in the
conversion efficiency and thus maximize Boer goat has resulted in a masculine,
profit (Casey and Webb, 2010). Unfortu- robust and fast-growing goat with excellent
nately, hormonal growth promoters were meat-quality characteristics. This breed has
Growth in Goats 203
excellent body length and depth and is gen- and fat content and dressing percentage. It
erally large-framed with exceptional confor- is interesting to note that the dressing per-
mation. In contrast, selection for mothering centage remains virtually unchanged from
ability and milk yield has resulted in the 0-tooth to 8-tooth stages, which is explained
development of milk goats with finer fea- by the fact that most fat accumulates in the
tures, smaller dimensions and relatively viscera (omentum). The viscera are removed
poor body conformation compared with during the slaughter process and do not
Boer goats (Fig. 7.5). The differences contribute to carcass mass. Carcass fat con-
between meat and dairy goats are significant tent varies between 6% for 0-tooth goats up
and indicate that selection has a major effect to about 16% for mature (8-tooth) goats.
on growth and development. Recording of Gender also influences growth and
pre- and post-weaning growth under range- development in goats. Bucks exhibit the
land conditions and performance testing fastest growth rates and yield the leanest
have shown its merit in terms of improving carcasses compared with does or castrates
dairy and meat-quality traits in goats (Casey (Table 7.2). No significant differences in
and Webb, 2010). dressing percentages are observed between
bucks, does and castrates, despite signifi-
cant differences in carcass mass, carcass
7.5.2 Effect of age and sex on growth and dimensions and fat content.
development of goats
The effects of age and sex on growth and 7.5.3 Nutritional manipulation of growth
development have been clearly documented in goats
in a number of species, including goats of
different breeds and types. The most signifi- The effects of nutrition on animal growth
cant effects of age on growth and develop- and development are well documented,
ment are generally associated with and similar studies confirm the signifi-
increasing live mass with obvious changes cance of feeding in goats of different
in body composition and conformation breeds, genders and ages (Casey, 1982;
(Webb et al., 2005). Table 7.1 shows the Simela, 2000; Webb et al., 2005). These
significant changes in body composition effects are sometimes described as 'pro-
and conformation in indigenous goats with duction system' effects, which include
increasing age, resulting in increases in car- `intensive' feeding and conditioning or
cass mass, body dimensions, carcass lean `extensive' grazing. Crude fibre appears to
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.5. (a) Boer goat. These are masculine, robust and fast-growing goats with excellent meat-quality
characteristics. (b) Saanen milk goat with finer features, smaller dimensions and relatively poor body
conformation but good mothering ability and high milk yield.
204 E.C. Webb et al.
Table 7.1. Effect of age on live animal and carcass characteristics of South African indigenous goats
(means ± SD) (from Simela, 2005).
Age class
Slaughter weight (kg) 27.8a ± 3.81 33.1b ± 5.66 36.6c ± 6.39 42.7d ± 3.92 <0.0001
Cold carcass weight (kg) 11.8a ± 11.43 13.7b ± 3.18 15.2bc ± 3.10b 16.9c ± 2.88 <0.0001
Dressing percentage 42.1 ± 5.99 41.0 ± 3.36 41.4 ± 2.90 39.0 ± 4.34 0.0868
Chest girth (cm) 71.1a ± 3.44 75.5b ± 4.74 79.c ± 6.89 84.1d ± 2.39 <0.0001
Carcass length (cm) 66.3a ± 3.73 68.6b ± 4.22 70.1b ± 3.07 75.1c ± 3.22 <0.0001
Buttock circumference (cm) 48.6a ± 3.36 51.2b ± 3.76 54.2c ± 5.36 56.0c ± 3.10 0.0001
M. longissimus thoracis 11.1 ± 3.94 11.1 ± 3.35 12.5 ± 2.30 12.9 ± 3.07 0.3345
area (cm2)
Omentum fat (g) 553a ± 382 554a ±423 711a ± 229 1 197b ± 716 <0.0001
Kidney knob and channel 402ab ± 302 357a ± 275 533 ± 161b 700c ± 445 <0.0001
fat (g)
Table 7.2. Effect of sex on live animal and carcass characteristics of South African indigenous goats
(means ± SD) (from Simela, 2005).
Sex
Slaughter weight (kg) 36.03b ± 6.47 31.41a ± 5.87 37.66b ± 7.17 <0.0001
Cold carcass weight (kg) 14.86b ± 3.55 12.86a ± 2.84 15.49b ± 3.88 0.0021
Dressing percentage 40.79 ± 3.66 40.99 ± 4.46 40.88 ± 5.50 0.9772
Chest girth (cm) 78.20b ± 5.99 74.75a ± 5.21 79.52b ± 6.82 0.0032
Carcass length (cm) 69.80a ± 3.77 67.48a ± 4.11 72.66b ± 4.51 <0.0001
Buttock circumference (cm) 52.83 ± 4.51 51.59 ± 4.32 53.00 ± 4.58 0.4793
M. longissimus thoracis area (cm2) 12.24 ± 3.05 11.07 ± 3.19 12.39 ± 4.57 0.2118
Omentum fat (g) 845 ± 376 739 ± 619 678 ± 438 0.2859
Kidney knob and channel fat (g) 547 ± 249 493 ± 368 455 ± 298 0.3458
be a critical aspect in the normal growth improves growth and development, while
and development of the digestive system the extent and duration of nutrient deficien-
(pre-gastric compartments like the rumen, cies, as well as the physiological status of
reticulum and omasum, as well as the goats, influence growth retardation and the
small intestine). Similar effects of dietary subsequent ability to regain or even com-
fibre were demonstrated on the intestinal pensate for previous losses.
development of monogastric species such Certain goat genotypes respond better
as guinea pigs (Patten et al., 2004). to feeding or feed supplementation, and this
Other factors that influence growth and ability differs mainly between the dairy-
development of goats are litter size, age of and meat-type goats. Similar differences are
the dam, uterine environment and external evident in dairy and beef cattle. Beef cattle
environment. It is well known that supple- are generally classified as 'accretion type',
mentation of macro- and micronutrients while dairy cattle are classified as 'secretion
Growth in Goats 205
type' (Bellman et al., 2004). A similar differ- Conditioning of goats has a marked
ence appears to exist in goats, which pro- effect on body composition. The increase in
vides an interesting basis for the comparison carcass fat content in pre-slaughter condi-
of nutrient partitioning and hormonal regu- tioned goats from 10 to -19% is clearly indi-
lation (Webb and Casey, 2005). The findings cated in Table 7.3, while moderate decreases
generally suggest that GH is positively cor- in the proportion of lean and bone are dem-
related with and IGF-1 negatively correlated onstrated. Conditioning of goats has the
with genetic merit for milk yield, while potential to significantly improve the eating
both these hormones are positively corre- quality of goat meat without the adverse
lated with growth rate. The implication is effects of unfavourable odours or flavour,
that dairy-type goats probably use fat as an which typically develop with ageing, par-
easily available energy store, while goats ticularly in male goats. In contrast to ageing
selected for growth and carcass characteris- and differences between genders, condition-
tics use protein as a long-lasting energy ing improves the dressing percentage of goat
store. carcasses (Fig. 7.6).
50
45
40
35
Non-conditioned Conditioned
Pre-slaughter conditioning
4.0
3.5
3.0
0 2.5
C)
2.0
1.5
1.0
Non-conditioned Conditioned
Pre-slaughter conditioning
Fig. 7.6. Effect of pre-slaughter conditioning on the dressing percentage of South African indigenous
goat carcasses. Differences (a and b) are indicated for bucks ( &), does (N) and castrates () (from
Simela, 2005).
206 E.C. Webb et al.
Table 7.3. Effect of pre-slaughter conditioning on proportions of tissues ( %) in joints of the right carcass
halves of South African indigenous goats (means ± SD) (from Simela, 2005).
Pre-slaughter conditioning
7.6 Classification or Grading of Goat normal variations due to age, sex, body
Carcasses weight and growth rate (Owen et al., 1978;
Kirton, 1988). Carcass fat occurs predomi-
Consumer preferences for goat carcass differ nantly in the visceral depots rather than the
among countries and this makes it difficult typical subcutaneous depots (Devendra and
to implement universally acceptable grad- Owen, 1983; Kirton, 1988), and this explains
ing or classification systems, as well as why goat carcasses are generally regarded as
standard carcass cuts. Countries also differ lean. As indicated earlier in this chapter,
in terms of their preferences for specific car- goat carcasses contain about 60% dissectible
cass cuts; for example, the cuts associated lean and 5-16% dissectible fat. Accumula-
with the loin region or dorsal trunk and the tion of fat in the subcutaneous fat depot is
hind limb are the most sought-after cuts in limited, even with ageing and conditioning
western countries (Casey et al., 2003). Cuts (Webb et al., 2005). In addition, the varia-
from the hind limb are generally regarded as tion in subcutaneous fat thickness between
high-value cuts due to the low fat and high goats of different ages, sex and types is
lean content (Casey, 1982; Simela, 2005). extremely limited, which makes it difficult
Although cuts from the dorsal trunk also to use fat thickness for purposes of carcass
have a low fat content, they are perceived to classification or grading.
be bony.
In most countries, goat carcasses are
graded or classified based on a system very 7.7 Conclusions
similar to that employed for sheep carcasses.
This creates problems in terms of fat code or Growth and development in goats influence
fat scores, as goat carcasses are generally the efficiency of production with subse-
very lean, even in conditioned goats. Guide- quent effects on product quality. The use of
lines for goat carcass evaluation have been growth promotants or molecules that change
developed (Colomer-Rocher et al., 1987), the efficiency of growth are not popular in
but there are still problems with conforma- goat production, but other more natural
tion scoring in goats. pathways exist to manipulate growth and
Many of the current problems relating development that do not detract from prod-
to goat carcass grading are based on the uct quality and meet consumer demands for
unique fat accumulation in goats (Webb more environmentally friendly and natural
et al., 2005). Fat accumulation in goats production systems. There is great signifi-
occurs approximately when they have cance in the way in which the growth and
reached their mature body mass (Owen developmental processes have evolved in
et al., 1978, 1983). However, body fat con- goats to ensure the propagation of this
tent tends to be rather variable, despite the unique species. The skeletal size of goats is
Growth in Goats 207
rather variable due to the effects of natural between the genetic potential of the animal
selection and adaptation of the various and several hormones, the nutrient supply
breeds or types of goat to different ecological and the environment. This complexity is
regions in the world. Goats are subdivided beneficial in terms of manipulating growth
into three categories based on frame size; and development because it provides the
namely, dwarf breeds, small breeds and possibility for many different ways of
large breeds. Fatty tissue accumulates in manipulating growth. The most significant
goats at a lower rate and to a lesser extent means of manipulating growth and develop-
compared with sheep Animal growth is ment in goats include genetic selection,
the consequence of complex interactions castration and intensive fattening.
References
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Weingartner, J. and Ender, K. (2004) Beef versus dairy cattle: a comparison of metabolically relevant
hormones, enzymes, and metabolites. Livestock Production Science 89,41-54.
Casey, N.H. (1982) Carcass and growth characteristics of four South African sheep breed and the Boer
goat. PhD thesis, University of Pretoria, South Africa.
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Casey, N.H., Webb, E.G. and van Niekerk, W.A. (2003) Goat meat. In: Caballero, B., Trugo, L. and Finglass,
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Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology 222,21-31.
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8 The Role of Objective and Subjective
Evaluation in the Production and Marketing
of Goats for Meat
B.A. McGregor
Institute for Technology, Research & Innovation, Deakin University, Victoria, Australia
are related to important determinants of 8.2.3 Preparing goats for meat marketing
meat production and enterprise profitabil-
ity. In many countries, low-cost subjective In undertaking the assessment of live weight,
evaluation methods are the only methods body-condition score and age of goats for
available. The application of subjective meat marketing, there are other attributes of
evaluation methods in developing countries goats and practices of farmers that are
is a valuable tool that can greatly help goat required for successful marketing. The last
farmers improve the health and survival, section of this chapter discusses ten impor-
reproduction and meat production of their tant issues that farmers should be aware of
goats. for the successful marketing of goat meat.
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Live weight (kg)
Fig. 8.1. The relationships of carcass fat (A) , omental fat (o) and perirenal fat () with the live weight of
castrated male Angora goats (from McGregor, 1992).
the variation of dependent variables than 8.3.2 Prediction of saleable meat on goats
linear-equation approaches. Allometric
growth equations indicate that, during Live weight and carcass weight
growth of goats from birth to maturity, fat
reserves and the carcass develop at a slightly Studies with goats indicate that, as goats
faster rate than the entire body, while bone grow, carcass weight increases by 0.43-
develops more slowly than the entire body 0.54 kg for every 1 kg increase in live weight.
(Wilson, 1958; Owen et al., 1977; McGregor, Table 8.2 provides examples for different
1982, 1992). For example, with Saanen and goat breeds grazed on pasture in a similar
Angora goats given similar grazing and way in the same temperate environment
slaughter management, the relative growth and slaughtered using the same standard-
of carcass and various fat deposits was >1 ized procedures (Aus-Meat, 2001).
while carcass protein was not >1 (Table 8.1). Using live weight to predict carcass
For Saanen goats, the perirenal and omental weight accounted for 88-97% of the varia-
fat depots grew 2.6 times faster than the tion in the studies illustrated in Table 8.2.
fasted body weight. The residual standard deviation in these
This chapter will focus on studies that studies ranged from about 0.5 to 1.6 kg. The
used the linear-regression approach for esti- precision of prediction can be improved
mating carcass weight as this approach is further when the subjectively assessed
more suitable for application with farmers body-condition score is used with live
(McGregor, 1985; Warmington and Kirton, weight in prediction equations. Body-
1990). With linear regressions, the farmer condition scoring is discussed in the fol-
estimates the carcass weight as follows: lowing section.
Carcass weight (kg)
Nutrition does affect carcass develop-
= m x live weight (kg) + c
ment and carcass yields. Table 8.2 illus-
trates that the regression coefficients were
where m is the regression coefficient or lower for goats subjected to periods of main-
slope and c is the regression constant tenance of live weight or of low live weight
(which is often negative). gain when the proportion of the live animal
212 B.A. McGregor
Table 8.1. The relative growth coefficient (RGC) of body components of grazing goats relative to fasted
body weight for Saanen castrate goats (McGregor, 1982) and Angora castrate goats (McGregor, 1992).
Saanen Angora
Table 8.2. Regression constants (± sEM) and correlation coefficients for linear relationships between
carcass weight (kg) and live weight (kg) for Australian goats of different breeds, ages and sexes.
Regression
Breed (age, years) Sex coefficient Constant RSD 100 x r2 Authority
that was carcass was less than for goats sub- scriptions of a standardized carcass have
ject to periods of good nutrition. been developed and mandated by industry
in goat-meat-exporting countries such as
Dressing percentage Australia (Colomer-Rocher et al., 1987; Aus-
Meat, 2001). Issues include the removal of
As goats gain live weight, the proportion of pelvic channel fat and the position of re-
the body that is the carcass increases. This moval of the head, feet and tail.
proportion, called the dressing percentage, 2. Unfortunately, dressing percentage can
is determined as: (carcass weight x 100)/ vary substantially depending on the man-
live weight. Dressing percentage is used as a agement of the animal and its sex, whether
rule of thumb for estimating carcass weight. it has been fasted, diet (which affects gut
For example, for goats at 10 kg live weight, fill) and the amount of fleece. As many goat
the carcass may represent 35% of live keepers and research workers obviously fail
weight, but, at 50 kg live weight, the carcass to recognize these influences, the most im-
may represent 48% of live weight. Higher portant influences are summarized in Ta-
dressing percentage values are sometimes ble 8.3.
obtained. Dressing percentage values can
suffer from two major deficiencies: To enable goat farmers, market agents
and researchers to accurately estimate the
1. Standardized methods of determining expected yields and therefore market value
dressing percentage are often not used and of carcasses from live goats, it is important
so published reports can be misleading. De- that, in each environment, with a given
Production and Marketing of Meat Goats 213
Table 8.3. Factors influencing the apparent dressing percentage of goats (adapted from McGregor,
1985).
Increased dressing percentage Milk fed kids: have little rumen development and gut fill
Concentrate feeding: reduces gut fill, increases fat deposits
Fasting: reduces gut fill before weighing
Age: older animals tend to be heavier
Live weight: heavier animals usually have more muscle and fat
Reduction in dressing percentage Weaning: increases gut fill and reduces fat reserves
Hay and straw feeding: increases gut fill and live weight
Lactation: usually reduces fat reserves
Mating: for bucks, results in reduced appetite and weight loss
Dry pastures: usually results in loss of live weight and fat reserves
Heavy fleece: results in overestimates of true live weight
Large horns and testicles: in bucks, these will reduce the relative
carcass weight
breed and management practice, dressing hot carcass weight, boneless meat yield
percentage be determined over a range of increased by 307 or 670 g, respectively
live weights. (Fig. 8.2).
22 22
-5.)- 20 -8-320
18
Tal 16 16
14 E14
12 X12
0 10 c10
0
03 8 03 8
6 6
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 10 15 20 25 5
Live weight (kg) Carcass weight (kg)
Fig. 8.2. Relationship between the live weight and the hot carcass weight of castrated male goats and
the amount of boneless meat (McGregor, 1990).
Table 8.4. Risk factors that must be managed to operate livestock scales accurately.
Scales not calibrated accurately Prior to, during and at the end of each operation, use check weights
to ensure accurate operation. Recalibrate if necessary
Scales on uneven ground Use scales only on level ground or a level floor
Scales do not move freely Keep scales from touching hard objects during operation, e.g. away
from fences, walls, sides of yards and handling equipment. Check
scales frequently during operation. If possible, fix scales to level
surface using bolts.
During use, keep area underneath scales clean by removing any
stones, sticks or other material from near the scales
Scales not tared properly Ensure scales are tared to zero before use
Check scale tare regularly during use, especially if scales are
bumped, knocked or pushed by rough animals
Animal not weighed properly Ensure all four feet are on the weighing platform
Ensure no other goat has its foot on the weighing platform
Table 8.5. Examples of regression constants (± sEM) and correlation coefficient for relationships
between heart girth measurement (cm) and live weight (kg) for different breeds and sexes of goats from
published sources.
earlier for scales and tapes); (ii) fasting goats; for example, animals are taken
times; and (iii) variations in the time of day straight from pasture and weighed without
that weighing takes place. any fasting, or animals are taken from pas-
Fasting refers to the amount of time ture and left in livestock yards for 4 h.
that animals are deprived of food and water. Whichever procedure is chosen, it should
The importance of fasting becomes appar- be used routinely.
ent when it is realized that, for a grazing It is also important that, if comparisons
goat with a live weight of 32 kg, the gut are being made over time, the time of day
contents (stomachs and intestines) may when weighing takes place is standardized.
comprise nearly 25% of the live weight This is important as animals usually have a
(McGregor, 1982, 1992). If goats are grazing, resting and drinking routine. Goats
removed from feed and water for 24 h, it is can drink several litres of water in one ses-
normal that they commonly lose 1-2 kg of sion, so their live weight can increase by
live weight or more in hot environments. It 2 kg or more. It is therefore important to
is important to standardize the method to choose a standard routine when weighing
be used for measuring the live weight of goats. Choose a time, preferably in the cool
216 B.A. McGregor
of the morning, and keep to this time of day and the use of body-condition scoring to
for any future weighing of the goats. assist in selling goats for meat.
1 Very lean. Prominent and sharp. Sharp ends. Fingers Very thin and feels hollow.
Poor meat yield. Should easily pass under
be fed more. ends.
Further weight loss may
result in death.
2 Lean. Prominent but smooth. Smooth and rounded. Some tissue present. Feels
Moderate meat yield for Fingers pass under flat.
adults. ends.
Too low for prime kids.
3 Medium. Smooth and round Smooth. Need Full coverage to end of spinal
Ideal for prime kids. over the top but still pressure to feel processes. Feels rounded.
May be too fat for adult elevated. ends.
goats where a slightly
lower score is often
preferred.
4 Only detected with Cannot be felt. Feels well rounded.
FIN
Fat.
Too much feed has been pressure.
used.
Fat has to be cut off meat
when processed.
ND
218 B.A. McGregor
Figure 8.3 shows a farmer condition providing an eight-step range, i.e. 1, 1.5, 2,
scoring a goat in a livestock crate used for 2.5, and so on. Research has been published
weighing. The goat is standing still on all its where two scores were assigned between
feet, not crouching or lying down. The each of the main categories providing a
farmer's hand is spanning the backbone 13-step range (McGregor, 1990, 1992, 2005,
while he feels the short spinal processes 2010a), for example ...1.7, 2.3, 2.7, 3, 3.3...
and the coverage of flesh using the balls of The difference between these systems is not
his fingers and thumb. important. However, Australian experience
indicates that the very high body-condition
Reliability of body-condition scores score of 5 for very fat sheep is not relevant
to goats. This view is supported by the
The reliability of body-condition scoring lower level of subcutaneous back fat depos-
improves with practice. It is recommended its of goats compared with sheep (McGregor,
that scoring should be practised whenever 2005).
goats are handled, yarded or fed. Body- Within a year, a goat may experience
condition scoring should be used at live- an increase and a decrease in its body-con-
stock shows and meat markets. dition score depending on nutrition and
The original systems for body-condition live-weight change (McGregor, 2010a).
scoring of sheep used six levels of body con- Within a mob of goats, it is usual to observe
dition (0-5; McClymont and Lambourne, a range in body-condition scores (McGregor,
1958; Jefferies, 1961), although level 0, indi- 2005).
cating severe emaciation at the point of
death following extended drought or dis-
ease, was not commonly used. Thus, most Body-condition score, live weight
descriptions of the body-condition scoring and carcass attributes
system since this time have referred to only
five levels of body condition, 1-5. Skilled BODY-CONDITION SCORE, NUTRITIONAL TREATMENT
assessors can assign body-condition scores AND LIVE-WEIGHT CHANGE Changes in live
that are intermediate between the main weight associated with differences in
scores. Many Australian farmers assign nutrition are reflected in changes in body-
one score between each main category condition score (McGregor, 1988, 2010a).
Table 8.7 illustrates the typical response gain at a rate of approximately 6.5 kg per 1
of body-condition score to long-term nutri- unit score.
tional treatments that result in substantial For grazing Angora goats, the change in
changes in live weight. The data come from live weight associated with a 1 unit change
housed goats fed the same forage diet at dif- score in body condition is approximately
ferent levels of energy provision (McGregor, 7.0 kg (McGregor, 1992) to 8.4 kg (McGregor,
1988). Those goats fed to lose weight (be- 2010a). The impacts of seasonal nutritional
low maintenance of live weight, 0.8 M) lost conditions and long-term stocking rate on
4.9 kg and their body-condition score de- the body-condition score of Angora goats
clined by 1 unit. The goats that gained live are illustrated in Fig. 8.4. In small East Afri-
weight increased their body-condition score can goats in Zimbabwe a change in condi-
in proportion to the amount of live weight tion score of 1 represented an average
Table 8.7. Live weight and body-condition score and their changes with time for individually housed
goats fed forage diets at different levels of energy provision over a 5-month period (from McGregor,
1988).
aEnergy nutrition treatments are relative to the maintenance of live weight (M).
3.5
A
3.0
3 6 co
_ta 2.5 a
-53
30
/ 0
0
2.0 27
25 0
0)
1.5 r8
20
1.0
15
10 0.5
M J J ASOND J FMAM J J AS
1982 1983
Fig. 8.4. Relationship between the body-condition score (A, ) and the fleece-free live weight (A, M) of
Angora goats grazed on annual temperate pastures from May 1982 to September 1983 at stocking rates
of 7.5 animals/ha (A, A) and 12.5 animals/ha (, M) (modified from McGregor, 2010a).
220 B.A. McGregor
change of 12% in live weight (Honhold the tissue depth of the carcass at the grid ref-
et al., 1989). The association between body- erence (GR) site. The GR site is on the second
condition score and live weight of goats can last long rib (12th rib) at a site 110 mm from
be quite high with regression correlation the midline (ridge of the spine) (Fig. 8.5).
coefficients as high as 0.93 (McGregor, The tissue depth at the GR site includes
2010a). muscle and fat. The GR site is regarded as a
good reference point as it provides a reli-
able indication of the meat and fat content
BODY-CONDITION SCORE AND CARCASS ATTRIBUTES
of the carcass and is easy to measure. Exam-
Body-condition score of goats, when used ples of the relationship between GR tissue
in linear regressions, has been shown to depth and other goat carcass attributes are
account for 44-67% of the variation in a available (McGregor, 1990, 1992, 1996). Fat
range of carcass attributes (Table 8.8). This scores and fat classes range from 1 to 5 and
indicates that, as a subjective method for as-
for goats are explained in Table 8.9. The fat
sessing carcass attributes, body-condition class descriptions for sheep carcasses have
scoring can be a useful and practical aid for different tissue depths at the GR site com-
farmers without livestock scales. pared with those used for goat carcasses.
Short rib
spinal
processes
Fig. 8.5. The position of the GR site on the 12th long rib and the short ribs.
Production and Marketing of Meat Goats 221
Table 8.8. Regression constants (± sEM) and correlation coefficients for linear relationships between
carcass attributes (kg) and total body fat (kg) and body-condition score for Angora goats (modified from
McGregor, 1992).
Table 8.9. Relationship between goat fat classes Table 8.10. What fat scores feel like on a live
and tissue depth at the GR site (from Aus-Meat, goat.
2001).
Fat score What is felt at the GR site
Tissue depth at
Fat class Description GR site 1 Fingers 'fall' between ribs
No tissue can be felt over ribs
1 Very lean Up to 3 mm 2 Fingers fit between ribs
2 Lean 4-6 mm Slight amount of tissue over ribs
3 Moderately lean 7-9 mm 3 Fingers sit on ribs
4 Moderately fat 10-12 mm Some tissue over ribs
5 Fat Over 12 mm 4 Ribs can be felt
Lots of tissue present
GR, Grid reference site at the 12th rib.
5 Ribs only felt with pressure
Tissue very prominent and may be fluid
No objective data relating the use of Mortality in flocks of Angora goats grazing
fat scores to either goat meat production pastures and subjected to adverse climatic
or animal management issues have been risks was most related to the body-
found. condition score reached during the
222 B.A. McGregor
preceding 2 months (McGregor and Butler, the eruption of permanent first incisors in
2008). For flocks of Angora goats, there was small farm ruminants is used to signify a
no mortality at a body-condition score change in meat quality by altering the clas-
and mortality increased sharply at a mean sification of lamb and kid carcasses. Thus,
body-condition score <2.0. For individual in many developed meat markets, it is
Angora goats, mortality increased as body- essential to know the age of goats at sale.
condition score declined, and stocking rate For goats that are provided with ear
and grazing combinations were additive in tags in their year of birth, it is easy to deter-
effect on mortality. Grazing with sheep mine their age. The systematic use of
increased the mortality of Angora goats at coloured ear tags, where the colour of the
higher stocking rates. Live weight loss was tags is different for each year of birth, allows
not related to mortality rates of goats once easy identification of the age of goats. Goats
body-condition score had been accounted of different birth years with different
for. It was concluded that body-condition coloured ear tags can be easily separated by
score and stocking rate were highly signifi- drafting in a race. However, if ear tags are
cant determinants of welfare risk in Angora not used, then the subjective assessment of
goats. Analysis of individual goat mortality the dentition of goats can be used to esti-
rate indicated that these results were appli- mate the age of animals.
cable in many situations. Consequently, Goats have two successive dentitions,
farmers and animal welfare assessors can deciduous dentition (n = 20) and perma-
confidently use body-condition scores to nent dentition (n = 32). Upper incisors are
determine welfare risk in goats (McGregor absent and are replaced by a very thick con-
and Butler, 2008). nective tissue pad (palate). Permanent first
Morand-Fehr et al. (1992) noted that incisors are easily distinguishable from the
the risk of pregnancy toxaemia to dairy deciduous first incisors due to their rela-
goats was related more to a decline in tively large size. The number of incisor and
body-condition score rather than to body- molar teeth that have erupted (broken
condition score per se. through the gum surface) in the lower jaw of
a goat is used to describe the age of a goat.
Reproductive performance Within a mob of goats of similar age, there
will be a range in age for when individuals
Body-condition scores of <2.5 have been show the eruption of permanent incisors
implicated with increased abortions and (Table 8.11).
reduced kidding rates in Mexican native
goats grazed under extensive conditions
(Mellado et al., 2004). Compared with all
other does, the thinnest goats (body-
condition score <1.5) were nine times more Table 8.11. Estimation of age by dentition.
likely to abort. Body-condition score was
not identified as a risk factor with regard to Dentition (number of teeth Age
pregnancy in these goats. erupted) (months)
There are few scientific reports of though there could be a range in ages within
eruption patterns of permanent incisors in such descriptions.
goats (Wilson and Durkin, 1984; Matika
et al., 1992; Kwantes, 1994; McGregor and
Butler, 2011), but text books (Gall, 1981;
Pugh, 2002; Radostits et al., 2007; Smith 8.6 Ultrasound Scanning of Live
and Sherman, 2009) provide tables of Goats
eruption ages for goats. Photographs and
X-rays of the lower jaw of different-aged Real-time ultrasound scanning (ultrasono-
goats are available to show the develop- graphy) is a non-invasive technique used in
ment of incisors and molars (Hoist and animal production to detect pregnancy sta-
Denny, 1980). tus and live animal body and carcass attri-
McGregor and Butler (2011) have butes. Ultrasound scanning can be used as a
shown that the time to reach similar devel- method of indirect measurement of the eye
opment stages for first permanent incisor muscle depth (Longissimus dorsi measured
eruption was about 3 months longer for the at the C site, 45 mm from the midline at the
lightest yearling goats compared with the 12/13th rib), subcutaneous back fat depth
heaviest yearling goats. Furthermore, where and sternum fat deposits in goats using the
the eruption of permanent first incisors is same techniques that are used with sheep
used to estimate the age of goats, allowance and pigs (Wood and Fisher, 1990; Stanford
needs to be made in estimates of the age of et al., 1995; Hopkins et al., 2007; Teixeira
lighter goats compared with heavier goats et al., 2008). There has been much more
within the same cohort, as each 1 kg intensive evaluation of the use of ultrasound
decrease in live weight was associated with scanning of the carcass attributes of sheep
an increase in about 6 days in the time to than of goats. However, the relevance and
reach each stage of permanent first incisor specific transfer of research findings with
development, such as the loss of first decid- sheep to goat carcasses needs to be cau-
uous incisors or the eruption of permanent tioned by the knowledge that fat distribution
first incisors. Thus, it should not be assumed within goats differs significantly from that of
that all lighter goats within a cohort are sheep (Gall, 1981; McGregor, 1985) and
younger just because their permanent first goats have been subject to far less genetic
incisors have not reached the same stage of selection for carcass traits than sheep.
development observed in heavier goats. Unfortunately, the costs of both equip-
Within this research flock, the differences ment and hire of consultants to conduct
in live weight of goats explained 3 months ultrasound scanning are likely to result in
in the variation in eruption of permanent these techniques being applicable only in
first incisors, which is about half of the larger commercial breeding flocks, during
reported variation in age at eruption shown genetic selection programmes for carcass
in Table 8.11. attributes and where carcass attributes are
A practical application in goat meat important in the classification of carcasses
marketing of the use of dentition is to at meat works.
describe goats as kids when they have no Eye muscle area has been shown to be
evidence of eruption of permanent incisors positively related to hot carcass yield in
(Aus-Meat, 2001), even though these goats Jamunapari goats (Amin et al., 2000).
may be up to 15 months of age. For very Teixeira et al. (2008) reported that the best
young kids, the eruption of the first man- correlation for muscle depth in Spanish
dibular molar could be used for ageing Celtiberica adult goats was found for ultra-
(Hoist and Denny, 1980). It is very common sound measurements taken between the
for goats to be described in livestock sales as third and fourth lumbar vertebrae. These
two-tooth, four-tooth or full mouth for estimates accounted for 70% of the varia-
example, meaning that they are, respec- tion in muscle depth. The lumbar vertebrae
tively, 1 year old, 2 years old or adult, even sites are the same as those used for
224 B.A. McGregor
body-condition scoring. The practical ques- body-condition score and sire (McGregor,
tion is, therefore, to what extent does expen- 2010b). For total muscle prediction,
sive ultrasound measurement provide better Teixeira et al. (2008) reported that using
estimates of carcass yield, carcass composi- ultrasound measurement at the lumbar site
tion and muscle attributes of goats than the only increased the precision of muscle pre-
easily applied technique of on-farm body- diction by 8% (to a total of 90% of variance
condition scoring? The on-farm measure- accounted for) compared with using body
ments of live weight and body-condition weight alone. Thus, the available evidence
score used together accounted for 58% of suggests that, with goats, the use of body
the total variation in eye muscle depth of weight and body-condition scoring are
Angora goats or 87% of that accounted for adequate and cost-effective methods for
by the best model, which required carcass goat meat producers to use to estimate
weight (McGregor, 2010b). It appears that meat yield and carcass attributes, and that
ultrasound measurement of muscle depth the additional expense of using ultrasound
does not account for all the variation in this measurements currently provides little
attribute and that goat meat producers can extra benefit.
achieve very similar results using other
methods.
