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Goat Meat Production

and Quality

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Osman Mahgoub, Isam Kadini; Rhea

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Goat Meat Production and Quality

Edited by

0. Mahgoub
Department of Animal & Veterinary Sciences, College of Agricultural & Marine
Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, Sultanate of Oman

I.T. Kadim

Department of Animal & Veterinary Sciences, College of Agricultral & Marine


Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, Sultanate of Oman

and

E.C. Webb

Department of Animal and Wildlife Sciences, University of Pretoria, South Africa

0 bi www.cabi.org
CABI is a trading name of CAB International
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library,
London, UK.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Mahgoub, 0. (Osman)
Goat meat production and quality / 0. Mahgoub, I.T. Kadim, and E.C. Webb.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-84593-849-9 (alk. paper)
1. Goats. 2. Goat meat. 3. Goat meat--Quality. I. Kadim, I. T. (Isam T.) II. Webb,
E. C. (Edward Cottington) III. Title.

SF383.M35 2011
636.3'9--dc23
2011026537

ISBN-13: 978 1 84593 849 9

Commissioning editor: Sarah Hulbert


Editorial assistant: Gwenan Spearing
Production editor: Fiona Chippendale
Typeset by AMA Dataset, Preston, UK
Printed and bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
Contents

Contributors

Preface
0. Mahgoub, I.T. Kadim and E.C. Webb

1 Overview of the Global Goat Meat Sector 1


0. Mahgoub, I.T. Kadim and C.D. Lu

2 Goat Meat Production Systems 15


K.W. McMillin, E.C. Webb, E.F. Donkin and F. Pinkerton

3 Carcass Traits of Hardy Tropical Goats 33


G. Alexandre and 0. Mahgoub

4 Genetics and Breeding of Meat Goats 52


J.N.B. Shrestha

5 Reproductive Efficiency for Increased Meat Production in Goats 119


M. Rekik, I. Ben Salem and N. Lassoued

6 Nutrition of the Meat Goat 161


J.R. Kawas, 0. Mahgoub and C.D. Lu

7 Growth, Development and Growth Manipulation in Goats 196


E.C. Webb, N.H. Casey and L. Simela

8 The Role of Objective and Subjective Evaluation in the Production


and Marketing of Goats for Meat 209
B.A. McGregor

9 Tissue Distribution in the Goat Carcass 231


0. Mahgoub, I.T. Kadim and E.C. Webb
v
vi Contents

10 Influences of Diets on Fatty Acid Composition of Edible


Tissues of Meat Goat 250
J.H. Lee and G. Kannan

11 Mineral Composition of Goat Meat 260


N.H.I. Osman and 0. Mahgoub

12 Linear Body Measurements and Carcass Characteristics of Goats 277


I.T. Kadim and 0. Mahgoub

13 Nutritive Value and Quality Characteristics of Goat Meat 292


I.T. Kadim and 0. Mahgoub

14 Effect of Early Nutrition on Carcass and Meat Quality


of Young Goats Under Milk Production Systems 324
A. Arguello, N. Castro, D. Sanchez-Macias and J. Capote

15 Effects of Feeding System and Diet on the Body Lipid Composition


of Young Goats 337
P. Morand-Fehr, A. Araba, P. Bas and A. El Aich
Contributors

G. Alexandre INRA, Unite de Recherches Zootechniques, Centre Antilles -Guyane, 97170


Domaine Duclos, Petit Bourg, Guadeloupe, France; E-mail: Gisele.Alexandre@antilles.
inra.fr
A. Araba Institut Agronomique et Veterinaire Hassan II, Rabat Instituts, Morocco; E-mail:
a. araba@i ay. ac.m a
A. Argiiello Animal Science Department, Veterinary Faculty, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria
University, Arucas, 35413 Las Palmas, Spain; E-mail: aarguello@dpat.ulpgc.es
P. Bas UMR 791 INRA/AgroParisTech, 16 rue Claude Bernard, 75231 Paris cedex 05,
France; E-mail: pierre.bas@agroparistech.fr
I. Ben Salem Ecole Nationale de Medecine Veterinaire, 2020 Sidi Thabet, Tunisia; E-mail:
bensalemimen@yahoo.fr
J. Capote Instituto Canario de Investigaciones Agrarias, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain; E-mail:
jcapote@icia.es
N.H. Casey Department of Animal and Wildlife Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria
0002, Republic of South Africa; E-mail: nhcasey@scientia.up.ac.za
N. Castro Animal Science Department, Veterinary Faculty, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria
University, Arucas, 35413 Las Palmas, Spain; E-mail: ncastro@dpat.ulpgc.es
E.F. Donkin Department of Animal and Wildlife Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria
0002, Republic of South Africa; E-mail: ned.donkin@up.ac.za
A. El Aich Institut Agronomique et Veterinaire Hassan II, Rabat Instituts, Morocco; E-mail:
a. elaich@iay.ac.ma
I.T. Kadim Department of Animal & Veterinary Sciences, College of Agricultural & Marine
Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, PO Box 34, Al-Khod 123, Sultanate of Oman; E-mail:
isam@squ.edu.om
G. Kannan Georgia Small Ruminant Research and Extension Center, Fort Valley State Uni-
versity, Fort Valley, GA 31088, USA; E-mail: Govindak@FVSU.EDU
J.R. Kawas Cuerpo Academic° de Produccion Animal y Recursos Naturales, Facultad de
Agronomia, Universidad Autonoma de Nuevo Leon, Mexico; E-mail: jkawas@mnade-
maxi c o. com
N. Lassoued INRA-Tunisie, Laboratoire des Productions Animates et Fourrageres, Rue
Hedi Karray, 2049 Ariana, Tunisia; E-mail: lassoued.narjess@iresa.agrinet.tn

vii
viii Contributors

J.H. Lee Georgia Small Ruminant Research and Extension Center, Fort Valley State Univer-
sity, Fort Valley, GA 31088, USA; E-mail: leej@fvsu.edu
C.D. Lu College of Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resource Management, University of
Hawaii, Hilo, Hawaii 96720, USA; E-mail: chrislu99@gmail.com
0. Mahgoub Department of Animal & Veterinary Sciences, College of Agricultural & Marine
Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, PO Box 34, Al-Khod 123, Sultanate of Oman; E-mail:
osmahgob@squ.edu.om
B.A. McGregor Institute for Technology, Research & Innovation, Deakin University, Gee-
long, Victoria 3217, Australia. Formerly: Livestock Systems Group, Victorian Depart-
ment of Primary Industries, Attwood, Victoria, 3049, Australia; E-mail: bmcgregor@sub.
net.au
K.W. McMillin School of Animal Sciences, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center,
Baton Rouge, Louisiana, LA 70803, USA; E-mail: KMcmillin@agcenter.lsu.edu
P. Morand-Fehr UMR 791 INRA/AgroParisTech, 16 rue Claude Bernard, 75231 Paris cedex
05, France; E-mail: duspiwa@agroparistech.fr
N.H.I. Osman Sudan Open University, Obeid Khatim Street, Arkaweet, Khartoum, Sudan;
E-mail: hudaisam@yahoo.co.uk/hudaisam@gmail.com
F. Pinkerton Retired, Langston University, USA; E-mail: Fpinkerton@austin.rr.com
M. Rekik Ecole Nationale de Medecine Veterinaire, 2020 Sidi Thabet, Tunisia; E-mail:
rekik.mourad@iresa.agrinet.tn
D. Sanchez-Macias Animal Science Department, Veterinary Faculty, Las Palmas de Gran
Canaria University, Arucas, 35413 Las Palmas, Spain; E-mail: dsanchez@becarios.ulpgc.es
J.N.B. Shrestha Dairy and Swine Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-
Food Canada, PO Box 90, Lennoxville Station, 2000 College Street, Sherbrooke, Quebec,
Canada DM 1Z3; E-mail: Jap.Shrestha@agr.gc.ca
L. Simela New Emerging Red Meat Producers Organization, Lynnwood, Pretoria, Republic
of South Africa; E-mail: fsd@nerpo.org.za
E.C. Webb Department of Animal and Wildlife Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria
0002, Republic of South Africa; E-mail: edward.webb@up.ac.zA/Edward.webb@up.ac.za
Preface

Goat Meat Production and Quality consists of 15 chapters and was compiled with the aim
of providing information on basic as well as more advanced aspects of goat meat science to
the wide range of scientists and professionals concerned with goat meat research and edu-
cation. It is also intended to serve as a textbook for university and college students on meat
production from ruminant animals. The goat industry, which has been lagging behind
other livestock industries such as cattle, sheep and pigs, would also benefit from this book.
Goat Meat Production and Quality has been meticulously written by internationally recog-
nized experts and includes the most recent advances in goat meat science. The contributing
authors hail from various parts of the world including Africa, Asia, North and South Amer-
ica, Australia and Europe. The goat was one of the earliest animals to be domesticated.
Over many centuries, goats have served human communities around the world to provide
food, fibre and other products such as leather and manure. For decades, the goat has been
regarded as a major cause of environmental destruction by overgrazing leading to desertifi-
cation. However, more recently, there has been growing recognition of the goat as an ani-
mal that provides sustainable livelihoods for many people, especially in the most deprived
regions of the world. Goats provide valuable animal protein at a very low cost by utilizing
marginal land usually rejected by other livestock to support low-income people in Asia,
Africa and other underdeveloped parts of the world. In Europe, particularly southern Euro-
pean countries, the goat has been used commercially for milk production and cheese mak-
ing, while goat kids serve as a by-product for meat production.
In recent years, a large volume of research has been carried out on goats in various
parts of the world covering a number of production aspects including: nutrition, breeding,
reproduction, health, production and quality. Research findings have been published in
journals and presented at scientific meetings. It is now high time to produce a comprehen-
sive book on goat meat production and quality to benefit goat research, education and the
broader goat industry. Research on goats has been carried out worldwide under different
climates and in different animal production systems. The latter range from intensive dairy
goat systems in Europe to extensive traditional systems in Africa and Asia. The basic ele-
ments of meat production include breeding, reproduction, nutrition and growth, which are
similar across meat-producing species and are of significant economic importance. For
instance, in intensive systems, the cost of animal feed would comprise almost two-thirds

ix
x Preface

of production costs. Under extensive goat production systems, the cost of feeding is much
lower and goat production may be a secondary activity to cropping.
Meat is the major product of the goat, as all goats can produce meat. However, goat
meat is less well known to consumers compared with other meats around the world. None
the less, in some regions in Africa and Asia, goat meat is preferred compared with that from
other livestock. In contrast, meat from young goats (Capretto) is considered a delicacy in
southern Europe and South America. With the wide movements of human populations
across continents in recent times, goat meat markets have expanded to areas such as North
America and Europe. The goat meat industry is not as well developed as that of other spe-
cies such as beef cattle, sheep and pigs. This is mainly because societies consuming goat
meat are mostly in developing countries where the meat industry is not as developed as in
the developed world. None the less, goat meat has been recognized as being leaner than
that from cattle, sheep and pigs. This could make it more attractive to consumers who are
conscious of the health hazards of consuming meat with a high fat content. However, there
are certain aspects regarding goat meat production that affect the perceived quality of goat
meat. Goat meat, especially from mature male goats, has the reputation of having a strong
flavour and smell. In addition, goats are often slaughtered at an older age, usually under
poor pre- and post-slaughtering conditions, which may compromise meat quality.
Goat Meat Production and Quality will cover the most important aspects of goat meat
production and quality. The chapters are essentially detailed reviews with the most up-to-
date publications summarized, integrated and discussed, rather than original papers with
results only from research laboratories. The book comprises two parts: goat meat produc-
tion and goat meat quality. The subjects covered in the book include an extensive review
of the latest situation in the global meat goat sector, followed by a description of production
systems, as well as the potential of tropical goat breeds for meat production, to complement
the global overview. Goat Meat Production and Quality also includes chapters on funda-
mental principles of goat production including genetics and breeding, reproduction and
nutrition. It also covers areas of normal and manipulated growth and development, and
carcass conformation and composition. A chapter with a more practical nature on the role
of subjective and objective evaluation in the production and marketing of meat goats is also
included. The section on goat meat quality addresses the nutritive value and quality char-
acteristics of goat meat, including fatty acids and mineral composition, as well as carcass
characteristics and linear body measurements. The role of nutrition in young goats, such as
the use of milk replacers, and the effect of the feeding system on goat carcasses are also
discussed.
We hope that Goat Meat Production and Quality will add to the currently published
information on goats and become a useful reference on goat meat production and quality.
The editors would like to thank CABI for publishing the book and sincerely acknowl-
edge the contributions of the authors and their collaborators. We would also like to thank
everybody who supports the goat meat production and quality cause around the world,
including goat owners, technical and research staff and students worldwide.