In centralized breeding schemes in 8.7 Preparing Goats for Meat
Australia where ultrasound scanning has Marketing
been used on farm to measure eye muscle
depth in meat sheep (Hopkins et al., 2007; Commercial marketing of goats for meat
Lamb Plan, 2008), improvements have been involves identifying the market, correct
obtained in growth and carcass weight, and husbandry and nutritional management,
a significant medium-term return on invest- proper assessment of goats suitable for mar-
ment has been obtained (Hoist, 1999). keting and the correct preparation of goats
While a centralized breeding scheme for prior to dispatch to the market. This section
goats has been available in Australia for summarizes the correct preparation of meat
some years (Kid Plan, 2008), few breeders goats prior to dispatch to the identified mar-
have invested in applying ultrasound mea- ket (McGregor, 2007b).
surements to evaluate their bucks. How- Commercial market requirements can
ever, it has been shown that there are vary with seasons and between years so it is
significant differences between the progeny important that farmers intending to sell
of Angora bucks in eye muscle depth and goats for meat contact potential buyers,
subcutaneous back fat at 14 months of age agents or marketing networks in advance to
with a range of 1.3 and 2 8 mm, respec- ensure that they clearly understand the cur-
tively, between sire groups of progeny rent market requirements.
(Ferguson and McGregor, 2005). For Boer When goats are being prepared for
bucks, the range from the 1st percentile to market, the farmer must time his/her work
the 100th percentile of measurements indi- carefully to ensure that the buyer will
cates differences of 3 mm in eye muscle accept delivery of the goats on time and
depth and 2 2 mm in subcutaneous back fat according to specification. During the
depth (Kid Plan, 2008). months prior to delivery, husbandry opera-
However, the evidence that it is cost- tions must be carefully planned to enable
effective to use ultrasound measurements goats to arrive at the correct specifications
must be questioned given the findings of and appearance.
two recent reports. Using ultrasound mea- Ideally, goats delivered for slaughter
surements of subcutaneous lumbar fat will:
depth and eye muscle depth to predict
commercial carcass yield of Angora goats Meet the specification;
added only an extra 2.4% to the 89.1% of Be outside any chemical withholding
variance accounted for by live weight, period;
Production and Marketing of Meat Goats 225
8.7.4 Clean and dry animals A 3-week period will allow any cuts and
bruising to heal. A short fleece will enable
Goats contaminated with mud, weed seeds, goats to be transported more efficiently.
dags or scours should be cleaned up. Wet Angora goats should be sold no later than
and dry dags must be removed from the 10 weeks after shearing.
breech, tail and legs. A short fleece will also reduce any con-
Where practical, goats should be loaded tamination and make slaughter more effi-
cient. Goats destined for the `skin-on'
when they are dry. If it is raining and the
yards are muddy, keep the stock under carcass trade must have short fleeces, as it
cover and if possible arrange to load the is difficult to remove long fleece during
stock out of a shed. processing.
Goats should have access to water up
until the time of shedding or yarding. Feed
and water should be withheld for 12 h prior
to transport of adult goats. This will result 8.7.6 Absence of bruises
in cleaner and safer transport and make
unloading easier. Bruising and dog bites result in downgrad-
There is no advantage in having goats ing, severe trimming or condemning of goat
ready earlier than needed, as prolonged carcasses in the meat works. Bruising costs
deprivation of feed and water results in a farmers and marketing agents hundreds of
loss of body and carcass tissue weight. thousands of dollars each year. Any bruis-
Load goats only into a clean transport ing caused by physical blows or pulling of
vehicle. Do not put straw or hay on to the the fleece will show on the carcass, possibly
floor of the vehicle. Such material will blow leading to trimming and downgrading.
about and become lodged in the fleece of To minimize bruising, goats should be
the goats. handled quietly and carefully. Do not use
If goats ready for sale have to be held electric prodders. Ensure that there are no
for some time, place them in large holding projections in handling facilities such as
yards or paddocks with ample feed, shade yards and races. Keep handling to a mini-
and water. Avoid using overhead hay racks mum. Do not frighten the goats with dogs,
as goats can become covered with seeds and loud noises or noisy machines. If dogs are
litter. used, they should be muzzled. Do not pull
Animals suffering from scouring fleeces or the skin. Rough handling causes
should be removed from any consignment. bruising.
Scouring animals foul themselves and When transporting, keep the pens
other animals in the consignment and lead small and not overcrowded. Goats tend to
to higher rates of carcass contamination pack down and small pens avoid large pile-
that will reduce the shelf life of goat meat ups and suffocation of goats at the bottom.
products. Put goats into groups of similar sex and
Animals given a chemical treatment to size. The transport vehicle should drive
stop scouring or reduce internal parasitism and stop carefully. The vehicle should stop
cannot be sold until the withholding period occasionally and the driver should check to
has expired. ensure that the goats are comfortable. In
Australia, transport drivers should be
familiar with the Code of Practice for Wel-
fare of Farm Animals during Transport. In
8.7.5 Short fleeces Australia, livestock transport drivers are
expected to have a quality assurance sys-
Goats are best sold with short fleeces, ide- tem in place such as Truck Care (2009).
ally less than 3 cm long. Fleece-bearing Truck Care has been developed for livestock
Angora and cashmere goats should be shorn transporters by the Australian Livestock
preferably 3 weeks prior to slaughter. Transporters Association. The programme
Production and Marketing of Meat Goats 227
Clear identification of each goat being sold Livestock transporters do not want to wait
supports the farmer being paid for his/her while farmers search for or fill in any neces-
product. Discuss the identification of goats sary forms. Prepare all forms the night
with the agent before goats are dispatched before a consignment is to be loaded. Be
for market. Identification can be with ear organized and keep a supply of the correct
tags, ear notches, leg tags, raddle or a forms. If no one will be present when the
coloured mark on the head or horns of the transport arrives, arrange for a safe and dry
goats. Do not mark the body or fleece with place for the paper work to await collection
coloured marks as this will downgrade the by the driver.
value of the skin.
In some countries, microchip ear tags
are being used, which ensures national
recognition for identified livestock. One 8.7.11 Timetable for selling
benefit of microchip-identified livestock is
that they cannot be lost in the system. Table 8.12 gives the outline of routine activ-
If a farmer is disposing of several grades ities to be completed before the dispatch of
of goats at the same time, make sure differ- goats for slaughter. This table can be used as
ent grades are marked with different identi- a checklist by ticking each activity when
fiers such as different colours. It is also completed.
essential that the agent knows what all the
identifiers mean.
8.7 Conclusions
8.7.8 Agreed load size The marketing of goats that meet the speci-
fications of the meat buyers is essential for
It is very important for farmers to deliver goat meat farmers. Goat meat farmers are
the number and type of goats that were strongly advised to improve their skills in
agreed to be sold. Agents organize their pur- live-weight assessment and body-condition
chases to match deliveries along the meat scoring. For meat production from goats:
supply chain. Carcasses cannot be stored for Live weight is the best single indicator
extended lengths of time and will deterio- of the carcass weight and boneless meat
rate. Delivering too many or too few goats or yield.
not delivering on time causes disruption to Farmers aiming to market goats should
orderly marketing arrangements. weigh and inspect their goats regularly.
228 B.A. McGregor
Table 8.12. A suggested list of routine activities to be completed before the sale of goats for meat. The
table can be used as checklist by ticking each activity when completed.
Farmers should use body-condition Farmers should ensure that they pre-
scoring to monitor nutritional manage- pare their goats to meet market specifi-
ment and commercial suitability of cations and other marketing, transport
goats prior to slaughter. and regulatory requirements.
References
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the Jamunapari breed for carcass characteristics. Small Ruminant Research 38,211-215.
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9 Tissue Distribution in the Goat
Carcass
Sex is an important factor in muscle and fat the carcass remains unchanged, unlike the
distribution in the carcass (Mahgoub et al., other components, fat and bone. Being the
2004, 2005). This chapter aims to review most edible tissue, muscle distribution in
information on carcass tissue distribution the carcass is important as it affects the
and the factors affecting it in goats, with value of commercial cuts. There is a lack of
emphasis on economic implications. information on individual muscle distribu-
tion in goats. Some reports on the subject
include those of Mahgoub (1997), Mahgoub
9.3 Carcass Tissue Distribution and Lodge (1996) and Mahgoub et al. (2005)
in Omani goats. Goat meat is usually sold in
The major tissues in the animal carcass are bulk in most parts of the world. However,
muscle, fat and bone. Muscle and to some for the modern supermarket marketing sys-
extent fat are edible. Changes in the propor- tems, carcass cutting needs to be addressed.
tions of one tissue in the carcass influence
those of other components. Carcass tissue
distribution is affected by several factors 9.4.1 Muscle distribution in goat carcass
including stage of maturity, nutrition, body
size, breed and sex. The body composition
of goats changes markedly during growth, Several researchers have studied tissue dis-
with muscle and fat increasing and bone tribution in goat carcasses using dissection
decreasing with progress of maturity. Al lo- of individual carcass cuts as an indicator of
metric growth analysis has indicated that fat
tissue distribution (Cameron et al., 2001).
grows much faster than lean during post- Muscle content varied according to its loca-
natal life (Warmington and Kirton, 1990; tion in the carcass. For instance, the highest
Mahgoub et al., 2005). This results in signi-
muscle content (70%) was in the long leg,
ficant effects on meat production from the whereas the lowest (58.3%) was in the flank
goat. Lean:bone, edible tissue:bone and
of chevon goats (Dhanda et al., 2003). Stud-
fat:lean ratios increase as chronological age ies on muscle distribution in goats also used
and body weight increase. For instance, muscle grouping, similar to that used for
Zimerman et al. (2008) found that the sheep by Butterfield (1988). A summary of
muscle:bone ratio increased from 2.13 to 2.65
the findings of Mahgoub et al. (2005) on
and the muscle:total body fat ratio decreased muscle distribution in Omani Jebel Akhdar
from 6.20 to 3.84 in Argentinean Criollo
goats is given in Tables 9.2-9.4. Muscle
goats between 3 and 5-7 months of age.
group (MG) 1 (proximal hindlimb) com-
The proportions of tissues varied in the prised the highest proportions of the weight
carcass as a result of several factors, espe- of one side of the carcass (25.7-28.7%).
cially carcass weight (Warmington and Together with MG3 (surrounding the spinal
column) and MG5 (proximal forelimb), they
Kirton, 1990; Table 9.1). For instance, lean
varied between 51.5 and 71.5%; fat ranged comprised about 53-56% of the total mus-
between 4.2 and 33.7% and bone ranged cle weight of the carcass side (Table 9.2).
between 12.0 and 28.6% with increasing
These muscle groups are known as expen-
carcass weight. Body weight, the major sive muscle groups (EMGs) because they
determinant of carcass tissue distribution, represent the high-priced carcass cuts
(Butterfield, 1988). Between 35 and 39% of
is influenced by age, breed, sex and level of
nutrition. the total side muscle weight was found in
the forequarter of the carcass, which
includes muscle groups of the proximal
forelimb (MG5), muscles connecting the
9.4 Goat Carcass Muscle thorax to forelimb (MG7), muscles connect-
ing the neck to forelimb (MG8) and intrinsic
Muscle growth is isometric in relation to muscles of the neck and shoulder (MG9).
carcass size and therefore its proportion in Another major group of muscles is the
Table 9.1. Dissectible carcass tissues in goats of various sexes and breeds (from Warmington and Kirton,1990).
Carcass
Breed Sexa weight (kg) Lean (%) Fat (%) Bone (%) Lean:bone ratio Reference
West African Dwarf W 8 64.1 10.1 20.3 3.16 Amegee (1996); Vidyadaran et al. (1984)
F 8 71.5 4.2 20.9 3.42
Chernequiera M 9 60.0 9.3 28.5 2.11 Fonesca (1987)
Raiana Serpentima M 10 59.1 9.1 28.1 2.10 Fonesca (1987)
Australian feral M 5 63.3 5.8 28.6 2.21 Ash and Norton (1987)
F 5 64.0 10.0 22.7 2.82
M 11 64.1 13.2 19.3 3.32
F 11 59.5 22.6 15.8 3.70
Alpine M 8 67.3 5.1 24.4 2.76 Fehr et al. (1976)
10 67.8 6.3 22.8 2.97
11 67.2 6.9 22.9 2.93
13 68.6 7.1 21.9 3.13
Boer M 4 70.0 9.2 20.8 3.37 Casey and Naude (cited in Casey, 1987)
12 68.1 17.8 13.8 4.93
17 64.5 21.8 12.6 5.12
22 63.3 24.1 12.0 5.28
Saanen M 5 60.9 9.9 25.6 2.38 F Colomer-Rocher and A.H. Kirton (personal
communication, 1988)
20 60.1 14.0 21.5 2.80
50 59.7 17.6 19.2 3.11
F 10 61.8 10.6 24.7 2.50
20 55.1 22.0 17.4 3.17
30 514 33.7 14.1 3.65
Table 9.2. Least square means (± sEM) of weights of muscle groups (MGs) of the left side of the carcass (as % of total side muscle weight) in buck, wether and
doe Omani Jebel Akhdar goats slaughtered at 11, 18 or 28 kg body weight (from Mahgoub et al., 2005).
Proximal hindlimb (MG1) 26.60 26.39 26.76 25.68 27.62 28.14 28.14 27.67 28.72 0.59
Distal hindlimb (MG2) 5.98 5.58 5.16 6.01 5.63 5.69 5.96 5.40 5.03 0.12
Surrounding spinal column 14.69 15.30 14.39 13.64 14.30 14.68 14.49 14.47 15.48 0.32
(MG3)
Abdominal wall (MG4) 10.65 11.13 12.12 11.16 10.95 10.78 11.06 12.22 11.54 0.42
Proximal forelimb (MG5) 13.51 12.76 12.28 13.84 13.09 12.36 13.17 12.14 11.84 0.25
Distal forelimb (MG6) 4.18 3.50 3.26 3.96 3.82 3.45 3.66 3.44 3.08 0.09
Connecting thorax to forelimb 8.16 8.80 9.09 8.39 8.70 9.14 7.94 8.85 9.07 0.23
(MG7)
Connecting neck to forelimb 4.58 4.82 5.23 4.83 4.51 4.96 4.44 4.45 4.77 0.17
(MG8)
Intrinsic neck and thorax (MG9) 10.70 11.13 11.26 12.17 11.05 10.37 10.18 10.55 9.59 0.34
Expensive muscle groupb 54.80 54.45 53.43 53.16 55.02 55.26 55.70 54.38 56.04 0.75
Forequarterc 36.46 36.97 37.23 38.68 36.86 36.30 35.24 35.44 34.73 0.55
Muscle group 1
M. biceps femoris 4.58 7.76 5.15 4.18 4.96 5.37 4.70 5.19 5.55 0.18
M. gluteus medius 2.49 2.55 2.69 2.29 2.57 2.89 2.52 2.80 3.09 0.12
M. semitendinosus 1.49 1.74 1.59 1.54 1.70 1.74 1.66 1.68 1.70 0.07
M. semimembranosus 4.13 3.90 4.08 3.75 4.06 4.12 4.17 4.21 4.59 0.15
Muscle group 2
M. gastrocnemius et. Soleus 3.13 3.10 2.73 3.06 3.01 3.00 3.11 2.82 2.76 0.07
Mm. extensors 1.18 1.09 1.07 1.17 1.23 1.16 1.18 1.09 1.02 0.07
Mm. flexors 1.67 1.40 1.36 1.78 1.39 1.53 1.66 1.49 1.25 0.09
Muscle group 3
M. psoas major 1.54 1.50 1.52 1.31 1.49 1.68 1.57 1.62 1.63 0.07
M. longissimus thoracis et. lumborum 7.76 8.39 8.05 6.80 7.74 8.45 7.80 8.13 9.42 0.33
M. spinalis et spinalis 1.56 1.54 1.37 1.63 1.45 1.30 1.33 1.21 1.24 0.09
Muscle group 4
M. obliquus externus abdominis 1.85 2.19 2.42 2.21 1.99 2.02 1.95 2.22 2.37 0.11
M. rectus abdominis 2.52 2.55 2.70 2.86 2.72 2.83 2.65 2.24 2.86 0.12
Muscle group 5
M. infraspinatus 2.33 2.41 2.24 2.51 2.48 2.29 2.33 2.04 2.05 0.08
M. triceps brachii (caput longum) 2.69 2.47 2.49 2.75 2.52 2.49 2.70 2.48 2.47 0.08
M. supraspinatus 2.79 2.51 2.41 2.71 2.67 2.39 2.69 2.52 2.52 0.08
Muscle group 6
Mm. extensors 1.06 0.93 0.93 1.15 1.07 0.93 1.04 1.08 0.83 0.04
Mm. flexors 1.81 1.51 1.34 1.71 1.65 1.49 1.51 1.38 1.29 0.06
Continued
ND
01
Table 9.3. Continued.
Muscle group 7
M. serratus ventralis thoracis 2.84 3.05 3.05 3.12 2.93 3.03 2.95 3.06 3.04 0.07
M. pectoralis superficialis 2.31 2.58 2.71 2.32 2.55 2.80 2.24 2.68 2.80 0.09
Muscle group 8
M. rhomboidious 0.80 0.76 0.77 0.79 0.74 0.67 0.67 0.66 0.68 0.04
M. serratus ventralis cervicis 1.57 1.61 1.41 1.58 1.49 1.43 1.49 1.39 1.43 0.05
M. brachiocephalicus 1.07 1.25 1.59 1.30 1.09 1.57 1.13 1.21 1.42 0.10
Muscle group 9
M. intercostalis (externi et interni) 3.12 2.94 3.21 3.37 3.32 3.12 2.99 3.32 3.02 0.16
M. splenius 0.31 0.40 0.59 0.34 0.33 0.35 0.27 0.29 0.31 0.02
M. longissimus capitis et atlantis 0.54 0.66 0.70 0.63 0.58 0.53 0.44 0.44 0.41 0.04
M. complexus 1.37 1.33 1.35 1.55 1.29 1.03 1.17 1.13 1.18 0.06
Table 9.4. Growth coefficients (± sEM) of muscle groups relative to empty body weight in Omani Jebel
Akhdar bucks, wethers and does slaughtered over a body weight range of 11-28 kg (from Mahgoub
et al., 2005).
Proximal hindlimb (MG1) 1.05a,b ± 0.02 1.01b ± 0.02 1.09a* ± 0.03 1.02b ± 0.02
Distal hindlimb (MG2) 0.89b- ± 0.02 0.86b*** ± 0.03 0.96a ± 0.03 0.84b*** ± 0.02
Surrounding spinal column 1.06a*a ± 0.02 0.97b ± 0.02 1.09a* ± 0.03 1.08a** ± 0.02
(MG3)
Abdominal wall (MG4) 1.03a,b ± 0.03 1.11a* ± 0.04 0.95b ± 0.05 1.05a,b ± 0.05
Proximal forelimb (MG5) 0.90*** ± 0.01 0.92** ± 0.02 0.90** ± 0.02 0.89*** ± 0.03
Distal forelimb (MG6) 0.84a,b- ± 0.02 0.78b*** ± 0.04 0.88a*** ± 0.02 0.85a,b- ± 0.03
Connecting thorax to 1.09* ± 0.02 1.11* ± 0.04 1.06 ± 0.03 1.13- ± 0.03
forelimb (MG7)
Connecting neck to 1.05a,b ± 0.03 1.11a ± 0.05 1.02b ± 0.03 1.06a,b ± 0.05
forelimb (MG8)
Intrinsic neck and thorax 0.92b,c* ± 0.03 1.03a ± 0.03 0.85c*** ± 0.03 0.94b ± 0.05
(MG9)
Expensive muscle groups 1.01a,b ± 0.01 0.98b ± 0.01 1.04a ± 0.02 1.00a,b ± 0.01
Forequarterb 0.97b ± 0.01 1.02a ± 0.02 0.93c* ± 0.02 0.98a,b ± 0.02
muscles surrounding the spinal column 28 kg body weight indicates some differ-
(MG3), which comprise about 14-16% of ences in proportions of some muscle groups,
one side of the carcass and include the as well as some individual muscles, between
largest muscle of the body, the m. longissi- the two species. Proportions of MG3 were
mus thoracis et lumborum. This muscle lower whereas those of MG4 and MG5 were
contributes the highest proportion of any higher in goats than in sheep. Likewise, the
individual muscle in the side (7-9%) fol- proportions of individual muscles within
lowed by the m. biceps femoris (4-6%) and these groups followed this trend. Propor-
m. semimembranosus (4%), both in MG1. tion of individual muscles of the neck was
More than half (48/88) of the individual higher in Omani goats than sheep (m. sple-
muscles dissected from the carcass side nius, m. longissimus capitis et atlantis).
contribute <1.0% each of the muscles in one However, these differences were small in
side of the carcass. absolute terms. Therefore, differences in
Warmington and Kirton (1990) stated carcass conformation between sheep and
that, although goats contain a higher pro- goats are more likely to be caused by differ-
portion of total muscle, the distribution in ences in levels of fatness, especially in sub-
high-priced muscle groups is less favour- cutaneous fat, which is reported to be less
able than in sheep. However, the high pro- well developed in goats than in sheep
portion of high-priced cuts in the carcass (Naude and Hofmeyr, 1981).
(-53-56%) in the Jebel Akhdar goats indi- Muscle distribution is affected by the dif-
cates a good potential for meat production ferential rate of growth in individual muscles
from goats compared with sheep. This was and muscle groups on the carcass (Table 9.4).
higher than the 51% for this group of mus- Muscle groups situated in the hindquarters
cles in sheep (Butterfield, 1988). and those in distal limbs grew at a slower rate
Comparison of Jebel Akhdar goats with and decreased as a proportion of total muscle
Omani sheep (Mahgoub and Lodge, 1994) at weight, indicating that they are early maturing
238 0. Mahgoub et al.
(Butterfield, 1988; Mahgoub and Lodge, 1994; various cuts of different breeds of goats,
Mahgoub et al., 2005). although in some cases differences were
small. For instance, Cameron et al. (2001)
Effect of body weight on muscle distribution reported that the percentage of lean was
lowest in the shoulder of Boer x Angora
There are significant effects of slaughter goats, whereas that of bone was greatest in
weight on the proportions of muscle groups the leg of Spanish goats, while the rack con-
in the carcass. Muscles of MG2, MG5 and tained the lowest fat. Tshabalala et al.
MG6 generally decreased with increasing (2003) reported that the improved Boer goat
slaughter weight, whereas those of MG7 and had higher lean in the neck, forelimb and
MG8 increased (Table 9.2). Individual mus- ventral trunk and slightly higher amounts
cles of these groups followed a similar trend in the hind leg but lower lean in the dorsal
of growth pattern to that of the muscle trunk than unimproved indigenous goats.
group itself (Table 9.3). Mahgoub and Lu (1998) compared carcass
Work with Omani goats (Mahgoub and tissue distribution in Omani goats of differ-
Lodge, 1996; Mahgoub, 1997; Mahgoub ent sizes. The small-sized Dhofari goat had
et al., 2005) indicated that the degree of higher proportions of muscles in the proxi-
maturity influences muscle distribution in mal hindlimb, around the spinal column
the carcass, resulting in differences in pro- and in the abdominal wall but lower pro-
portions of individual and groups of mus- portions in the proximal forelimb, distal
cles. Similar results were reported in forelimb, connecting the forelimb to thorax,
temperate (Butterfield, 1988) and tropical in the intrinsic muscles of neck and thorax
(Mahgoub and Lodge, 1994) sheep. Sheep and in the total forequarter than the larger
studies (Hogg et al., 1992) indicated that the Batina goats. These findings indicate that
magnitude of the differences in lean tissue the smaller Dhofari goat may be more suit-
distribution was small in absolute terms. able for meat production than larger breeds
When goats are slaughtered at an early age such as the Batina. The difference in muscle
and lower body weight, the proportions of proportion between the Dhofari and Batina
high-priced cuts are lower in the carcass. breeds was 3-4% at 18 kg body weight. This
For instance, Santos et al. (2007) reported difference may be large enough to produce
that high-priced cuts contributed -44% in commercial implications in favour of the
suckling goats slaughtered at 8-11 kg body smaller breed, slaughtered between 11 and
weight. These figures are lower than the 18 kg body weight, especially if combined
53-56% reported for the same group of with the 2-3% lower proportion of carcass
muscles in Omani goats (Table 9.2). Increas- bone, the higher dressing percentage and
ing the slaughter weight from 11 to 18 kg the faster growth rate relative to body size
decreased the proportions of the muscles in (Mahgoub and Lu, 1998). The differences
the proximal and distal hindlimb, proximal between goats of different body sizes in car-
forelimb, distal forelimb and the EMGs in cass muscle distribution are in agreement
the proximal hindlimb, around the spinal with findings in sheep. Butterfield (1988)
column and in the proximal forelimb reported differences between large Merino
(Mahgoub and Lu, 1998). However, increas- and small Dorset sheep breeds in carcass
ing goat body weight increased the propor- muscle distribution.
tions of the muscles in the abdominal wall,
connecting the thorax to the forelimb, in the Effect of sex on muscle distribution
intrinsic muscles of the neck and in the
thorax and forequarter. Sex influences muscle distribution in goat
carcasses. Males have a higher lean content
Effect of breed type on muscle distribution in their carcasses, associated with more
developed shoulder and neck, than does
Several authors observed a difference in (Mahgoub and Lodge, 1996; Mahgoub, 1997;
distribution of individual carcass tissue in Mahgoub et al., 2005). Males are reported to
Carcass Tissue Distribution 239
have heavier necks and forequarters whereas pooled from animals of all sexes, growth
females have heavier hindquarters than rates of muscle groups relative to total side
males (Colomer-Rocher et al., 1992; El Moula muscle weight were higher for MG1, MG3,
et al., 1999). The male neck cut has more MG4, MG7 and MG8 than those for MG2,
muscle than that of the female (Gallo et al., MG5, MG6, MG9, EMGs and the forequarter
1996). This is similar to reports in sheep (Table 9.4). When data were analysed sepa-
(Butterfield, 1988). An important economic rately, bucks generally had lower values for
implication is that male goats would have growth rates of muscle groups that are situ-
heavier meat cuts at the front of the carcass, ated towards the hindquarters (MG1, MG3
whereas females have heavier cuts towards and EMGs) but higher values for those
the rear of the carcass (Kirton, 1970). Castra- towards the anterior of the body (MG8, MG9
tion, which had been practised in goats for a and forequarter). These results indicated
long time, may have a significant effect on that differences in muscle distribution in
muscle distribution. Hutchison (1964) found goats due to sex are not very large and are
that castration resulted in higher proportions unlikely to have a commercial impact on
of loin and hindquarters in the carcass of meat production from these goats if they
crossbred Boer goats in Tanzania. were slaughtered over a low body weight
Expressed as a percentage of total side range. This suggests that entire male goats,
muscle weight, male goats, especially intact which have always been subject to preju-
ones, had lower proportions of muscle in dice because of the male goat odour, may be
the proximal and distal hindlimbs (MG1 used for meat production equally with other
and MG2) but higher proportions of muscle sexes to utilize their higher potential for
in the groups of the proximal and distal growth, especially if slaughtered at low
forelimbs, intrinsic muscles of the neck and weights before attaining sexual maturity.
shoulder and forequarter than castrates and On the other hand, some reports have indi-
does (Table 9.3). Does also have higher cated that differences in the proportions of
proportions of muscles in the proximal muscle groups due to the effects of sex or
hindlimb and EMGs. The effects of sex on slaughter weight may reach up to 3%
individual muscles follows a similar trend (Mahgoub et al., 2005). The female goats
as for the muscle groups (Table 9.4). Sex had 1.5% higher proportions of EMGs but
differences in the neck and shoulder regions 2% lower proportions of forequarter in the
are caused by more development of some carcass muscle than males. These differ-
intrinsic muscles in bucks than in does. ences are important, especially at higher
These included m. rhomboidious, m. sple- carcass weights.
nius, m. longissimus capitis et atlantis
and m. complexus. These muscles were
reported to be affected by male sex hor-
mones (Butterfield, 1988). Jebel Akhdar 9.5 Goat Carcass Fat
bucks had better development of these mus-
cles at 28 kg body weight, a weight that 9.5.1 Growth and partitioning of fat
probably coincides with the onset of puberty
in male kids, than at 11 kg body weight It is well established that fat is the most
(Mahgoub et al., 2005). Mahgoub and Lu variable tissue in the carcass. The propor-
(1998) also reported that male goats gener- tions and locations of fat in the body are
ally had lower proportions of muscle in the important in meat animals. Differences in
proximal hindlimb and abdominal wall but the contents and properties of subcutaneous
higher proportions in the proximal forelimb, and intramuscular fat between and within
distal forelimb, intrinsic muscles of the neck breeds are important factors, resulting
and thorax and the forequarter than females in differences in meat quality in goats
of small- and large-sized goat breeds. (Tshabalala et al., 2003). Fat is a late-
Sex affects the rate of growth of indi- growing body tissue and therefore propor-
vidual muscles and muscle groups. For data tions in the carcass greatly change with
240 0. Mahgoub et al.
progress of growth. For instance, the pro- The greatest part of the body fat in goats
portion of fat in the West African dwarf goat is deposited in the abdomen (40%), fol-
increased from 3.5% at birth to 15.5% at lowed by subcutaneous fat (30%), intermus-
10 kg but decreased slightly in goats cular fat (23%) and mesenteric fat (6%)
approaching maturity (Wilson, 1960). (Wilson, 1960). Internal fat such as omental
Body fat depots were deposited at a and mesenteric fat develops faster in goats
higher rate in the carcass of the Omani Jebel (McGregor, 1982; Thonney et al., 1987).
Akhdar goats relative to the EBW (Mahgoub Kidney knob and channel and omental fat is
et al., 2005). Consequently, their propor- deposited at a higher rate in relation to total
tions in the body were higher at 28 kg than carcass fat than subcutaneous and inter-
at 11 and 18 kg body weight. This increasing muscular fat (Teixeira et al., 1995). Within
fat deposition rate with age is in line with the goat carcass, the sites in which subcuta-
findings in other Omani goats (Mahgoub neous fat is deposited last are the breast and
and Lodge, 1996; Mahgoub, 1997) and chump, whereas intermuscular fat is depos-
sheep (Mahgoub and Lodge, 1994). ited late in the breast and loin (Teixeira
Fat is deposited at a different rate in et al., 1995).
various parts of the goat body. In general, Tropical goats appeared to have lower
carcass fat such as subcutaneous fat devel- proportions of subcutaneous fat and subse-
ops at a slower rate in goats compared with quently higher proportions of intermuscu-
non-carcass fat. Carcasses of 30% fat may lar fat than those of sheep at the same body
contain only 2-3.5 mm fat cover over the m. weight (Mahgoub and Lodge, 1994, 1996;
longissimus dorsi (Warmington and Kirton, Mahgoub, 1997; Mahgoub et al., 2005).
1990). The ascending order of fat deposi- There are similar reports in temperate
tion in goats was: subcutaneous, intermus- goats (Naude and Hofmeyr, 1981). This
cular, mesenteric, kidney knob and channel low subcutaneous fat in goats indicates a
and omental fat (Teixeira et al., 1995). negative effect on the storage properties of
Within the carcass, intermuscular fat was goat carcasses (Hogg et al., 1992). Kirton
later developing than subcutaneous fat (1970) reported a 5.3 and 6.1% cold stor-
(Teixeira et al., 1995). Therefore, propor- age loss in male and female feral goats,
tions of intermuscular fat will increase with respectively, which was higher than the
increasing body weight. The proportions 4.5% for New Zealand lamb. He related
of intermuscular fat were higher at 25 kg this to the low fat cover and low fat carcass
than at 6 kg slaughter weight (Marichal content.
et al., 2003). Colomer-Rocher et al. (1992), In Omani Jebel Akhdar goats (Table 9.5),
Teixeira et al. (1995), Mahgoub and Lu the weight of total body fat as a proportion
(1998) and Santos et al. (2007) reported that of EBW in goats ranged between the lowest
the intermuscular fat depot in goats was value of 7.6% in bucks at 11 kg body weight
higher than the subcutaneous fat in goats of to the highest value of 23.5% in does at
similar weight and the same sex. Sumar- 28 kg body weight. Total non-carcass fat
mono et al. (2001) reported that intermus- generally had lower proportions in the EBW
cular fat was approximately fourfold higher and total body fat than total carcass fat.
than the level of subcutaneous fat. This is Among body fat depots, intermuscular fat
reflected in carcass distribution, as the loincontributed the highest proportions in EBW
region in feral goats, for instance, was and TBF followed by subcutaneous, omen-
devoid of subcutaneous fat (Kirton, 1970). tal, kidney, mesenteric, scrotal/udder, pel-
Subcutaneous fat proportions were differ- vic and channel fats, respectively. For data
ent in various carcass anatomical sites. pooled from all sexes, total non-carcass fat
Tshabalala et al. (2003) reported values of and total carcass fat were deposited at a rate
0.88, 3.19, 4.39, 3.84 and 1.76% subcutane- higher than EBW and total body fat. Gener-
ous fat in the neck, forelimb, ventral trunk, ally, proportions of carcass and non-carcass
dorsal trunk and hind leg of Boer goats, fats in EBW of all sexes increased with
respectively. increasing body wieght (Table 9.5). For
Table 9.5. Least square means (± sEM) of percentages of carcass and non-carcass fat depots in the empty body weight and total body fat in Omani Jebel
Akhdar buck, wether and doe goats slaughtered at 11, 28 and 28 kg BW (Mahgoub et al., 2005).
individual fat depots, the highest rate of Castration, which is widely practised
deposition was exhibited by omental, sub- in goats to reduce the goat male odour,
cutaneous and kidney depots followed by affects fat deposition and distribution in the
intermuscular fat, and the lowest by pelvic carcass. Castrated male Boer goats had twice
and mesenteric fat (Table 9.6). the amount of intermuscular and subcuta-
neous fat as entire male goats (Sumarmono
et al., 2001). Castrated males had higher
total fat, carcass fat, internal fat and kidney
9.5.2 Effect of sex fat and less lean than intact males (Ruvuna
et al., 1992).
Generally, female goats have higher fat con- Carcass and non-carcass fat in Jebel
tent in their bodies than males and the pro- Akhdar, Batina and Dhofari Omani goats
portions of fat increase as body weight was deposited at a faster rate in does and to
increases (Mahgoub and Lu, 1998). These a lesser extent in castrates with increasing
findings are consistent with findings in tem- EBW than in the intact males (Mahgoub and
perate goats (Morand-Fehr, 1981; Warming- Lodge, 1996; Mahgoub, 1997; Mahgoub
ton and Kirton, 1990; Colomer-Rocher et al., et al., 2005). Similar findings were reported
1992), sheep (Butterfield, 1988) and cattle in Omani sheep (Mahgoub and Lodge, 1994)
(Berg and Butterfield, 1976). and temperate sheep (Butterfield, 1988).
Table 9.6. Growth coefficients (± sEM) of fat depots relative to empty body weight in buck, wether
and doe Omani Jebel Akhdar goats slaughtered over a body weight range of 11-28 kg (adapted from
Mahgoub et al., 2005).
This suggests that intact male goats should Batina goats to avoid the need for trim-
be more suited for meat production in spite ming of excess carcass fat. The higher pro-
of the male goat odour, although this is not portion of total body fat in Dhofari goats
well founded (Kirton, 1970; Gaili et al., compared with Batina goats appears to be
1972). attributed more to the higher total and
Does have higher proportions of fat in individual non-carcass fats (omental, kid-
their EBW than bucks and wethers, espe- ney, etc.). This should add to the suitabil-
cially at higher body weight (Table 9.5). ity of the small-sized Dhofari goat for meat
Mahgoub and Lu (1998) reported that production, as the non-carcass fat is read-
females generally had higher proportions of ily separable at the time of slaughter.
carcass and non-carcass fats than males. The proportions of fat vary among
These effects were significant for omental, breeds along the goat carcass. Tshabalala
mesenteric, scrotal or udder, total non- et al. (2003) reported that Boer goats had
carcass, total body, kidney, intermuscular higher subcutaneous fat in the forelimb,
and total carcass fat in Omani goats. ventral trunk and hind leg than indigenous
goats.
Body weight affects the proportions of fat in 9.6.1 Bone growth and development
the goat body in absolute terms and relative
to body weight. For instance, proportions of Bone is an important body and carcass com-
omental, total non-carcass, total body, kid- ponent. During the animal's life, it gives
ney, intermuscular, total carcass, scrotal or stature and support for the animal, protects
udder and subcutaneous fat depots were internal organs, provides movement in
higher at 18 kg than at 11 kg body weight in coordination with skeletal muscles and
Omani goats (Mahgoub and Lu, 1998). serves as a reservoir for minerals and trace
Goats vary in size to a large extent. elements. However, not being edible, bone
There are significant differences in carcass is often overlooked, yet its proportion affects
and non-carcass fat distribution in goats of that of muscle and fat. Bone and muscle
various sizes. For instance, as a proportion growth are strongly related (Mahgoub,
of EBW, small goats (Dhofari) had higher 1988), and the muscle:bone ratio is regarded
proportions of omental, kidney, total non- as an important attribute for carcass evalua-
carcass, intermuscular and total body fat tion. Bone is an early-maturing carcass com-
than large (Batina) goats (Mahgoub and Lu, ponent so it grows at a slower rate during
1998). Dhofari goats had higher total body post-natal life, consequently decreasing
fat and total non-carcass fat than Batina with increasing body weight (Mahgoub,
goats. The differences were more pro- 1997; Marichal et al., 2003; Limea et al.,
nounced in females than in males and at 2009).
higher than at lower body weights. This Significant changes occur in the skele-
indicates an earlier maturity for the ton during pre-natal and post-natal life from
smaller goat breeds such as the Dhofari, birth to maturity. These changes are attrib-
which means that they enter the 'fattening uted to the differential rates of growth of
stage' at lower weights than the larger different parts and tissue of the body
goats. This phenomenon has economic (Hammond, 1932; Mahgoub, 1988). This
implications for meat production. Early has led to a general concept of skeletal
maturing breeds such as the Dhofari goats growth and development in meat animals
should be slaughtered at a lower body such as the axial craniocaudal gradient of
weight than larger breeds such as the increasing growth (Hammond, 1932).
244 0. Mahgoub et al.
9.6.2 Proportions of bone in goat carcass and 17.2% in mature small-strain Merino
rams (Butterfield, 1988).
The percentage of bone in the carcass Tshabalala et al. (2003) reported values
decreases whereas that of fat increases with of 19.23, 21.85, 14.1, 26.7 and 20.16%
increasing body weight. Bone proportions bone in the neck, forelimb, ventral trunk,
in the goat carcass range between 12 and dorsal trunk and hind leg of Boer goats,
28% depending on the factors influencing it respectively.
such as breed and sex (Table 9.1). Bone con-
tributed about 13% of EBW of Batina goats Effect of breed and size on bone distribution
(Mahgoub and Lodge, 1996). Oman et al.
(1999) reported a high bone proportion of Breed effects are more manifest when com-
37%, whereas Sen et al. (2004) reported a paring dairy- versus meat-goat breeds or
value as low as 17.6%. There are even lower improved versus non-improved breeds. For
proportions of bone in the carcass reported instance, goats with Boer blood have higher
for West African dwarf goats of 9.6% at a proportions of bone in their carcasses, and
body weight of 20 kg (Attah et al., 2006); Boer goats had lower carcass bone propor-
however, this value appears to be doubtful tions (20.6 versus 24.6%) than indigenous
as the total addition of carcass tissue did not South African goat breeds (Webb et al.,
add up to 100%. 2005). Oman et al. (1999) found a signifi-
Goats generally have higher levels of cant difference in proportion of bone in the
bone in the carcass than sheep (Gaili, 1976). carcass between Boer x Spanish crosses and
These differences in conformation are Spanish goats, with those raised on range
attributed to the ability of goats to browse; having higher proportions of bone in the
hence, their necks and shoulders are more side than those raised in feedlots (36.9 and
developed and adapted to browsing than 36.5 versus 26.5 and 27.6%, respectively).
those of sheep. Although Mahgoub and Cameron et al. (2001) also found that
Lodge (1998) found no difference in the carcass bone, fat and lean weight were
proportions of bone in the carcass, sheep significantly or numerically greater for
had a higher proportion of axial skeleton Boer crossbreeds than for Spanish goats.
but lower proportion of forelimb in carcass The percentage of bone was higher for
bone than goats. Boer x Spanish than for Spanish and
The distribution of bone in the carcass Boer x Angora wethers, ranging between 26
is an important trait, especially when car- and 29% of carcass weight. Pralomakran
casses are sold in the form of wholesale or et al. (1995) found that Thai native goats
retail cuts. It is affected by breed and sex. had lower bone content in their carcasses
Generally, the axial skeleton of the carcass than Anglo-Nubian cross male goats.
side comprises -50% of the total side bone Tshabalala et al. (2003) reported that Boer
weight of which 30% is in the vertebral goats had lower bone content in the neck,
column. The fore- and hindlimb constitute forelimb, ventral trunk and hind leg but
about 22% each of the total side bone higher bone content in the dorsal trunk
(Mahgoub and Lodge, 1996; Mahgoub, than indigenous goats.
1997) (Table 9.7). The largest single bone Lower proportions of carcass bone are
was the femur, which contributed about mainly due to higher proportions of carcass
10% of the half carcass weight. However, fat. In tropical, non-improved breeds, there
goats appear to have higher proportions of was a wide variation in bone proportions in
bone in the limbs and lower proportions in the carcass. Attah et al. (2006) reported a
the axial skeleton than sheep. At 28 kg wide variation between West African dwarf
body weight, bucks had 51, 23 and 22.3% goats and Red Sokoto goats in Nigeria. Red
side carcass in the axial skeleton, forelimb Sokoto goat carcasses contained higher
and hindlimbs, respectively, compared weights and proportions of bone than the
with 55, 21 and 24% in Omani rams West African dwarf goats. However, within
(Mahgoub and Lodge, 1994) and 65.4, 17.4 indigenous breeds, there were no effects
Table 9.7. Least square means (± sEM) of weights of some individual bones of the left half carcass (as % of total half carcass bone weight) in Omani Jebel
Akhdar goats slaughtered at 11, 18 and 28 kg body weight (from Mahgoub et al., 2005).
Cervical vertebrae 11.10 11.76 11.81 13.23 11.80 12.95 10.10 10.68 10.08 0.70
Thoracic vertebrae 12.20 11.09 10.27 11.36 11.55 10.10 11.37 10.78 9.60 0.56
Lumbar vertebrae 8.04 8.83 7.47 8.00 7.8 7.58 9.82 9.01 8.80 0.46
Sacral vertebrae 2.87 2.46 2.64 2.36 2.61 2.81 3.62 2.84 3.08 0.29
Total vertebral column 34.13 34.14 32.18 34.94 33.84 33.44 34.91 33.01 31.56 1.07
Ribs 5.98 5.89 6.63 6.31 6.83 6.92 5.59 7.09 6.65 0.37
1st rib 0.86 0.78 0.96 0.72 0.86 0.83 0.71 0.83 0.86 0.04
6th rib 0.83 0.84 0.98 0.82 0.96 1.09 0.80 1.06 1.07 0.04
12th rib 0.28 0.30 0.36 0.31 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.34 0.32 0.02
Total ribs 7.95 7.80 8.93 8.16 8.93 9.13 7.39 9.32 8.91 0.40
Pelvis 6.57 6.77 7.03 6.32 6.59 6.95 6.40 6.35 6.93 0.25
Sternum 2.30 2.97 2.81 2.84 2.54 2.94 2.40 2.39 3.22 0.33
Total axial skeleton 51.05 51.68 50.95 52.26 51.90 52.46 51.09 51.07 50.61 1.00
Scapula 4.74 5.51 5.26 4.47 4.66 4.86 4.68 5.03 5.36 0.22
Humerus 8.88 9.00 9.32 8.96 8.98 8.7 9.08 9.11 9.15 0.22
Radio-ulna 6.98 6.59 6.74 6.85 6.73 6.44 6.76 6.56 6.61 0.18
Carpus 1.68 1.50 1.61 1.53 1.57 1.50 1.56 1.50 1.53 0.10
Total forelimb 22.28 22.60 22.93 21.78 21.94 21.58 22.09 22.20 22.66 0.54
Femur 10.42 10.21 10.36 10.39 10.41 10.28 10.61 10.51 10.07 0.26
Tibia 8.34 8.16 8.29 8.03 8.49 8.46 8.53 8.47 8.48 0.21
Patella 0.60 0.59 0.69 0.61 0.64 0.65 0.65 0.67 0.70 0.04
Tarsus 3.46 3.21 3.00 3.28 3.13 2.91 3.37 3.31 3.59 0.25
Total hindlimb 22.83 22.17 22.34 22.31 22.67 22.30 23.16 22.96 22.84 0.51
ND
246 0. Mahgoub et al.
(Santos et al., 2007) on young goats (Serrana Most parts of the skeleton generally
and Bravia and crosses). grow at a growth coefficients rate of <1.0,
Mahgoub and Lu (1998) found no major with males (intact and castrated) demon-
differences between small-sized (Dhofari) strating higher growth coefficients than
and large-sized goats (Batina) in individual females (Table 9.8). The proportions of tho-
bone distribution except for the forelimb racic vertebrae decreased, whereas those of
where the Dhofari goat had a higher propor- ribs, pelvis and scapula increased with
tion of bone than the Batina goats. Butter- increasing body weight.
field (1988) stated that large sheep breeds
do not need to have higher proportions of Bone distributions in carcass cuts
bone in the limbs to be able to carry the
extra weight. Bone proportions in carcass cuts vary
The proportions of total ribs, pelvis greatly in published reports on goats. How-
and scapula increased whereas that of the ever, these reports should be evaluated
radio-ulna decreased between 11 and 18 kg carefully, as methods of carcass cutting vary
body weight in Omani goats (Mahgoub and to a great extent. Generally, bone contents
Lu, 1998). Smaller Dhofari goats had higher in individual carcass cuts are similar to that
proportions of the forelimb and radio-ulna of the whole carcass (20-30%). However,
but lower proportions of the humerus and some carcass cuts have higher proportions
femur than large Batina goats. of bone, especially the rack (25-40%). This
is due to the high proportions of the tho-
Effect of sex on bone distribution racic vertebrae and ribs, with the m. longis-
simus dorsi being the major muscle. El
Although bone proportions in the carcass Moula et al. (1999) reported the lowest pro-
are reported to be affected by body weight, portion of bone in the loin (10.6%). Goats
breed and nutrition, reports on the effects are more browsers than grazers, especially
of sex are scarse. Bone growth is affected by in the arid and semi-arid regions of the
sex hormones (Mahgoub, 1988). Therefore, world, which requires an erect and extended
sexual dimorphism is evident in goats, with neck posture with bipedal stance (Bhatta
males being much larger and more muscu- et al., 2001). This may have contributed to
lar than females. differences between goats and other animal
Castration affects bone growth and species such as sheep in bone proportions
dimensions due to the lack of male sex in this region.
hormones. Intact males have higher pro- There are some reports of sex effects on
portions of bone in the carcass compared bone proportions in various cuts. El Moula
with females. El Moula et al. (1999) et al. (1999) reported 10.6 versus 18.6%
reported that male Sudan Desert goats had bone in the loin and 16.1 versus 19.8% in
slightly higher proportions of bone (25.3%) the breast cuts of male and female Sudan
than females (23.2%), but the difference Desert goats, respectively. Generally, male
was not significant. There was also no goat carcasses had heavier bone in cuts such
effect of sex on the proportions of bone in as single short forequarter, best end of neck
Serrana or Bravia goats or their crosses and neck, while females had heavier bone
with bone proportions being 20.7 and in the leg and chump, loin and breast cuts
21.2% for females and males, respectively (El Moula et al., 1999). Males usually have
(Santos et al., 2007). However, some better developed forequarters and neck
reports have indicated that bone propor- due to the effects of male sex hormones
tions are significantly lower in females (Colomer-Rocher et al., 1992). Gallo et al.
than males due to higher fat proportions (1996) reported that males had higher pro-
(Pena et al., 2007). Male goats had lower portions of bone in the shoulder (21.6 ver-
proportions of pelvis bone but higher pro- sus 19.8%) and thorax (18.6 versus 15.3%)
portions of the humerus than females but lower neck bone (22.2 versus 27.4%)
(Mahgoub and Lu, 1998). than female Criollo Chilean goats.
Carcass Tissue Distribution 247
Table 9.8. Growth coefficients (± sEM) of carcass and non-carcass fat depots relative to EBW in buck,
wether and doe Omani Jebel Akhdar goats slaughtered over a body weight range of 11-28 kg (adapted
from Mahgoub et al., 2005).
Cervical vertebrae 0.63 ± 0.11 0.67 ± 0.27 0.77* ± 0.14 0.59 ± 0.10
Thoracic vertebrae 0.53* ± 0.08 0.54 ± 0.14 0.66** ± 0.10 0.45* ± 0.13
Lumbar vertebrae 0.64*** ± 0.07 0.69b ± 0.19 0.77a*** ± 0.06 0.46a,b- ± 0.11
Sacral vertebrae 0.65* ± 0.19 0.33b ± 0.79 1.05a*** ± 0.12 0.40a,b ± 0.14
Total vertebral column 0.60 ± 0.07 0.61 ± 0.18 0.76* ± 0.07 0.49 ± 0.07
Ribs 0.78** ± 0.08 0.78b ± 0.09 0.91a*** ± 0.06 0.72a, b " "" ± 0.18
1st rib 0.85 ± 0.07 0.72b ± 0.08 1.02a*** ± 0.07 0.80a,b ± 0.11
6th rib 1.00** ± 0.05 0.89 ± 0.10 1.13*** ± 0.09 0.97** ± 0.05
12th rib 0.82* ± 0.07 1.11b ±0.19 0.72a*** ± 0.10 0.77a*** ± 0.08
Total ribs 0.82** ± 0.07 0.80b ± 0.07 0.94a*** ± 0.05 0.77a,b- ± 0.14
Pelvis 0.80*** ± 0.07 0.80b ± 0.11 0.97a*** ± 0.07 0.69a,b- ± 0.09
Sternum 0.24 ± 0.53 1.42 ± 1.17 0.69* ± 0.69 0.62 ± 0.94
Total axial skeleton 0.67* ± 0.07 0.69 ± 0.17 0.82** ± 0.05 0.56* ± 0.08
Scapula 0.83* ± 0.07 0.83b ± 0.25 0.90a*** ± 0.09 0.76a,b ± 0.03
Humerus 0.69 ± 0.04 0.77 ± 0.08 0.79* ± 0.05 0.59 ± 0.02
Radio-ulna 0.63** ± 0.28 0.61b ± 0.09 0.75a*** ± 0.05 0.57a,b- ± 0.03
Carpus 0.65 ± 0.08 0.54b ± 0.14 0.81a*** ± 0.11 0.57a,b ± 0.11
Total forelimb 0.70** ± 0.05 0.72 ± 0.12 0.80*** ± 0.05 0.62** ± 0.02
Femur 0.72** ± 0.04 0.70b ± 0.07 0.89a*** ± 0.03 0.60a,b- ± 0.04
Tibia 0.72*** ± 0.04 0.70b ± 0.07 0.89a*** ± 0.03 0.60a,b- ± 0.04
Patella 0.80 ± 0.06 0.83 ± 0.09 0.88* ± 0.10 0.73 ± 0.11
Tarsus 0.63* ± 0.07 0.42 ± 0.22 0.70** ± 0.08 0.67* ± 0.08
Total hindlimb 0.70*** ± 0.04 0.67b ± 0.08 0.83a*** ± 0.04 0.61a,b- ± 0.03
SEM, Standard error of the mean.
Coefficients on the same line denoted by the same or no letter (a, b) do not differ (P> 0.05).
Growth coefficient values that differ significantly from 1.0 are indicated: ", P < 0.05; ", P < 0.01; "', P < 0.001.
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10 Influences of Diets on Fatty Acid
Composition of Edible Tissues
of Meat Goat
and pork, it is an excellent source for the with the Australian feral goats, the fatty
production of low-fat meat products (James acid content of longissimus thoracis muscle
and Berry, 1997; McMillin and Brock, from the Boer goats contained higher
2005). Data on the fatty acid composition of (P < 0.05) USFAs, MUFAs and PUFAs,
chevon lipids have been limited because of which are considered to be desirable fatty
its relatively low commercial importance acids. The effects of sex and body weight on
(Wood et al., 2003; Dubeuf et al., 2004). fatty acid composition of chevon were
Many factors influence red meat qual- investigated by other researchers (Johnson
ity, and these can be classified into genetic et al., 1995; Mahgoub et al., 2002). Mahgoub
or environmental (Priolo et al., 2001). The et al. (2002) fed Omani Jebel Akhdar bucks,
fatty acid composition of muscle and adi- wethers and doe kids with the same pel-
pose tissues can be influenced by breed of leted feed (16% crude protein) plus Rhode
the animal, age, sex, quality and quantity of grass hay from weaning to slaughter and
feed consumed, and body weight (Melton, found that sex had significant effects on the
1990; Banskalieva et al., 2000). Banskalieva fatty acid profiles of muscle tissues. Males
et al. (2000) reviewed the available litera- had higher (P < 0.05) levels of pentadeca-
ture on fatty acid composition of muscle noic (C15:0), linoleic (C18:2w -6) and linole-
and fat depots of goats, mainly on genetic nic (C18:3w -3) acids but lower (P < 0.05)
factors, including species, whereas the levels of C16:0, margaric (C17:0) and stearic
influence of diets on fatty acid profiles of (C18:0) acids than females. Johnson et al.
chevon was not completed. In the present (1995) also reported sex differences in fatty
review, research on the effects of diets such acid composition of chevon. Cooked leg
as pasture and concentrate on fatty acid slices from male carcasses had higher
composition of chevon is emphasized. (P < 0.05) levels of palmitoleic (C16:1a)-7)
acid and greater (P < 0.05) ratios of
PUFAs:SFAs than wethers and female goats.
The SFA (C14:0, C15:0 and C16:0) contents
10.3 Effect of Breed, Sex, Slaughter were higher (P < 0.05) in intact than in
Weight and Age castrated kids (Banskalieva et al., 2000).
Mahgoub et al. (2002) observed a sig-
Banskalieva et al. (2000) reported consider- nificant effect of slaughter weight on fat
able differences among goat breeds in the depots of goats. The concentration of deca-
contents of SFAs, monounsaturated fatty noic (C10:0), lauric (C12:0) and C14:0 acids
acids (MUFAs) and PUFAs, as well as of the kidney fat decreased (P < 0.05) with
individual fatty acids. However, the com- increasing slaughter weight. There was a
parison was focused on dairy goats such as trend of the C16 chain fatty acids decreasing
Alpine and Nubian goats in their review. and the C18 chain fatty acids increasing in
Werdi-Pratiwi et al. (2006) conducted an kidney fat with body weight. The SFAs in
experiment to determine the effects of kidney fat decreased (P < 0.05), whereas
breed, slaughter weight and castration on USFAs increased (P < 0.05) with increasing
fatty acid profiles in longissimus thoracis body weight. Similarly, Dhanda et al. (1999)
muscles from Boer and Australian feral also reported that the concentration of
goats. These two meat-goat breeds were USFAs increased (P < 0.05) with increasing
raised under identical feeding regimes. The age in goats.
authors observed that the fatty acid compo-
sition of the longissimus thoracis muscles
was significantly affected (P < 0.05) by
slaughter weight, but only certain fatty 10.4 Effect of Diet
acids were affected (P < 0.05) by breed and
castration. The proportions of fatty acids Compared with monogastric animals, the
changed with slaughter weight, which is fatty acid composition of tissues from
closely related to changes in age. Compared ruminants is generally less influenced by
252 J.H. Lee and G. Kannan
feeding sources because dietary lipids are 0.19%) compared with goats on a control
hydrolysed to glycerol and fatty acid in the diet (barley plus soybean meal). Further-
rumen (Jenkins, 1994). The dietary PUFAs more, cactus-fed goats showed a higher
are largely hydrogenated to SFAs and trans- (P <0.05) proportion of PUFAs (4.54 versus
fatty acids by the ruminal microbes. In 2.73) and a higher PUFA:SFA ratio than
ruminants, with a lipid intake containing goats in the control group. The results indi-
66% PUFAs from plant sources, only 4.4% cated that cactus, as green forage, produces
PUFAs were found in duodenal lipid high-quality goat meat in terms of nutrition-
contents (Ward et al., 1964). Furthermore, ally important fatty acids.
adding USFAs to lipid supplements for Sericea lespedeza (previously recog-
ruminants may cause digestive disturbances nised as Lespedeza cuneata) has been
because of their antimicrobial effects and recognized as a quality forage because of
inhibition of ruminal fermentation (Jenkins, its high concentration of crude protein
1993). Consequently, hydrogenation of (Puchala et al., 2005). However, the forage
dietary fatty acid and the low fat content quality of Sericea lespedeza is generally
(2-6%) of ruminant diets are the reasons considered to be limited by the relatively
why the fats in ruminant tissues are highly high concentration of condensed tannins.
saturated (Jenkins, 1994). Extensive studies Lee et al. (2008a) fed intact male goats
have been conducted on the supple- (Kiko x Spanish) with either 75% Sericea
mentation of the ruminant diet with a lespedeza or Bermuda grass (Cynodon
variety of fat sources, including saturated dactylon) hay and 25% concentrate
and unsaturated fats, oils and oilseeds, and (Table 10.1). Twenty-two fatty acids were
lipids protected and unprotected from isolated and identified in total lipids of
ruminal biohydrogenation (Grummer, 1991; intramuscular fat of longissimus muscle
Banskalieva et al., 2000; Wood et al., 2003). from goats fed the experimental diets
In addition, different dietary regimes can (Table 10.2), which consisted of 11 SFAs
also modify the muscle lipid composition of (C10:0; C12:0; C14:0; C15:0; C16:0, iso;
ruminants (Banskalieva et al., 2000; Wood C16:0; C17:0; C18:0; C20:0; C21:0 and
et al., 2003). C22:0), seven MUFAs (C14:1a)-5; C16:1
Feed cost makes up 50-70% of the total trans; C16:1a)-7; C17:1; C18:1 trans;
expenditure in livestock production C18:1a)-9 and C20:1a)-9) and four PUFAs
(Wilkinson and Stark, 1987). Meat goats are (C18:2w -6; C18:2 CLA; C18:3w -3 and
fed forages to meet most of their nutrient C20:4w -6) fatty acids. Three major fatty
requirements to increase economic returns acids, C16:0, C18:0 and oleic (C18:1a)-9)
to the producers; however, pasture-based acids, made up 83.6% of the total lipids in
production systems have a limitation the longissimus muscle of the goats
because of the effect of seasonal variation in (Table 10.2). No significant differences
nutrient contents. This often means that were found in the concentrations of total
pasture alone does not always provide ade- SFAs (46.9 or 48.7%), MUFAs (47.3 or
quate nutrition for fast-growing animals 46.8%) and PUFAs (6.0 or 5.0%) in the
(Wilkinson and Stark, 1987). Because of longissimus muscle lipids from goats fed
this, additional protein and energy (lipid) the Sericea lespedeza or Bermuda grass
are offered to maintain acceptable goat per- diet. However, the goats from the Bermuda
formance. grass group had higher (P < 0.05) levels of
According to Atti et al. (2006), in arid C17:0 and trans-7-hexadecenoic (C16:1
and semi-arid regions, spineless cactus trans) acids in longissimus muscle com-
(Opunita ficus indica f. intermis) is readily pared with those from the Sericea lespe-
available and considered as green forage. deza group. No significant differences were
Atti et al. (2006) reported that intra- observed in any of the longissimus muscle
muscular fat from meat goats on a cactus- PUFAs. Similar results were observed by
supplemented diet contained more C18: 2w -6 Priolo et al. (2005), who reported that the
(4.03 versus 2.34%) and CLAs (0.32 versus longissimus muscle fatty acid profile of
Fatty Acids of Meat Goat 253
Ingredient
Item SL BG CON
lambs fed sulla (condensed tannins) was microorganisms that are responsible for
not different from that of lambs fed the ruminal biohydrogenation (Molan et al.,
same diet, supplemented with polyethyl- 2001). The CLA isomers and all the trans-
ene glycol. Lambs fed sulla only had lower vaccenic acids originated in the rumen
(P < 0.05) concentrations of C16:1a)-7 but during biohydrogenation, while CLA is also
higher (P < 0.05) amounts of C18:3w -3 in synthesized in tissues by the action of A -9
the longissimus muscle lipids compared desaturase on trans-vaccenic acid (Bauman
with lambs fed polyethylene glycol supple- et al., 2000). However, this trend of increas-
ment (Priolo et al., 2005). However, com- ing trans-vaccenic acid and CLA isomers in
pared with lambs fed carob pulp (45% as the longissimus muscle from goats fed the
fed basis), lambs supplemented with poly- lower amount of condensed tannins was
ethylene glycol had higher (P < 0.05) not noticed by Lee et al. (2008a). A possible
concentrations of trans-vaccenic (C18:1 explanation for this is that the diet based on
trans-11) and isomer of cis-9 trans-11 of Sericea lespedeza (highly condensed tan-
linoleic acid (CLA) in the longissimus nins) could have negatively impacted the
muscle lipids (Vasty et al., 2007). These microorganisms responsible for ruminal
results support the suggestion that tan- biohydrogenation. It is also possible that a
nins have a strong negative effect on the reduction in ruminal biohydrogenation
254 J.H. Lee and G. Kannan
Table 10.2. Fatty acid composition (weight % of fatty acid methyl esters) of
longissimus muscle (intramuscular fat) from goats fed either Sericea lespedeza
(SL) or Bermuda grass (BG) hay supplemented with concentrate (adapted from
Lee et al., 2008a).