0. Mahgoub1, I.T. Kadim1 and E.C.Webb2


I Department of Animal & Veterinary Sciences, College of Agricultural & Marine Sciences,
Sultan Qaboos University, Sultanate of Oman; 2Department of Animal and Wildlife Sciences,
University of Pretoria, South Africa
1 Overview of the Global Goat
Meat Sector

0. Mahgoubl, I.T. Kadiml and C.D. Lu2


1Department of Animal & Veterinary Sciences, College of Agricultural & Marine
Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, Sultanate of Oman; 2College of Agriculture,
Forestry and Natural Resource Management, University of Hawaii, Hilo, Hawaii

1.1 Abstract mixed feeding opportunists are able to


adapt to seasonal and geographical changes
This chapter gives an overview of the goat and utilize low-quality rangelands to pro-
meat sector. It describes the current situa- duce high-quality animal protein, which is
tion of the goat as a meat animal and gives extremely important (Lu, 1987). Goats have
an account of goat populations throughout become important livestock in arid and
the world and their distribution by region in semi-arid regions of the world because of
different continents, as well as the countries their characteristics of versatility in harvest-
with the highest goat populations. It also ing forage and their ability to survive
discusses the contribution of goats to the adverse foraging conditions. As opportunis-
meat market. The chapter comments on the tic foragers, goats are able to maintain a rela-
acceptability and marketability of the goat tively high-quality diet, even under diverse
and its meat. conditions, and at times they prefer shrubs
over other types of range plants (Ramirez,
1999). In Kenya, about 67% of red meat is
produced in arid and semi-arid lands under
1.2 Introduction pastoral production systems (Juma et al.,
2010). Goats are a very important compo-
The goat was domesticated as early as nent of these systems and are reported to
6-7 BC, as evidenced by archaeological contribute 30% of the red meat in Kenya
remains collected in western Asia. It has (Ahuya et al., 2005). In Africa, goats play a
since played a significant socio-economic significant role in the production of food
role in the evolvement of human civiliza- and provide job opportunities for women
tion around the world. It is particularly and children in rural communities (Lebbie,
important in the tropics and subtropics 2004). Small-scale goat farming is of signifi-
where it is used as a major source of meat, cant benefit to families all over the world
milk, fibre, skin and manure in many tradi- (De Vries, 2008). Goats have also been kept
tional societies. It is also used as a readily in developed regions ranging from the
cashable source of investment. There is a Arctic to the Alps using adapted breeds
tendency to keep goats as a stock of wealth that have developed in harmony with the
and sell them proportionally less when local climatic conditions, topography and
their number rises (Seleka, 2001). Goats as vegetation (Dyrmundsson, 2006).
© CAB International 2012. Goat Meat Production and Quality
(eds 0. Mahgoub, I.T. Kadim and E.G. Webb) 1
2 O. Mahgoub et al.

1.3 The Goat as a Meat-producing implying similarities at physiological,


Animal functional and production levels. Because
of differences in foraging behaviour, mor-
One of the most important products from phological characteristics and ancestry clar-
goats is meat. The majority of goats world- ification, it is perhaps time to look at the
wide are regarded as meat type, with only goat as an independent animal sector.
about 5% of goats being classified as dairy Devendra (1981) stated that the small rumi-
type (Thompson, 2006). On average, the nants sector and its potential for contribu-
income from dairy systems (particularly in tion to agricultural-based economy has been
Europe) tends to be higher than that from neglected for a long time. However, the eco-
meat systems due to favourable market nomic importance of the sector and its abil-
prices for milk products and a greater ity to make use of available feed resources
dependence on subsidies in the meat as well as the functional value as a renew-
extensive systems (Rancourt et al., 2006). able resource for poor people in less devel-
However, the importance of the goat as a oped countries has been recognized. These
meat-producing animal is increasing as its less developed countries are mostly located
meat is becoming accepted in many new in the tropics and subtropics and are char-
markets in societies that have not previ- acterized by relatively high human popula-
ously consumed goat meat. Over the past tions and widely constraining climates and
several decades, specialized meat-goat ecosystems, with low per capita income
breeds have been developed, among which (Devendra, 1981). Goats with their small
the Boer goat is the most notable. The breed size and high efficiency of production are
has been developed from a genetic pool of ideal for small-scale village production as
native African, Indian, European and well as pastoral systems. Goat production
Angora goats, and active selection has been systems are specialized to some extent,
carried out within the breed over the past although they are less developed compared
half century. Other specialized meat-goat with those of cattle and sheep. In goat-
breeds such as Kalahari have followed the producing countries such as South Africa,
Boer goat. More recently, Tianfu goats in there are two distinct goat-producing sec-
China have emerged as a new breed with tors, the commercial sector, which keeps
excellent performance for meat production more mohair-producing Angora and dairy
and reproduction efficiency, and they are goats, and the non-commercial sector,
easily adapted to the local environment which keeps more meat goats (Roets and
(Wang et al., 2009). Some of the factors that Kirsten, 2005).
make the goat a successful meat-producing Domestication, which has been influ-
animal, especially under extensive systems, enced mainly by human movement through-
include: the ability to graze and utilize out history, has affected the form and
poor forages; the ability to walk long dis- functions of the goat. Goats in drier areas
tances; short generation intervals and high have acquired adaptations that allow them
reproductive rates; high turnover rates of to thrive and produce under these harsh
investment (low-risk investment); smaller conditions. However, unlike sheep, goats
carcasses, which are conveniently mar- lack fat reservoirs in their bodies that help
keted, preserved or consumed over short animals in arid regions to withstand periods
periods of time; the feasibility of herding by of nutritional stress (Ihiguez, 2004). This
children and women due to the flock may give an advantage to sheep keeping,
instinct; and their ability to stand droughts especially those of the fat-tail type, in such
(Lebbie, 2004). In some countries, such as areas of the world. Some goats have been
Korea, goat meat has been used for its selected to be specialized in certain aspects
medicinal properties (Son, 1999). of production such as milk and fibre,
Historically, goats have been catego- but almost all goat types have been used
rized along with sheep as small ruminants, for meat production either as specialized
The Global Goat Meat Sector 3

animals or with meat as a by-product of environment. However, when the stocking


other systems. Although humans have been density exceeds the carrying capacity of the
involved in selecting goats for various types rangeland, this may cause degradation and
of production, the biodiversity among goats sometimes leads to desertification (El Aich
has been more incidental than deliberate and Waterhouse, 1999). Spatial, temporal
through natural selection (Casey and Webb, and other dynamics exist between goats and
2010). the environment. For instance, in the moun-
Goat production has in the past been tainous regions of South America, a major
associated with political and economic contribution from goats is providing manure
developments in various regions around the for valuable cash crops, where an element
world, and this association is expected to of integrated nutrient management renders
continue in the foreseeable future. Goat pro- the production system more sustainable,
duction and marketing may be influenced reducing the stress on the fragile range eco-
by anticipated environmental and socio- system and enabling an increase in flock
economic challenges in the future. Climate size (Miguez, 2004). A negative environ-
change, consumer preference and lifestyles, mental impact is generally more related to
as well as the global economy, are important poorly managed, high-input and high-out-
considerations for goat production and mar- put systems rather than the traditional
keting. A significant revival was observed extensive production system in goats (Pea-
in the small ruminant sector in central cock and Sherman, 2010). It has been sug-
and Eastern Europe after many countries gested that the greatest environmental
joined the European Union (EU) in 2004 impact is more related to intensive systems
(Niznikowski et al., 2006). Privatization of in the developed world, such as expansion
livestock sectors including goats in central of beef production in South America and
Asia was a result of dissolution of the Soviet intensive pig and poultry systems in Asia
Union. A reduction in goat populations (Peacock and Sherman, 2010). The majority
occurred in central Asian countries except of the world's goat population is in Africa
for Turkmenistan, while Kazakhstan and (34%) and Asia (60%), and is kept under
Kyrgyzstan experienced an increase in goat extensive/semi-intensive low-input sys-
populations starting in 1998 (Miguez, 2004). tems with, in most cases, a comparatively
EU economic policy reforms and its rela- light environmental touch (Peacock and
tionship with the World Trade Organization Sherman, 2010). The concept of 'sustain-
have had a great impact on the economic ability' has influenced EU agricultural pol-
viability of sheep and goat production sys- icy makers in recent decades. Sheep and
tems in northern European countries goat farming systems in north Europe are
(Dyrmundsson, 2006). While the economic regarded as environmentally friendly and
recession in recent years has severely suitable for rural development (Dyrmunds-
affected the livestock market and resulted son, 2006). In developed countries, after a
in a decrease in sheep numbers in devel- long period of negative image, goat farming
oped regions such as Australia, New is gaining a positive outlook (Morand-Fehr
Zealand and Europe, the small ruminant et al.,2004). In Korea, goats have been
flocks in countries with subsistence farming regarded as environmentally friendly ani-
have increased and have become an impor- mals because of the concern over pollution
tant means of survival (Morand-Fehr et al., resulting from the disposal of waste origi-
2004). nating from other livestock species such as
Historically, goats have been perceived pigs and cattle (Son, 1999).
by some as having a negative impact on the A sign of increasing interest in goats is
environment. However, this impact is evidenced by the flourishing of goat research
dictated by human management. Goats over the past three decades. However, more
can be used for biological control of goat research has been carried out in devel-
weeds, which impacts positively on the oped than in developing regions, although
4 O. Mahgoub et al.

the majority of goats are found in the latter and the least-developed countries (270,123,867).
(Sahlu and Goetsch, 2005). Research is This accounts for 44, 86 and 31% of the total
needed for the development of a more effi- world goat population, respectively (Table 1.1).
cient meat production system while improv- The goat distribution by continent is
ing meat attributes such as carcass and meat presented in Fig. 1.1 (FAOSTAT, 2011).
quality in developing regions. A multidisci- The majority of the goats in the world
plinary approach has been suggested to (60%) are found in Asia. Africa comes sec-
characterize animal production systems for ond with almost one-third of the world's
various interrelated production traits goat population. The Americas and Europe
with special reference to parameters of have 4 and 2%, respectively, while Oceania
interest to farmers (Morand-Fehr et al., has a negligible proportion. Goats are
2004; Alexandre et al., 2010). reported to represent about 30% of Africa's
ruminants and produce about 17% of its
meat and 12% of its milk (Lebbie, 2004).
The major concentration of goats in Africa
1.4 The Worldwide Goat Population is in the sub-Saharan region with 60% of
the total goat population (147 million
The world population and distribution of heads) representing about 80 indigenous
major red-meat-producing animals are pre- breeds raised under various production
sented in Table 1.1 as reported by the Food systems (Lebbie, 2004).
and Agriculture Organization of the United When the statistics are examined by
Nations (FAO) (FAOSTAT, 2011). The total continent, they indicate the importance of
goat population in the world in 2009 was goats in developing regions, particularly in
estimated at 867,968,573 heads. This was Asia and Africa. Goat numbers in Asia and
behind cattle (1,382,241,378), sheep Africa are comparable to those of other live-
(1,071,274,348) and pigs (941,212,507) but stock species. In Africa, the western and
was far more than camels (25,385,468). When eastern parts of the continent are the most
these figures are expressed as domestic herbi- populated with goats, whereas in Asia, the
vore biomass (Wilson, 1984), calculated as southern and eastern parts are the most pop-
population numbers multiplied by mean ulated (Table 1.1). Southern Europe has the
weights (18 kg for goat, 30 kg for sheep, highest goat population within this conti-
206 kg for cattle, etc.), goats are also ranked nent. The high goat population in this region
after cattle and sheep. A significant propor- is mainly composed of dairy goats producing
tion of the world goat population is found in milk primarily for cheese-making in France,
countries defined by the FAO as net food- Italy, Spain and Greece. France, Greece and
importing countries (385,232,718), low- Spain supply about 83% of total goat milk
income food-deficit countries (748,264,358) produced in the EU (Castel et al., 2010).

Table 1.1. Population (number of animals) and distribution of major meat-producing animals in the
world in 2009. (From FAOSTAT, 2011.)

Region Goats Cattle Sheep Camels Pigs

Net food-importing 385,232,718 351,242,006 287,990,725 22,900,305 41,489,844


developing countries
Low-income food-deficit 748,264,358 636,890,571 577,063,586 23,686,631 524,010,340
countries
Least-developed 270,123,867 254,905,557 176,632,101 20,267,980 30,725,331
countries
World 867,968,573 1,382,241,378 1,071,274,348 25,385,468 941,212,507
Africa 294,871,078 270,675,336 292,122,275 21,514,522 27,644,351
Continued
The Global Goat Meat Sector 5

Table 1.1. Continued.