Diet
induced by the Sericea lespedeza might not diet was not enough to bypass the biohydro-
have been enough to increase the C18:3w -3 genation of rumen as reported by Andrews
in the longissimus muscle as in the other and Lewis (1970).
studies (Priolo et al., 2005; Vasta et al., Lee et al. (2008b) investigated the effect
2007). of lucerne hay and concentrate on the fatty
Cashew nut oil, which is rich in acid composition of edible tissues of meat
C18:1a)-9 (75% of total fatty acids), has been goats. Crossbred (Boer x Spanish) intact
used in the animal diet to improve the per- male goats were fed lucerne (Medicago
formance of goats in Brazil. Santos-Filho sativa) hay alone (H); an 18% crude protein
et al. (2005) investigated the effects of concentrate diet (C), consisting predomi-
cashew on the fatty acid composition of nantly of lucerne meal and yellow maize; or
longissimus dorsi muscle from crossbred a combined diet, consisting of the hay diet
goats. No significant difference was found for the first 45 days, followed by the
in the concentration of C18:1a)-9 in longis- concentrate diet (HC) (Table 10.3). The
simus dorsi muscles from goats fed cashew major fatty acids in the longissimus dorsi
nut (13%) plus maize (55.7%) or maize only muscle lipids from H-, C- and HC-fed goats
(63.3%). One reason for this result was that were C16:0, C18:0 and C18:1a)-9, which
the amount of C18:1 from the supplemented accounted for 73.1, 75.3 and 71.4% of total
Fatty Acids of Meat Goat 255
Diet
Ingredient (%)
Lucerne hay 100 -
Lucerne meal - 50.2
Yellow maize - 35.0
Soybean meal (44%) - 8.8
TM salt (red salt) - 0.50
Vitamin premix - 0.50
Poultry fat - 5.00
Chemical composition ( %)
Dry matter 91.7 93.6
Crude protein 17.3 18.0
Ether extract 2.4 7.1
Ash 5.9 6.5
Acid detergent fibre 34.0 4.0
Neutral detergent fibre 45.0 29.0
Fatty acid methyl ester ( %)
C12:0 0.27 0.07
C13:0 0.23 -
C13:1w-9 2.70 0.27
C14:0 0.79 0.49
C14:1w-5 0.14 0.11
C15:0 0.48 0.11
C16:0 20.97 21.32
C16:1w-7 1.67 5.09
C17:0 0.47 0.16
C18:0 3.94 4.86
C18:1w-9 10.00 33.70
C18:2w-6 19.90 25.08
C18:3w-3 21.66 3.69
C20:0 1.16 0.30
C20:1w-9 1.05 0.04
C20:5w-3 0.45 0.09
C22:0 1.15 0.10
C22:5w-3 0.84 0.16
fatty acids, respectively (Table 10.4). In fat (42.8 versus 48.0%) than those from
general, meat from pasture-fed animals H-fed goats. Rhee et al. (2000) also found
contains a similar proportion of SFAs, a that intramuscular fat from crossbred
lower concentration of MUFAs and a higher (Boer x Spanish) goats grazed on pasture
percentage of PUFAs than that from con- (grasses, browses and forb) without any
centrate-fed animals (Webb et al., 2005; grain supplementation was more saturated
Marino et al., 2006). In the study by Lee than that from goats fed a grain diet (sor-
et al. (2008b), the longissimus dorsi muscle ghum grain and cottonseed hulls). Further-
lipid from goats fed the C diet contained a more, compared with goats fed the grain
lower (P < 0.05) concentration of saturated diet, goats grazed on pasture had increased
fat (36.4 versus 41.0%) and a higher (P < 0.05) proportions of C18:2w -6, C18:
(P< 0.05) concentration of monounsaturated 3w -3 and eicosatrienoic (C20:3w-6) acids
256 J.H. Lee and G. Kannan
Dieta
but decreased (P < 0.05) contents of (P < 0.05) than that of goats fed either the H
C18:1a)-9 in intramuscular fat. Lee et al. or HC diet. No significant difference was
(2008b) also reported that among the SFAs, detected in the C18:1a)-9 concentration of
goats fed the H diet had higher (P < 0.05) the longissimus dorsi muscle lipid from
percentages of C15:0 and C17:0 in longissi- goats fed the H or HC diet. Goats fed the H
mus dorsi muscle lipids than those fed the diet had higher (P < 0.05) levels of C18:3w -3
C or HC diet (Table 10.4). However, no sig- in longissimus dorsi muscle lipids than
nificant difference was found in C17:0 goats fed either the C or HC diet; however,
between goats fed the H and HC diets. SFAs there were no differences in the concentra-
such as C12:0, C14:0 and C16:0 raise the tions of C18:3w -3 in the longissimus dorsi
low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol muscle lipids between the goats fed the C
concentrations in blood, increasing the risk and HC diets. Current recommendations
of cardiovascular diseases (Noakes et al., are that the PUFA:SFA ratio should be
1996). These three LDL-cholesterol-increas- around 0.45 (Webb et al., 2005). The
ing fatty acids made up 24.2, 23.5 and PUFA:SFA ratios noticed by Lee et al.
22.8% of total fatty acids in the longissimus (2008b) shown in Table 10.4 were lower
dorsi from goats fed the H, C and HC diets, than the recommended ratio. Duckett et al.
respectively (Table 10.4). Of the MUFAs, (1993) reported a higher PUFA:SFA ratio
the mean concentration of C18:1a)-9 of the (0.26) for beef from grass-finished steers
longissimus dorsi muscle lipids of goats than for meat from concentrate-finished
that consumed the C diet was higher animals (0.07).
Fatty Acids of Meat Goat 257
Pasture-fed goats had higher propor- gender, slaughter weight and age) on fatty
tions of C18:2w -6 and CLA (Rhee et al., acid composition of muscle and adipose tis-
2000; Atti et al., 2006) or C18:3w -3 (Rhee sues in goats. However, relatively few stud-
et al., 2000; Lee et al., 2008b) than ies investigated the influence of dietary
concentrate-fed goats. These results con- regime on fatty acid profiles of edible tis-
firm previous reports that finishing rumi- sues of meat goats. Meat goats are fed most
nants on pasture enhanced the PUFA profile of their required nutrients from forages to
of intramuscular fat, including CLA and w -3 increase the profit to producers; however,
fatty acids. Results from these studies (Rhee pasture-based production systems have a
et al., 2000; Atti et al., 2006; Lee et al., limitation because of the effect of seasonal
2008b) suggest that fatty acid composition variation on the nutrient contents. There-
of goat meat can be improved from a human fore, additional protein and energy are
health perspective through pasture feeding. offered to maintain the performance of goats
However, the tendency of increasing USFAs at acceptable levels. In general, pasture-fed
and CLA isomers in chevon was not found goats have higher proportions of linoleic
in goats fed different grass hays (Lee et al., acid, a-linolenic acid and CLAs than con-
2008a). Furthermore, this trend also applied centrate-fed goats. From a human dietary
to goats fed different concentrate diets health viewpoint, it is suggested that the
(Santos-Filho et al., 2005). These differ- fatty acid composition of goat meat can be
ences are consequences of fatty acid compo- improved through pasture feeding. How-
sition of feed sources, C18:3w -3 being the ever, the tendency of increasing unsatu-
major fatty acid in plant materials, C18:2w -6 rated fatty acid and CLA isomers in meat
the major fatty acid in grains and C18:1a)-9 was not noticed in goats fed different pas-
the major fatty acid in nuts (Weiss, 1983). ture diets. Differences are the consequences
However, when these USFA sources are fed of the fatty acid compositions of feed
to ruminants, they undergo hydrogenation sources. In addition, a relatively low pro-
and degradation in the rumen (Jenkins, portion of dietary unsaturated fatty acid is
1994). Consequently, a relatively low pro- deposited in muscle tissues of meat goats
portion of dietary USFAs is deposited in because of ruminal biohydrogenation of
muscle tissues of ruminants. Because of the dietary unsaturated fatty acids. However,
ruminal biohydrogenation, it is hard to feeding rumen-protective dietary polyun-
increase the concentrations of PUFAs in saturated fat to ruminants could drastically
edible tissue of goats supplemented with increase these beneficial fatty acids in edi-
the same major fatty acid groups. ble tissue. Several studies have been con-
ducted to increase nutritionally important
PUFAs in ruminant meats such as beef and
10.5 Conclusion lamb by feeding rumen-protective dietary
supplements. However, these supplements
Many studies have been conducted to eval- have not yet been tested extensively in meat
uate the effects of intrinsic factors (breed, goats.
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11 Mineral Composition of Goat Meat
In this chapter, the literature on the min- The animal body is made of organic and
eral content of goat meat is reviewed. Goat inorganic materials. Inorganic materials or
meat is a rich source of various minerals. minerals are required by all living organ-
Chemical ash, which comprises -3.5% of isms to ensure their normal functioning.
total body weight, represents the inorganic The animal body is not equipped to synthe-
material and is composed mainly of min- size minerals as it is with many other
erals. The ash content of goat meat is influ- organic nutrients. Therefore, minerals need
enced by several factors including breed, to be supplied in animal feeds. Chemical
age, sex, litter size and cooking method. ash, which comprises -3.5% of total body
There are about 90 natural elements in the weight, represents the inorganic material
body, of which only about 40 are essential. and is composed mainly of minerals
Some of the elements, the trace elements, (Keeton and Eddy, 2004). There are about
are present in the animal body in small 90 natural elements in the body (Chesworth,
proportions (50 mg/kg of dry matter). Oth- 1992), of which only about 40 are essential
ers, which are found in larger quantities, (McDonald et al., 2002). The term 'essen-
are known as macroelements and comprise tial mineral elements' refers to minerals
the major elements of ash. The most com- that have a metabolic role in mammalian
mon macroelements in the body include tissue. Some of the elements, the trace ele-
calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium ments or microminerals, are present in the
and magnesium. The major trace elements animal body at low concentrations [50 mg/
are iron, copper, zinc, selenium and man- kg dry matter (DM)]. Others, which are
ganese, plus several others (cobalt, cad- found in larger quantities, are known as
mium, lead, nickel and vanadium). Factors macrominerals or macroelements and com-
that affect the mineral concentration in prise the major elements of ash. Research
animal tissues include species, type of tis- has shown that there is a highly complex
sue, muscles, sex, age, breed, diet and interrelationship between the various min-
cooking method. There are significant cor- eral elements in the body. This affects the
relations between various minerals in goat nutritional requirements of humans and
meat. animals.
© CAB International 2012. Goat Meat Production and Quality
260 (eds 0. Mahgoub, I.T. Kadim and E.G. Webb)
Minerals in Goat Meat 261
Minerals are an integral part of vari- of the diet and type of tissue. Within species
ous organs and tissues of the animal body. and breed types, the concentration of min-
These tissues contain a variety of ele- erals in muscles is affected by their position
ments such as calcium, magnesium, potas- in the body and their function (Mioe et al.,
sium, sodium, silicon, phosphorus, 2000).
chromium, manganese, iron, nickel, cop- Mineral and trace element concentra-
per, zinc, cobalt, cadmium, lead, vana- tions in animal muscles can affect meat
dium and molybdenum. Macrominerals quality. For instance, Satter lee et al. (1977)
include calcium, magnesium, sodium and reported that the ratio of iron:zinc in beef
potassium as the principal cations and was highly correlated with muscle tender-
phosphorus, chlorine and sulfur as the ness. A low concentration of zinc in skeletal
principal anions. The microminerals muscles prevents collagen cross-linking,
include cobalt, copper, iodine, iron, man- which in turn influences muscle tenderness
ganese, molybdenum, selenium and zinc (Seideman et al., 1984).
(Campbell et a/., 2003). Microminerals of Goat meat, similar to other red meats, is
significant nutritional importance in meat a rich source of minerals. The muscles of
and meat products are iron, zinc and mag- the goat contain a variety of minerals and
nesium, and these are found in quantities trace elements including calcium, magne-
of milligrams per 100 g DM, while sele- sium, potassium, sodium, silicon, phospho-
nium is found in microgram quantities rus, chromium, manganese, iron, nickel,
per 100 g DM (McDonald et al., 2002; copper, zinc, cobalt, cadmium, lead, vana-
Keeton and Eddy, 2004; Leth and Ertbjerg, dium and molybdenum, but the proportions
2004). of these elements vary greatly. The minerals
The mineral content in meat is mea- that are most abundant in goat meat are
sured using standard methods of analysis potassium, phosphorus and magnesium
such as the atomic spectrometric techniques (Sheridan et al., 2003), which is similar to
of atomic absorption spectrometry and the situation in lamb meat (Hoffman et al.,
inductively coupled plasma atomic emis- 2003).
sion or mass spectrometry. The first step in This chapter reviews the nutritive role
analysis is ashing in a furnace overnight at and contents of the mineral component of
450°C after drying in an oven, or digestion goat meat and the factors affecting them.
of samples by wet digestion, which is most
commonly used. Microwave digestion,
which is faster, is carried out using nitric
acid and hydrogen peroxide as oxidants in 11.3 Ash Content in Goat Meat
sealed containers of an inert material (Leth
and Ertbjerg, 2004). As meat is burned, most elements in the
Humans obtain their body mineral organic material (carbon, nitrogen, hydro-
requirements from plant and animal gen and oxygen) will be lost in the form of
sources. Meat, a major component of the carbon dioxide, water and dioxides of
human diet, is a rich source of both macro- nitrogen (Keeton and Eddy, 2004). The
and microelements that are essential for remaining part comprises the minerals. It is
human health. Minerals are also found in usually analysed by burning in a muffle fur-
various concentrations in other animal nace at high temperatures and is expressed
body organs including the liver, kidney, as percentage ash. Therefore, ash is an esti-
brain, heart and spleen (Wan Zahari and mate of the total mineral content in the
Abdul Wahid, 1985). Minerals of animal body that is in the form of oxides, sulfates,
origin are more readily available for humans phosphates, nitrates, chlorides and other
than those of non-animal origin (plants) halides (Chesworth, 1992). The ash in lean
(Mioe et al., 2000). The mineral content in meat is an estimate of total mineral content
meat is affected by many factors such as ani- that makes up the cellular constituents
mal species, breed, climate, mineral content (myoglobin, haemoglobin and enzymes)
262 Osman and 0. Mahgoub
or together with bone (bone fragments, 11.3.1 Factors affecting ash contents in
mechanically separated tissue and advanced goat meat
meat recovery systems) in the whole minced
carcass. Breed
The ash content reported for fresh
goat meat ranges between 0.8 and 1.7% There is a large body of literature on ash
(Table 11.1). The factors that cause the content in goat meat, but the values reported
wide variation of ash content found in vary widely, indicating a clear effect of
goat meat include breed (Beserra et al., breed. Goats of the Moxoto Brazilian breed
2004), sex and castration (Madruga et al., had a significantly higher ash content of
1999), dietary supplementation (Solaiman 1.2 ± 0.02% (mean ± sEM) at 4-6 months and
et al., 2006) and treatment of the meat, 2.7 ± 0.23% at 8-10 months of age than
including the cooking method (Dzudie et crosses of (Moxoto x Pardo Alpina) x Anglo-
al., 2000). The ash content in cooked goat Nubian castrated male goats with 1.1 ± 0.01
meat is at the higher end of the range of and 2.3 ± 0.12%, respectively (Beserra
fresh meat values (Johnson et al., 1995). et al., 2004). Similar values of 1.05 ± 0.04
Reports on ash content in goats using whole and 1.00 ± 0.07% were reported by Madruga
minced carcasses suggest a higher ash con- et al. (1999) in castrated male `Mestico'
tent (Hogg et al., 1989). On a DM basis, goat goats (breeds of 'Creole' x Anglo-Nubian,
carcasses contain a lower fat and ash con- Saanen or British Alpine crossbred) at 175
tent but higher protein content than sheep and 220 days, respectively. Proportions of
(Mahgoub and Lu, 2004). 1.06 and 1.09% in groups of young and old
Table 11.1. Ash content in the meat of goats of various breeds, sexes and ages reported by
various authors.
Uncooked meat
1.06-1.09 Unspecified breed Turgut (1984)
0.8 Spanish goat Chevon chops from 1-year-old James and Berry (1997)
1.00-1.05 Mestigo Wethers (175 and 220 days) Madruga et al. (1999)
1.01-1.06 Saanen, Boer, Feral Capretto and chevon, males Dhanda et al. (2003)
and Angora crosses and wethers
0.9 French goat Paleari et al. (2003)
1.2-2.7 Moxot6 (Brazil) Age 4-10 months Beserra et al., 2004
1.13 White improved Niedziolka et al. (2005)
1.05 Lowland Polish Niedziolka et al. (2005)
1.32-1.62 Boer x Spanish Intact males, age 4 months Lee et al. (2008)
1.2-1.63 Pakistani mixed Age <7 months to >11 months Arain et al. (2010)
Cooked meat
1.4 Florida native or F1 Intact male cooked meat Johnson et al. (1995)
crosses of Florida
natives with Nubian
or Spanish goats
1.3 Castrate Johnson et al. (1995)
1.2 Female Johnson et al. (1995)
0.97-1.07 Angora Longissimus muscle Schonfeldt (1989)
1.00-1.08 Boer Longissimus muscle Schonfeldt (1989)
5.3 Feral yearling bucks Whole minced half carcass Hogg et al. (1989)
5.2 Saanen males Whole minced half carcass Hogg et al. (1989)
5.4 Saanen females Whole minced half carcass Hogg et al. (1989)
Minerals in Goat Meat 263
This may be attributed to the fact that single ash content in the 9th to 11th ribs tended to
kids are usually fatter than twins. increase linearly from 0.73 to 0.81 and 0.80%,
respectively (Solaiman et al., 2006). Dietary
Cooking supplementation with 15 or 25% neem cake
significantly increased the ash content from
Cooking per se and the cooking method used
1.10 ± 0.06 to 1.60 ± 0.11 and 1.40 ± 0.13%,
significantly affect the ash content in goat respectively (Kesava et al., 2003).
meat. A significant effect of cooking was
reported in loin sections of grassland African
dwarf goats. Roast chops had the highest ash 11.4 Mineral Content of the Goat
content of 6.76 ± 0.35%, followed by broiled Body
chops at 5.18 ± 0.35%, while the lowest con-
tent was from water-bathed chops at
As with other red-meat animals, goat meat is
4.15 ± 0.31% (Dzudie et al., 2000). Wet
a valuable source of minerals, especially in
cooking such as boiling caused more water
regions of the world where the goat is a major
loss and consequently a higher mineral loss
meat animal such as Asia and Africa. Goat
than dry cooking methods such as roasting.
Comparing microwave cooking with broil-
meat contains different levels of various
macro- and microelements with different
ing, James and Berry (1997) found no signifi-
concentrations in body organs such as liver,
cant difference between cooking with a kidney, brain, muscle, spleen and heart.
microwave at different powers and broiling.
McDonald et al. (2002) and Keeton and
Microwaving at 100% power (1.1% ash) or
Eddy (2004) have reported the essential ele-
60% power (1.0% ash) produced a slightly
higher mineral content than broiling (0.09%
ments and their approximate concentra-
tions in the whole body of farm animals and
ash). However, all values were significantly
higher than the ash content (0.8% ash) in
in muscles (Table 11.2). These included
raw meat. Differences in ash content from
different methods of cooking are inversely Table 11.2. Nutritionally important minerals and
proportional to the loss of moisture con- their approximate concentration in the whole body
tents, except in water bathing, where miner- and muscle of farm animals.
als can be lost in the surrounding water.
Whole animal Muscle (mg/g
Type of diet Major minerals (g/kg DM)a DM)b
seven macroelements and eight microele- Macrominerals are more abundant than
ments. The macromineral contents ranged microminerals in goat meat. Sheridan et al.
from 0.4 g/kg DM for magnesium to 15 g/kg (2003) reported that the elements that con-
DM for calcium. The highest concentrations tribute the largest proportions in goat meat
of macroelements in muscles were potas- are calcium, phosphorus, potassium and
sium (250-400 mg/g DM) and phosphorus sodium (946, 653, 142 and 57 mg/100 g DM,
(167-216 mg/g DM). The microelements respectively). Mahgoub (unpublished data)
with the highest concentrations in the found that the most abundant minerals in
whole animal body and muscle were iron goat meat are potassium, phosphorus,
and zinc, and the lowest was cobalt. sodium, magnesium and calcium (757, 530,
Table 11.3 gives the mean mineral con- 108, 49 and 13 mg/100 g DM). It should be
centrations in muscle and selected organs of noted that reports from various studies vary
goats in a study carried out by Wan Zahari greatly in values of minerals and trace ele-
and Abdul Wahid (1985). The mineral con- ments. This may be attributed to a number of
tents on a DM basis were highest in the liver, factors including sample collection, method
followed by muscle, brain, heart, spleen and of extraction and method of analysis, or to
kidney. Organs varied in their concentra- how results are expressed (e.g. wet weight or
tions of individual minerals. For instance, DM basis). For instance, muscle samples may
the brain had a high concentration of many include fat or connective tissue. There are
minerals including calcium, phosphorus, several methods employed for extraction of
potassium, sodium and manganese. The minerals from meat samples using acids such
liver contained high levels of phosphorus, as nitric acid. However, microwave extrac-
magnesium, zinc and extremely high levels tion is the most effective. Atomic absorption
of copper. The spleen had the highest con- is utilized more than inductive coupled
tent of iron, which was many times higher plasma atomic emission spectrophotometry
than that of other organs. The kidneys had as it is more readily available in laboratories.
higher levels of most minerals, especially
sodium. This renders the muscle and edible
organs of the goat an excellent source of min- 11.4.1 Macrominerals in goat meat
erals for humans, especially in underprivi-
leged parts of the world where most of the Calcium
goat body is consumed. However, it should
also be noted that extremely high concentra- Calcium contributes significantly to the
tions of certain elements such as heavy met- hardness of bones and teeth. It is also impor-
als (lead, mercury and cadmium) in meat are tant for bone development, neuromuscular
regarded as a potential human health hazard. activity, secretory functions, buffers, certain
Table 11.3. Mean mineral concentrations (mg/100 g dry matter) in muscle and selected
organs of crossbred goats (from Wan Zahari and Abdul Wahid, 1985).
coenzymes and nutrients for the nursed and Abdul Wahid (1985) (Table 11.3).
young (Casey, 1992), and has an essential Slightly higher values were found in
role in blood clotting (Chesworth, 1992; Omani (12.72 mg/100 g DM) and Somali
McDonald et a/., 2002). It is directly (14.83 mg/100 g DM) goat meat (Table 11.4).
involved in contraction of muscles and con- Oke et al. (2007) reported values of 0.98-
tributes to muscle fibre contraction post- 23 g/100 g DM in goats ranging between 24
mortem (Keeton and Eddy, 2004). Calcium and 52 weeks of age. Much higher values
deficiency in young growing animals causes (880-945 mg/100 g DM) were reported by
rickets, symptoms of which include Sheridan et al. (2003) in Boer goats of vari-
deformed bones, enlargement of the joints, ous levels of dietary energy. Madruga et al.
lameness and stiffness. In adults, calcium (2006) reported levels of 134-213 mg/kg
deficiency produces osteomalacia, in which DM in goats raised under various manage-
the calcium in the bone is withdrawn and ment systems.
not replaced, so that the bones become weak Several factors have been reported to
and easily broken (McDonald et al, 2002). affect calcium levels in goat meat including
Calcium content varies in organs and tis- sex and age (Madruga et a/., 1999), cooking
sues of goats, and was found to be highest in and processing (Johnson et a/., 1995), breed
the brain (46.99 mg/100 g DM) followed by and system of management (Madruga et al.,
kidney (13.58 mg/100 g DM), spleen 2006). Goat meat contains more calcium
(11.47 mg/100 g DM) and liver (10.06 mg/100 g than chicken (Addrizzo, 2010) and sheep
DM) and lowest in the heart (7.7 mg/100 g meat (Sheridan et al., 2003).
DM) in crossbred goats (Table 11.3). Calcium
in the liver and kidney of Alpine and Saanen Phosphorus
goats was 20.4 and 16.7 mg/100 g DM (Mioe
et al., 1998). Phosphorus is a major component in bone
The calcium values reported for goat and is closely associated with calcium. It is
lean meat are quite variable. A value of essential for bone formation, enzymes and
11 mg/100 g DM was found by Wan Zahari energy metabolism (Casey, 1992). It occurs
Table 11.4. Mineral and trace element content (mg/100 g dry matter) of Omani and
Somali goats (0. Mahgoub, unpublished data).
followed by spleen, liver, brain, kidney and values of 1.2-1.8 mg/100 g DM. Mahgoub
heart (Table 11.3). (unpublished results) recorded values of 3.4
Oke et al. (2007) reported values of and 4.3 mg/100 g DM in Omani and Somali
7-10 g/100 g DM in goats of 24-52 weeks of goats, respectively (Table 11.4). Park (1988)
age. Sheridan et al. (2003) reported magne- reported an iron range of 27-33.7 pg /g
sium values of 32-35 mg/100 g DM. Mah- wet weight in the muscles of Alpine and
goub (unpublished results), who used Nubian goats. These differences are due
microwave extraction, recorded higher to the effects of age, sex and breed. For
magnesium values of 49-59 mg/100 g instance, Madruga et al. (1999) reported
DM (Table 11.4). In other tissues, the high- that goat meat contains iron levels of
est levels of magnesium were in the 1.75-3.65 mg/100 g DM in goats of various
spleen (15.28 mg/100 g DM) and liver sexes and ages. A value of 4.37 mg/100 g
(15.08 mg/100 g DM), followed by brain DM was reported by Wan Zahari and
(12.82 mg/100 g DM), kidney (10.19 mg/100 Abdul Wahid (1985) (Table 11.3).
g DM) and heart (9.63 mg/100) (Table 11.3). Iron content was not affected by sex in
Cooked goat meat contained magne- the latter report, which was similar to the
sium at 29.2 mg/100 g DM (Johnson et al., results reported by Johnson et al. (1995) in
1995), which was higher than beef at cooked meat. It was, however, affected by
22.4 mg/100 g DM. Cooked goat meat con- age x castration interaction in a study by
tains more magnesium than chicken meat Madruga et al. (1999). In the latter report,
(Addrizzo, 2010). meat iron content was affected linearly by
age (175-310 days).
Johnson et al. (1995) reported that iron
11.4.2 Microelements content in goat meat was similar to that of
cooked beef meat (2.6 mg/100 g DM).
Iron Cooked goat meat contains twice the level
of iron of chicken meat (Addrizzo, 2010).
Iron is directly involved in the use of oxy-
gen in cells with its transport in blood Copper
(Chesworth, 1992). More than 90% of iron
in the body is combined with proteins, the Copper is necessary for the uptake and
most important of which is haemoglobin, transport of iron, the formation of collagen,
which contains 3.4 mg/kg DM (McDonald body growth (Hart et al., 1928; Harris, 1983),
et al., 2002). Meat is a very good source of haemoglobin formation and the prevention
iron. There are two types of iron in meat, of a wide range of clinical and pathological
haem and non-haem. About 50-60% of the disorders in all types of farm animals
iron in meat is haem. Haem iron in meat is (Underwood and Suttle, 2001).
in haemoglobin and myoglobin and has a The bodies of farm animals contain
high bioavailability (Mulvihill, 2004). Meat 1-5 g/kg DM (Table 11.2). Keeton and Eddy
promotes the absorption of iron in itself and (2004) reported that meat contained 0.5-
from other food consumed with meat at the 0.13 mg/g DM Cu (Table 11.2). Wan Zahari
same meal (Mulvihill, 2004). and Abdul Wahid (1985) reported that the
The bodies of farm animals contain highest level of copper in goat tissues was
iron at about 20-80 g/kg DM (Table 11.2). in liver (8.28 mg/100 g DM), followed by
Keeton and Eddy (2004) found that goat heart and kidney (0.53 and 0.52 mg/100 g
muscle contained 1-3 mg/kg DM (Table DM, respectively) and speen and brain
11.2). Goat body organs and tissues contain (0.41 and 0.40 mg/100 g DM, respectively),
various levels of iron, with spleen having with muscles having the lowest values
the highest levels followed by kidney, liver, (0.30 mg/100 g DM) (Table 11.3). Values of
heart, muscle and brain (Table 11.3). 0.151 and 0.349 mg/100 g DM were reported
Reports on iron muscle content in goats for Omani and Somali goats, respectively
vary greatly. Sheridan et al. (2003) reported (Table 11.4). Sheridan et al. (2003) reported
Minerals in Goat Meat 269
Table 11.5. Comparison of nutrient analysis of chicken, beef and sheep meat.
(Addrizzo, 2010). The muscles of cattle con- 0.06 mg/100 g DM and vanadium at 0.003
tained 126 ppm of zinc (Miller, 1969). and 0.02 mg/100 g DM, respectively (Table
11.4). Goat meat also contained iodine at
Selenium 41-43 mg/100 g DM and lead at 0.013-
0.016 mg/100 g DM (Sheridan et al., 2003).
Selenium is involved in the function of
immune cells (McKenzie et a]., 1998). It is
an essential constituent of a number of 11.5 Factors Affecting Mineral
enzymes, some of which have antioxidant Concentration in Goat Tissues
functions (Burk, 2002). Its role is closely
related to its function as a cofactor for a
number of biochemical systems that destroy 11.5.1 Species differences
peroxides, potentially toxic compounds
(Chesworth, 1992). The concentration of The mineral content of goat meat is more
selenium in the bodies of farm animals was comparable to other red meats than to white
estimated at 1-2 mg/kg DM (Table 11.2). ones. Table 11.5 shows a comparison of
There are not many available reports on meat from goat, chicken, beef and sheep.
selenium content in goat meat. However, The red meats had higher levels of most
lamb meat contained levels of 0.05- minerals except phosphorus. Goat meat is a
0.12 mg/100 g DM with significant sire and particularly good source of iron and calcium.
ewe breed effects (Hoffman et a]., 2003). Goat meat appeared to have higher levels of
calcium compared with other species. John-
Manganese son et a/. (1995) also reported higher cal-
cium contents in goat meat (28.1 mg/g DM)
The average farm animal body contains than in beef (8.0 mg/g DM). Cooked goat
manganese at a concentration of 0.2-0.5 mg/ meat was found to contain more calcium
kg DM (Table 11.2). Goat tissue was found than chicken meat (Addrizzo, 2010).
to contain 0.66 mg/100 g DM in the liver, Sheridan et al. (2003) carried out a
0.19 mg/100 g DM in the kidney, 0.159 study comparing the mineral content of
in the spleen, 0.122 mg/100 g DM in the goats and sheep raised on two levels of
brain, 0.098 mg/100 g DM in the heart dietary energy (Table 11.6) and found that
and 0.087 mg/100 g DM in the muscles goat carcasses had higher calcium, potas-
(Table 11.3). Values of 0.02 and 0.13 mg/100 g sium, magnesium, sodium, phosphorus
DM were reported for Omani and Somali and copper contents than sheep carcasses
goats (Table 11.4). Fresh goat meat con- (Sheridan et a]., 2003). Johnson et al. (1995)
tained manganese at 0.28-0.48 Rig wet reported that goat meat had a lower phos-
weight (Park, 1988) and Egyptian goat mus- phorus content (103 mg/85 g cooked meat)
cles contained 0.6 mg/kg DM wet weight than beef (173 mg/85 g cooked meat).