Region Goats Cattle Sheep Camels Pigs

Eastern Africa 89,214,463 118,269,261 59,358,638 10,493,700 8,446,353


Central Africa 21,935,966 21,808,864 8,643,819 1,391,045 4,220,170
Northern Africa 61,044,200 51,959,200 108,464,500 5,368,000 57,700
Southern Africa 11,723,135 19,912,657 29,423,458 75 1,767,690
Western Africa 110,953,314 58,725,354 86,231,860 4,261,702 13,152,438
Americas 37,120,763 509,551,701 90,161,096 160,293,639
Northern America 3,099,350 107,701,699 6,574,938 79,548,800
Central America 8,985,947 46,458,797 8,132,118 20,885,849
Caribbean 3,910,800 8,786,250 3,003,470 3,792,550
South America 21,124,666 346,604,955 72,450,570 56,066,440
Asia 516,660,762 439,175,098 452,629,700 3,863,924 560,425,232
Central Asia 8,163,664 18,988,506 47,215,547 205,888 1,532,911
Eastern Asia 175,830,979 102,623,769 148,015,877 512,050 472,433,849
Southern Asia 281,275,542 249,928,058 60,099,993 1,967,000 15,000,809
South-Eastern Asia 25,322,540 47,071,912 10,964,851 70,577,014
Western Asia 26,068,037 20,562,853 86,333,432 1,178,986 880,649
Europe 15,911,631 124,222,434 131,222,254 7,022 187,654,883
Eastern Europe 4,542,415 41,948,546 33,969,564 7,022 53,945,250
Northern Europe 212,546 22,956,198 39,349,450 23,876,624
Southern Europe 9,071,409 17,453,224 45,807,046 45,095,957
Western Europe 2,085,261 41,864,466 12,096,194 64,737,052
Oceania 3,404,339 38,616,809 105,139,023 5,194,402
Australia and New 3,082,229 37,868,259 105,123,283 2,624,502
Zealand
Melanesia 280,200 685,500 15,300 2,117,500
Micronesia 4,800 14,140 53,800
Polynesia 37,110 48,910 440 398,600

Oceania, 3,404,339
0%
Europe,
15,911,631
2% Africa, 294,871,078
34%

Americas,
Asia, 516,660,762 37,120,763
60% 4%

In Africa Americas Asia Europe Oceania

Fig. 1.1. Goat distribution by continent (FAOSTAT, 2011).


6 O. Mahgoub et al.

The goat population in this region has been conventional goat production systems. This
maintained, and in some cases increased, includes meat from male and female young
compared with other livestock species. Goats kids, castrated or intact males and culled
have been moved to areas with reduced soil females. Meat from the latter categories is of
fertility that are therefore not suitable for lower quality. Goat meat is classified
more intensive systems such as cereal crop- according to the age of the goat and is
ping or cattle ranching (Rancourt et al., known as capretto from young animals
2006). Spain is ranked second in terms of (weaned goats) and chevon from older
goat population and third in terms of goat goats.
milk yield within the EU (Castel et al., 2010). The total goat meat production in 2008
The EU has 1.6% of the world's goat popula- was approximately 5 million t (Table 1.3)
tion but produces 13.2% of goat milk and and was far less than mutton, beef and pork
2.0% of goat meat (Castel et al., 2010). (8.3, 65.7 and 103 million t, respectively).
Trends in the numbers of goats, sheep Goat meat contributed approximately 2.7%
and cattle in the world between 1980 and of total red meat production worldwide.
2009 are shown in Fig. 1.2 (FAOSTAT, 2011). This could be attributed to the less devel-
There has been a steady increase in goat num- oped production and marketing systems in
bers in the world over the past three decades. goats compared with other species. Asia
Over the same period, the numbers of sheep produced 70% of the world goat meat
have declined slightly, especially during the (3.5 million t), followed by Africa with
last decade, whereas those of cattle have 23.4% (1.2 million t), while Europe contrib-
increased slightly. The increase in goat num- uted only 2.5% of total world goat meat
bers over the past few decades has been attrib- production (124,139 t). In Asia, the largest
uted to their higher capacity to adapt to contribution came from East Asia (1,882,897
various environments, the development of t). These figures match the pattern of distri-
goat farming in developing countries and the bution of live goats in the world discussed
improved ecological image of goat farming above.
and its products in developed countries Table 1.4 describes goat meat produc-
(Morand-Fehr et al., 2004). tion around the world in terms of heads
Table 1.2 lists 18 countries with the slaughtered, carcass weight and total pro-
highest goat populations in the world, with duction in t. The total number of goats
a range between 1 and 17% of the total slaughtered in 2008 was close to 400 million
world goat population. The top four coun- head around the world, with Asia contribut-
tries are all from Asia, with 45% of the total ing 279 4 million, followed by Africa with 96
world goat population. China and India million. Europe contributed 11 5 million
have the largest goat populations, constitut- head, with the majority in southern Europe.
ing approximately 32% of the total world These numbers come from different produc-
goat population. With Pakistan and Bangla- tion systems and would yield meat of vari-
desh included, the Indian subcontinent has ous qualities. For instance, Asian (3 5 million
a sizeable goat population amounting to t) and African (1.2 million t) goat meat would
approximately 28% of the total world goat generally come from lower-grade carcasses
population. In Africa, Nigeria and Sudan produced from unfinished range animals
have the highest goat populations, followed and would have been obtained from male
by Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Niger, Tanza- goats of various ages, castrated and non-cas-
nia, Burkina Faso and Mali. trated, as well as from older females, which
are culled. Goat meat from Europe would be
a by-product from milk/cheese production
1.5 Contribution of the Goat systems usually in the form of capretto meat
to the Meat Market from young kids. However, there are some
signs of innovation in goat production sys-
Meat is one of the major products from goats tems in some parts of the world, which are
and is the major commodity income under targeting niche markets such as those of
The Global Goat Meat Sector 7

1600000000

1400000000

1200000000

1000000000
0
E 800000000

600000000

400000000

200000000

0 lir a
G1980 G1990 G2000 G2009 S1980 S1990 S2000 S2009 C1980 C1990 C2000 C2009
Animal species/year
E World Africa II America II Asia Europe Oceania

Fig. 1.2. Numbers of goats (G), sheep (S) and cattle (C) in the world between 1980 and 2009
(FAOSTAT, 2011).

Table 1.2. Countries with the highest goat population around the world in 2008
(from FAOSTAT, 2011).

Country Population (head) % of total population

China 149,376,747 17.33


India 125,732,000 14.59
Pakistan 56,742,000 6.58
Bangladesh 56,400,000 6.54
Nigeria 53,800,400 6.24
Sudan 43,100,000 5.00
Iran, Islamic Republic of 25,300,000 2.94
Ethiopia 21,884,222 2.54
Mongolia 19,969,400 2.32
Indonesia 15,805,900 1.83
Kenya 14,478,300 1.68
Somalia 12,700,000 1.47
Niger 12,641,352 1.47
Tanzania, United Republic of 12,55,0000 1.46
Burkina Faso 11,805,000 1.37
Mali 10,150,350 1.18
Brazil 9,500,000 1.10
Mexico 8,831,000 1.02

intensive goat production in southern Africa. towards more intensive ones (Primov, 1984).
There is some evidence that traditional goat Meat from such improved systems would be
farmers in northern Brazil have shifted of a higher quality and safer, and would
from opportunistic management strategies involve better processing and packing.
8 O. Mahgoub et al.

Table 1.3. Contributions of goats to world meat production (t) in 2008 (from FAOSTAT, 2011).

Beef and
Region Goat buffalo Sheep Camel Pig Poultry Turkey

World 4,918,696 65,722,253 8,255,295 336,475 103,189,592 91,698,619 6,106,083


Africa 1,151,612 5,122,907 1,262,476 238,602 847,271 3,685,987 127,982
Eastern 303,134 1,577,010 194,917 89,592 263,390 427,837 10,836
Africa
Central 78,207 357,106 38,529 1,494 87,692 68,487 6
Africa
Northern 257,160 1,284,300 577,768 92,505 2,538 1,688,000 112,100
Africa
Southern 51,143 902,580 131,259 163,137 1,003,250 5,040
Africa
Western 461,967 1,001,911 320,000 55,011 330,512 498,413
Africa
Americas 149,530 30,818,119 404,666 18,785,952 40,991,598 4,154,655
Northern 22,601 13,523,702 99,185 12,403,329 21,370014 3,559,919
America
Central 43,890 2,109,441 52,690 1,337,533 3,334,436 23,945
America
Caribbean 12,344 230,473 10,668 328,354 633,248 672
South 70,695 14,954,503 242,122 4,716,735 15,653,899 570,118
America
Asia 3,469,818 15,852,122 4,111,405 97,701 57,066,093 31,616,255 126,159
Central 34,031 1,204,800 365,664 1,046 244,400 109,500
Asia
Eastern 1,882,897 6,993,436 2,051,376 22,860 49,693,424 17,765,043 3,881
Asia
Southern 1,210,203 5,095,090 874,523 5,460 516,670 48,96,180 6,000
Asia
South- 160,957 1,610,222 68,054 6,511,285 5,710,521 606
eastern
Asia
Western 181,729 948,572 751,788 68,335 100,312 3,135,010 115,672
Asia
Europe 124,139 10,974,585 1,185,587 172 25,965,469 14,373,404 1,659,525
Eastern 37,846 3,192,409 234,482 172 6,251,253 5,135,318 171,340
Europe
Northern 612 1,918,068 426,060 3,423,487 2,104,816 152,620
Europe
Southern 76,356 2,153,502 380,190 6,002,947 2,889,669 393,797
Europe
Western 9,325 3,710,606 144,855 10,287,782 4,243,601 941,768
Europe
Oceania 23,595 2,954,518 1,291,159 524,806 1,031,373 37,761

Although goat meat supply has increased tering of increasing numbers of young stock
consistently over the past few decades, it still with a consistent erosion of the breeding ani-
cannot meet the demand in many countries mals base, resulting in a higher meat price for
(Devendra, 2010). This has led to the slaugh- goats than for other ruminants (Devendra,
The Global Goat Meat Sector 9

Table 1.4. The world goat meat production in the form of slaughtered heads, yield per carcass and
total production (t) in 2008 (from FAOSTAT, 2011).

Yield/carcass weight
Region Slaughtered (head) (kg/animal) Production (t)

World 398,408,444 123 4,918,696


Africa 95,748,031 120 1,151,612
Eastern Africa 27,762,100 109 303,134
Middle Africa 6,442,411 121 78,207
Northern Africa 19,995,000 128 257,160
Southern Africa 3,495,000 146 51,143
Western Africa 38,053,520 121 461,967
Americas 10,608,084 140 149,530
Northern America 796,440 283 22,601
Central America 2,601,683 168 43,890
Caribbean 897,260 137 12,344
South America 6,312,701 111 70,695
Asia 279,445,153 124 3,469,818
Central Asia 2,129,800 159 34,031
Eastern Asia 137,145,535 137 1,882,897
Southern Asia 114,819,280 105 1,210,203
South-Eastern Asia 13,475,346 119 160,957
Western Asia 11,875,192 153 181,729
Europe 11,556,540 107 124,139
Eastern Europe 2,661,773 142 37,846
Northern Europe 44,308 138 612
Southern Europe 7,852,603 97 76,356
Western Europe 997,856 93 9,325
Oceania 1,050,636 224 23,595
Australia and 957,231 234 22,403
NewZealand
Melanesia 8,3900 124 1,044
Micronesia 1,600 183 29
Polynesia 7,905 150 118

2010). In some countries, the high demand factors ranging from their population to
for goat meat has also led to overslaughtering annual rainfall and natural conditions
and the export of breeding females. (Seleka, 2001). Goat meat production is a
commercial enterprise in only a few coun-
tries in the world including southern Africa
1.6 Goat Production Systems (South Africa, Namibia and Botswana), the
and Marketing southern states of the USA and Mexico
(Casey and Webb, 2010). Goats have an
Goats are mostly kept under traditional, important role in self-sufficient agricultural
extensive and semi-intensive systems systems in many parts of the world. This
around the world. There are four major goat includes milk and cheese in northern coun-
production systems in developing countries: tries and meat production in countries in
rural landless, extensive, crop-based and the tropics and subtropics. Systems of goat
rangeland-based (Devendra, 2010). The production differ around the world. In
small ruminant supply is influenced by the tropics, extensive systems prevail
10 O. Mahgoub et al.

and depend on grazing of natural range. mainly through supporting cooperatives


For instance, in Botswana, the majority of (Seleka, 2001). In arid and semi-arid regions
goats (97%) are raised under traditional or of the world, goats are kept within pastoral-
communal husbandry systems, whereas ism and agropastoralism systems, which
only 3% are raised under improved com- may include some subsistence cropping as
mercial production systems (Seleka, 2001). well as goat keeping. This depends mainly
At the other extreme, in Japan, the livestock on diversification and on subsistence
farming systems are based on concentrateactivities, the herd composition and the
feeding, which enables higher grades of mobility of the herds (El Aich and Water-
meat and milk (Ozawa et al., 2005). A con- house, 1999). Goat meat in these systems is
centrate-based goat production system is destined mostly for home use or local mar-
more difficult to sustain. For instance, the kets, which do not require high-quality
Japanese system is not sustainable, as only meat. In southern Africa, goats are kept by
25% of the feed is produced within Japan small-scale farmers, communal farmers and
(Ozawa et al., 2005). The current goat meat households (Casey and Webb, 2010). There
systems are not capable of supporting high- is a trend towards improvement of small
input, concentrate-feeding systems due to ruminant production in some countries by
lack of competitive structuring and market- means other than simply increasing goat
ing competencies. A traditional intensive populations. These means include genet-
milk production system with meat and milk ics, nutrition, housing, veterinary care and
as the major commodities can be found in communication (Haenlein and Abdellatif,
Spain. Under such systems, 20-40 kg kids 2004). However, improvement of goats
can be marketed after spring grazing and through genetics has been more evident in
cheese manufacturing (Castel et al., 2010). dairy goats by introducing established
Over the past few decades, this system has breeds such as Saanen, Alpines and Anglo-
shifted to produce 1-month-old, 8 kg suck- Nubian in the tropics. More recently, the
ling kids due to legislative and economic Boer goat, the most characterized meat-goat
constraints. breed, has started to play a role in genetic
Production efficiency of goat-meat pro- improvement of meat goats around the
duction under traditional subsistence sys- world (Simela and Merkel, 2008).
tems is generally low and can be improved. In developed regions, meat production
Major limiting factors are high mortality and from goats is not as significant. In 2006, the
low utilization rates (sales plus home value of sheep and goat meat accounted for
slaughter), as goats are grazed and bred only 1% of all agricultural output and 2% of
under uncontrolled systems such as those in total meat consumption in six European
Botswana (Seleka, 2001). Kid mortality may countries (Canali, 2006). In Europe, most
reach up to 20% in the Inter-Andean Valley, goats are kept for milk production. Where
mainly due to forage and management fluc- there is a surplus of goat milk and processed
tuations and predators (Miguez, 2004). High cheese, meat production poses an attractive
mortality in goats in Africa is due to poor alternative. However, in many of these
management practices and the occurrence of countries, surplus kids are not kept for meat
disease, whereas the low utilization rates are production and instead are culled. For
related to lack of appropriate and reliable instance, in Norway, goat meat contributes
marketing systems (Seleka, 2001). only about 0.3% of total meat production in
In the tropics, there have been some the country (Asheim and Eik, 1998). This
efforts to provide public support for goat may be because goat carcasses and meat do
production systems to improve their effi- not fit the specifications set for mutton and
ciency. For instance, in Botswana, several beef in traditional meat markets. Therefore,
support programmes from government and niche marketing of goat meat and meat
international organizations have been products is essential in these markets.
introduced for the improvement of produc- Goat production systems in northern
tion and marketing of small ruminants, European countries are influenced by
The Global Goat Meat Sector 11

climatic conditions, with animals housed Acceptance of goat meat varies widely
indoors for a significant part of the year. around the world. For instance, goat meat
These systems are also supplemented in was rated by 61% of the Japanese house-
some cases with upland and mountain graz- wives as 'not commonly eaten at home' and
ing in summer under marginal conditions `smelly', and they 'never thought about goat
and share resources with other agricultural meat' (Ozawa et al., 2005). In a survey car-
enterprises (Dyrmundsson, 2006). The cost ried out in Japan, only 16% of respondents
of production and the type and quality of had eaten goat meat. However, it was rated
products under these systems differ greatly by those who consumed it as being more
from those of extensive pastoral tropical tender than pork (Ozawa et al., 2005). On
systems with milk being the major product the other hand, in the developing world,
and meat a by-product. goat meat is well accepted and is purchased
There may be an opportunity for goat on a small scale and in traditional markets.
meat marketing in the developing world In certain parts of the developing world,
because of the declining profitability of tra- such as the humid tropics of Africa, goat
ditional production systems such as tradi- meat is the most important type of meat, as
tional ranching in the USA (Lupton et al., cattle and pig rearing is not practised due to
2008). A promising approach would be disease and religious beliefs (Oludimu and
based on a multiproduct complementary Owokade, 1995).
system. Lupton et al. (2008) investigated a
high-quality mohair-, meat- and hide-
producing system from Angora goats. Spe-
cial housing, feeding and watering facilities 1.8 Marketing of the Meat Goat
allowed the production of clean mohair due
to separation from faeces and urine. Auto- Marketing of goat meat includes marketing
mation of feeding and watering systems live goats as well as carcass and non-carcass
reduced the labour requirements. Under components. Marketing of edible parts of
feedlot and elevated floor systems, the goats the goat is influenced by consumer prefer-
grew faster than those on pasture. Goats ences due to differences in culture, reli-
raised under the elevated floor system pro- gious beliefs and competition with other
duced cleaner fibres, which were suitable meats. Marketing of meat-producing live-
for hand-spinning niche markets. The net stock including goats is done in different
income per head was at its highest for goats ways around the world, with meat moving
raised under elevated floor systems for a along different channels to consumers
niche market. (Roets and Kirsten, 2005). Goat producers in
non-commercialized farming systems use
informal and less reliable marketing sys-
1.7 Acceptability of Goat Meat tems that hold many risks for producers and
consumers compared with commercial sys-
Compared with mutton, beef and pork, goat tems that use well-organized systems with
meat is not as widely distributed, marketed or capital resources, a better infrastructure,
accepted in major world markets for various institutions, legal frameworks and markets
reasons. Even in countries with a high goat (Roets and Kirsten, 2005).
population, the consumption of goat meat is Goats are marketed in traditional sub-
not as high as for meats from other species. sistence markets around the developing
For instance, in Kenya, beef was found to world where most goats are found and their
form the highest proportion of red meats con- meat consumed. These markets are charac-
sumed at home, whereas chevon and mutton terized by a small number of animals sold
were negligible (Cana li Gamba, 2005). In on market days by goat owners or their fam-
Sudan, which is ranked among countries with ily members. Women are mostly responsi-
a high goat population, goat meat is regarded ble for goat rearing and marketing. Oludimu
as inferior to mutton and beef. and Owokade (1995) reported that 95% of
12 O. Mahgoub et al.

goat sellers in a local market in Nigeria were Often, the demand by consumers of particu-
women. Only 20% of them were owners, lar ethnic and religious groups cannot be
while the others were apprentices, agents or met due to the absence of a reliable supply
relatives of the owners or were learning of goat meat, especially in urban areas of the
the trade. USA. Meat goats are rarely the primary ani-
Animal weight is not the only consider- mal production enterprise in the USA, but
ation for the marketing of goats and, surpris- they are becoming increasingly important
ingly, is not commonly determined in contributors to the income of many produc-
traditional and subsistence markets. Goat ers (Glimp, 1995). Meat-goat marketing is
sellers in Nigeria estimate the goat price on highly unstructured in the USA, yet prices
the basis of size, hair coat condition, age, are generally higher per unit weight than
health, meat formation and sex (Oludimu other red meat-producing species (Glimp,
and Owokade, 1995). However, studies 1995). Capretto, meat from milk-fed kids, is
have revealed that the major factors that known to be in high demand and short sup-
determine goat prices in traditional markets ply in northern Mexico.
are weight, sex and age (Oludimu and There is an opportunity for goat meat to
Owokade, 1995). Risk, in the form of theft be marketed in niche markets. One of these
and mortality, is borne solely by the traders. growing markets is organic meat produc-
Some goat meat products are character- tion, with Australia and China being the
ized by 'typicality', which indicates that a most important producers (Lu et al., 2010).
product is made in a specific area with spe- There are no obvious differences in effi-
cific characteristics (Rubino et al., 1999). ciency of production in terms of carcass
These include small goat carcasses in some yield and conformation between organic
countries and some types of preserved and non-organic goat meat systems (Lu
meats in Africa. The consumer's attitude et al., 2010). However, consumers perceived
and consumption behaviour can affect the organic goat meat to be safe and healthy, and
growth of livestock sections (Juma et al., to support production systems that empha-
2010). The demand for small ruminant meat size animal welfare. Organic goat produc-
increases concomitant with increasing tion contributes to the alleviation of poverty
income or cost, as consumers perceive small for producers who rely on marginal land for
ruminant meat to be a quality meat com- their livelihoods, while meeting the increas-
pared with beef (Juma et al., 2010). Market- ing demand for organic products globally.
ing of goats and their products is also Nutritional strategies that are naturally
affected by changes in economic trends occurring, low cost and easy to apply can
such as globalization, which add new chal- improve the productive performance of
lenges to goat meat marketing. Globaliza- goats and render organic production profit-
tion has initiated new demands by retailers able and successful (Lu, 2011). Adequate
as a result of the demand from consumers protein intake enhances immunity and
for tractability, quality and consistency of improves both resistance and resilience of
supply. Consumers prefer specialized and the host to endoparasites and diseases.
relatively low-volume food products (Roets Organic goat production relies on high-
and Kirsten, 2005). forage systems; therefore, understanding
The major factors that hinder goat meat plant biomass accumulation, eating behav-
marketing may be sociologically related iour, seasonal fluctuations and environmen-
(Morand-Fehr et al., 2004). For instance, in tal interactions can lead to more sustainable
some countries, rearing of goats or eating organic production while maintaining
goat meat are related to the lower-income diverse plant landscapes. Legumes are desir-
able for organic goat production because
classes of society. These issues have to be
addressed when marketing of meat and they contain high levels of protein and are
meat products from goats is considered. suitable browsing for goats. Secondary plant
In northern America, the demand for compounds at a concentration below the
goat meat is believed to exceed the supply. level of toxicity can be utilized for disease
The Global Goat Meat Sector 13

prevention, control and treatment, and may metabolic disorders associated with preg-
fill the vacuum from the absence of the use nancy, parturition and lactation (Lu et al.,
of chemicals in organic goat production. In 2005). The use of bioactive plants, tradi-
combination with other naturally occurring tional herbal or ethno-veterinary medicine
materials, they have the potential to improve may present economic and sustainable
nutrient digestion and utilization in goats. alternatives if a greater understanding of the
Goats are versatile at harvesting plants and mechanisms, interactions with other nutri-
able to survive under adverse foraging con- ents and levels of toxicity can be achieved.
ditions (Lu, 1988). The tolerance of goats Chinese herbal medicines, many of which
towards the bitterness of secondary plant have antibacterial, antiviral and antipara-
compounds can play an anthelmintic role sitic properties, merit further studies and
and make goats more suitable for high-forage verification, and may be promising in
organic production systems than other rumi- organic goat production (Lu, 2011).
nant species. Rapid fetal growth associated There are also niche markets for young
with the physical fill of forage limits feed kids in Jordan, southern Turkey and south-
intake during late pregnancy and therefore ern Syria, often coupled with fattening sys-
presents a challenge for nutritional balance tems because of the high value of kid meat
in goats under high-forage organic produc- (Ihiguez, 2004). Another niche market for
tion systems. Understanding regulation of goat meat is medicinal use. For instance, the
intake, fibre digestion and utilization can Korean native black goat is used in Korea
lead to nutritional balance, minimizing for its medicinal properties.