(Abou-Arab, 2001).
Table 11.6 Mineral composition (mg/100 g DM) of the 8th to 10th rib cuts of Boer goat kids and Mutton
Merino lambs (16 per treatment) receiving a low- or a high-energy feedlot diet (least squares mean ± sEM)
(from Sheridan et al., 2003).
Treatment
SEM, Standard error of the mean; BGLE, low-energy diet given to Boer goats; BGHE, high-energy diet given to Boer
goats; MMLE, low-energy diet given to Mutton Merino lambs; MMHE, high-energy diet given to Mutton Merino lambs.
Means in the same row with different letters (a, b, c) differ significantly (P< 0.05).
11.5.4 Sex
11.5.3 Individual muscles
Park (1988) observed that differences in
There are some variations in reports on mineral content in goat tissues between
mineral and trace element concentrations in sexes were less pronounced than between
goat tissues. The mineral concentration in tissues, except for manganese, where
muscles is related to physiological function, females had higher manganese levels than
with red muscle tissue being richer in males. Similar observations have been
essential minerals than white muscles reported in other species. Doornenbal and
(Wagner et al., 1976). Differences in concen- Murray (1981) also observed that sex effects
trations of minerals in various carcass mus- were less pronounced for mineral content
cles were reported by MioC et al. (2000). in cattle.
However, Park (1988) reported no differ- The findings of Madruga et al. (1999)
ences in trace element concentrations in the indicated an effect of age and sex on cal-
biceps femoris and longissimus dorsi mus- cium levels in meat. Calcium concentration
cles in Alpine and Nubian goats. Reports was highest in castrates at 175 days age
from other species indicate differences in (8.07 ± 1.24 mg/100 g wet weight) and low-
mineral content between carcass muscles. est in intact males at 310 days of age
For instance, Marchello et al. (1985) (3.01 ± 0.71 mg/100 g wet weight). The
reported a one- to twofold difference in effect of both age and castration was signifi-
mineral content in pork, with shoulder cant, with no effect of an age x sex inter-
muscles containing higher levels of iron action. In cooked meat, calcium values were
and zinc than leg or loin muscles. The cop- 126.4,136.2 and 128.3 mg/100 g DM in
per, iron, zinc and magnesium contents in female, castrate and male broiled meat,
beef longissimus dorsi muscle were higher respectively (Johnson et al., 1995).
272 Osman and 0. Mahgoub
Table 11.7 Macrominerals and trace element content (mg/100 g) in Saanen and Alpine goats
(Mioe et al., 2000).
Saanen Alpine
Mineral Mean SEM Mean SEM Mean SEM Mean SEM Mean SEM Mean SEM
Calcium 15.8 0.67 15.5 0.56 15.3 0.80 16.6 0.49 15.6 0.74 16.3 0.70
Phosphorus 68.6 1.32 65.8 0.97 64.4 3.87 62.2 1.79 31.9 1.68 60.6 1.79
Potassium 132.6 2.65 128.5 2.3 129.5 2.74 135.0 3.4 133.1 2.26 133.2 3.52
Magnesium 19.1 0.43 19.1 0.44 18.6 0.35 19.0 0.33 19.2 0.63 19.3 0.50
Sodium 78.9 2.73 77.9 2.64 78.3 3.12 75.0 1.89 72.2 1.40 72.8 2.67
Zinc 2.8 0.22 2.5 0.09 4.0 0.17 2.7 0.13 2.9 0.17 3.0 0.08
Iron 0.21 0.014 0.21 0.011 0.18 0.014 0.21 0.007 0.19 0.005 0.23 0.010
Manganese 0.06 0.002 0.06 0.004 0.06 0.002 0.06 0.004 0.06 0.003 0.07 0.005
Copper 0.37 0.068 0.31 0.046 0.31 0.033 0.17 0.001 0.23 0.019 0.15 0.017
Minerals in Goat Meat 273
Feeding 1600 ppm iron as either ferrous sul- amounting to more than eightfold higher
fate or ferric citrate resulted in increased values in intact males and more than five-
iron in the kidney, liver and spleen. Levels fold higher values than castrates of compa-
of copper, zinc, magnesium and manganese rable ages. Cooked goat meat contained
in tissues were not influenced by the treat- 28.1 mg calcium/g DM (Johnson et al.,
ment. In general, increasing the dietary sul- 1995). The effect of cooking on calcium
fate concentration resulted in tissue mineral content is difficult to explain as the differ-
concentrations similar to those for the basal ence in cooking loss was similar (31.1 and
diet, indicating that the effects of the dietary 30.5%), and ash content in intact male meat
sulfate were due primarily to iron (Standish was about 1.44 times than that reported by
and Ammerman, 1971). Dietary iron influ- Madruga et al. (1999) (Table 11.8).
enced tissue mineral content in cattle
(Standish et al., 1969) and sheep (Standish
and Ammerman, 1971). 11.6 Correlation Between Minerals
in Goat Meat
Table 11.8. Effect of sex on mineral analysis of 100 g composite of broiled and moisture content of
cooked and uncooked goat meat and comparison of 85 g cooked goat and beef meat (adapted from
Johnson et al., 1995).
Mineral (mg)
Calcium 30.6 32.7 37.9 6.22 28.1 (33.1) 8.0 (9.4)
Magnesium 29.6 28.8 29.8 1.5 24.8 (29.2) 19.0 (22.4)
Potassium 394.4 348.9 372.7 15.00 315.0 (370.6) 266.0 (312.9)
Phosphorus 126.4 136.2 128.3 7.87 103.0 (121.2) 173.0 (204.5)
Sodium 113.0 115.4 106.2 5.62 92.3 (108.6) 52.0 (61.2)
Copper 0.1 2.3 0.7 0.75 1.0 (1.2) 0.1 (0.11)
Iron 2.6 2.4 2.4 0.13 2.2 (2.6) 2.2 (2.6)
Manganese 0.04 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.04 (0.05) 0.01 (0.01)
Zinc 5.3 4.7 4.9 1.28 4.4 (5.2) 5.0 (5.9)
Moisture (g)
Uncooked 68.5 68.4 70.3 0.76
Cooked 57.4 59.5 59.3 0.61
Cooked ash (g) 1.2 1.3 1.4 0.08
Cooked loss (%) 33.5 30.5 31.1 0.80
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12 Linear Body Measurements and
Carcass Characteristics of Goats
towards a rapid increase in the demand for the lengths of the bones of the animal. Over-
goat meat (Gipson, 1998; Stankov et al., all, when taken sequentially over a period of
2002). Goat meat has an enormous market time, they indicate the way in which the ani-
potential, as it could become an ideal mal body is changing shape, and have been
choice for health-conscious consumers used as predictors of both animal live weight
because it has a lower fat content than and carcass composition. Examples of mea-
other types of red meat. This is an impor- surements that may be taken are given in Fig.
tant factor in reducing the risk of cardio- 12.1 and Table 12.1. The five basic live body
vascular diseases (van Niekerk and Casey, measurements in Table 12.1 are considered
1988; Park et al., 1991; Colomer-Rocher adequate to describe the goat's body
et al., 1992; Giese, 1992; Stankov et al., composition, allowing comparisons to be
2002). Goat meat is also a good source of made of the stage of growth reached by dif-
desirable fatty acids, as goats deposit rela- ferent parts of the body in the live animal.
tively higher amounts of polyunsaturated The purpose of taking these live body
fatty acids than other ruminants (Banska- measurements is to provide a comparative
lieva et al., 2000; Mahgoub et al., 2002).
Carcass quality, an important aspect in the
marketing of meat, is not well defined.
Elucidation of the available reports on goat
carcass quality is complicated by the fact
that there are so many goat breeds kept
under such widely different conditions
that comparisons of results are not always
meaningful. Information on live body para-
meters and carcass characteristics from dif-
ferent breeds of goats can be evaluated
properly. However, unfortunately much of
the data cannot be used directly to evaluate
carcass yields.
This chapter attempts to highlight the
characteristics of goat carcasses with spe-
cial emphasis on live and linear carcass
measurements, dressing percentage and
meat composition.
Table 12.1. Definitions of live and carcass linear body weight. However, if the animal retained
measurements shown in Fig. 12.1 (from Kadim, a constant shape and varied in size only,
1988). then, as long as the basic geometry of the goat
Measurement Definition
was understood, dimensions or tissue vol-
umes could be predicted from other dimen-
Body length Distance between the sions or tissue volumes. Fisher (1975b)
sciatic tuber (pinbone) pointed out that, in addition to the range of
and the most distal point variable sizes in animal bodies, there are also
of the major tuberosity of ranges in tissue shapes and proportions.
the humerus
Rump height Highest point over the hip
A series of live linear body measure-
bone
ments on three breeds of Omani goats (Jebel
Rump width Widest horizontal width Akhdar, Batina and Dhofari) was carried out
across the hips region by Kadim et al. (2006). These measurements
Wither height Highest point over the comprised body length, rump height, rump
scapulae vertically to the width, wither height and wither width (Fig.
ground 12.2). The measurements were taken at
Wither width Widest horizontal width weaning and then at 4-week intervals until
across the shoulder 48 weeks of age. They found that the Jebel
region Akhdar breed had significantly greater
linear body dimensions than the Batina and
Dhofari breeds. This is in line with the
breed effects on carcass linear measure-
description of the various groups of goats ments of the same three breeds of Omani
studied, rather than to provide a basis for goats reported by Kadim et al. (2004). The
predicting body weight or composition from differences between the three breeds were
such measurements, as many studies have more pronounced in length and height mea-
aimed to do in the past (Kadim et al., 2006). surements than in bone width measure-
Fisher (1975a) pointed out that there are ments, as bone length is more closely
three sources of error in taking body mea- associated with early development than
surements: (i) correct identification; (ii) loca- width.
tion of the end reference points in linear The length of rump, loin and chine;
measurements; and (iii) anatomical distor- chest and shoulder widths; chest depth;
tion produced by the animal changing either height at withers and at hip; barrel circum-
position or posture. Errors involved in actu- ference; and heart girth were recorded on
ally taking the measurement at any one posi- kids, yearlings and adults of Angora, Span-
tion will be minimal for caliper measurements ish, dairy and Boer x Spanish cross goats
but greater for measurements using flexible (Pinkerton and McMillin, 2000). Boer-cross
tape over surfaces, particularly if they are kids had longer rump, loin and chine mea-
concave. The accuracy of body measure- surements and wider and deeper chest
ments depends on the size of skeletal units dimensions, as well as larger heart girth
and the development of both soft tissues and and barrel circumference measurements,
the skeleton or the development of soft tis- than kid goats of the other breeds. Spanish
sues only (Lawrence and Fowler, 1997). The yearling goats had slightly greater dimen-
order of decreasing accuracy is from skeletal sions at each location, including height at
measurements to skeletal plus flesh mea- withers and height at hip, than Boer-cross
surements to soft tissue measurements. In yearlings, which could indicate differences
goats, the prediction of soft tissue deposition in maturation patterns between the two
and distribution within regions of the live breeds. Angora goats had smaller dimen-
body measurements is inadequate. Goat live sions at each age compared with the other
body dimensions vary in both shape and breeds. Yearling goats of each breed gener-
size. Therefore, live body measurements ally had greater dimensions at each loca-
cannot be used as accurate predictors of tion than kid goats of the same breed, and
280 L T. Kadim and 0. Mahgoub
560
510
540 Batina Batina
Dhofati 490 Dhofari
520 oJebel Akhdar E oJebel Akhdar
E 470
500
450
in 480 C)
2 430
e) 460 E- 410
c-ci' 440 390
420 370
400 350
10 14 18 22 26 30 34 38 42 46 10 14 18 22 26 30 34 38 42 46
Age (weeks) Age (weeks)
170 510
Batina Batina
160 Dhofari 490 Dhofari
oJebel Akhdar oJebel Akhdar
150 E 470
:E. 450
140
-g) 430
g130
8 410
120 _c
cc E 390
110 370
100 11 11 350
10 4 18 22 26 30 34 38 42 46 10 14 18 22 26 30 34 38 42 46
Age (weeks) Age (weeks
Batina
160 Dhofari
oJebel Akhdar
150 -
E
140 -
-15
130 -
'6
120 -
110 -
100 n-
10 14 18 22 26 30 34 38 42 46
Age week)
Fig. 12.2. Body length, rump height, rump width, wither height and wither width measurements of three
local Omani goat breeds, showing increases with increasing age (Kadim et al., 2006).
adult goats correspondingly had greater breeds were significant due to heterotic
dimensions than the yearling goats. This effects (Mourad and Anous, 1998). The
indicates an obvious age effect. The live Anglo-Nubian breed was crossed with
animal traits were generally highly corre- smaller indigenous goats to take advantage
lated with one another, indicating that ani- of body conformation in the exotic breed
mals that are larger in one measurement are (Wilson et al., 1980; Hussain et al. 1983).
usually larger in others (Pinkerton and
McMillin, 2000). Breed differences in body
measurements of the Bornu White, Red
Sokoto, Small East African, Sudanese Des- 12.4 Carcass Weight
ert and West African Dwarf breeds of goat
indigenous to the African continent have In practice, goats are sold on a weight basis.
been reported (Quartermain, 1991). The Therefore, the relationship between the
width and shape of the Alpine and Rove carcass weight and the live weight of the
Linear Measurements of Goat Carcass 281
goat is very important. The economic value because the live weight was much heavier
of goat carcass characteristics depends on (Pinkerton and McMillin, 2000).
its yield of meat, as well as the cutting and Carcasses of mature male goats were
processing quality of the meat. Goats are a significantly heavier than female carcasses
good potential source of meat as they yield due to the heavier bone and forequarters of
reasonable carcass weights under inexpen- males (Simela et al., 1999). The effects of
sive management systems. Goat carcass concentrate supplementation on carcass
weight is one of the most variables parame- quality of Small East African goats were
ters, with the variation apparently due to assessed by Safari et al. (2009), who found
condition, sex, breed and age at slaughter. that hot and cold carcass weights of goats
Carcass weight was found to be the best pre- that received 100 and 66% ad libitum con-
dictor of the meat content because of the centrates were 3 kg heavier than those that
lean component of carcasses (Hendrick, did not receive concentrate.
1983; Simela et al., 1999). This justifies the
suggestion that carcass weight should be
included in all goat carcass classification
schemes (Prasad and Kirton, 1992). Gener- 12.5 Carcass Linear Measurements
ally, goat carcass weight ranges between 10
and 32 kg and increases with increasing Objective techniques are used to predict
body weight. The average carcass weight carcass quality according to the anticipated
was 10.1 kg in Indian breeds, but much proportions of muscle, bone and fatty tis-
higher at 31.2 kg in South African goats sues. Most carcass linear techniques have
(Ueckermann, 1969). The average Omani aimed to describe carcass quality in the
goat carcass weight was 11.7-12.1 kg context of the measurable length of bone
(Kadim et al., 2004). The main problem in on the basis that this defines body confor-
recording carcass weight in goats is that of mation and may be an important predictor
standardizing the time after slaughter at of carcass components. Some schemes
which the weight is recorded Immediately have used back-fat thickness as a compo-
after slaughter, the carcass is hot. The sub- nent for grading carcasses, while others
sequent cooling and shrinking, which takes have used a combination of subjective and
place for about 24 h in a chiller room, results objective techniques for carcass compari-
in variable losses in carcass weight of son predictions.
up to 2%. Pinkerton and McMillin (2000) The weight and conformation of the
reported a highly significant simple correla- goat carcass and its body composition are
tion between hot and cold carcass weights important to farmers and consumers. Car-
in goats (r = 0.96). Boer-cross kid goats cass conformation is a product of the rates
raised for meat had heavier hot carcasses of deposition of the various carcass compo-
than dairy breeds of Angora or Spanish kid nents. However, techniques used in research
goats. Spanish x Boer cross yearling goats work vary widely. Therefore, uniform, fast,
had heavier hot carcass weights than Angora repeatable and precise techniques are
and dairy yearling goats (Pinkerton and needed for practical evaluation of carcasses
McMillin, 2000). The adult dairy goats had in the field and to assess carcass quality.
heavier hot carcasses than Angora and Carcass linear measurements can be used
Spanish adult goats because their weight for carcass quality evaluation. A series of
was much higher. external linear measurements were sug-
The effects of goat breed, sex and nutri- gested by Moxham and Brown lie (1976)
tion within breed on carcass weight and including carcass length, leg length, gigot
dressing percentage have been investigated width, maximum shoulder width, depth
(Kadim et al., 2004; Mahgoub et al., 2005; from scapula to sternum and width behind
Safari et al., 2009). The adult dairy goats the shoulders (Palsson, 1939). The measure-
had higher (P < 0.05) hot carcass weights ments that are used most commonly
than Angora and Spanish adult goats for sheep are summarized in Table 12.2.
282 1. T. Kadim and 0. Mahgoub
Differences in carcass dimensions should groups (Safari et al., 2009) could be attrib-
be taken into consideration if this form of uted to the unique fattening pattern of goats,
carcass grading is to be adopted for goats, as as they deposit most of their fat around vis-
they affect carcass conformation. Carcass cera and less in the carcass (Babiker et al.,
evaluation was carried out on 145 goats by 1990; Webb et al., 2005). However, increas-
Owen et al. (1977) to provide background ing levels of carcass conformation with con-
data on various body and carcass character- centrate allowance suggest that goats respond
istics. Although most of the linear measure- to improved nutrition by accretion of more
ments reflected the steady growth in goats muscle protein (Sheridan et al., 2003).
with increasing age, certain parts of the Simela et al. (1999) reported that carcass
goats did not show any increased growth in length, chest depth, thigh circumference and
the older age groups (Owen et al., 1977). eye muscle area significantly increased with
The head and fore limbs are early maturing age of male goats, while fat depth over the
relative to the rest of the body, according to eye muscle did not vary with age.
the theory of centripetal or heterogenic There were no significant differences in
growth (Palsson, 1955). carcass dimensions between different sexes
Carcass quality characteristics can be of mature goats except for the eye muscle
evaluated by assessing the conformation of area, which was significantly greater in
the carcass and the amount and distribution male than in female goats (Simela et al.,
of muscle and fat in a carcass. Goat carcasses 1999). Omani Batina, Dofari and Jebel Akh-
are thin and shallow and not compact as in dar goats were slaughtered at similar ages
other meat-producing animals. However, (Kadim et al., 2006). Several carcass mea-
goat carcasses become thicker and more surements were recorded and the results are
compact as carcass weight increases. Safari presented in Table 12.3. The carcass and
et al. (2009) found that concentrate-supple- the leg lengths of the Jebel Akhdar goat were
mented Small East African goats displayed longer by 50 and 27 mm, respectively, than
higher values for carcass length, chest depth the Dhofari goats. The longer carcass of
and leg length than those of non-supple- Jebel Akhdar goats compared with the other
mented goats. The minimal difference in two breeds can be related to the larger size
carcass fatness between concentrate- of the breed. The depth from scapula to ster-
supplemented and non-supplemented num was significantly greater by 19 and
Table 12.2. Definitions of the carcass linear measurements shown in Fig. 12.3.
Measurement Definition
Carcass length From the point where the gambrel is inserted through the Achilles
tendon to a point just anterior to the point of the humerus
(Moxham and Brownlie, 1976)
Leg length From the distal end of the tarsals to the centre of the tuberosity of
the tibia, which is visible on the ventral aspect of the hanging
carcasses (Palsson, 1939)
Gigot width (G) Maximum width of the gigots, with the carcass suspended from a
gambrel; the measurement is taken at right angles to the length
of the carcass at a line level with the femoral trochanter (Palsson,
1939)
Maximum shoulder width Maximum width of the shoulder, measured at the level of the
scapula from one lateral surface to the other (Palsson, 1939)
Depth from scapula to sternum Maximum depth of the chest taken behind the shoulders at a line
cutting the posterior angles of the scapula and at right angles to
the length of the carcass (Palsson, 1939)
Width behind shoulders Minimum width behind the scapulae (Palsson, 1939)
Linear Measurements of Goat Carcass 283
(a)
Leg
length
(T)
Gigot width
(G)
Body
length
(LB)
Width behind
shoulder
(WTH)
Maximum
shoulder
width
(WF)d
Fig. 12.3. (a) Diagram indicating where measurements are taken on a hanging carcass (see Table 12.2
for details). (b) Side view of a carcass showing the general position of wholesale cuts.
27 mm for the Jebel Akhdar carcass than the muscle area differed significantly between
Batina and Dhofari carcasses, respectively. breeds, with the Jebel Akhdar goats having a
The shorter carcass of the Dhofari goat significantly larger area by 24 mm2 than the
was accompanied by a significantly wider Batina breed (Table 12.3). The longissimus
gigot (10 mm more than the Batina goat). muscle area for the three Omani goats
Differences between breeds in carcass ranged from 106 to 130 mm2 These values
dimensions should be taken into consider- are comparable to the value of 112 mm2 for
ation if carcass grading is adopted for Omani Dhofari goats reported by El Hag and El
goats as well as other goats as they affect Shargi (1996) but was much higher than the
carcass conformation. The longissimus 68 and 72 mm2 reported for other breeds by
284 L T. Kadim and 0. Mahgoub
Table 12.3. Slaughter weight, empty body weight, carcass weight, dressing percentage
and carcass linear dimensions for three breeds of Omani goats (Kadim et al., 2004).
Breed
Potchoiba et al. (1990) and Dhanda et al. The bigger and blockier bodies of the Boer
goats are also indicative of a relatively
(1999a), respectively. These differences can
be attributed to differences in the live improved breed.
weight of the goats used in the different
studies. There were no significant breed dif-
ferences for longissimus dorsi muscle depth
and width. Boer x Spanish goats had car- 12.6 Dressing Percentage
casses with higher conformation scores and
a larger leg circumference than carcasses The dressing percentage is a measure of
from Spanish goats, but lean, bone and fat carcass weight relative to live weight of the
proportions were similar in the carcass and goat. It depends on the state of maturity,
wholesale cuts within diet groups (Oman breed, sex and alimentary tract contents.
et al., 1999). The latter factor will vary depending on
Castrated indigenous male goats are the period of fasting and the amount of
heavier and larger in most linear measure- feed consumed before slaughter. Dressing
ments than goats in general and are generally percentage, expressed in terms of empty
larger in spite of a similar overall shape. This body weight (EBW), usually rises as the
agrees with reports on sheep (Hammond, animal increases in age and body weight
1932, 1960). Hammond reported that Boer by around 2-5% (Norman, 1991). Dividing
goats were heavier and larger in all respects the hot or cold carcass weight including
than indigenous goats, except in the distal kidney by live body weight will yield
parts of the fore- and hindlegs and in shoul- dressing percentage values in the 39-52%
der height. Shorter fore cannons have been range in goats. The interactions among the
linked with earlier maturity and breed individual factors affecting dressing per-
improvement in sheep (Palsson, 1939, 1955). centage are great, making it difficult to
Linear Measurements of Goat Carcass 285
high nutritional plane diets produced cavity. Total non-carcass fat accounted for
higher dressing percentages (Gaili et al., 42-52% of the total body fat in the goat
1972). The energy density of diets fed to (Mahgoub et al., 2005) with more intermus-
goats can influence carcass characteristics cular fat (28-41%) than subcutaneous fat
across various slaughter weights (Uecker- (15-25%). The apparent ability of goats to
mann, 1969). Dressing percentage rises with store fat internally around the viscera is a
increasing slaughter weight and length of demonstration of their adaptability to the
feeding period. The feed conversion ratio environmental extremes of the tropics, as
(kilograms of feed required for a kilogram of indigenous African wildlife has similar
weight gain) decreases as heavier carcasses characteristics.
are produced. An all-roughage ration As with most livestock species, carcass
required more time on feed and required weight, breed, sex and nutritional systems
more kilograms of hay per kilogram of of the goat influence carcass components.
weight gain than rations containing Goat carcass weight has a remarkable influ-
concentrates. The responses to ratios of ence on carcass components, which is
60:40 and 40:60 roughage:concentrate were reflected in the goat meat markets. Increased
rather similar. The relative costs of hay carcass weight resulted in increased carcass
and concentrates and the reduced time on fat percentage in both sexes (Mahgoub et al.,
feed at the higher concentrate level will 2005; Table 12.4). Similar conclusions were
determine the economic choice among reported by Dhanda et al. (2003a). Other
roughage:concentrate ratios. Difference in studies reported that increased carcass
feeding regimes between studies is a possi- weight increased the proportions of lean to
ble factor for the observed discrepancies. fat and bone (Ruvuna et al., 1992). In con-
Shahjalal et al. (1992) reported increased trast, Simela et al. (1999) found that carcass
carcass weight and dressing percentage of lean and bone weights increased with age of
British Angora goats with increasing levels male goats but fat content and proportions
of high-energy concentrate diets. Safari of the tissues did not vary with age. The
et al. (2009) stated that dressing percentage lack of variation in subcutaneous and inter-
increased with levels of concentrate supple- muscular fat measurements in goats with
mentation in a curvilinear fashion. age is due to the inherent low priority for fat
Yayneshet et al. (2008) studied the effect of deposition in the carcass depot (Simela
different levels of Acacia etbaica and et al., 1999). In addition, development of
Dichrostachys cinera fruits on the dressing this issue is limited by the anti-lipogenic
percentage of Abergelle goats. The data effect of androgens in males and the off-
range diet, which does not enhance fat
indicated that dressing percentage increased
with an increased level of either type of deposition (Casey and van Niekerk, 1985).
fruit supplement, the highest (51.8%) being Sex also influenced goat carcass com-
achieved at the 1.5% D. cinera level. position, with fat tissue being the most
affected (Mahgoub et al., 2004, 2005). Intact
males at 28 kg live weight had a higher lean
12.7 Carcass Components to fat to bone ratio (64:16:16) than females
(62:21:13) (Mahgoub et al., 2005). Similar
Goat carcasses are considerably leaner than conclusions were reported by Ruvuna et al.
other livestock carcasses, chiefly because (1992). These data substantiated the find-
the fat tends to be concentrated around the ings of Ruvuna et al. (1992) that castrated
viscera and is separated as offal at slaughter males had lower levels of carcass fat than
(Owen et al., 1978). Goat carcasses usually females. Carcasses from intact males had
have patch coverage of fat (less than higher contents of muscle and lower con-
2-3 mm) and consequently they have a high tents of fat than carcasses from females
lean content. Mahgoub et al. (2004) showed (Colomer-Rocher et al., 1992), whereas car-
that, as a proportion of total fat, goats depos- casses of castrated male kid goats had higher
ited relatively high levels of fat in the body percentages of lean and lower amounts of
Linear Measurements of Goat Carcass 287
Table 12.4. Carcass weight and body components of Jebel Akhdar goats (from Mahgoub et al., 2005).
Item 11 kg 18 kg 28 kg 11 kg 18 kg 28 kg 11 kg 18 kg 28 kg
Cold carcass wt. (kg) 4.7 7.9 13.6 4.2 7.9 13.2 5.1 4.8 13.9
Carcass muscle (%) 62.7 63.2 64.0 60.1 61.0 62.5 63.3 62.4 61.5
Carcass bone ( %) 23.6 20.2 15.6 21.5 18.7 16.0 19.5 15.8 13.1
Carcass fat (%) 8.5 11.9 16.1 13.1 16.0 17.7 11.1 16.6 21.3
Muscle:bone ratio 2.7 3.2 4.1 2.6 3.3 3.9 3.3 4.0 4.7
Muscle:fat ratio 7.4 5.6 4.1 4.8 3.8 3.6 5.8 3.8 3.0
carcass fat than carcasses from female kid in percentages of the carcass cuts with geno-
goats (Hogg et al., 1992; Mahgoub et al., type, percentages of muscle in the shoulder
2005). Those findings were similar to earlier and leg were higher from goats with feral
reports on goats. Wilson (1960) reported genotypes (Dhanda et al., 2003b). Johnson
that female East African Dwarf kid goats (2000) found that 14-20 kg capretto car-
had higher fat levels and less bone in the casses from Boer x cashmere and cashmere
carcass than male goats, with differences male goats had more subcutaneous and
increasing with age. Johnson et al. (1995) intermuscular fat than from Boer x feral
also reported that carcasses of female kid male kid goats. These results were generally
goats had less bone and more fat than those reinforced by the findings of Hussain et al.
of males, which in turn had less bone and (1983), where, in 11 genotypes, goats with
less fat than carcasses of castrated males. some feral breeding had higher percentages
Mahgoub et al. (2004, 2005) reported that of muscle and lower percentages of fat in
weight at slaughter influences composition, carcasses than goats from established breed
with wethers having more total carcass fat genotypes. Imported feral goat carcasses
than intact males or females at an 11 kg from Australia had a superior conformation
slaughter weight, whereas females had with the same amount of external fat, higher
more total body and carcass fat than weth- percentages of total primal cuts and lower
ers, which had more fat than intact males, at percentages of total boneless meat than did
18 and 28 kg slaughter weights. Goats at a carcasses from goats raised on pasture (Nuti
lighter carcass weight of 16 kg were used in et al., 2003).
the study of Hogg et al. (1992), whereas a Goats on a high plane of nutrition had
range of carcass weights from 2 to 52 kg of heavier carcass weights with higher levels
37 male and female Saanen goats was of fat than did goats on a lower plane of
reported in the study by Colomer-Rocher nutrition (Wilson, 1960; Haddad, 2005).
et al. (1992). This may explain some of the Feedlot finishing of Boer x Spanish and
differences in results. Litter size did not Spanish goats with 80% concentrate diets
affect body composition in goats (Todaro ad libitum resulted in increased carcass fat
et al., 2004). thickness and increased fat percentage in
Muscling was not found to be different primal cuts compared with goats raised on
in goats of five different genotypes rangeland with no supplemental feeding
(Boer x Angora, Boer x Saanen, feral x feral, (Table 12.5; Oman et al., 1999).
Saanen x Angora and Saanen x feral) at the Boer-cross kid goats received some
same live weight (Dhanda et al., 1999a,b). In grain and had slightly higher levels of
other studies, however, fat thickness at the external fat than the Boer-cross yearling
12th to 13th rib was different among male goats that were raised only on pasture. It
goats of these genotypes (Dhanda et a/., was anticipated that external fat would
2003a). Although there were no differences increase in goats of older ages as a normal
288 /. T. Kadim and 0. Mahgoub
Table 12.5. Selected characteristics of carcasses from Boer x Spanish and Spanish goats from feedlot
or range regimens (from Oman et al., 1999).
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London, p. 340.
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Linear Measurements of Goat Carcass 291
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13 Nutritive Value and Quality
Characteristics of Goat Meat
2007). Generally, goat carcasses contain other muscles, is complex due to its multi-
between 10 and 19% more lean and between functions such as contraction, composition
47 and 54% less fat than cattle and sheep. and protection (Hocquette et al., 1998).