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2 Goat Meat Production Systems

K.W. McMillini, E.C. Webb2, E.F. Donkin2 and F Pinkerton3


1Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Louisiana, USA; 2Department
of Animal and Wildlife Sciences, University of Pretoria, South Africa; 3Retired,
Langston University, USA

2.1 Abstract 130% per year, so the prolificacy, milk pro-


duction and pre-weaning growth contribu-
Goat production systems have been devel- tions by does are important in achieving
oped to adapt to the specific needs of the this level of productivity. Goats represent a
producer but can be grouped into several small niche in many developed countries,
general categories. Intensive production but they contribute significantly to the live-
systems are usually on smaller plots and lihoods of rural people across the globe.
require daily attention to management prac- The different goat production systems and
tices, while extensive systems have more the factors that influence goat production
reliance on goats grazing over large areas. are discussed in this chapter.
Goats may be raised for subsistence, to gen-
erate capital, for profit or for production
through communal, nomadic, transhu- 2.2 Introduction
mance and sedentary pastoralism, primitive
herding and largeholder commercial farms. Goats were among the earliest species of
Small-scale goat farms are influenced by livestock to be domesticated approximately
infrastructure, social systems, land tenure, 9000 years ago. These small ruminants
economics and marketing. Production sys- descended from the bezoar or wild goat
tems are dependent on climate, geography, (Capra hircus) in the hills of western Asia
diet, breed, reproductive capacity, diseases (Casey et al., 2003). The consequence of
and goat behaviour. Goat production sys- domestication was a change in the pheno-
tems must match the desires of the produc- typic characteristics of wild goats, which
ers with the many factors influencing the resulted in the development of a multiplic-
growth and productivity of meat goats for ity of goat breeds or types. These breeds or
success of the enterprise. types were distributed across the world as a
Commercial meat-goat enterprises result of the migration and translocation of
account for an overwhelming majority of humans, usually due to changing climatic
the meat-goat production systems and herd conditions and natural resources. The
sizes range from five to several thousand world goat population now consists of an
does. Well-managed production systems enormous amount of genetic variation
can generate weaned kid crops in excess of in morphological and production
© CAB International 2012. Goat Meat Production and Quality
(eds O. Mahgoub, I.T. Kadim and E.G. Webb) 15
16 K.W. McMillin et al.

characteristics (Galal, 2005; Shrestha and subsistence enterprise, and the benefits of
Fahmy, 2005). According to the Food and such systems still surpass the disadvan-
Agriculture Organization of the United tages (Lebbie, 2004).
Nations (FAO, 1999), there are now about It is now estimated that 90% of the cur-
570 breeds of goats in the goat database. The rent world goat population of about 650 mil-
domestication of goats signalled the start of lion occur in Asia, Africa, Central America
goat production in different systems and and the Caribbean, where goat production is
placed significant responsibility on goat associated primarily with subsistence agri-
keepers; hence the need to study and under- culture (Casey et al., 2003). Asia (71%) and
stand goat production systems, as well as Africa (22%) produce most of the world's
the quality of products from animal origin. goat meat (FAO, 1999). The collapse of the
It is important to understand the goat fibre industry in Australia during the
domestication of goats because this pro- 1800s resulted in the release of goats in feral
cess, as well as the migration of goats to dif- flocks and this is regarded as the origin of
ferent parts of the world, influenced the Australian feral goats (Werdi Pratiwi et al.,
type of production systems that developed 2007). It is estimated that there are now
over the centuries. However, in most live- between 4 and 6 million feral goats in
stock production systems, goats were Australia.
regarded as easy-care animals and thus
received little attention in terms of selec-
tion and breed improvement. The well-
known Bezoar, Savannah and Nubian goat 2.3 What do We Mean by a 'System'
breeds descended from the Bezoar (Capra of Goat Production?
aegagrus), Markhor (Capra aegagrus fal-
coner]) and Ibex (Capra aegagrus ibex) dur- A 'system' in the context of livestock pro-
ing the migration of nomadic pastoralists duction can be considered as the integration
from Asia to the west (Mediterranean coun- of all the factors that influence the manage-
tries), east (Iran and Afghanistan, Turkistan, ment of the goat and entire goat enterprise.
Mongolia and North China) and later via An existing system of goat production and
the Khyber Pass to India (Shrestha and the way the goats are managed might be the
Fahmy, 2005). Many of the later goat breeds result of the way things were created, a
still share similar phenotypic features, result of the 'balance of nature' or a result of
although they are kept in a variety of pro- experience after many years of 'trial and
duction systems. error'. In the evaluation of a system of goat
Colonists from Spain and Portugal production, we should also consider whether
took Anglo-Nubian goats to the Americas, the production system is improving, deterio-
while those from France and the UK took rating or stable, and whether it is productive
similar goats to North America, Australia, and sustainable. Humans play an important
New Zealand and South Africa. The devel- role in the management of goat production
opment of the Boer goat in the Eastern systems, and management decisions often
Cape in South Africa during the 1920s is have far-reaching consequences for the
regarded as one of the cornerstones of the animals and the environment.
international goat industry because it Management of goat production sys-
emphasized the possibilities of selection tems will include decisions about the breed
for carcass and production characteristics or type of goat, housing systems, breeding
in goats. Many countries are now import- and feeding methods, and health manage-
ing more prolific breeds of goat to increase ment (Donkin et al., 1996). All these factors
the growth characteristics and meat yields will result in a system of management that
of local goats by crossbreeding and breed determines the production system. Overall,
improvement programmes (Casey and the key factor of any goat production system
Webb, 2010). However, goat production for lies in the competence and commitment of
meat remains a predominantly small-scale the owner or manager.
Goat Production Systems 17

The success of a production system kid production and purebred buck and doe
depends on the following aspects: production. Herd sizes range from five to
several thousand does, depending on the
Long-term sustainability
factors mentioned above. According to
Appropriateness for the environment Casey et al. (2003), small-scale farmers can
Profitability
keep from two to three breeding does, with
Personal satisfaction. an average of between five and eight does
and one buck, in tropical and subtropical
parts of Africa. Larger commercial herds
2.4 Goat Production Functions often consist of several hundred breeding
and Production Systems does in a ratio of one buck to 25 does.
Emphasis should be placed on the role of
Goats are equally well adapted to consume does in production because of the influ-
and utilize leaves, grass, forbs and shoots of ences on reproduction and growth that
shrubs - goats are thus regarded as grazers they contribute. Well-managed production
and browsers (Du Plessis et a/., 2004). Goats systems can generate weaned kid crops in
also possess unique characteristics to adapt excess of 130% per year, so the prolificacy,
to harsh environments (Alexandre and milk production and pre-weaning growth
Mandonnet, 2005). These unique character- contributions by does are important in
istics enable them to thrive in a large variety achieving this level of productivity.
of ecological regions around the world and Goats represent a small niche in many
in different production systems. developed countries, but they contribute
The varying levels of financial commit- significantly to the livelihoods of rural peo-
ment, physical resources and site-specific ple across the globe, and form a viable link
management fall into several general types, in the agricultural production chain to gen-
including: (i) smallholder intensively man- erate an income and provide employment
aged; (ii) smallholder purebred; (iii) large- opportunities for women, children and the
scale extensively managed; (iv) hobby-type elderly. Small ruminants have a large
for personal enjoyment; and (v) specialized impact on the economy and food supply of
herds for production of show stock or con- people in subtropical and tropical coun-
trol of brushy, weedy or forest areas. Start- tries. This benefit is often not shown in
ing the goat enterprise may be the most national statistics because of informal trad-
difficult aspect because of all of the deci- ing and slaughtering.
sions that must be made. Fundamental to Goats are often neglected but have
success in any livestock enterprise is the served mankind with meat, milk, hair,
gathering of sufficient useful information so leather and products including manure for
that wise decisions on management and many centuries (Webb et al., 2005). It is also
production practices can be made. Failures widely accepted that goats serve as a source
often occur because, for example, the enter- of high-quality protein for rural families
prise starts with excessive ambition or mainly because of their small size and
grows beyond the management ability; the affordable nature. The relatively small size
numbers or kinds of goats do not match the of goat carcasses is beneficial for small-scale
fencing, facility, geography and climatic farmers because the carcass can be con-
conditions; marketing - an important aspect sumed within a short period of time and the
of the production system - is not adequately risk of meat spoilage is reduced. A less well-
carried out; or incorrect information is known fact is that people in many rural
received. countries consume more goat milk than cow
Commercial meat-goatenterprises milk. Traditional milk goats and their
account for an overwhelming majority of crosses are also used for meat production
the meat-goat production systems because (Braker et al., 2002). Many poor people and
of the desire and need for economic small-scale farmers use goats as a financial
returns. The primary types are slaughter reserve, often due to a lack of access to
18 K.W. McMillin et al.

financial institutions. In commercial and systems, but much of the land is either
communal systems, goats are often used as under- or overutilized, leading to degrada-
controllers of bush encroachment. These tion. The misperception is that 'small scale'
ubiquitous animals often outnumber cattle is often viewed as non-productive, non-
and other production animals in many commercial subsistence agriculture. How-
regions. Their role in sustaining agricultural ever, the evidence is that small-scale
production systems in many resource-poor agriculture has the potential to generate
areas clearly shows that goats are vital to employment and income opportunities in
economic development. rural areas irrespective of limited access to
Environmentalists generally consider land and credit. Commercial farming for
a sustainable livestock system to be an oxy- metropolitan markets is increasing in Asia,
moron (Basset and Crummey, 1993) Africa and central and South America
because such systems are perceived to (Casey et al., 2003). Security of land tenure
cause severely overgrazed hillsides or and ownership influences the ability and
compacted tropical soils, particularly willingness of farmers to adopt new tech-
where there is individual livestock owner- nologies that will improve their production
ship but the animals are kept on communal and therefore should never be underesti-
grazing lands (Bembridge, 1987). In devel- mated. Land is a scarce resource that needs
oped countries, livestock are often associ- to be conserved.
ated with human health problems that are Goats account for about 30% of Africa's
a result of overconsumption of animal fat. ruminant livestock, with sub-Saharan
Livestock are blamed for both their direct Africa accounting for 60% of the total goat
and indirect negative impact on the envi- population in Africa. Goats are important in
ronment, but even livestock critics admit marginal agricultural land areas and play a
that, if managed correctly, livestock can significant role in the food chains and over-
play an important role in agricultural all livelihoods in poor resource-households.
development without any negative impact Poverty, combined with a lack of modern
on the environment. The fact is that in agricultural skills and low-input practices,
many countries the largest part of the coun- results in poor productivity due to inade-
try is suitable only for extensive livestock quate animal nutrition, prevalence of dis-
production, and in most of these regions eases and parasites, and poor milk and meat
goats are particularly well adapted. production (Lebbie, 2004). Tick diseases
Goats are more often poorly managed may cause high mortality, which will coun-
and this is attributed to their ability to sur- ter high incidences of twinning (Masika and
vive under harsh conditions and also Mafu, 2004).
because most people in rural areas rear
goats for their subsistence purposes to sup-
port their families (Braker et al., 2002). This
explains why goat farmers seldom consider 2.5 Types of Goat Production
the possibilities of increasing production Systems
through either cross-breeding or artificial
insemination. A very important aspect in 2.5.1 Subsistence rearing
this regard is the awareness of risk by
resource-poor farmers and their emphasis Subsistence rearing is when livestock activ-
on minimizing it. Under such conditions, ity is the sole activity of the herder and his
animals that are hardy against the vagaries family. They raise animals to support their
of droughts, disease and poor management families and the surplus is exchanged in
are more attractive options than more pro- order to procure household necessities,
ductive breeds that are vulnerable to these with the use of money reduced to the mini-
conditions (Braker et al., 2002). mum. Animals have a social role, such as
In the largest part of Africa and Asia, being used as loans, passing them on as an
goats form part of subsistence farming inheritance, gifts and lobola (`bride price').
Goat Production Systems 19

All these create a web of obligation of 2.6.1 Extensive system


dependent relationships, which assures the
cohesion of families and social group and Extensive goat management is probably the
forms the hierarchies between different most common and popular method of man-
groups. Capital growth comes about because aging goats. It is practised where the land is
of surplus herd growth, which is kept to not immediately suitable for agricultural
ensure the subsistence of the stockman and improvement or is too difficult or too costly
his family after sales or exchanges have to fence. Extensive management involves a
been made. minimum amount of labour and expense.
Goat flocks tend to be relatively large due to
easy access to cheap labour and relatively
2.5.2 Rearing solely to build up capital high returns from this system of manage-
ment (Gall, 1981). Determining features are
favourable climatic conditions, a short wet
Farmers and people working in the tertiary season, the availability of browse and few
sector may invest their savings in herds. predators. Drier areas with low amounts of
The protection of their herds is entrusted rainfall are more suited to goat production
to a stockman the investors are related to, than cattle or sheep production as long as
or more generally to salaried or migrant there are moderate temperatures. Goats pre-
share herders from pastoral ethnic groups fer browse over pasture and will eat 50.5 g
who have left their original group. per kg body weight of shrubs per day
(Rogosic et al., 2006), so goats can be used
to manage vegetative growth in overgrown
2.5.3 Rearing for profit or non-maintained pastures. Black locust
trees and multiflora roses were found to be
The ultimate aim of this group is monetary controlled when goats were grazed with
gain in which techniques aim to obtain (at cattle but not with cattle alone (Luginbuhl
the best cost or least effort) animal products et al., 2000). Predator control may be very
that are saleable at the best price. important. Donkeys, llamas and guard dogs
are used in different parts of the world
where labour costs or terrain prohibit daily
herding of goats by humans.
2.5.4 Rearing or use of animals for animal
traction
2.6.2 Intensive production
An unproductive animal may be main-
tained for as long as it retains its physical
strength. Here, the animal is maintained for Kilgour and Dalton (1984) defined an inten-
power rather than for production. Goats are sive system as a system in which the farmer
not usually used for tillage or transport pur- uses technology with discretion and animals
poses due to their smaller size compared are generally well managed based on good
with other ruminant species. husbandry practices. In this system, goats
are fed in confinement with limited access
to land, for example browse is brought to
them daily. It is, by definition, a system with
2.6 Goat Management Systems high labour and cash input. In this system,
cultivated grasses and/or by-products are
Goat management systems refer to the fed in situ. Goats may be fed with cut grass
unique combination of different farming with or without limited concentrates.
practices that are employed by different The behaviour of goats may be affected
people depending on the area and type of by the husbandry system, where lethargy
animal involved. and obesity may result from a lack of
20 K.W. McMillin et al.

exercise or unbalanced diet and feet prob- herd is communal, while individuals or one
lems may arise through excessively long or more families own the livestock.
hooves (Kilgour and Dalton, 1984). How- Livestock in many rural areas in the
ever, these conditions can be limited by pre- developing countries are regarded as
venting inbreeding (Webb and Mamabolo, wealth, and a man's social standing is mea-
2004). Intensive systems provide maximum sured by the size of his flock rather than
protection from uncontrollable environ- money or other possessions (Poostchi,
mental factors and give complete control 1987). Many livestock herders use livestock
over the destructive aspects of the goats' for the payment of bride price (Poostchi,
feeding habits. 1987; Maree and Casey, 1993). Here, the
bridegroom's family is socially required to
present animals to the bride's family before
2.6.3 Tethering the marriage ceremony takes place. Large
numbers of livestock are kept as a form of
Tethering is the practice where goats are insurance against drought and famine.
confined or movement is controlled in order
The aim of most communal goat own-
to prevent them from wandering and dam- ers is an unlimited increase in the number
aging neighbouring crops. In this system, of animals owned. Therefore, numbers and
goats are often pegged to rope about 3 m in not productivity is the main objective. Each
length and by this they are forced to browse stockowner finds that he gains by maximiz-
weeds or other undesirable plants. The dis- ing the number of his animals, even though
advantage of this system is that water is the result is deteriorating resources. Maree
and Casey (1993) confirmed that each stock-
only provided when goats are shifted to
shelter at night. Very few or no concentrate owner often appears to prefer to take the
salt or mineral licks are provided. It is only chance that his animals will survive, rather
occasionally that supplements, household than reduce numbers in anticipation of
scraps, small quantities of grain or their by- deteriorating conditions.
products are given. There are some recom- Usually, stocking rate is not related to
mendations that regular changing of the carrying capacity, and livestock productiv-
tether will introduce goats to new pasture ity falls far below the genetic potential. The
and that a running tether is preferable to a problem is that, where collective action to
fixed one.
control stock numbers is socially and eco-
nomically possible, collective effort is sel-
dom individually attractive and hence will
occur rarely unless there is deliberate inter-
2.7 Farming Systems vention by external agencies. Voluntary
agreement to reduce stock numbers is not in
2.7.1 Communal system an individual's interest unless everyone has
to do the same or there is local agreement or
In this system, the relationship between collective action. Malnutrition is the most
communal goat farmers/owners and their important cause of low production rates
animals is not only an economic one; social and high mortality rates in communal sys-
security is the main objective, not produc- tems. Often, not even the most patent and
tivity (Maree and Casey, 1993). Livestock obvious need for supplementary feeding is
are not raised primarily for meat but as a adopted to prevent mortalities.
way of capital savings and as an important
source of milk and manure. Livestock are
only slaughtered on special occasions such 2.7.2 Communal goat production
as weddings and festivals or when it is felt
that they are about to die. Animals are also In communal goat production systems, the
slaughtered for religious purposes. Nor- focus is generally on free-ranging goats, graz-
mally, the land or grazing area used by the ing around the village, old cultivated fields
Goat Production Systems 21

or areas of regrowth or harvest (area 2.8.1 Nomadic system


- 0.5-2 ha). The goats are usually kept in
pens at night. Mating is anarchic and may Nomadic systems are based on continual
result in inbreeding Animals seldom receive movement of livestock in search of grazing
supplementary feeds and no records are kept and water. Although nomadic systems are
of individual animals or animal performance. becoming less popular, they are more com-
mon in arid or semi-arid regions with very
sparse human and animal population and
where precipitation is uncertain. In other
2.8 Characteristics of Indigenous words, they are practised where the land is
Goat Production Systems not immediately suitable for agricultural
improvement or is too difficult or costly to
Herd sizes vary between 2 and 120 animals fence. The harsh conditions there deter-
and there are large variations in herd struc- mine the type of animal that can be raised
ture (buck, doe and kid ratios) (Webb et al., and the kind of movement that can be
1998). Women and children mostly do the undertaken.
herding. In many cases, migrant labourers Nomads utilize the seasonal produc-
own the goats. The most important con- tion of forages and the water available in
straints of sustainable production systems different locations (El Aich and Water-
include the land tenure system and poor house, 1999). The major concerns about
resources, such as fencing, roads, electricity using rangelands are overgrazing, use and
and water. It is important to get the consent management of communal property grazing
of the local chief and cooperation of the lands, and drought feeding (Devendra,
extension officers before a survey is done in 2010). Forage quality and amount can vary
a communal farming area. greatly with location and among seasons.
Bucks are often the most neglected ani- Livestock move through a series of pasture
mals in a herd, but they are expected to or forage systems with season. Use of water
breed and produce offspring. Poor buck points without grazing control increases
management directly affects the flock repro- the grazing pressure on land that was
ductive performance. Fertilization success previously used infrequently. Overgrazing
depends on a range of factors including results in rangeland degradation, and
semen quality and mating behaviour. Testes uncontrolled livestock grazing may be
and semen characteristics can be of great accelerated with drought, initiating deserti-
value in selecting males. Estimates of repro- fication. The collective status and commu-
ductive efficiency are required for goats nal use of rangelands gives no incentives
studied in their natural habitat. Unfortu- for individuals to control animal numbers
nately, values obtained at experimental sta- or grazing pressure (El Aich and Water-
tions often depict 'potential' rather than house, 1999). The movement of nomads
`actual' values. Some performance data of may also cause disagreements with settled
indigenous and cross-bred goats in different farmers along territory borders.
production systems are presented in The major part of the nomadic herder's
Table 2.1. food and income comes from the livestock
As the fertility status of goats in com- they produce. Milk and other dairy prod-
munal areas is not well documented, goats ucts form the major part of their diets. Meat
were studied in Mpumalanga (Webb et al., is used sparingly in the diet and the slaugh-
1998). In this area, 82% of the land is ter of animals represents a reduction in the
entrusted to chiefs, while farmers own 18% rural or nomadic family's capital assets.
of the land. All goats are penned at night, Normally, the land or grazing area used by
but the breeding management is poor. Bucks the herd is communal, while the livestock
and does run together and mate as soon as are owned by individuals or one or more
puberty is reached. Mating is not controlled families. Meanwhile, each owner attempts
through the year. to keep as many animals as possible,
22 K.W. McMillin et al.

Table 2.1. Performance of indigenous and cross-bred (Thai native x Anglo-Nubian) goats raised
under village and improved management systems (adapted from Milton et al., 1991).

Village management Improved management

Trait Indigenous Indigenous Cross-bred

Production (females)
Birth weight (kg) NA 1.7 2.0
Weight at:
3 months 6.8 9.2 11.2
6 months 10.0 12.4 16.1
12 months 13.0 20.0 26.7
18 months 17.3 24.1 32.4
24 months 21.5 29.5 38.0
Reproduction
Kidding rate ( %) 190 161 171
Pre-weaning kid mortality ( %) 29.1 5.0 6.3
Annual adult mortality ( %) 7.2 4.7 1.7
Body composition (males)
No. goats 10 23 12
Dressing ( %) 45.1 45.7 45.2
Saleable ( %) 70.9 71.4 71.9
Muscle ( %) 70.7 68.4 66.6
Bone ( %) 18.0 18.2 17.6
Total fat ( %) 5.1 8.4 8.7
Muscle:bone ratio 4.0 3.8 3.8

NA, Not applicable.

regardless of their quality or the availability The determining features in nomadism


of pasture. are similar to those of an extensive system
The low yield of grassland in arid and - favourable climatic condition, a short wet
semi-arid areas necessitates nomadism, season, the availability of grazing and
semi-nomadism or the development of a browse, and few predators.
ranch system of farming. Poostchi (1987) There are some disadvantages of the
found that variation in grassland utilization nomadic system:
by livestock and the stability of the groups
of people tending them included the follow-
As illustrated by Nestel (1984), provi-
sion of veterinary services in these cir-
ing types of animal producers:
cumstances is a difficult task. Livestock
Total nomadism: the owners of live- owners or trusted members of tribal
stock do not have a permanent place of systems have to undertake first aid
residence and do not practise regular techniques and are depended on to
crop production; their families move report potentially serious problems.
with the herd of livestock. Planned programmes of vaccination
Semi-nomadism: the livestock owners and, where necessary, routine dipping
have a permanent place of residence or spraying of stock against ticks can be
near which supplementary crop pro- based on strategically located veteri-
duction is practised. Farmers who live nary posts to which herds are brought
continually in a permanent settlement on a voluntary or possibly obligatory
and who own herds, which remain in basis when feed supplies permit.
the vicinity of their place of residence, An essential for trade purposes in such
characterize partial nomadism. regions is the development of a network
Goat Production Systems 23

of stock routes with watering points temporary feeding until the next move
and rest areas. Control posts can then (Poostchi, 1987).
be installed to ensure that animals
being moved are appropriately pro-
tected against the most important dis- 2.9 Problems Experienced by
ease problems they might carry or be Small-scale Goat Farmers
exposed to en route. The aim is to
reduce contact between groups in tran-
sit and with stock in the areas through The problems experienced by small farmers
which they pass. include: insecure and fragmented land
rights, non-viable and small farm units,
overstocking and deterioration of land and
general lack of support infrastructure, water
2.8.2 Transhumance and sedentary supplies, a transport network, financial
pastoralism support, and extension and support ser-
vices. Legislative policy and institutional
`Transhumance' is where a farmer moves development have been inequitable and
his animals between two (or more) specific have aggravated the plight of the disadvan-
climatically different farms or areas accord- taged. These problems have contributed to
ing to a fixed seasonal pattern. In South low levels of production and underutiliza-
Africa, livestock farmers used to have a tion of arable land resources, despite the
`summer farm' on the highveld and a 'win- relatively high agricultural potential of
ter farm' on the lowveld. This strategy some of these areas. This was supported by
solved the problems related to the decreas- the International Fund for Agricultural
ing nutritional value of the sourveld on the Development (IFAD, 1992), which stated
highveld in winter. that traditional 'African' land tenure sys-
tems lead to underutilization of high-
potential land, thus putting pressure on
2.8.3 Primitive herding marginal land, which then degrades rap-
idly. This has resulted in rural areas becom-
This system of agriculture represents a ing more dependent on food imports. A
study of commercial goat production opera-
step forward and is an improvement on
the system of gathering. Here, the product tions in north-eastern Brazil showed that
is the animal and the investment is low-income families and families of average
labour that is needed to increase the income produced the same meat product
types, while cooperatives of small-size rural
supply of the product. Most primitive
herding occurs in regions where shrubs, families produced meat of higher quality
bunch grasses and short grasses grow and and price, and small rural families who
where humidity is low, rainfall unreliable partnered with slaughterhouses produced
and the climate arid. Goats constitute the processed and higher-value products (Vidal
and Dias, 2000).
major herds of livestock found in desert
regions.
In the semi-arid and arid regions,
vegetation is sparse and the amount of 2.9.1 Infrastructure
feed available for animals and their fodder
is very limited, so the search for fodder The term 'infrastructure' in this context is
is never-ending. The herdsmen leave usually taken to mean the existence of
their animals in one place to graze on roads, electricity and water supplies in a
any type of vegetation they can find district of the country. It can also be used in
until there is no more to graze; then they a more restricted sense to mean these
move to another place where the meagre resources at the farm level. For example, the
supply of forage and water provides development of an efficient grazing system
24 K.W. McMillin et al.