Besides being low in fat and cholesterol, Muscle metabolism plays a significant role
goat meat is an excellent source of protein, in the transformation of muscles to meat
B vitamins, iron and zinc. Goat meat is also (Cortright et al., 1997; Geay et al., 2001). As
a good source of desirable fatty acids (FAs), quality has been recognized as one of the
as goats deposit relatively higher amounts most important economic challenges for
of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) than meat producers around the world, goat mus-
other ruminants (Banskalieva et al., 2000; cle characteristics are important because of
Mahgoub et al., 2002; Pratiwi et al., 2007). their relationship with palatability. Animal
This is an important factor in reducing the physiology also generally plays an impor-
risk of cardiovascular diseases (van Niekerk tant role in controlling the changes that
and Casey, 1988; Park et al., 1991; Giese, occur in the post-mortem conversion of
1992; Stankov et al., 2002). muscle to meat, thereby affecting meat sup-
The conventional approach for study- ply for human consumption (Cortright et al.,
ing the quality characteristics of goat meat 1997; Hwang et a/., 2004a). The rate and
starts with an understanding of the struc- extent of goat muscle post-mortem metabo-
ture and physiology of living muscle. Goat lism are dependent on the availability of
skeletal muscle is made up of thousands of glycogen at slaughter (Janz et al., 2001), the
cylindrical muscle fibres, often running all temperature of the carcass (Newbold, 1996)
the way from origin to insertion. The fibres and other post-mortem factors. Initially,
are bound together by connective tissue during rigor mortis, muscles become stiff
through which run blood vessels and nerves and hard, but they gain some softness after
(Fig. 13.1). Goat muscle biology, like that of hanging and conditioning (ageing).
Sarcoplasmic reticulum
Z line
I band
M line
temperature decline is fast causing a slower affected by breed and plane of nutrition
decline in the rate of glycolysis. It is impor- (Warren et al., 2008; Mushi et al., 2009b).
tant to note that, within a given goat car- An increase in non-carcass fat with increas-
cass, various muscles will display different ing levels of concentrate supplementation
cooling rates based on their location within is chiefly due to the increase in energy
the carcass. intake (Mushi et a/., 2009b). Animals bred
for milk production deposit more fat inter-
nally around the viscera, while those bred
13.4 Meat Composition for meat production deposit more in the
carcass fat depots (Negussie et al., 2003).
In many countries, fat is an unpopular con- Animals fattened on pasture generally have
stituent of meat for consumption, being less body fat than those fed concentrates
considered unhealthy to the consumer. (Mushi et al., 2009b). Fat in the carcass has
However, fat and FAs, whether in adipose beneficial roles with respect to reducing
tissue or muscle, contribute significantly to dehydration and cold shortening during
various aspects of meat quality and are the cooling process (Louvandini et al.,
essential for the nutritional value of meat. 2006). Goat meat has a fat content 50-65%
Goat meat varies in composition due to lower than beef but a similar protein con-
breed, age, sex, nutrition, conformation and tent. It has between 42 and 59% less fat
site on the carcass. Water content differs than lamb, and is about the same to 25%
only slightly among species, while differ- lower than veal (James et al., 1990). Goat
ences in fat content are more marked (Mah- intramuscular fat ranges between 1.19 and
goub et al., 2004). Goat meat contains 77% 2.34% (Mahgoub et al., 2004; Banon et al.,
moisture (Dhanda et al., 2003; Mahgoub 2006). A greater intermuscular fat content
et al., 2004). This level is higher than that in occurs in heavier carcasses and in older
the meat of other farm animals (Table 13.1). animals, decreasing the relative content of
Goat meat is also a good source of protein, other nutrients. In Boer goat castrates, sub-
containing about 17.6-18.1% (Mahgoub cutaneous fat and intermuscular fat
et al., 2004), comparable to the meat of other increased over a 10.4 kg growth range at
species (Table 13.1). exponential rates of 1.68 and 1.64 against
Fat serves as an energy store, providing empty body mass, respectively (Casey and
a survival buffer against periodic food scar- Naude, 1984). Goats preferentially deposit
city such as during periods of drought fat internally as omental fat (Mushi et al.
(Negussie et al., 2003). Research findings 2009b). Genotype has been recognized to
show that the onset of fattening and the dis- have an effect on the chemical composition
tribution of fat in domestic animals are of goat meat (Dhanda et al., 2003), and dif-
Table 13.1. Comparison of the composition of goat meat with meat from other species.
85 g Saturated
Cooked (roasted) Calories (g) Fat (g) fat (mg) Protein (g) Iron (g)
Table 13.3. Mean composition of cooked muscle of lamb and Angora and Boer goats
(Schonfeldt et al., 1993).
ferent feeding regimes also contribute. 13.5 Nutritive Value of Goat Meat
Meat from Omani goats contained signifi-
cantly more chemical fat and slightly less The nutritive value of meat is becoming
protein than Somali goats (Mahgoub et al., increasingly important for human health. It
2004). Although meat with less fat might be is not enough to determine the nutrient value
preferred by consumers for health reasons, of meat through chemical composition and
less carcass fat might also affect meat-keep- bioavailability studies. Subsequently, it is
ing and quality attributes. not possible to apply such information as a
Cooked goat meat is also a good source norm for human nutrition without consider-
of high-quality protein (Table 13.2), as well ing the role of meat as a supplementary
as being a rich source of iron. Its low-calorienutrient source in most human diets. Human
content is comparable to that of chicken, eating preferences, which are affected by pal-
mainly attributed to its low fat content atability, flavour, taste and texture, tend to
(Table 13.2). dictate dietary composition. In view of the
Decreasing moisture and fat content of lack of a complete dietary analysis, goat meat
meat during cooking results in an increase will be discussed from the basis of chemical
in the protein fraction, which also increases composition. Generally, meat protein has a
the amino acid content (Webb, 1991; Schon- digestibility coefficient of 0.97, giving
feldt et al., 1993). Both subcutaneous and ingested meat a heat combustion of 17.87 kJ
intermuscular fat will affect this increase in (Gopalan et al., 1971). The average biological
the protein fraction. Different muscles on value (a measure of the proportion of
the carcass differ in chemical compositions, absorbed protein that becomes incorporated
especially in terms of fat, as has been shown into the proteins of the body) of goat meat
for cooked Angora and Boer goat meat and reported by Mitra and Mitra (1945) was
lamb (Table 13.3) 60.4% compared with 68.6% for beef.
The Nutritive Value of Goat Meat 297
The nutritive value of meat lies in the phan. Pellett and Young (1990) noted that,
extent to which the protein - and specifi- by expressing amino acids in mg of meat,
cally the indispensable amino acid - the supply of amino acids is determined
requirements of humans are satisfied. The largely by the amount of protein in a par-
general composition of adult mammalian ticular cut of meat. Meat is an important
muscle is 75% water, 19% protein, 2.5% source of lysine, as 100 g of lean meat would
lipid, 1.2% carbohydrate, 0.65% minerals provide 30-50% of the total protein needs
and <0.1% vitamins (Lawrie, 1985). The of an adult and 60-100% of the estimated
composition of muscle varies among mus- lysine needs.
cles as a result of their greater or lesser On a lean-meat basis (muscle tissue),
amounts of connective tissue and intramus- the amino acid composition variation
cular fat. As proteins accumulate and mus- between species is small. However, on a
cle hypertrophy occurs, the water:protein whole-meat basis (bone, fat and connective
ratio changes. For instance, castrated Boer tissue), the amount of amino acids can be
goat kids at 9.1% total body fat had a considerably different. Cuts of meat within
water:protein ratio in the buttock of 4.28 species differ in composition according to
(Casey, 1982). the degree of fatness, age and sex.
In general, the wealth of documentable
evidence indicates that goat meat, regard-
less of age, breed or region, is a high-quality
protein source along with a healthy fat level 13.5.2 Fat and fatty acids composition
(high unsaturated fat:saturated fat ratio)
with a minimal cholesterol intake risk. In The nutritive value of goat meat is becoming
addition, chevon contains comparatively increasingly important for human health,
higher values of iron, potassium and thia- particularly because of its leanness. The
mine associated with a low sodium level total lipid content of muscle (intramuscular
(Eastridge and Johnson, 1990). All essential fat) influences the tenderness and juiciness
amino acids are present and a low calorie of cooked meat, although the strength of the
per serving value is available. Consequently, correlation varies considerably between
goat meat should be designated as a natu- studies. Some studies have shown an impor-
rally occurring healthy meat. tant role for intramuscular fat, while others
showed only a weak relationship with sen-
sory traits. Goat meat obtained with green
forages has less fat than that produced with
13.5.1 Amino acid composition concentrates and conserved forages (Atti
et al., 2006). There has been more emphasis
The amino acid profile is very important in on muscle composition because of its greater
terms of meat composition, especially that significance as a food and an increasing
of the indispensable amino acids. The aversion to visible fat at retail. Muscle also
amino acid profile of goat muscle shows a contains higher concentrations of the long-
close resemblance to that of beef, pork and chain w-6 FAs, the importance of which in
lamb (Table 13.4). Goat meat is a rich source human nutrition has been recognized
of amino acids. Srinivasan and Moorjani recently. Separation and identification pro-
(1974) reported that goat meat contains cedures for low levels of unsaturated fatty
higher levels of arginine, leucine and iso- acids (USFAs) in muscle have also greatly
leucine than mutton. Boer goat meat had improved in recent years.
significantly higher concentrations of 11 of Saturated fatty acids (SFAs) are
the 18 measured amino acids than mutton regarded as harmful to human health in
(Sheridan et al., 2003; Table 13.4). The contrast to PUFAs, which play a favourable
usual limiting amino acids in different diets role in the prevention of some human artery
in various areas of the world are lysine, total diseases (Mercier et al., 2004). Although
sulfur amino acids, threonine and trypto- meat from monogastric animals contains
298 1. T Kadim and 0. Mahgoub
Table 13.4. Amino acid composition of muscle proteins of goat, beef, pork and lamb.
aSheridan et a/. (2003) (g/100 g); bSrinivasan and Moorjani (1974) (mg/g).
high levels of USFAs relative to ruminants, Goat meat is not only lower in total fat
its meat is susceptible to oxidation (Les- and cholesterol but is also lower in SFAs
kanich et al., 1997). Microorganisms in the compared with other meats. FAs vary in
rumen hydrogenate fat and increase the length according to the number of carbon
degree of saturated fat (Wood et al., 1999). atoms that comprise their backbone, and may
Meat FA composition is influenced by mus- be saturated or unsaturated. SFAs are more
cle type and its oxidation (Wood and Enser, solid at room temperature and contain no
1997; Geay et al., 2001). PUFAs are suscep- double bonds between carbon atoms. USFAs
tible to rancidity because they contain dou- may contain one (monosaturated) or several
ble bonds. Meat with high concentrations of (polyunsaturated) double bonds between the
PUFAs can develop a rancid flavour faster carbon atoms and are generally liquid at
than meat with fewer PUFAs. The interac- room temperature. It should be noted that the
tion of oxygen with PUFAs is a non-enzy- proportions of SFAs, monounsaturated FAs
matic process. Vacuum packaging of meat (MUFAs) and PUFAs in animal tissues vary
products therefore provides a longer shelf depending on the species (Table 13.5). In
life by excluding oxygen from the packag- monogastric species such as pigs and chick-
ing. The FA composition of muscle affects ens, they may be influenced by diet.
its oxidative stability during processing and The overall fat content of the animal
retail display, the PUFAs in phospholipids and its muscle has an important impact on
being liable to oxidative breakdown at this the overall FA composition because of the
stage. A standard test for lipid oxidative sta- different FA compositions of neutral lipids
bility in foods is the thiobarbituric acid and phospholipids. Phospholipids are
reactive substances (TBARS) test of Tarlad- essential components of cell membranes,
gis et al. (1960), which measures the oxida- and the amount of phospholipids remains
tion product malondialdehyde. Values fairly constant or increases slightly as the
above 5 are considered critical, as they indi- animal increases in fatness. In goats, the
cate a level of lipid oxidation products that lower 18:1cis-9 and higher 18:2w -6 content
produces a rancid odour and taste, which of phospholipids has a major influence on
can easily be detected by consumers. total muscle FA composition.
The Nutritive Value of Goat Meat 299
Several factors can influence the FA (1988), the FA and protein values are usu-
composition of meat. Nutrition can affect the ally constant with an intramuscular fat level
FA composition of muscle by improving the of 0.94-1.4% in the Indian subcontinent
nutritional balance in ruminants to increase breeds compared with Alpine, Toggenburg
the level of PUFAs (Wood and Enser, 1997). and Nubian Saanen goats (2.01%). Deven-
It has been reported by Banskalieva et al. dra (1988) also noted that USFAs predomi-
(2000), Mahgoub et al. (2002) and Pratiwi nate in goat meat, up to 70%, similar to the
et al. (2007) that the FA composition of goat values in the USDA Handbook (1986) with
fat depots tends to change with age. Pratiwi a value of 69%, which is higher than the
et al. (2007) found more SFAs in the longis- 50% reported by Eastridge and Johnson
simus dorsi muscles taken from younger (1990). Lauric (2%), myristic (2.6%) and
goats compared with those from older goats. palmitic (27.6%) acids are SFAs of the
This may be explained by the fact that young hypercholesterolaemic group found in goat
goats are suckling milk from their mother meat that elevate plasma cholesterol levels.
and the composition of FAs in their muscles The non-hypercholesterolaemic group of
is dependent on the composition of FAs in FAs consists of one SFA, stearic acid (C18:0,
the consumed milk fat. Milk is rich in SFAs, 14-16.6%) and the USFAs oleic (C18:1,
which make up to 66% of total FAs (Deven- 30.1-37%), linoleic (C18:2, 13.4%) and lin-
dra, 1980; Zygoyiannis et al., 1992). As the olenic (C18:3 0.4%) acids.
rumen of young goats is not well developed, The profile of the long-chain FAs of goat
their diet would be influenced by the com- meat show oleic acid (C18:1) to be the most
position of FAs that exists in the milk con- abundant, with levels of palmitic (C16:0)
sumed (Chilliard, 1993). In ruminants, the and stearic acid (C18:0) being relatively high
FAs in concentrate feedstuffs such as grains (Casey and van Niekerk, 1985; Kuhne et al.,
and oilseeds is degraded into MUFAs and 1986; Casey et al, 1988). Although nutri-
SFAs in the rumen by microbial biohydroge- tional influences on the FA profile of rumi-
nation, and only 10% will be incorporated nants are less than with monogastric
into tissue lipids (Wood et al., 2008). Muscle animals, they can cause subtle changes in
contains a significant proportion of long- goats (Casey and van Niekerk, 1985). The
chain (C20-C22) PUFAs, which are formed high variance of each FA in goat kids can be
from 18:2w-6 and 18:3w-3 by the action of 45 ascribed to the monogastric characteristic of
and 46 desaturase and elongase enzymes. suckling animals, which makes them sensi-
Important products are arachidonic acid tive to nutritional influences. In adult Boer
(20:4w-6) and eicosapentaenoic acid goat castrates, stearic acid and oleic acid in
(20:5w-3), which have various metabolic subcutaneous and kidney fat responded to
end products including eicosanoic acid. five different energy levels (7.5, 8.4, 9.3, 10.3
The percentage of saturated fat in goat and 11.2 MJ metabolizable energy/kg dry
meat is 40% less than chicken (without matter) fed for 90 days: stearic acid decreased
skin), being far below beef, pork and lamb by 41% and oleic acid increased by 21%
by 850, 1100 and 900%, respectively (Casey and van Niekerk, 1985). Similarly,
(USDA, 1989). According to Devendra feeding eight types of pasture for 84 days
300 1. 7= Kadim and 0. Mahgoub
influenced the levels of myristic, heptadeca- saturated than subcutaneous fats, as is illus-
noic, linoleic and stearic acids of subcutane- trated in the differences between FAs of the
ous fat of mutton (Casey et a/., 1988). In subcutaneous and kidney depots. Fat from
goats, oleic acid made up the greatest pro- the triceps brachii, biceps femoris and
portion (43%) of the subcutaneous fat, fol- obliquus internus abdominis muscles of
lowed by palmitic acid (24%) and stearic goats contained 57% C18:1 and 25% C16:0
acid (15%). Clearly, a range occurs in the FA (Ha et al., 1986).
profile of goat meat; for example, levels of The FA profile of Jebel Akhdar Omani
stearic acid range from 12 to 26% and oleic goats determined by Mahgoub et a/. (2002) is
acid from 21 to 46%. presented in Table 13.6. The muscle tissue
Goat meat has a low w -6 and w -9 poly- of the Jebel Akhdar goats contained an aver-
unsaturated fat content (Gimenenz et al., age of 51.3 and 48.7% of SFAs and USFAs,
1985), which may have health-related nutri- respectively (Table 13.6). These figures are
tional implications for humans, particularly in line with those reported elsewhere for
for the immune system (Wan et al., 1989). goat meat. Potchoiba et al. (1990) reported a
The levels of C18:2w -6, C20:1a)-9 and value of 50.6 and 49.4%, respectively, with
C20:4w -6 in goat subcutaneous fat in goats Alpine kids. Johnson et a/. (1995) reported a
fed four different diets were 3.12, 0.89 and slightly higher ratio of USFAs to SFAs, but
1.18%, respectively. Visceral fats are more these results were from broiled rather than
Table 13.6. Mean (± sEM) fatty acid composition of muscle, subcutaneous and kidney fat tissue of
Omani goats of pooled sexes and weights (from Mahgoub et al., 2002).
SFAs, Saturated fatty acids; MUFAs, monounsaturated fatty acids; PUFAs, polyunsaturated fatty acids; UFAs,
unsaturated fatty acids.
Means on the same row within sex or body weight without or with the same letter (a, b, c) do not significantly
differ (P> 0.05).
The Nutritive Value of Goat Meat 301
raw meat. Generally, ruminants have a meat from Boer goats on a high-energy diet
higher saturated:unsaturated ratio compared contained lower levels of cholesterol than
with monogastric animals (Wood, 1984). that from mutton on a high-energy diet (66.8
This is because USFAs in the diet are hydro- versus 99.3 mg/100 g).
genated in the rumen to saturated fats to be Santos-Filho et al. (2005) reported a
absorbed in a more saturated form, in con- value of 54.4 mg/100 g for cholesterol in
trast to monogastric animals in which goat meat, with castration of male goats
USFAs are absorbed directly from the intes- increasing the cholesterol levels. Similar
tine into the bloodstream. MUFAs in Jebel effects of castration in goats were reported
Akhdar goats were present at an average of by Madruga et al. (2001). Cholesterol levels
43.5%, which is very close to that reported in goat meat were significantly affected by
for other goat breeds (45% by Johnson et al., breed and age, with levels increasing dra-
1995) and for lamb (46.2%) and beef (47.1%) matically with slaughter age (Madruga
(Seman and McKenzie-Parnell, 1989). et al., 1999; Beserra et al., 2004).
The cholesterol content of goat meat is asso- Goat meat is an excellent source of minerals
ciated with its fat content, which means required for normal growth and good health.
that fattier meat contains more cholesterol The macro- and micromineral contents
than leaner meat. Pratiwi et al. (2007) of goat meat are reviewed in detail in
reported that total cholesterol concentration Chapter 11 of this book. Calcium is an impor-
in goat muscle decreased as carcass weight tant element in the body required for bone
increased. Brown et al. (1990) and Huskey development, neuromuscular activity, secre-
et al. (1993) reported that the amount of tory functions, buffers, certain coenzymes
intramuscular fat is not always related to and nutrients for the nursed young. Although
the cholesterol content of the muscles. an essential dietary component, lean meat
Some variation in cholesterol content has a low calcium content that is insufficient
between different goat muscles was also to provide the recommended daily allow-
reported. The differences may be due to ance (RDA). Lean goat meat was found to
variation in anatomical sites and physiolog- contain 11-12 mg calcium/100 g (McCance
ical functions and the development of mus- and Widdowson, 1960). Mechanically
cle types, which may reflect the rate of deboned meat tends to have a higher cal-
cholesterol synthesis among different mus- cium content, in the range of 0.05-0.75%
cles (Lawrie, 1985; Wheeler et al., 1987; (Kolbye and Nelson, 1977). Phosphorus is
Chizzolini et al., 1999; Pratiwi et al., 2007). essential for bone formation, enzymes and
The cholesterol content of chevon is energy metabolism. The RDA for phospho-
controversially similar to that of beef, lamb, rus, based on the need to provide a dietary
pork and chicken and much lower than calcium:phosphorus ratio of 1, is 800 mg.
some dairy and poultry products and some Protein foods are good sources of phosphorus,
seafoods. Other studies have indicated goat with goat muscle containing 157 mg/100 g
meat cholesterol levels of 76 mg/100 g com- (Wan Zahari and Wahid, 1985). Goat liver
pared with 70 mg/100 g for beef, fish and (259 mg/100 g) and brain (246 mg/100 g) had
lamb and 60 mg/100 g for pork and chicken about 100 mg more phosphorus than mus-
(Pond and Maner, 1984; Potchoiba et al., cle. Fresh goat meat is also a good source of
1990). Cholesterol levels of uncooked beef potassium (359 mg/100 g), contributing to
meat range from 36-46 to 78.2 mg/100 g total potassium intake (Wan Zahari and
(Terrell et al., compared with
1969) Wahid, 1985). Goat muscle contains
58-70 mg/100 g for chevon (Park et al., 55-77 mg of sodium per 100 mg (Wan Zahari
1991). Sheridan et al. (2003) reported that and Wahid, 1985). The magnesium level in
302 I.T. Kadim and 0. Mahgoub
Table 13.7. Thiamine, riboflavin and niacin content of goat, lean beef, veal and lamb.
aAbdon et al. (1980); bUSDA, 1986; cOno et al. (1984); dOno et al. (1986)
Table 13.8. Comparison of nutrient analysis of an 85 g cooked portion of carcass composite meat from
goat, beef and chicken (from Johnson et al., 1995).
shortening occurred. Goat breeds may also breaking the myofibrils into shorter seg-
differ in meat quality. Meat from Angora ments in comparison with the non-stimu-
goats is tenderer than meat of Boer goats. lated group. However, King et al. (2004)
This could be due to lower collagen content found that electrical stimulation did not
and better collagen solubility. Evaluation of affect the MFI at 1, 3 or 14 days of ageing of
collagen alone, however, would be insuffi- goat meat. According to Kadim et al. (2010),
cient for conclusions on differences in ten- the MFI can contribute up to 50% of the
derness. Other factors may be involved, variation in goat meat tenderness. A similar
especially muscle fibre size, the type of conclusion was reported by Olson and Par-
matrix formed by collagen and the state of rish (1977) for beef meat. Transportation of
muscle contraction. goat at a high ambient temperature (42°C)
significantly decreases the MFI by 5.5%.
13.6.4 Myofibril lar fragmentation index
haem structure, while the fifth bond links which explained the differences between
the iron atom to the amino acid chain. The the values at days 1 and 6 of ageing.
sixth site bonds the iron atom to the haem
chemical group that determines the meat
colour. Proportions of deoxymyoglobin, oxy- 13.7 Post-mortem Treatment and
myoglobin and metmyoglobin in the meat Meat Quality
depend on oxygen availability and deter-
mine the colour of fresh meat (Leeward,
1992; Lindahl et al., 2001). According to Lee-
Although the exact point of conversion of
muscle to meat is not easy to determine, the
ward (1992), oxygen availability depends on
the oxygen partial pressure, penetration and metabolic activity of the skeletal muscle
consumption rate of the muscle (Leeward, will not stop when the functional role of
1992). The penetration depth of light
muscle is lost and rigor has been estab-
decreases as an effect of light scattering due lished. Many biochemical reactions have
to an increased amount of myofibrillar water significant implications for the quality char-
and meat pH (Feldhusen, 1994). The meat acteristics of goat meat. This section will
colour depends on the rate of pH decline, the
discuss refrigeration, freezing, ageing, cold
ultimate pH and the extent of protein dena- shortening and electrical stimulation regard-
turation (Bendall and Swatland, 1988; Feld- ing the quality characteristics of goat meat.
husen, 1994). During post-mortem glycolysis,
the muscle proteins become denatured,
resulting in increased light scattering and 13.7.1 Refrigeration and freezing
less light penetration (Bendall and Swatland,
1988; Feldhusen, 1994), increased lightness Refrigeration is lowering the temperature of
of the meat (Joo et al., 1999), decreased pen- the carcass to slow down the rate of glycoly-
etration depth of light and changes in the sis of muscle. Controlling airflow inside
selective light absorption through chromo- chillers is important for efficiency and
phores such as myoglobin and haemoglobin homogeneity of carcass chilling (Mirade
(Feldhusen, 1994). and Picgirard, 2001). Blast chilling of goat
Meat colour is affected by several fac- meat, which has a thin layer of subcutane-
tors such as breed, type of muscle, meat pH ous fat, may induce toughening and there-
and ageing. Breed differences in the light- fore compromise meat quality. According to
ness (L*), redness (a *) and yellowness (b*) Sheridan et al. (1998), at 35°C, almost 80%
colour values (Hunter scale) of the biceps of the enzyme activity was lost during rigor
femoris, semitendinosus and longissimus development, while about 20% of the activ-
dorsi muscles were reported (Kadim et al., ity was lost when the meat was exposed to
2004). The longissimus dorsi muscle from 15°C. Rapid chilling of carcasses (-20°C)
Jebel Akhdar goats had significantly higher was reported to produce meat as tender as
L* (P < 0.05), while Batina goats had signifi- those chilled at 4°C and reduced evapora-
cantly lower L* (P < 0.05) in the semimem- tive weight losses by 0.5-1% (McGeehin
branosus muscle than other breeds. Ageing et al., 2002). Therefore, blast chilling may
of muscles for 6 days produced a significant be used in conjunction with electrical stim-
effect on meat colour compared with meat ulation to accelerate the onset of rigor mor-
aged for 1 day for the longissimus dorsi, tis in order to avoid the development of
semimembranosus, semitendinosus and cold shortening. In contrast, freezing is a
biceps femoris muscles in goats (Kadim common practice in preserving meat quality
et al., 2004). Kannan et al. (2001) reported for an extended time and offers several
that the average value of a* of chevon cuts advantages. These indicate insignificant
was high at day 0 and low at day 8. The alterations in product dimensions and min-
length of post-mortem glycolysis can modify imum deterioration in meat colour, flavour
the perceived colour independently of meat and texture. The disadvantages of frozen
metmyoglobin formation (Leeward, 1985), storage include freezer burn, dehydration,
The Nutritive Value of Goat Meat 307
rancidity, drip loss and product bleaching. The rate of freezing and subsequent
Many meat products go directly from the thaw drip loss may reduce the nutrient con-
freezer to cooking. As the cooked appear- tent of goat meat. Drip losses of cuts of
ance of frozen cuts does not differ from Angora and Boer goat longissimus muscles
fresh cuts (Obuz and Dikeman, 2003), the frozen at -20°C and thawed at 10°C for 24 h
consumer is not able to differentiate were 3.68 and 3.19%, respectively. Drip
between the two. The shelf-life extension losses of the semimembranosus muscles of
and the purchasing and inventory flexibility Angora and Boer goats were about 3.5 times
offered by frozen meat items are valuable greater at 14.41 and 15.51%, respectively
assets in the food service industry. (Schonfeldt et al., 1993).
Freezing of meat has been widely Freezing causes physical and chemical
researched to enable lowering of the changes in meat that lead to deterioration in
amount of drip loss on thawing. Drip loss is the quality of the meat through ice crystal
one of the main problems in frozen meat formation (Honikel et al., 1986). The func-
(Kropf and Bowers, 1992). Drip loss from tionality of meat is adversely affected by
thawing meat includes proteins, vitamins long-term frozen storage, and most of the
and other nutrients, in addition to mois- vitamins are lost in the dripping water
ture, and results in decreased cooked yields (Miller et al., 1980). Protein denaturation at
and juiciness. The loss of fluid generally low temperatures leads to loss of water.
reduces the eating quality, binding ability Slow freezing causes the water to separate
and weight of the meat. The volume of drip from the tissue into pools that form large
produced on thawing has been related to crystals, which may result in greater struc-
the rate of freezing, size and location of ice tural damage associated with larger inter-
crystals in frozen meat. The loss of mois- cellular ice crystals (Farouk et al., 2004).
ture in frozen-thawed meat may reach up Rapid freezing is more suitable for goat car-
to 85% of the water in muscle tissue. This casses due to the small carcass size, small
water is located intracellularly in the myo- muscle thickness and low level of subcuta-
fibrils, whereas the remaining 15% is neous fat. Rapid freezing results in very lit-
located in the extracellular space (Hamm, tle water separation, resulting in the
1975). The main body of water is held by formation of small crystals. The drip loss in
capillary action (Offer and Trinick, 1983) fast-frozen meat is less than from slow-fro-
and a small amount (4-5%) is restricted in zen meat. Fluctuations in temperature that
motion because of the proximity of protein occur during storage cause recrystallization
molecules (Hamm, 1975). When the muscle phenomena that may explain the deteriora-
is frozen, water associated with protein is tion in meat quality during frozen storage
replaced with protein (Fennema, 1982), (Bevilacqua and Zaritzky, 1982). The solu-
which leads to a decrease in water-holding bility of myofibrillar proteins is lower in
capacity after thawing (Wagner and Anon, slowly frozen meat compared with fast fro-
1985). The most critical temperature in zen meat (Farouk et al., 2004).
thawing meat is between -10 and -2°C;
therefore, meat must pass through this
range rapidly (Calve lo, 1981). In rapid
chilling of meat, calcium is released into 13.7.2 Cold shortening
the sarcosome, which causes remarkable
muscle contraction in the presence of ATP. Cold shortening is a phenomenon that
The temperature difference between the occurs in pre-rigor muscle and results in
inside and outside of chilled muscles deter- tough meat. 'Shortening' refers to the short
mines the cooling rate of the meat. This sarcomere length of highly contracted mus-
value decreases towards the centre of the cle with protein denaturation and water
muscle. This is important in a practical loss (Devine et al., 1999). Rapid chilling
sense in carcasses from animals with less may have a detrimental effect through cold
fat coverage, such as goats. shortening, which may result in a drastic
308 1. 7= Kadim and 0. Mahgoub
decrease in tenderness (Marsh et al., 1974). Ca2+ ions are released after some depletion
The degree of overlap between myosin and of ATP from muscle has taken place, only a
actin filaments contributes primarily to minor amount of shortening will occur.
meat toughening (Tornberg, 1996). Changes This suggests that depletion of ATP to mini-
in the angles of criss-cross connective tissue mum levels by increasing the rate of post-
lattice and crimp length are responsible in mortem glycolysis to exhaust the glycogen
part for the relationship between sarcomere while the carcass temperature is still high
length and meat tenderness (Renerre et al., will minimize cold shortening. Electrical
1999). However, the toughness of cold- stimulation increases the rate of post-mor-
shortened muscle is largely affected by an tem glycolysis, reducing the time for the
endogenous enzymatic tenderization mech- onset of rigor mortis.
anism rather than shortened sarcomere Electrical stimulation involves passing
length (Hwang et a/., 2004b). There may be an electric current through the freshly
a possibility of a more direct cold-shorten- slaughtered goat carcass in a series of short
ing/toughening relationship in lean goat impulses, each causing the muscles to con-
carcasses exposed to rapid chilling early tract violently; however, in between
post-mortem. This would be more likely for impulses, the muscles return to their nor-
lean carcasses with localized subcutaneous mal relaxed state. Goat carcasses have a
fat deposition (Koch et al., 1995). The effect poor insulating subcutaneous fat cover.
of shortening sarcomeres on shear force is This makes them susceptible to muscle
significantly detrimental when proteolysis toughening through the effects of cold
is relatively slow. shortening during the chilling process. This
If the meat is frozen prior to rigor onset can be countered by application of a low-
and subsequently thawed, it will dramati- voltage electric current to the lean carcasses
cally shorten and become extremely tough. immediately after slaughter to accelerate
This phenomenon is referred to as 'thaw post-mortem glycolysis (Kadim et al., 2010).
shortening'. The process of pre-rigor freez- Electrical stimulation increases the rate of
ing can damage the sarcoplasmic reticulum post-mortem glycolysis, depleting the ATP
and destroy its ability to regulate calcium energy source for muscle contraction due to
concentrations within the myofibre. Both an anaerobic state (Hwang et al., 2003). The
calpains and myosin ATPase require free variability in overall ATP post-mortem is
Ca2+ ions in the cytoplasm for their activi- primarily responsible for the variability in
ties (Celio et al., 1996). It has been shown post-mortem pH fall in muscle. The time
that calcium-reserving organelles lose their that it takes for muscle pH values to decline
function at abnormal cellular temperature to 6.0 is a reflection of the onset of earlier
(Cornforth et al., 1980). During thawing, all rigor. With the acceleration of post-mortem
components necessary for muscle contrac- glycolysis, a rapid build-up of lactic acid
tion are still present but control of the reac- occurs and, in some cases, the pH of electri-
tions is lost. As a result, anaerobic cally stimulated goat muscle can reach a pH
metabolism proceeds at a very rapid rate of 6.0 in 2-3 h instead of the 10-14 h that
and is concomitant with severe contraction. may be required for non-stimulated muscles
(Gadiyaram et al., 2008; Kadim et al., 2010).