is often limited by the restricted availability 2.9.3 Social factors


of water points or fencing. Farm planning
should make effective use of the resources Social systems
of water (e.g. rivers, dams or boreholes) to
establish a suitable system of paddocks The social environment of any community is
or camps, in order to allow the farmer related to the cultural, educational and spiri-
to practise rotational grazing. The plan tual environment and conditions of the peo-
devised for the farm will have to be assessed ple. This is related to perceptions of our
to ensure that such infrastructural develop- place in this life, our relationship with the
ment is as economical as possible, and is environment and our relationships with
cost-effective. other people. Change is a fact of life, even for
Infrastructure is also important for rural people, but it is often a very slow pro-
allowing easy access to markets for the pur- cess, and rural communities are usually 'con-
chase of inputs as well as for sale of live- servative' by nature and resistant to change.
stock. An adequate infrastructure is also The reasons for this conservative
desirable for the well-being of the people approach to life are many. Some include:
involved in the farming. Facilities such as Perceptions of stability and security.
housing, sanitation, clean water supplies The importance of human relation-
and schools can result in improved produc- ships, which are valued more than
tivity of staff through better health and a material things.
stable workforce. The influence of ancestors, as well as
For the animal scientist or veterinarian, the influence of those people who hap-
the most urgent infrastructural requirement pen to be around at this time in history.
on a farm is a well-designed set of animal- Perceptions of economics.
handling facilities. Political perceptions.
Spiritual traditions.
Social systems must be respected, and
2.9.2 People people who are agents for development com-
ing to the community from 'outside' the sys-
The people who work with the animals tem need first to begin to understand the
within the farming system are often the people (without arrogance) and how their
main limitation on efficiency. The reason is social systems function. Any change will be
usually ignorance, and this may occur at resisted unless it is perceived to be beneficial,
any level of management, from the owner- and unless it is perceived to be an answer to a
farmer to the stockman who works with the `felt need'. Ultimately, the people themselves
animals every day. In this aspect, an animal will have to make changes that might be ben-
scientist, or other adviser, can have the eficial, and they can often be assisted to do
greatest benefit, with dramatic improve- this in a controlled and planned way.
ments in health and productivity for very
little input except time and effort to pro- Land tenure
mote understanding.
The educational role is critically In Africa and many other parts of the world,
important in any technological interven- traditional social systems do not include the
tion, in order that any improvements will be concept of private ownership of land. This
permanent and sustainable. The sociology concept of land ownership is taken as a fun-
of development and the educational pro- damental tenet in Western societies and
cesses of extension in a rural environment ensures that the owner not only benefits from
are a specialized area of study. In the end, ownership of the land but also is directly
however, people and their knowledge and responsible for caring for the land. In tradi-
skills should be our greatest resource tional societies, the land may be owned by
(Donkin, 2005). the tribe as a whole and administered by the
Goat Production Systems 25

traditional leaders. However, in such a case, 2. The price of land may bear little rela-
the communal ownership of land is a para- tion to its productive potential.
dox when compared with the individual
Therefore, the short-term economic
ownership of livestock. Because grazing is
perceived to be 'free' and without cost, ani- forces that apply to a farmer may have
mal numbers increase to well above the sus-
effects that are detrimental to long-term
tainable carrying capacity. Deterioration of sustained productivity, especially to the
the vegetation and poor productivity of the natural vegetation.
animals are almost inevitable.
In addition, particularly at the level of
A distinction should be made between the subsistence or small-scale farmer, the
different concepts relating to communal usual economic criteria may not be appli-
grazing: cable. In the context of 'household econom-
ics', the allocation of time to work or
1. Open-access grazing. This refers to obligatory social activities may be more
communal grazing where there is no important than the economic (monetary)
control over animal numbers or system factors usually considered (Low, 1986).
of usage. The environment becomes
degraded. Marketing
2. Communal grazing with controls. It is
possible to have communal grazing For a farmer to enter the commercial envi-
where the community agrees among ronment, a market of some sort is required.
themselves to limit the number of ani- This may depend on infrastructure (e.g.
mals, and to ensure that some form of roads, communications) and on a distribu-
rotational grazing is practised. tion network for the products. There is no
value in producing things for which there is
Nevertheless, the communal form of
land tenure is often perceived to be a major no market (beyond subsistence require-
limitation in efforts to improve productivity ments). Marketing is a skilled profession,
of the natural vegetation and the animals and farmers may have little aptitude or
using it as a source of feed. Land tenure is a experience in this aspect, as they are
highly sensitive political issue (Bembridge, normally fully committed to production
1987).
activities. The development of profitable
marketing channels is critically important
Economics for the sustainability of farming systems.
Such channels are often lacking in develop-
Economics has sometimes been classified as ing areas, contributing to overpopulation of
a human behavioural science. It is therefore livestock, deterioration of the environment
an important social factor. Money is usually and continuing poverty. Cattle in these
the main measure of economic activity or the areas are usually kept for reasons other than
value placed on goods or services. In some commercial gain, such as for social customs,
countries, the government may have consid- religious ceremonies or as a store of wealth.
erable control over agricultural activities Cattle are usually owned by the wealthier
through legislation. This control can bring members of society, and goats are therefore
stability in pricing and production but at the more likely to be associated with those of
cost of reduced efficiency and reduced lower social rank, who have few resources.
growth. The concept of market economics is
in favour more recently and is supposed to
bring greater efficiency. However, these con- 2.10 Production Systems and Natural
cepts may be less applicable in terms of farm- Resources
ing systems, because of two main factors:
1. Many farming developments are long- Natural resources consist primarily of soil,
term by their very nature (e.g. develop- climate, vegetation and animals. The land
ing a breeding herd). available for use may be limited in an area
26 K.W. McMillin et al.

or in its productive capacity. Farming sys- redroot pigweed and crabgrass grown in full
tems are influenced by the soil in a particu- sun or in pecan tree shade indicated that
lar area, and soil fertility depends mainly there was competition for moisture between
on the geological formations from which the the herbaceous forages and trees in periods
soil was derived. Other soil factors that of low rainfall, and forbs tended to survive
need to be considered include soil type, pH longer in full sun mixed forages than in
and erosion. tree-shaded mixes, while grasses increased
The climate of a region or farm may in the pastures over time (Goodwin et al.,
vary greatly in terms of rainfall, environ- 2002). The average daily gains of buck kid
mental temperature and humidity. The goats was higher on oak browse and rice
quantity, frequency and reliability of rain- straw than on pine browse or fermented
fall are extremely important in planning pine browse due to the higher daily forage
and managing a production system, because intakes associated with the types of browse
these factors influence the type and quality giving the highest weight gains (Choi et al.,
of vegetation. Water supplies are important 2006). Goats prefer some tropical legume
not only for the growth of natural vegetation forages more than others, which affects
but also as drinking water for animals. In their intake and thus body weight gain
some areas, the availability of water from (Kanani et al., 2006).
boreholes or water from riverbeds for use in Forages often lack sufficient protein for
water points is a limiting factor. growth. Protein supplementation of hay fed
Vegetation influences the growth, ad libitum increased total dry matter intake,
development and production characteris- decreased feed conversion, increased
tics of goats (Table 2.2). The available growth rate and gave higher proportions of
vegetation can be subdivided in two catego- lean meat percentages (Mtenga and Kitaly,
ries, natural vegetation and developed 1990). Dry matter intake was similar, but
vegetation. Natural vegetation varies greatly average daily gain was greater for 13.8 and
between regions and even on different parts 22.1% crude protein in consumed dry
of the same farm, depending on soil, climate matter than for 9.3% crude protein, although
and topography. Developed vegetation the benefit from more than 14% crude
includes planted forests, crops and pas- protein was minimal (Prieto et al., 2000).
tures. Developed vegetation can provide a Boer x Spanish kid goats preferred pelleted
significant resource that will influence the supplements over meal or liquid supple-
type of production system. However, if the ments, and supplements based on maize or
natural vegetation is replaced, this must be soybean meal over those based on molasses
justified by improvements in productivity or fishmeal. Consumption of dry matter was
or improvements of the environment that higher with stored forages than with fresh
will warrant the expenditure. forages, with fresh cereal grain forages pre-
In general, goats will prefer browse ferred over clover or Brassica spp. forages
over grasses, while body weight gains will (Bateman et al., 2004). The growth rate of
be higher with more concentrated diets. indigenous Greek goat kids was higher
However, goats will also usually have a when treated with an anthelmintic or sup-
higher proportion of fat in their body com- plemented with dietary protein, which
position with increased energy intakes. The would provide nutritional protection for the
consumption of forages was found to be body against parasites (Arsenos et al., 2009).
positively related to the forage dry matter Goats kids raised in an intensive sys-
content (Bateman et al., 2004). The average tem (concentrates and enclosed area) had
daily gain of Spanish kid goats was higher heavier slaughter weights than those on
when fed chopped lucerne compared with semi-intensive management systems (Bahia
mixed grass hay, with no influence on grass, millet, oats, crimson clover, browse
carcass characteristics due to diet or sex and forb pastures), but carcass composition
(Wildeus et al., 2007). Grazing studies with was not affected by the diet/management
Boer x Spanish does on mixes of legumes, system (Johnson and McGowan, 1998). The
Table 2.2. Average daily gain (g) of kid meat goats with different forages and diet supplements.

Dietary treatment

Bermuda grass Bermuda grass


Bermuda grass pasture + 0.23 kg pasture + 0.45 kg maize/
Kid goat type Millet pasture pasture maize/head/day head/day

4-month-old Boer x Spanish 35 37 42 57


wethersa
4-month-old Spanish 35 37 35 40
wethersa

SS with
Sorghum-Sudan hay intake-limited
Complete feed supplement Intake-limited supplement (SS) SS with supplement supplement
5-month-old Boer <-> Spanish 152 123 22 181 172
doesb

Concentrate (40% protein


pellets, 40% soybean hulls, Bahia grass pasture with Mimosa browse with
20% Bermuda 150 g/head/day protein 100 g/head/day cracked
grass hay) pellets maize
Boer cross wether kid goatc 117 49 90

50% concentrate 70% concentrate 90% concentrate


Boer cross goatsd 97 103 90

Hay for first 45 days, then


Lucerne hay 18% CP concentrate concentrate diet
4-month-old Boer x Spanish 41 134 65
intact malese

a105-day trial (Nuti et at, 2000).


"63-day trial (Payne etal., 2006).
'14-week trial (Solaiman et at, 2006).
d126-day trial (Ryan etal., 2007).
ND
'90-day feeding trial (Lee etal., 2008).
28 K.W. McMillin et al.

average daily gain and feed efficiencies of goats grazed and fed a commercial pellet
goat kids were higher with increased con- was found to be more tender and juicy than
centrates (maize and barley) than with from goats fed hay and a commercial pellet
increased forages (lucerne hay) (Haddad, feed (Carlucci et al., 1998).
2005), but the degree of carcass fatness with There are many different breeds of
relative dietary forage:concentrate ratios goats, as discussed earlier in the chapter.
was not given. Goats fed ad libitum on con- Some of these breeds belong to defined
centrate pellet diets and Rhodes grass hay breeds, where the owners are members of
in a feedlot grew rapidly and had decreased breed societies, which keep records and
muscle:fat ratios with increased weight promote the interests of the breed and the
(Mahgoub et al., 2005). owners. However, in many parts of the
Boer crossbreeds had higher post- world, no such organizational structures
weaning average daily gains and dry matter exist, and the concept of 'breed' is therefore
intake than Spanish goats consuming a con- less closely defined. Nevertheless, distinct
centrate diet (Cameron et al., 2001). Con- types of goat can be identified, and there are
centrates at 50% of the diet (the remainder clear differences between the types, which
was lucerne hay) had improved weight are usually adapted to specific areas (Table
gain, while dry matter intake was less in 2.3). Registered breeds usually have distinc-
Boer crossbred kid goats fed in confinement tive features (e.g. coat colour), agreed upon
than with 70 and 90% levels of dry-rolled by the members of the breed societies, and
maize as the concentrate (Corrigan et al., goats not meeting these standards are not
2008). accepted. The appearance of a breed is
Feeding intensively (concentrate and
leaves) or weaning at 3 months increased important to establish the 'brand' of the
the weight gain and costs of the weight gain breed, which distinguishes it from other
in kid goats compared with a semi-intensive breeds. Some breed societies specify mini-
system (same diet plus 8 h grazing daily) mum production characteristics in terms of
or weaning at 2 months of age (Nagpal performance, and this should be a desirable
et al., 1995). Grainless diets varying in characteristic for any breed. In this way, the
concentrate:roughage ratios under feedlot breed may be 'developed' to become very
conditions affected average daily gain, but efficient at production. For example, the
carcass traits were similar except for the recognized dairy breeds are efficient milk
dressing percentage (Sebsibe et al., 2007). producers. However, 'indigenous' types of
Meat goats fed high energy levels have animals may never have been consciously
increased juiciness, tenderness and texture selected by their owners but can still have
of goat meat, but the fat content is also valuable characteristics such as disease
increased, resulting in lower consumer resistance, which will have been estab-
acceptability of the meat than if their diet lished in the breed by 'survival of the fittest'
contains higher amounts of roughage over a long period of time, perhaps hun-
(McMillin and Brock, 2005). Meat from dreds of years.
Table 2.3. Growth and gain efficiency of kid goats of different meat-goat breeds.