A reduction in the time required for mus-
cles to reach a pH of 6.0 is of practical
13.7.3 Electrical stimulation importance as it determines the period of
delay necessary before the muscle tempera-
Ca2+ ions and ATP content are the major ture can be dropped below 10°C if cold
factors that govern the degree of muscle shortening is to be avoided (Chrystall et al.,
contraction. The post-mortem release of 1984). The residual contractile properties of
Ca2+ ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum muscle are reduced, rigor mortis is advanced
at high ATP levels in muscle results in a sig- and the enzymes associated with the condi-
nificant level of shortening. However, if tioning of meat are accelerated.
The Nutritive Value of Goat Meat 309
6.8
6.7
6.6
6.5
6.4
6.3
6.2
6.1
5.9
5.8
5.7
5.6
0 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Time (h)
Fig. 13.2. Mean changes in pH within the longissimus dorsi muscle of two breeds of goats electrically
stimulated (---) or non-stimulated (-) (Kadim et al., 2010).
membranes and the rate of fluid migration is necessary as meat is usually unacceptably
within the muscle (den Hertog-Meischke tough immediately following rigor onset.
et al., 1997). The time required for the ageing process
varies depending on the type of meat.
Although high-temperature conditioning of
meat promotes bacterial growth, the ageing
13.7.4 Ageing process may be accelerated by keeping car-
casses above 15°C (Pearson and Dutson,
Tenderness is the predominant quality 1985). This type of conditioning can be
determinant and probably the most impor- applied in the pre- or post-rigor state and is
tant organoleptic characteristic of meat. effective for improving meat quality. It has
Historically, meat has been aged to improve been suggested that, during the ageing
its quality characteristics by storage at a cer- process, tenderization occurs as a result of
tain temperature for a period of time. Ageing protein degradation. The ageing processes
The Nutritive Value of Goat Meat 311
originate within the myofibre and are membranosus had the highest (Kadim et al.,
responsible for degradation of cellular con- 2004). These variations might be due to
stituents. differences in connective tissue content or
Analysis of muscle proteins along with sarcomere length.
meat-quality traits during ageing is crucial As ageing time increases, tenderness
in understanding the biological basis of will improve as a result of complex changes
changes in meat quality. The proteolytic in muscle metabolism, which are depen-
enzymes in meat that have been studied the dent on animal breed, metabolic status,
most are the cathepsins and calpains. rearing system and prior slaughter stress.
Ageing was shown to have significant During ageing, the structure of the myofi-
effects on Hunter L* (lightness) values, brillar and other associated proteins under-
shear force values and expressed juice of goes some modifications, and collagen is
goat meat (Kadim et al., 2004). The most rel- weakened, although to a lesser extent
evant consequence of ageing is an improve- (Christensen et al., 2004). The proteolytic
ment in meat tenderness (Janz et al., 2001; enzymes in meat play a significant role in
Ruiz de Huidobro et al., 2003; Kadim et al., improving meat quality by the degradation
2004). Table 13.9 shows that ageing of goat of actin and/or actin-relevant peptides dur-
muscles for 1 day resulted in significantly ing ageing (Hwang et al., 2004b). Enzymes
higher shear force values than in those aged require specific conditions such as tempera-
for 6 days (Kadim et al., 2004). The shear ture and pH for optimal activity, and, if
force values for the three Omani goat breeds these can be determined and maximized in
Batina, Dhofari and Jebel Akhdar were meat, improvements in meat tenderness can
reduced by 15-31, 17-28 and 17-29%, be achieved. Cathepsins within lysosomes
respectively, between 1 and 6 days of age- operate at a pH of <5.2 to produce better
ing for four muscles. The longissimus dorsi meat quality by degrading myofibrillar pro-
muscle had the highest reduction (31%) teins. Calpains are proteases that require
while the semitendinosus muscle had the Ca2+ ions and a pH of <5.6 for activity. The
lowest reduction (16%), and the shear force amount of calcium available in normal mus-
values of the other two were reduced by cle cells is a major contributor to meat ten-
27% for the biceps femoris and 25% for derization. The pH value required for
the semimembranosus muscles. Generally, optimal enzyme functioning is substantially
longissimus dorsi muscles from goats had higher than the pH 5.6 of normal meat;
the lowest shear force values, while semi- therefore, maximal activity of calpains is
Table 13.9. Means (± SD) for a range of quality characteristics for the longissimus dorsi muscle of three
Omani goats breeds at 1 or 6 days ageing (from Kadim et al., 2004).
Breed
Ultimate pH 5.75 ± 0.1 5.78 ± 0.1 5.56 ± 0.0 5.60 ± 0.0 5.64 ± 0.1 5.67 ± 0.07
Expressed juices 36.8 ± 3.7 35.6 ± 3.4 36.3 ± 1.8 35.0 ± 1.8 36.5 ± 4.2 35.5 ± 3.7
Cooking loss (%) 21.9 ± 3.7 21.3 ± 3.6 25.3 ± 2.2 23.8 ± 2.13 24.8 ± 1.7 23.4 ± 1.8
WB values (kg)b 7.2 ± 1.8 4.5 ± 2.2 7.4 ± 2.4 5.3 ± 1.4 7.7 ± 1.4 5.4 ± 1.2
L* (lightness) 40.7 ± 1.1 38.9 ± 1.5 40.1 ± 1.3 39.9 ± 1.7 42.1 ±2.8 40.3 ± 3.5
a* (redness) 23.2 ± 0.7 23.4 ± 1.5 23.6 ± 1.2 23.1 ± 1.4 23.5 ± 1.8 23.4 ± 1.5
b* (yellowness) 4.7 ± 0.7 4.3 ± 0.8 4.8b ± 0.7 4.4 ± 1.0 5.7 ± 1.5 4.4 ± 0.8
most likely to occur during the early post- intermediate (Kannan et al., 2001; Kadim
mortem conditions. et al., 2004). These authors reported that the
The influence of post-mortem ageing on average cooking loss was high in leg cuts
meat water-holding capacity is of practical and low in loin cuts.
interest. Degradation of skeletal muscle pro- Ageing of goat muscles for 6 days pro-
teins such as desmin, vinculin, titin and duced significantly lower L* values than
nebulin was considered to be responsible those aged for 1 day (Kadim et al., 2004).
for changes in water-holding capacity dur- Kannan et al. (2001) reported that the aver-
ing ageing (Kristensen and Purslow, 2001; age value of a* (redness) for chevon cuts
Baron et al., 2004; Lametsch et al., 2004). was high at day 0 and low at day 8. The
Formation of drip is generally considered a colour of the meat surface depends not only
result of denaturation of contractile pro- on the quantity of myoglobin but also on the
teins and shrinkage of myofibrils during relative proportions of the three main states
rigor development (Bertram et al., 2004; of myoglobin on the surface. Ultimate pH
Hwang et al., 2004b). However, reduced can influence colour independently of meat
drip loss has also been related to the 'leak- myoglobin content (Leeward, 1985), which
out' effect, and ageing itself did not improve explains the differences between aged and
the water-holding capacity. A higher rigor non-aged samples.
temperature accelerated drip loss during
vacuum-packed storage and drip loss
increased at a high pH of 6.2 as ageing time
lengthened (Hwang et al., 2004b). Ageing of 13.7.5 Muscle fibre types and meat quality
goat muscles had significantly lower water-
holding capacity than non-aged samples Skeletal muscle features are complex due
(Moller et al., 1983; Kim et al., 1993; Joo to their role in movement, deposition of
et al., 1995; Kadim et al., 2004). This differ- protein, protection and transformation of
ence might be explained by the 'leaking-out' muscles to meat (Hocquette et al., 1998;
hypothesis, which states that water is lost Geay et al. 2001). Skeletal muscle is com-
by evaporation or dripping during the age- posed of a large number of different types of
ing period. Slight differences in expressed muscle fibre that contribute to a variety
juice between different muscles were of functional capabilities and metabolic
reported by Gonzalez et al. (1983), Mari- enzymes (Schiaffino and Reggiani, 1996).
nova et al. (2001) and Kadim et al. (2004). These fibre types differ according to their
Ageing of the biceps femoris, semitendino- molecular, metabolic, structural and con-
sus and semimembranosus muscles for tractile properties (Pette and Staron, 1990).
6 days had significantly lower percentage Fibre-type diversity is usually defined by
cooking losses than muscles aged for 1 day the isoform of the myosin heavy chain
(Kadim et al., 2004). Similarly, Kannan present (Pette and Staron, 1990). Myosin
et al. (2001) found that the percentage cook- heavy-chain composition and skeletal mus-
ing loss was higher at day 0 than at days 4, cle fibre types are two of the most important
8 or 12 of display for goat steaks. According determinants in meat quality and meat
to Trout (1988), cooking loss is more depen- products, as quality is currently an impor-
dent on ultimate pH, sarcomere length and tant social and economic challenge for meat
cooking conditions. Bouton et al. (1972) producers and retailers (Xiong, 1994). The
suggested that the myofibrillar protein molecular diversity of skeletal muscle fibre
changes structurally with ageing, resulting types is species specific (Pette and Staron,
in significantly reducing cooking loss for 1990). Physiological differences between
aged rather than non-aged muscles. Goat species related to body size have been
semimembranosus muscle had the highest reported by Rome et al. (1990). The most
percentage cooking loss, while the longissi- useful schemes to describe skeletal fibre
mus dorsi had the lowest and the biceps types are based on specific myosin profiles
femoris and semitendinosus muscles were to provide greater insights into the
The Nutritive Value of Goat Meat 313
molecular and functional diversity, versatil- Goat skeletal muscle cells are classified
ity and adaptability of muscle fibres. Pheno- into several specialized classes, termed
typic profiles of skeletal muscle fibre types fibre types, which show variations in con-
are affected by innervation/neuromuscular tractile and metabolic properties. The iso-
activity, exercise training, loading/unload- forms of the myosin heavy-chain molecule
ing, hormones and ageing (Pette and Staron, represent the best markers of muscle fibre
1990). According to the above information, diversity (Pette and Staron, 1990). It is
the quality of meat is therefore determined thought that both myosin heavy-chain com-
by the muscle architecture, attachment of position and skeletal muscle fibre types are
fibres to connective tissue and post-mortem two of the most important determinants in
changes in these structures. The quality meat quality and meat products (Xiong,
characteristics of goat meat such as flavour, 1994). Different combinations of myosin
colour, juiciness and tenderness are influ- heavy-chain isoforms may occur within the
enced by many factors, among which fibre same fibre, but the predominant isoform is
type is important. Muscle structures, the the main determinant of the fibre's func-
conversion of muscle to meat and the tional properties such as speed of contrac-
phenomenon of rigor mortis have been tion and fatigue resistance (Schiaffino and
discussed above. Reggiani, 1996). The molecular diversity of
Fig. 13.3. Serial frozen sections of adult goat semitendinosus muscle stained for immunohistochemistry
with monoclonal antibodies raised against specific myosin heavy-chain isoforms (a-f) and by enzyme
histochemistry for myofibrillar ATPase and quantitative succinic dehydrogenase (g-i). The sections in a-f
were stained with monoclonal antibodies specific for isoforms I, IIA, IIB and IIX. The fibres labelled 1, 3 and
5 are pure fibres containing isoforms I, IIA and IIX, respectively; fibres 2 and 4 are hybrid fibres containing
isoforms I plus IIA, and IIA plus IIX, respectively. (g, h) Myofibrillar ATPase activity after pre-incubation at
pH 4.5 (g) and pH 10.5 (h). (i) Succinate dehydrogenase activity. Bar, 50 pm (from Arguello et al., 2001).
314 1. T Kadim and 0. Mahgoub
adult skeletal muscle fibres is species spe- than fast-twitch oxidative fibre types
cific (Pette and Staron, 1990), and important (Kadim et al., 2010). The latter authors com-
physiological differences between species pared the diameters of slow-twitch oxida-
related to body size have already been tive, fast-twitch oxidative and fast-twitch
reported (Rome et al., 1990). Figure 13.3 muscle fibres and found that fast-twitch
demonstrates the presence of three different fibres were larger than fast-twitch oxidative
muscle fibre types in goat semitendinosus fibres, and fast-twitch oxidative fibres were
muscle containing a unique myosin heavy- larger than slow-twitch oxidative fibres
chain isoform: one slow-twitch fibre type (Table 13.10). The effect of muscle fibre
(type I) and two fast-twitch fibre types type on meat quality of goat meat may be
(types IIA and IIB) (Arguello et al., 2001). due to the muscle fibre size - the larger the
The quality of goat meat is the main fac- size, the tougher the meat. Fast-contracting
tor of importance in the provision of meat, fibres with a glycolytic metabolism (fast-
and is affected by muscle structure and twitch fibres) are larger than slow and oxi-
muscle fibre types. Enhancing meat safety dative red fibres. The red fibres are rich in
involves the application of measures to lipid and red in colour, therefore contribut-
delay or prevent microbiological, chemical ing to taste and colour quality, and they are
and/or physical changes that make meat also related to metabolic differences.
unhealthy for human consumption. Recent
advances have helped our understanding of
meat structure and its effect on the meat-
quality characteristics of goats. 13.8 Processing of Meat
Three myosin heavy-chain isoform pro-
teins have been found in goat longissimus Goat meat processing is important for
dorsi muscles: slow-twitch oxidative (type human nutrition and refers to applying
I), fast-twitch oxidative (type IIA) and fast- technology to improve or maintain quality
twitch (type IIB) (Kadim et al., 2010). The and add value, and to preserve the meat and
constant staining pattern of muscle fibres produce suitable high-quality meat prod-
for myosin ATPase is consistent with the ucts to be used at different times and places
goat muscle study by Arguello et al. (2001) for consumption. Meat processing is an
(Fig. 13.3). It has been reported that the fast- extensive subject and only some aspects of
twitch fibre type occurs at a significantly goat meat will be highlighted. Goat meat is
higher frequency than the slow-twitch oxi- preserved by drying, curing with salts or
dative or fast-twitch oxidative fibre types, smoking, or is manufactured into reconsti-
while the slow-twitch oxidative fibre types tuted products. Goat meat is processed not
occur at a significantly higher frequency only as a means of preserving but also to
Table 13.10. Muscle fibre type parameters (means ± SD) in longissimus dorsi muscles from two breeds
of goats (from Kadim et al., 2010).
Breed
Proportion
Type I 19.2 18.9 0.66
Type IIA 9.9 9.6 0.42
Type IIB 71.0 71.4 0.74
Diameter (pm)
Type I 56.3 52.9 1.25
Type IIA 61.1 56.7 1.36
Type IIB 58.0 56.6 1.04
Table 13.11. Sensory panel rating for frankfurters in which beef was substituted by 40% goat, mutton
and pork (from Marshall et al., 1977).
Table 13.12. Sensory parameters (mean ± SD) of cured and smoked meat from goat and beef (from
Breukink and Casey, 1989).
by the addition of 2.5% sodium chloride the risk of cardiovascular diseases. Goat
and 1% tetrasodium pyrophosphate (Kon- meat is also a good source of desirable fatty
daiah et al., 1985). These salts resulted in acids, as goats deposit relatively higher
significantly increased pH, water-holding amounts of PUFAs than other ruminants.
capacity and level of water-soluble Goat meat is a nutrient-dense food, but the
proteins, decreased cooking loss and complementary role of goat meat in local
improved redness and overall appearance. diets, taking lifestyles and customs into con-
The effects on the emulsifying capacity sideration, should be quantified. The quality
and salt-soluble protein concentration of goat meat can be improved through appro-
were also significant. priate technology: processing can extend the
range of products, improve the shelf life and
give added value to products.
13.9 Conclusions Pre- and post-mortem factors should be
considered carefully to improve meat-
Goat meat is an important nutrient source to quality characteristics. Pre-slaughter trans-
a large proportion of the world population. portation may cause significant responses
Goats are well adapted to a variety of envi- in goat meat quality and transportation
ronments and few feed resources as they are under high ambient temperatures should be
able to utilize marginal land to produce avoided or goats should be allowed to rest
high-level protein products. There is a prior to slaughter in order to reduce eco-
worldwide tendency towards a rapid nomic losses. To counter post-slaughter
increase in the demand for goat meat due to conditions, technology has been used to
health reasons because of its lower fat con- improve goat meat quality through electri-
tent. This is an important factor in reducing cal stimulation, ageing and chilling.
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14 Effect of Early Nutrition on Carcass
and Meat Quality of Young Goats Under
Milk Production Systems
A. Arguellol, N. Castrol, D. Sanchez-Maciasi and J. Capote2
1 Animal Science Department, Veterinary Faculty, Universidad de Las Palmas de
Gran Canaria, Las Palmas, Spain; 2lnstituto Canario de Investigaciones Agrarias,
La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
Different management methods have been Goat milk and milk replacers differ in
proposed for goat kid rearing on dairy goat composition. The protein source of milk
farms. These include natural suckling (NS), replacers is often milk protein concentrates
restricted natural suckling (RNS), ad libi- and whey proteins (Beserra et al., 2003). The
tum artificial rearing (ALAR) on milk casein content of milk replacers is lower
replacers and restricted artificial rearing than in goat milk, which may produce some
(RAR). These are summarized as follows: problems with curd formation in the kid
abomasum (Sanz Sampelayo et al., 1990).
The NS system implies that kids remain Hashimoto et al. (2007) included soy as a
with their dams from birth until the protein source in milk replacers, but the
end of the suckling period with free effects on growth and meat quality are yet to
access to goat milk 24 h a day. be clearly defined. Carbohydrates are higher
RNS is a system in which kids have in milk replacers due to the overall lactose
access to their dams for a limited period content. The main raw components in milk
of time per day. replacers are cow skimmed milk and cheese
ALAR implies that kids are hand-fed whey, and both are very rich in lactose. A
colostrum during the first 2 days after high lactose content in milk replacers has
© CAB International 2012. Goat Meat Production and Quality
324 (eds 0. Mahgoub, I.T. Kadim and E.G. Webb)
Early Nutrition and Meat Quality of Goats 325
Fig. 14.1. Growth curves of goat kids raised under different feeding management systems (Arguello
et al., 2004). NS, natural suckling; ALAR, ad libitum artificial rearing; RAR, restricted artificial rearing.
326 A. Arguello et al.
Table 14.1. Correlation matrix for birth and live weights of kids at different ages, as
influenced by rearing methods (from Arguello et al., 2004).
Birth weight
NS, Natural suckling; ALAR, ad libitum artificial rearing; RAR, restricted artificial rearing.
" , P < 0.01; NS, no significant differences.
Early Nutrition and Meat Quality of Goats 327
(b)
9 1.7
1.6
1.5
Y' 6 1.4
1.2
1.1
14 21 28 35 14 21 28 35
Days Days
Fig. 14.2. Male (a) and female (b) goat kid feed conversion efficiency (efficiency of conversion of feed
mass (kg) into increased body mass (kg)) under the ad libitum artificial rearing method (Arguello, 2000).
only a few hours a day. This system of cheese manufacturing. Therefore, goat
management reduces the ADG in kids keepers remove the kids from their dams
(Genandoy et al., 2002) compared with NS very early postnatally (15 days of age;
management due to the lower milk intake. 5-6 kg live weight). These kids are then
Therefore, RNS is not an adequate manage- harvested for meat. Unfortunately, car-
ment system for meat production and must casses from these kids are very light in
be recommended only when milk has a weight (-3 kg) and therefore have little sale-
high price. able meat. Furthermore, consumers in Med-
iterranean countries and other regions
(e.g. Canary Islands) prefer meat from kids
14.4 Effect of the Diet (Goat Milk that have only been fed milk. All these fac-
or Milk Rep lacers) on Kid Carcass tors contribute to the production of a very
Quality light live weight of kids at slaughter and
carcasses with low meat quality and yield,
Goats are ruminant animals that produce resulting in goat keepers not earning signi-
useful products such as fibre, meat, milk ficant financial profits.
and leather. In some regions of the world
such as southern Europe, goats have been
selected primarily for milk production 14.4.1 Body weight, carcass yield
(Harvey and Rigg, 1964). In such systems, and offal
few goats are raised for meat production as
the major selection criterion in regions Losses in goat kid carcasses due to chilling
where milk production is the primary focus. are not affected by diet (goat milk versus
Kid carcasses from dairy goats have little fat milk replacers) according to Arguello et al.
(Kirton, 1988). Traditionally, in non-spe- (2007). In reference to carcass yield, some
cialized dairy goat herds, goat kids are authors (Arguello et al., 2007) did not
reared with their dams, which results in observe differences between animals fed
reduced milk yield and thus less milk for goat milk or milk replacers due to lack of
328 A. Arguello et al.
Table 14.2. Carcass yield parameters from kids fed milk or milk replacers
(from Arguello et al., 2007).
Number of animals 20 20
Live weight slaughter (kg) 8.31 8.10 0.33
Empty body weight (kg) 5.89 5.91 0.31
Hot carcass weight (kg) 2.97 3.01 0.18
Cold carcass weight (kg) 2.87 2.75 0.18
Chilling losses (%) 3.45 3.29 0.16
Net carcass yield (cYo)a 50.43 50.23 0.39
Table 14.3. Offal (% live weight at slaughter) in kids fed milk or milk replacers
(from Arguello et al., 2007).
(G/F and B/F), cold carcass weight (CCW) for L and F measurements. Rearing in small
and carcass compactness index (CCW/L) pens (milk replacer diet) could be the rea-
(Table 14.4 and Fig. 14.3). These authors son for these little differences found
found differences (P < 0.01) between diets between kids on different diets. There were
Table 14.4. Carcass conformation and indices from kids fed with different
diets (from Arguello et al., 2007).
SEM, Standard error of the mean; F, Leg length; L, carcass length; G, width between hips;
Wr, chest width; B, hips perimeter; Th, depth at 6th rib; CCW/L, carcass compactness
index (cold carcass weight/carcass length), G/F and B/F, long leg compact indices.
Values with different letters (a, b) on the same row are statistically different (P < 0.01).
Fig. 14.3. Principal measurements in kid carcass. G, Width between hips; Th, depth at 6th rib; L,
carcass length; F, leg length; Wr, chest width; B, hips perimeter.
330 A. Arguello et al.
no significant differences between diets in total fat in carcass and ribs, with the differ-
G, WR, B and TH measures and CCW/L, ences being higher in animals fed goat milk.
G/F and B/F indices. There were significant Shoulder, long leg and flanks had lower
interactions between diet and live weight at percentages of intermuscular and total fat
slaughter for L and F measures and CCW/L, in kids fed milk replacers. There were no
G/F and B/F indices. When kids' live differences in fat content in neck. Morand-
weight at slaughter was 6 kg, higher CCW/L Fehr et al. (1986) previously reported simi-
values in kids on the milk replacer were lar results. They attributed this to a higher
found, due to these animals being older. amount of fat fed in the NS system than in
kids fed with milk replacers. The carcass
total fat contents were lower than those
14.4.3 Primal cut distribution reported by Gutierrez et al. (1995) but were
closer to those obtained by Colomer-Rocher
Some authors (Arguello et al., 2007) found et al. (1992). In the same breed, Arguello
no differences in primal cut distribution in (1997a,b,c) found that, while the
et a/.
kids fed goat milk or milk replacers amount of milk replacers increased, the
(Table 14.5). However, Sanz Sampelayo total carcass fat percentage also increased.
et al. (1987) found differences in lumbar The bone and muscle tissue percentages
rib percentages (-2%) between kids fed did not differ as a result of diet.
goat milk and kids fed milk replacers.
These differences were probably a result of
using different carcass jointing procedures. 14.5 Effect of Diet (Goat Milk or Milk
Replacers) on Kid Meat Quality
Table 14.5. Contribution of organs and primal cuts to the carcass from kids
fed dam milk or milk replacers (from Arguello et al., 2007).
Table 14.6. Proportions of fat, bone, muscle and primal cuts of kids
fed goat milk or milk replacers (from Arguello et al., 2007).
Carcassa
Subcutaneous fat 4.69a 3.79b 0.20
Intermuscular fat 3.71a 2.56b 0.22
Total fat 11.35a 8.97b 0.46
Bone 29.43 30.32 0.45
Muscle 55.03 55.70 0.46
Losses 1.08 2.31 0.26
Shoulderb
Subcutaneous fat 3.20 2.52 0.20
Intermuscular fat 2.67a 1.69b 0.24
Total fat 5.87a 4.21b 0.32
Bone 30.87 31.69 0.46
Muscle 62.09 61.58 0.37
Losses 0.38 1.42 0.23
Neckb
Subcutaneous fat 6.89 6.43 0.51
Intermuscular fat 4.22 3.15 0.44
Total fat 11.11 9.58 0.55
Bone 28.53 29.30 0.66
Muscle 55.18 50.67 1.08
Losses 4.09 8.57 1.12
Long legb
Subcutaneous fat 4.55 3.59 0.31
Intermuscular fat 3.64a 2.46b 0.23
Total fat 8.19a 6.05b 0.41
Bone 30.16 29.94 0.46
Muscle 60.26 61.93 0.40
Losses 0.49 1.03 0.13
Flanksb
Subcutaneous fat 6.49 5.55 0.43
Intermuscular fat 6.95a 4.70b 0.57
Total fat 13.44a 10.25b 0.71
Bone 29.68 31.85 0.99
Muscle 54.19 54.34 1.01
Losses 0.47 0.43 0.12
Ribsb
Subcutaneous fat 5.44a 3.88b 0.31
Intermuscular fat 3.96a 2.66b 0.32
Total fat 9.40a 6.54b 0.49
Bone 33.80 34.93 0.75
Muscle 53.18 52.97 0.63
Losses 1.61 3.06 0.30
with annual meat production of around on the meat quality of young goats (Arguello
4.9 million t (FAOSTAT, 2010). Consum- et al., 2005; Barron et al, 2006). They did
ers' preference for goat meat varies around not find significant effects of diet on pH
the world. For instance, in India, the local value or lightness, except for some slight
community specifically seeks meat from differences in chroma values (a less
mature goats, whereas, in France and Latin intense red colour) (Tables 14.7, 14.8 and
America, meat from young milk-fed kids 14.9). Meat tenderness is considered one
is considered a traditional delicacy. The of the most important attributes in terms
acceptability of meat is greatly influenced of consumer satisfaction. Diet significantly
by local custom and preference, so it is not affected shear force values in the semi-
possible to apply a universal standard for membranosus and triceps brachii muscles
the quality of goat meat (Naude and (Tables 14.8 and 14.9) with animals fed
Hofmeyr, 1981). milk replacers having greater shear force
values than animals fed goat milk. A simi-
lar trend was also observed for the longis-
14.5.1 Physical attributes simus dorsi muscle. These differences
could be attributed to the fact that the ani-
Physical attributes of meat quality include: mals were older and had consumed greater
pH, colour, tenderness and water-holding amounts of starter feed. This is in agree-
capacity. Some authors have studied the ment with reports by Pisula et al. (1994),
effect of diet (goat milk or milk replacers) who found statistical differences between
Table 14.7. Effects of diet on longissimus dorsi muscle attributes (means ± SD)
in kids fed milk or milk replacers (from Arguello et al., 2005).
Table 14.8. Effects of diet on triceps brachii muscle attributes (means ± SD) in
kids fed milk or milk replacers (from Arguello et al., 2005).
kids slaughtered at 16 kg live weight and resembles that of very young animals, as
exclusively fed milk replacers and those well as low muscle fat (0.84-1.26%). Fat is
that had consumed starter feed (35.7 versus a late-growing body tissue, and in goats it is
42.6 Newtons, respectively). The values deposited in the viscera more than in other
obtained for water-holding capacity ranged animals (Chilliard et al., 1981). The type of
between 0.31 g (6.2%) and 0.72 g (14.4%). diet did not have a significant effect on the
The pH value and protein content play a chemical composition of kid carcasses
fundamental role in the greater levels of (Arguello et al., 2005). This is in accor-
expelled juice in animals fed goat milk dance with the observations of Mueller
(Arguello et al., 2005). The average pH et al. (1985) using kids of similar weights
value for animals fed goat milk replacers and feed types. In contrast, Barron et al.
after chilling was 5.65, while kids receiv- (2006) reported higher moisture in kids
ing milk replacers had an average pH value fed goat milk or milk replacers (77 and
of 5.70. 76%, respectively) and less protein in
kids fed milk replacers. Collagen percent-
ages and solubility were not affected by
14.5.2 Chemical composition and muscle diet (Arguello et al., 2005; Barron et al.,
characteristics 2006). Diet did not affect muscle fibre areas
(Tables 14.7, 14.8 and 14.9), following the
Arguello et al. (2005) reported protein muscle fibre classification of Arguello et al.
values of -17-20% in goat kids, which (2001).
334 A. Arguello et al.
milk replacers grow at a slower rate and although the kids produced using the two
have leaner carcasses than kids fed goat diets differ, rearing goat kids on inten-
milk. The meat from kids fed milk repla- sive dairy goat farms on milk replacers
cers is characterized by a more intense is more profitable if there is a large enough
colour. Substantial differences have also price margin between goat milk and milk
been reported in fatty acid profile. However, replacers.
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15 Effects of Feeding System and Diet
on Body Lipid Composition
of Young Goats
the future in the production and consump- 15.3 Nutritional Role of Meat Lipids
tion of goat meat. and Fats
and other FAs of the w -6 family may have a protection from subcutaneous adipose tis-
more moderate effect. Indeed, cardiovascu- sues. Therefore, conserving kid carcasses by
lar risks decrease with C18:2w -6 excess or refrigeration may lead to losses and dryness
deficit, and an optimal level of 4% of total of external unprotected meat.
energy supply and a ratio of w -6:w -3 of It was observed that the external carcass
around 5 or less are advised (Raes et al., fat of lambs fed diets very rich in cereals and
2004). Moreover, the CLA and principally poor in fibre did not harden sufficiently dur-
the main one, rumenic acid (C18:2 cis-9, ing carcass cooling after slaughtering. The
trans-11), are said to be responsible for sev- external fats remained soft and oily due to
eral health-promoting effects on consumers a modified fat composition rich in water,
such as anti-carcinogenesis (particularly for odd- and branched-chain FAs and unsatu-
breast cancer), anti-atherosclerosis, immu- rated FAs (Mo lenat and Theriez, 1973; Bas
nomodulation and shifting of the partition- et al., 1980). The commercial value of these
ing of energy towards protein instead of fat carcasses falls drastically. As kid carcasses
deposition (Enser, 2000; Webb et al., 2005; are generally low in external fats, this aspect
Ledoux, 2006). Therefore, the lipids of red of carcass presentation is scarce in young
meat should have a high content of CLAs to kids, but was observed in 5-6-month-old
improve its dietetic quality. kids fed a diet composed exclusively of con-
Some research workers group all the centrate feeds (Bas et al., 1981).
PUFAs (a)-3 and w -6) and C18:0 FAs and Consumers' acceptability of red meats
refer to them as desirable FAs (DFAs). Some such as that of kids is determined by
workers such as Banskalieva et al. (2000) flavour (Melton,1990), which principally
and Webb et al. (2005) reported that the originates from lipids (Moody, 1983). Meat
DFA content in goat meat ranged between lipids act as a solvent for the volatile com-
60 and 80%, with values tending to be ponents that accumulate during the cook-
higher than in other ruminants. The find- ing of meat. The quantity and composition
ings of our work are more moderate but in of fats in meats, particularly the marbled
many experiments the effects of the studied fat, play an essential role in meat succu-
factors on C18:0, w -3 and w -6 FAs and CLAs lence and flavour. The lamb flavour compo-
are different in lambs and kids. nents were identified by Suzuki and Bailey
These data on the link between FA (1985). The `goaty' flavour is due to similar
composition and human diet and health components in milk and meat. They are
emphasize the importance of FA content, molecules with a chain of eight or nine car-
particularly in small ruminant meat, which bons and with acid or aldehyde functions
is one of the most saturated meats. resulting from unsaturated FA (USFA) oxi-
dation and with branched chains such
as 4-ethyl-octanoic acid, 4-methyl-nanoic
acid or 4-methyl-octanoic acid (Ha and
15.3.2 Effect of the lipid composition Lindsay, 1990, 1991; Madruga et al., 2000b;
of goat meat and carcass fats on the Martin et al., 2005). In lambs, several FAs,
organoleptic quality of meat particularly linoleic acid (C18:2), were also
involved in the increase in lamb flavour
The physical properties and chemical com- (Ralph, 1989). When the flavour becomes
position of fat influence the conservation stronger, the meat acceptability may
capacities and organoleptic qualities of increase or decrease according to consum-
meat. ers' taste. However, the meat flavour of
Adipose deposits tend to appear later small ruminants is a complicated issue due
in kid carcasses than in lambs (Tshabalala to various responses of consumers and the
et al., 2003), as confirmed by allometric numerous factors that positively or nega-
coefficients (Morand-Fehr, 1981). Conse- tively influence it, particularly conditions
quently, when kids are slaughtered at of cooking and dietary components added
an early age, their carcasses have little (Melton, 1990).
340 P Morand-Fehr et al.
Similarly, intra- and intermuscular fats other FAs in lower concentrations such as
markedly influence the juiciness, succulence C10:0, C12:0, C15:0, C15:1, C17:0, C17:1,
and tenderness of red meats. In particular, a C20:1, C20:3, C22:0, C24:0, C22:4, C22:5
little intramuscular fat significantly improves and C22:6. The percentages of all these
the succulence and tenderness. Indeed, acids are quite variable from one study to
small amounts of intermuscular fat are nec- another, for example: between 28 and 50%
essary to lubricate the muscle fibres and to for C18:1, 15 and 31% for C16:0, 6 and
increase the juiciness and flavour of cooked 17% for C18:0, and 4 and 15% for C18:2.
lamb meat (Beriain et al., 2000). The average percentages of C16:0, C18:0,
Thus, lipids and fats play an essential C18:1 and C18:2 in goat muscles are simi-
role in the dietetic and organoleptic value lar to those of other ruminant species, par-
of small ruminant meats; however, this ticularly sheep, but the concentration of
topic has not yet been studied intensively C16:1 in goat muscles is frequently higher
in goat meat. than in lambs, and goat muscle lipids can
be a little richer in PUFAs (C18:2, C18:3
and C20:4) than lambs (Banskalieva et al.,
2000) with a higher w6:w -3 ratio (Sheridan
15.4 Characteristics of Goat Meat et al., 2003).
and Fat Lipids Composition As with other ruminants, in goats, the
anatomical location of adipose tissues is the
In Chapter 10, Lee and Kannan reviewed main factor affecting the FA composition of
the nutritive value of FAs and fats in goat adipose deposits. External fatty tissues such
meat. However, the characteristics of the as subcutaneous tissues contain fewer SFAs
lipid composition of goat meat need to be and more USFAs, as well as minor FAs
highlighted to enable an understanding of characterized by an odd number of carbons
the effects of feeding programmes on the or a branched chain.
dietetic and nutritive value of kid meat Regardless of the location of the adi-
fats. pose tissues in the body, the main FAs of
In comparison with steers and lambs goat fat deposits are C18:1, C18:0 and C16:0,
(Morand-Fehr et al., 1991), the FA composi- followed by C14:0, C16:1, C17:0 and C18:2
tion of kid meat has not been investigated in (Banskalieva et al., 2000). Other FAs such
much depth (Banskalieva et al., 2000). as C10:0, C12:0, C14:1, C15:0, C17:1 and
However, since 2000, the amount of C18:3 occur at the lowest levels, often mak-
research on this topic has been expanding ing them unquantifiable. Goats deposit
markedly. lipids that consist mainly of SFAs (30-71%)
In 2000, Banskalieva and colleagues and MUFAs (20-57%) with PUFAs contrib-
published an extensive and informative uting <6% in some fat depots, although in
review on the FA composition of goat mus- most studies not all PUFAs were analysed.
cle and fat deposits (Banskalieva et al., Despite the high variation related to the
2000). They observed that experimental pro- anatomical location, it appears that, as in
cedures and design, technical and statistical beef or lamb, internal deposits such as inter-
methodologies, sampling methods, breed muscular or perirenal adipose tissues in
and rearing methods, among other factors, young goats have more SFAs, particularly
varied among different researchers. C18:0, fewer MUFAs, particularly 16:1, and
As reported for other ruminant species, much fewer PUFAs, especially C18:2, C18:3
the three major FAs in the muscle lipids of and C20:4, than external deposits such as in
goats are oleic (C18:1 cis), palmitic (C16:0) subcutaneous tissues.
and stearic (C18:0) acids, which represent Table 15.1 shows data on the FA com-
60-80% of total FAs, followed by linoleic position of muscle, lipids and carcass fats in
acid (C18:2 cis). The other FAs are C14:0 in goats and sheep from bibliographic refer-
SFAs, C16:1 in MUFAs and C18:3w -3,6,9 ences published after the review of Banska-
cis, C20:4w- 6,9,12,15 cis in PUFAs, and lieva et al. (2000), between 2000 and 2008.
Table 15.1. Fatty acid composition of meat and fat lipids in young sheep and goats.
Sheep Dorper M+FLD Unknown 24.3 14.4 37.6 52.8 47.2 43.9 3.3 Tshabalala et al. (2000)
Sheep Damara M+FLD Unknown 22.5 16.4 38.9 51.8 48.2 44.3 3.9 Tshabalala et al. (2000)
Goat Boer M+FLD Unknown 21.0 20.4 36.7 54.7 45.3 41.9 3.4 Tshabalala et al. (2000)
Goat Indigenous M+FLD Unknown 19.5 20.0 37.7 53.6 46.4 42.5 3.9 Tshabalala et a/. (2000)
Kid Indigenous IMLD 54 22.2 15.1 44.5 39.0 56.0 50.3 5.7 Bas et al. (2005)
Kid Indigenous PRAT 54 30.5 32.6 19.0 67.3 26.3 24.9 1.4 Bas et al. (2005)
Lamb Timandite IMLD 41 23.1 12.1 34.1 39.0 50.2 38.7 11.5 Araba et al. (2008)
Lamb Timandite PRAT 41 18.8 30.2 28.6 53.5 39.2 35.5 3.9 Araba et al. (2008)
Lamb V IM V 22.5 15.6 40.4 43.0 51.0 43.6 7.4 Bas and Morand-Fehr (2000)
Lamb V PRAT V 20.6 26.1 36.7 52.6 45.8 39.4 6.4 Bas and Morand-Fehr (2000)
Kid Malaguena SC leg 7-8 25.5 11.5 43.4 46.6 52.7 47.0 5.7 Fernandez-Navarro et al. (2005)
Kid Malaguena IM leg 7-8 21.6 12.8 38.6 39.9 59.2 41.3 17.9 Fernandez-Navarro et al. (2005)
Kid Saanen IM 3m 4 22.6 12.0 36.3 40.8 59.0 42.4 16.2 Mele et al. (2007)
Kid Dutch White PRAT 6 24.4 17.5 35.7 51.2 47.3 40.7 8.9 Yeom et al. (2002)
Sheep Barbarine SC leg 36-40 22.2 10.6 45.1 41.8 55.1 51.9 3.2 Atti et al. (2007)
Lamb Meriniez-zata IMLD 14 17.8 10.6 21.1 30.6 69.5 23.8 45.8 Camparra et al. (2007)
SFAs, Saturated fatty acids; MUFAs, monounsaturated fatty acids; PUFAs, polyunsaturated fatty acids; USFAs, unsaturated fatty acids; M+FLD, lipids of meat (muscle and fat) in
Longissimus dorsi; IMLD, intramuscular lipids in Longissimus dorsi; PRAT, lipids of perirenal adipose tissue; IM, intramuscular lipids; SC leg, lipids of leg subcutaneous fat; IM leg, leg
intramuscular lipids; IM 3m, intramuscular lipids from three muscle mixtures (Longissimus dorsi, Triceps brachii and semimembranosus; V, very various.
342 P Morand-Fehr et al.
There was an adequate level of methodolog- Table 15.2 presents recent results on
ical quality to allow comparisons of the the contents of w -3 FAs and CLAs in intra-
results in this field during recent years. muscular lipids of lamb and kid meat. As
When sheep and goats were reared samples were collected from intramuscular
under very close conditions, the composi- lipids of the longissimus dorsi muscle, the
tions of meat lipids in these two species results are likely to be comparable. In these
were similar (Tshabalala et al., 2003), studies, the authors generally attempted to
with goat meat lipids being a little higher improve the contents of CLAs or w -3 FAs by
in C18:0 and lower in C16:0 and MUFAs, modifying the diet or using different breeds.
with not much effect of breed. Bas et al. The percentage of rumenic acid (C18:2 cis-9,
(2005) and Araba et al. (2008) carried out trans-11) is between 0.4 and 0.9% in kids.
two experiments on lambs and goats with This confirms the values reported by Haus-
the same protocol under very similar man and Snell (2000) of 0.4-0.8% for all fat
experimental conditions. They collected locations in kids. Other values (Sikora and
samples from the same tissues and in the Borys, 2006; Mele et al., 2007) are similar to
same location. Consequently, their results those reported for lambs (Camparra et al.,
can be compared. In the two species, the 2007; Delmotte et al., 2007; Vasta et al.,
perirenal adipose tissue (internal tissue) 2007; Araba et al., 2008) but tend to be
contained more SFAs, particularly C18:0, higher than in beef (Bauchart et al., 2008).
and fewer MUFAs and PUFAs than intra- The total content of w -3 FAs varies
muscular lipids sampled on the longissi- between 1 and 2% in intramuscular lipids
mus dorsi muscle. However, lamb lipids in kids, with values tending to be around
tended to be higher in PUFAs than those 2% when the diet contains feeds supplying
of kids. w -3 FAs. The content of w -3 FAs in intra-
A meta-analysis of 979 observations muscular lipids in lambs is quite variable,
from 108 references (Bas and Morand-Fehr, with values similar to those of goats,
2000) on lambs again showed that internal although some values are much higher
fats are higher in SFAs and C18:0, and (Camparra et al., 2007; Delmotte et al.,
lower in MUFAs and PUFAs. The results 2007). Similar to lambs, among the w -3 FAs,
from other references (Yeom et al., 2002; the content of C22:5 (DPA) is always higher
Fernandez-Navarro et al., 2005; Atti et al., than the C20:5 (EPA) and C22:6 (DHA) con-
2007; Camparra et al., 2007; Mele et al., tent in kids.
2007) reflect the very high variability of FA It had been hypothesized that most of
composition in kid or lamb muscles and the CLAs in goat adipose tissues, as in the
fats, probably due to various factors that can other ruminants, are synthesized by biohy-
modify this composition. drogenation and isomerization (cis/trans
There is a lack of information regarding and non-conjugated/conjugated) of the
the content of FAs likely to have a positive PUFAs in feedstuffs in the rumen into C18:1
role on human health, particularly CLAs trans-11 (trans vaccenic acid). The C18:1
such as rumenic acid and w -3 FAs such as trans-11 is absorbed and accumulates in the
EPA, DPA and DHA, as observed by Webb adipose tissues, and is then converted into
et al. (2005). It is frequently stated - CLAs by desaturation, which explains the
although with no reliable evidence - that correlation ratio close to +1 between the
goat meat contains more CLAs or w -3 FAs contents of the trans vaccenic and rumenic
than sheep meat. However, in this regard, acids in kid fats (Tsuneishi et al., 2001).
one should be aware of the large variability To conclude, the FA composition of
of findings (Webb et al., 2005) due to differ- muscle lipids and adipose tissues, particu-
ences in location of fat, breed, diet and more larly concerning the FAs with positive or
importantly the chromatographic method of negative dietetic interest, is highly variable
assessment of these FAs. Similar variability as a result of the interaction of numerous
has been reported in findings on beef factors that may modify it. Generally, the
(Bauchart et al., 2008). lipid composition of goat fats is typical of
Table 15.2. Percentage of main o-3 fatty acids and rumenic acid (a conjugated linoleic acid) and co-6:co-3 ratio in intramuscular lipids in lambs and kids.
Fatty acid
Lamb 4.1-5.3 6.4-7.2 2.8-2.9 19.4-25.7 0.8 1.1-1.3 Camparra et al. (2007)
Lamb 1.0-1.4 0.6-0.8 5.8 -6.7 0.7-1.3 2.8-6.6 Delmotte et al. (2007)
Lamb 2.1-3.2 0.5-0.6 Vasta et al. (2007)
Lamb 1.3-2.8 0.6-0.7 2.8-7.6 Araba et al. (2008)
Kid 0.2 0.4-0.6 0.2-0.3 1.0-1.3 0.4-0.9 5.3-6.2 Mele et al. (2007)
Kid 0.2-0.8 0.1-0.4 1.0-2.9 6.1-9.4 Sikora and Borys (2006)
Kid 1.1 1.1 3.3 0.8 Nudda et al. (2005)
Kid 0.1-1.1 0.3-1.7 0.1-0.4 0.7-4.3 2.9-8.2 Bas et al. (2005)
EPA, eicosapentaenoic acid; DPA, docosapentaenoic acid; DHA, docosahexaenoic acid; CLA, conjugated linoleic acid.
344 P Morand-Fehr et al.
increased with increasing age of unweaned (C14:0 and C8:0) content in male animals
kids. Other authors studied the evolution of compared with females. Similar findings
the FA composition of fats during kid wean- had been reported in lambs (Beriain et al.,
ing (Sauvant et al., 1979; Sikora and Borys, 2000). However, other research workers
2006). Generally, SFAs and C18:0 FA con- (Rojas et al., 1994 on perirenal fat; Todaro
centrations in all fat depots tended to et al., 2004 on pelvic fat) found no signifi-
increase and the percentage of PUFAs cant differences in the FA composition of
decreased, while the MUFA content either fat between male and female kids. Simi-
decreased or increased. Similar changes larly, Werdi Pratiwi et al. (2004) observed
were observed in lambs (Bas and Morand- no difference in the composition of meat
Fehr, 2000; Beriain et al., 2000). This is lipids and only minor changes in adipose
probably a result of the low proportions of tissues between entire and castrated Boer
short- and medium-chain FAs and high young bucks. In lambs, the concentration of
concentrations of C18 FAs in post-weaning PUFAs and C18:2 cis FAs in back fat
diets in comparison with goat milk, and decreases in the following order: male cas-
from hydrogenation of PUFAs in the rumen. trates > females > males (lowest in fat
The change in MUFAs is variable because it deposits), while SFAs increase (Nurnberg
depends on the intensity of trans-isomeriza- et al., 1996).
tion in the rumen. Indeed, trans MUFAs are It is also interesting to note an interac-
hydrogenated very slowly in the rumen. In tion between sex and diet affecting FA com-
addition, the cholesterol content in fats position. Indeed, when kids are fed diets rich
tends to increase after weaning. in grains and low in fibre, the subcutaneous
During the growth period (1-2 months fats are soft and oily, as has been mentioned
after weaning), cholesterol content is above. In this case, these fats are softer in
reported to increase continuously (Madruga males than in females (Bas et al., 1980).
et al., 2000a; Beserra et al., 2004) although
this finding was not confirmed by other
workers (Sikora and Borys, 2006). Several
months after weaning, there was still an 15.5.4 Effect of breed genotypes
increase in the C18:0 and C18:1 FAs in kid
muscle lipids and adipose tissues (Madruga Banskalieva et al. (2000) reviewed a large
et al., 2000a; Dhanda et al., 2003; Beserra body of experimental findings emphasizing
et al., 2004), but C14:0 and C16:0 propor- the effect of breed on FA composition of kid
tions decreased. Nevertheless, Werdi muscles and fat depot lipids. This review
Pratiwi et al. (2004) reported contradictory suggested that other factors, particularly die-
findings. The PUFA concentration is vari- tary factors, interact to produce this effect on
able in kid tissues, probably because it FA composition, as indicated by Beriain
depends on the intensity of rumen hydroge- et al. (2000) in sheep. Differences in fat com-
nation. Similar results were obtained in position due to breed should also be esti-
lambs (Webb and Casey, 1995; Nurnberg mated at the same stage of maturity and
et al., 1998; Bas and Morand-Fehr, 2000). fatness of young ruminants (Webb and Casey,
1995). Generally, different genotypes can
have different growth potentials and levels
of intake, feeding behaviour and feed prefer-
15.5.3 Effect of sex ences. For instance, Zygoyiannis et al. (1985)
attributed their findings on the effects of var-
The effect of sex on the FA composition ious sheep genotypes to differences in milk
of kid meat lipids and fats is limited. intake in lambs as a result of differences in
Johnson et al. (1995), Matsuoka et al. (1997) genotype. To determine whether findings are
and Mahgoub et al. (2002) observed a due to the effect of breed only, it is necessary
trend of higher PUFA (C18:2 and C18:3) to compare animals at the same level and
content in muscle lipids and a lower SFA composition of feed intake. Consequently, it
346 P Morand-Fehr et al.
Table 15.3. Effects of dam diet on milk and kid muscle fatty acids (from Nudda et al., 2005).
VA, vaccenic acid; RA, rumenic acid; EPA, eicosapentaenoic acid; DHA, docosahexaenoic acid.
Significant differences: on the same line, two values with different letters are significantly different at P < 0.10 (a, b);
P <0.05 (c, d) or P <0.01 (e, f).
aComposition of milk 5 weeks after the introduction of linseeds or cottonseeds into the diet.
bLongissimus dorsi lipids.
'The dams' diet of 1.2 kg dry matter concentrate/day + hay ad libitum was supplemented with 160 g cottonseed/day or
90 g linseed/day.
composition of kid perirenal fat. The effect content in perirenal adipose tissues from
of milk composition appears to be more 5.8 to 11.3% and from 0.1 to 0.8%, respec-
marked on subcutaneous and intramuscular tively, when they raised these FAs from 6.7
fats than on internal fats. Such effects to 12.4% and from 0.5 to 1.4% in milk
depend on the nature and composition of replacers. They observed that the transfer of
protected FAs. The supply of protected C18:3 FAs from milk to adipose tissue was
PUFAs to dams resulted in a higher concen- more difficult than the transfer of C18:2
tration of PUFAs, especially w -3 FAs (C20:5, FAs.
C22:5 and C22:6), but lower percentages of When the composition of goat milk and
C18:0 in kid inter- and intramuscular fats milk replacer fats are similar, the FA com-
(Fernandez-Navarro et a/., 2005). The position of kid fats does not differ, except
results were more marked with protected for the minor FAs (Rojas et al., 1994).
PUFAs than with calcium soaps. Generally, the level of milk intake has a
Kids can be fed milk replacers in which limited effect on the FA composition of kid
animal or vegetal fats replace milk fats. This fats. Sauvant et a/. (1979) observed a signifi-
feeding system is used to save kids when cant increase in C18:0 and C18:1 contents in
dams produce insufficient milk, and in several internal fats and muscle lipids when
intensive milk systems when goat milk is milk intake in kids increased from 0.75 to
sold at high prices. In this case, the FA com- 1.5 kg/day during the 35 days after birth.
position of kid fats closely reflects the com- Some feeding programmes consisted of
position of the milk replacer fat. Yeom et al. early weaning with access to dry feeds from
(2002) increased the C18:2 and C18:3 5-6 weeks after birth. These programmes
348 P Morand-Fehr et al.
allow economical savings as goat milk is (Morand-Fehr, 1981; Doreau and Ferlay,
sold at high prices and milk replacers are 1994; Sauvant and Bas, 2001).
expensive. In such cases, the biohydrogena- Bas and Morand-Fehr (2000) carried
tion and isomerization of dietary FAs took out a meta-analysis on lambs from 21 stud-
place very early in the rumen. The content ies with some diets based only on pasture
of C18:0 and sometimes C18:1 FAs tended and others on pasture plus concentrate.
to increase in the kid muscle lipids and fats, There was no significant difference in the
while C14:0 FAs decreased. This difference FA composition of muscle and internal or
in FA composition varied according to the subcutaneous fats except for a lower con-
nature of the dietary fats before and after centration of C18:3 FAs when concentrate
weaning and the nature of fibre sources in was added to the grazing diet. In the same
the post-weaning diet (Sauvant et al., 1979; analysis, there were reports on more inten-
Nitsan et al., 1987). sive diets (57 observations of roughage plus
concentrate, and 161 observations with
concentrate alone). The percentages of
C18:1 and C18:2 FAs were higher with con-
15.6.2 Post-weaning period centrate only and the percentages of C14:0
and C16:0 FAs were higher with roughage
Growth performance and FA composition plus concentrate. Some experimental work
of meat and fats in kids is linked to the in this area has indicated similar findings
nature of the diet, particularly its energy with kids (P. Morand-Fehr and J. Hervieu,
density, which depends on the nature and unpublished).
nutritive value of roughages (cultivated or Two feeding systems are usually used
uncultivated forages, stage of vegetation, during kid growth: an indoor system based
fresh pasture or conserved forages, treated on concentrate with a limited supply of hay
or untreated forages, rangeland vegetation) or straw, and a grazing system based on
and the nature and proportion of grain or grazing rangeland or natural or cultivated
other concentrate feeds in the diet. pastures. Bas et al. (2005) compared the FA
Information on the effect of the concen- composition of muscle lipids and intermus-
trate levels or forage:concentrate ratio in the cular and internal fats in kids reared under
diet on the FA composition of meat and fats an extensive rangeland system with those
is clearly lacking in kids compared with raised under an indoor system based on
lambs. Bas et al. (2005) offered concentrate concentrate alone in Morocco, where the
to young male goats grazing in an extensive most popular method for producing kid and
rangeland (an Argan tree forest) in Morocco lamb meat is the indoor system. The grazing
(Table 15.4). There was no effect of concen- system resulted in a decrease in the choles-
trate feeding on the FA composition of the terol content in meat, an increase in the
longissimus dorsi muscle lipids and perire- concentration of C18:0, C18:2w -6 and
nal adipose tissue except for a lower con- C18:3w -6 FAs, SFAS and PUFAs, and a
centration of C14:0 FAs in muscle. The FA reduction in the concentrations of C16:0
composition did not differ in goats grazed and C18:1 cis and the w -6:w -3 ratio
in the Argan forest with and without con- (Table 15.4). The differences were more
centrate supplementation. With diets rich remarkable in muscle than in intermuscular
in fibre sources or forages, particularly diets and internal fats. Rhee et al. (2000) obtained
composed exclusively of roughages, cellu- similar results for young goats by compar-
lolytic fermentations, biohydrogenation ing two diets based on rangeland grazing in
and isomerization of USFAs are very active Texas or on grain sorghum (67%). Araba
in the rumen. With diets rich in concentrate et al. (2008) observed similar results for
feeds, especially cereals, the degradability Timandite lambs in Morocco using the
of starch is intense. This reduces the biohy- same experimental design as that of Bas
drogenation of FAs in the rumen and et al. (2005) with kids. Nurnberg et al.
increases the production of minor FAs (1998) reported comparable results obtained
Table 15.4. Effect of the feeding system (indoors versus Argan tree forest grazing) on fatty acid composition of muscle lipids and fat (mg/100 g) in local
Moroccan young goats (from Bas et al., 2005).
Cholesterol 64 58 54
C14:0 1.5a 1.5a 2.0b 2.8 2.2 2.4
C16:0 18.4a 16.1b 16.8b 27.4a 22.5b 23.0b
C18:0 14.0a 17.3b 17.4b 36.0a 39.3ab 39.8b
C18:1 cis 49.9a 32.0b 32.7b 20.2a 16.1b 14.0b
C18:2(0-6 4.1a 7.5b 7.4b 1.6a 2.3b 2.5b
C18:3(0-3 0.04a 0.12b 0.11b 0.07a 0.55b 0.59b
C20:5(0-3 0.15a 0.37ab 0.48b
C22:5(0-3 0.44a 1.68b 1.43b
C22:6(0-3 0.17a 0.14a 0.30b
SFAs 33.9a 35.2ab 36.5b 66.4 64.5 65.6
MUFAs 52.6a 38.5b 39.5b 26.0 24.7 22.9
PUFAs 8.0a 16.9b 15.9b 1.9a 3.4b 3.8b
o-6 FAs 4.9a 7.7ab 10.6b
o-3 FAs 0.9a 4.3b 4.0b
o-6:co-3 ratio 8.2a 2.9b 2.9b 26.7a 5.5b 5.0b
SFAs, Saturated fatty acids; MUFAs, monounsaturated fatty acids; PUFAs, polyunsaturated fatty acids; FAs, fatty acids.
Values within each group of tissue, on the same line, with different letters are significantly different (P < 0.05).
350 P Morand-Fehr et al.
for sheep and steers except for w -2 FAs, goat kids. There were significant changes in
which tended to decrease with grazing. the FA profile of the intramuscular fat of the
Another interesting observation by longissimus dorsi muscle, which generally
Vasta et al. (2007) described the effects on corresponded to higher percentages of
lambs of condensed tannins, which are fre- MUFAs and PUFAs, especially C18:1, C18:2
quently found in extensive rangeland vege- and C20:4 FAs, but not w -3 FAs.
tation. Condensed tannins may form Studies in goats are limited and the
complexes with proteins in the rumen and results have been somewhat variable. How-
inhibit ruminal microorganisms responsi- ever, several reports on sheep and cattle
ble for dietary FA biohydrogenation in the have shown that the concentrations of
rumen. These findings strongly confirm that PUFAs, particularly CLAs and w -3 FAs, can
the presence of condensed tannins reduces be increased by adding feeds rich in PUFAs
ruminal biohydrogenation and the content in concentrates, such as linseeds, fish oil
of C18:2 cis-9, trans-11 and C18:1 trans-11 and PUFA mixtures, under intensive feed-
FAs and CLAs. This probably explains the ing conditions (Wood et al., 2005). It is
results obtained with some extensive feed- likely that similar results could be obtained
ing systems. Indeed, some contradictory in kids.
results that have been reported may have
been because the vegetation was rich in
condensed tannins.
As w -3 FAs and CLAs have been shown 15.7 Conclusion
to have significant beneficial effects on
human health, several authors have The FA composition of meat and fats in goat
attempted to improve the content of these kids is rather similar to that in lambs when
FAs in the meat and fats of beef and lambs compared at the same stage of fattening or
by adding specific lipid sources to diets (e.g. adiposity. Generally, more SFAs and fewer
fish oil, linseeds, PUFA mixtures) or by USFAs are observed in lambs, as growth
adopting feeding strategies such as grazing and fattening rates are higher in lambs than
(Ender et al., 1997; Nurnberg et al., 1998; in kids. Furthermore, kids are frequently
Wood et al., 2005). Webb et al. (2005) indi- reared under more extensive conditions.
cated that similar results can be obtained in The proportions of structural lipids such as
goats. Thus, from all of these results, graz- phospholipids, which are richer in PUFAs
ing can be considered a good feeding system and lower in SFAs, are higher in kid adi-
for increasing the concentration of these pose tissues. However, as in other rumi-
acids in kid meat and fats. nants, the FA composition of kid fat lipids
Marinova et al. (2005) fed Bulgarian varies greatly according to the anatomical
White kids the same concentrate mixture site of the adipose tissue. Generally, muscle
with or without fish oil at a concentration of lipids are more unsaturated and are richer
2.5%. Intermuscular fat in the loin and intra- in PUFAs and lower in SFAs than subcuta-
muscular fat in the longissimus dorsi muscle neous adipose tissues, especially internal
increased slightly. However, the authors did fats. Subcutaneous fats, however, are more
not give an account of the FA composition of sensitive to factors modifying FA composi-
the meat and adipose tissues. Atti et al. tion, particularly dietary factors.
(2007) added 5 or 10% fish oil to a concen- Information on the effect of factors
trate used for feeding lambs but did not modifying the FA composition of meats and
observe any effect on the FA composition of fats in kids is more limited than in sheep
subcutaneous adipose tissues. In particular, and cattle. The major factors influencing the
there was no significant increase in w -3 FAs composition of meat lipids and fats in kids
and CLAs, although there was a decrease in are the dietary factors. However, often it is
C18:2 FAs and USFAs. not possible to evaluate their specific effects
Pienak-Lendzion et al. (2006) added because of interference from other factors
10% linseeds to the diet of White Improved such as genotype, sex or stage of growth.
Feeding System and Body Lipids 351
During the last few years, there have as well as increasing liposoluble vitamins.
been significant scientific advances with Moreover, PUFAs can improve the taste,
regard to improvements in the dietetic qual- juiciness and tenderness of meat. Conse-
ity of kid meat. Indeed, during the milk- quently, the quantities and composition of
feeding period, feeding systems based on fats can improve or decrease the dietetic,
grazing of dams and supplementation of nutritional, rheological and technological
dams' diets with linseeds, fish oil and PUFA qualities of meat.
mixtures can increase the proportions of In the future, progress in the commer-
favourable FAs such as w -3 FAs, PUFAs and cialization of goat meat is likely to occur
CLAs and decrease C18:1 and C16:0 FAs only if its quality, particularly dietetic qual-
and SFA in dams' milk and, to a lesser ity aspects, are markedly improved. Special
extent, in the meat lipids and fats of suck- systems for rearing young goats may influ-
ling kids. During post-weaning periods, ence the FA composition of their meat and
similar feeding systems and methods fat depots. For instance, reports on goats
applied directly to kids may have similar reared in a Moroccan Argan tree forest (Bas
effects on meat and fats, but the results are et al., 2005) indicated that this feeding sys-
scanty and variable in kids. tem reduced the proportion of fats in meat
The lipids of meat and intra- and inter- and increased the proportions of the favour-
muscular and subcutaneous adipose tissues able FAs such as CLAs, the w -6:w -3 ratio to
play an essential role in human nutrition as about 5 and increased the cholesterol con-
they provide essential FAs (C18:2, C18:3 cis tent in meat. Such results allow optimism
and C20:4 cis) and CLAs likely to reduce the for the future production and consumption
risks of cardiovascular diseases and cancers, of goat meat.
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Index
355
356 Index