Initial growth phase Final growth phase

Breeda ADG (g/day)b Efficiencyb ADG (g/day)b Efficiencyb

Alpine 68 0.10 59 0.08


Angora 72 0.15 50 0.10
Boer 91 0.13 64 0.08
Spanish 62 0.11 22 0.04

aWether kid goats (4 months old) were fed 75% concentrate for two consecutive 12-week periods (Urge et al., 2004).
bADG, Average daily gain.
bEfficiency was defined as weight gain per weight of feed.
Goat Production Systems 29

Goats have adapted to different tropical plants and predators that occur in the
climates. Goats in arid and semi-arid cli- region. It is important to be aware of these
mates tend to be larger in size (30-50 kg) and to incorporate this knowledge in all
with long legs and ears and increased mobi- management decisions. Many diseases can
lization of fat during periods of feed short- be controlled with modern medications and
age, and will browse over long distances vaccines, while the use of disease-resistant
due to resistance to dehydration and faecal or disease-tolerant animals also provides a
desiccation. Goats adapted to subtropical way to ensure a high level of productivity.
environments are intermediate in size and Other options include the strategic and sci-
have a lower water turnover. The adapta- entific use of anthelmintics and manage-
tions of goats to humid and subhumid cli- ment programmes such as the FAMACHA
mates have resulted in small or dwarf sizes system for control of internal parasites (Bath
(10-25 kg) with reduced panting and evapo- et al., 2001).
rative cooling, low metabolic rates and Within a goat herd, a clearly estab-
reduced walking ability due to increased lished and stable hierarchy order develops
forage availability (Devendra, 1987). and is maintained, and the dominant and
Reproduction is among the more impor- subordinate animals become more selective
tant aspects of goat production for meat with available forages, while the differences
because the small animal size results in in feeding become more general in nature
minimal meat per animal. Profitability when forages are in shorter supply. Surpris-
relies on having numerous kid goats born ingly, the middle range of does in the hier-
and raised so that marketing efficiencies archy are more productive in terms of milk
and economies are obtained. production, number of kids, kid birth
The number of young produced during weight and pre-weaning weights (Barroso
the lifetime of a breeding female is of major et al., 2000).
economic importance in Africa, as indi- Most farming systems impose con-
cated by Wilson (1992). The productivity of straints on the behaviour of the livestock
small ruminants during their lifetime can be being farmed, but an understanding of the
improved by lowering the age of first partu- animal by the farmer can reduce stress and
rition and by increasing litter size provided improve productivity. The following
that parturition intervals are less than a should be encouraged: evaluation of stock-
year. There is a time in the life of the animal ing density relative to animal age, size and
when the advantage of producing more class; separation of sexes except during
progeny becomes an inconvenience. Partu- breeding; prevention of isolation of indi-
rition intervals become longer with age and viduals; avoidance of regrouping; sufficient
litter size remains stable or is reduced. It feed trough space; minimization of human
then becomes profitable to cull the aged ani- manipulation of newborn kid goats; not
mals to enable a larger number of young weaning until kid goats are 6-7 weeks of
animals to be kept in the flock. age; allowing older and more experienced
Other aspects that need to be consid- goats to become herd leaders in extensive
ered in any production system include dis- grazing systems; and daily contact between
eases that affect low stock numbers, internal humans and goats (Miranda-de la Lama and
parasites, external parasites, poisonous Mattiello, 2010).

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Vth International Goat Conference, New Delhi, India, pp. 458-472.
3 Carcass Traits of Hardy Tropical Goats

G. Alexandre' and 0. Mahgoub2


1 INRA, Unite de Recherches Zootechniques, Centre Antilles-Guyane, Guadeloupe,
France; 2Department of Animal & Veterinary Sciences, College of Agricultural &
Marine Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, Sultanate of Oman

3.1 Abstract success were reviewed (Kosgey et al., 2006).


Reasons for failure to establish highly pro-
The purpose of this chapter is to review the ductive enterprises in the tropics with
fitness and meat production potential of exotic livestock include: high import costs,
hardy indigenous goats compared with heavy mortality, poor fertility, reduced
modern single-purpose breeds, which are appetite due to high temperature and
widely used in the developing tropics and humidity, low-quality pasture, susceptibil-
need modern methods of husbandry. Meat ity to internal and external parasites and
production is discussed based on the repro- inadequate management skills (Ogink,
ductive performance of goats. The major 1993; Ahuya et al., 2005). In an extensive
variations in carcass traits between diverse review, Wilson (2009) observed that
breeds and husbandry conditions are recently there has been a reverse movement
reviewed. Case studies are presented based towards using locally developed livestock
on the Creole goat of the Caribbean and species and breeds. These are now seen as
Dhofari breed of Oman in order to support pools of irreplaceable genetic material of
the views presented in the chapter. unacknowledged merit and value that must
not be lost but must be conserved for possi-
ble future use. The Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO) has acknowledged that
3.2 General Considerations there is renewed interest in native breeds,
particularly to increase sustainable animal
The developmental pathway for tropical production in developing countries (FAO,
livestock production for many years was to 2007). Since the very first research of Rodri-
upgrade or completely replace indigenous guez and Preston (1997), the significance of
livestock with exotic breeds of supposedly tropical indigenous breeds as valuable
higher genetic merit. Indications that this genetic resources has become increasingly
might not be the most appropriate approach recognized, particularly for rearing goats
were largely ignored (Wilson, 2009). Mod- under harsh conditions (Ogink, 1993; Alex-
ern single-purpose breeds and modern andre and Mandonnet, 2005; Omondi et al.,
methods of husbandry for small ruminant 2008).
production have penetrated remote parts of In light of claims of failures in exotic
the developing tropics. Cases of failure or breed enterprises under tropical conditions,
© CAB International 2012. Goat Meat Production and Quality
(eds 0. Mahgoub, I.T. Kadim and E.G. Webb) 33
34 G. Alexandre and 0. Mahgoub

it may be argued that production efficiency programmes economically viable for local
should be evaluated for whole integrated producers. Particularly when considering
systems rather than for individual animals rapid growth and heavy carcasses, the ques-
(Alexandre et a/., 2010). In that respect sev- tion that frequently arises is the importance
eral elements must be taken into account: of body size (Andersen, 1978; Dickerson,
1978; Ogink, 1993). Tropical animal pro-
Many native tropical breeds, particu- duction systems are characterized by a large
larly goats, are not only dual-pupose variety of breeds that differ widely in
but multi-purpose (Wilson, 2009). Gen-
mature size combined with variable farming
erally, goats are defined as multifunc- systems (Ogink, 1993; Wilson, 2009). To
tional animals. For instance, Peacock overcome what is considered as poor meat
(1996) has listed at least 20 useful prod-
production potential, attempts have been
ucts and services from goats.
made to increase low output levels by intro-
The capacity of livestock of the tropics
ducing breeds of larger size. This was based
to utilize low-quality feed and convert on the belief that exotic breeds are superior
it to high-quality protein for human in terms of high yields and growth rates.
use is essential to enable farmers to The latter approach overlooks performance-
make more efficient use of available limiting effects of a variety of environmen-
local feeds (e.g. local roughages or non-
tal factors on specialized exotic breeds
conventional feeds). This was highly (Ogink, 1993). Over the past 70-80 years,
recommended by Preston and Leng there has been controversy about the size
(1987), who called for matching live- of animals. For example in sheep, Dicker-
stock systems with available resources,
son (1978) reported that larger or smaller
which is even more relevant today.
body size may have important biological
Food production systems in developing
advantages for adaptation to climate, feed
countries are moving into marginal resources, predators and diseases, maternal
areas for which sustainable farming and paternal use in crossbreeding schemes,
systems and the most adapted livestock
species and breeds have yet to emerge.
and marketing. In hot, dry climates with
sparse seasonal grazing, the genetically
These must be developed while paying
smaller individuals within a species pre-
due attention to the environmental, sumably are better able to forage and reach
economic and equity aspects of eco- final market weights and reproduce earlier
systems. Wilson (2009) noted that, in than larger ones. In cattle, Andersen (1978)
the tropics, the right animal is not argued that larger genotypes normally have
always the one that produces the most.
the highest production capacity for milk
Moreover, preservation of biological and beef but also the highest maintenance
diversity not only determines survival requirements. He concluded that the opti-
(Alexandre and Mandonnet, 2005;
mal size of cattle will depend on market
Kosgey and Okeyo, 2007) but also demands and on climatic conditions and
determines adaptation to changing
husbandry systems. Many researchers (e.g.
environments (Hoffmann, 2010),
Andersen, 1978; Dickerson, 1978; Ogink,
including changes in consumer prefer- 1993) were influenced by the rule of Berg-
ences (Glowatzki-Mullis et al., 2008).
mann and Allen, which states that 'in
warm-blooded animals, races from warm
regions are smaller than races from cold
3.3 Meat Production Issues regions'.
With special reference to goats, Ogink
There are still some researchers (e.g. Shres- (1993) developed one of the first extended
tha and Fahmy, 2007a) who support the studies on genetic size and growth. Many
concept of using exotic breeds within cross- hypotheses on meat animals state that the
breeding programmes in the tropics to pro- variation between animals can be explained
mote high-yielding systems and make such to a large extent by differences in scale,
Carcass Traits of Tropical Goats 35

expressed by genetic size. However, while contrasting body sizes (Lambe et al., 2007),
questioning the genetic size scaling theory, it was concluded that slaughtering SB lambs
Ogink (1993) noted that introducing larger- at lighter weights than Texel ones was more
sized breeds as such did not improve the beneficial, because the SB lambs would not
biological efficiency of production. In fact, become over-fat and muscle proportions
improvement of production efficiency would be maintained at a higher level,
should involve adjustment of size of the although total muscle and carcass weights
breeding female to suit a particular environ- would be lower. SB lambs at lighter weights
ment. For beef production, Dickerson (1978) carry a higher proportion of total muscle in
noted that the primary focus should be on the economically more important leg region
improvement of genetically variable func- and have rounder muscle shapes in the
tional components of performance/repro- hind leg and loin, whereas heavier lambs
ductive rate, growth rate (relative to will deposit increasing proportions of mus-
metabolic weight) and body composition in cle in the lower-priced thoracic area and
meat animals. Dickerson (1978) recom- will have a flatter muscle shape in the more
mended choosing a mature body size that is valuable carcass regions.
more adapted to the environment, suitable In breeding programmes, especially in
breeding systems and market factors for the small ruminants, exotic breeds usually per-
species and the area of production. Dicker- form well during the active periods of proj-
son (1978) concluded that 'each biological ects (Ayalew et al., 2003) where external
type should be evaluated under the manage- supervision is available (Ahuya et al., 2005).
ment-marketing conditions for which it is Success is usually measured in terms of
best suited.' The qualities required in the increases in animal performances or in
right animal in the right place, if it is to suc- household income. There is, however,
ceed, are adaptation to local physical, nutri- hardly ever a full cost-benefit analysis that
tional and management environments takes into account the opportunity cost of
(Wilson, 2009). In an analysis of growth pat- labour and loss of land that is transformed
terns in indigenous Kambing Katjang goats from food to feed production. For instance,
and its crosses (F1, F2 and backcross) with raising animals with a larger body size
the German Fawn goat, Tsukahara et al. results in higher feeding requirements need-
(2008) found that backcrossed goats per- ing a larger area of land, i.e. more feeding
formed better than the pure German breeds. resources. Once direct support in breeding
However, the authors stated that the fast programmes ends, it is only a matter of time
maturing rate of backcrossed goats should before the exotic breeds disappear and are
be matched with the environment, which is replaced by indigenous breeds (Ahuya
only possible under intensive management. et al., 2005), sometimes with a high risk of
In smallholder farms in developing coun- loss of biodiversity (Ayalew et al., 2003;
tries where management is suboptimal, Alexandre et al., 2009). Therefore, the ques-
backcrossed goats might be poorer in growth tion that arises is how to promote the use of
performance than the other crosses. Conse- local breeds for meat production versus
quently, high growth rate or a heavy carcass importing breeds of larger size to the trop-
(i.e. large body size) must not be considered ics. This chapter aims to discuss these
as the most important trait for meat- issues pertinent to meat production from
producing animals in the tropics, as goats in the tropics.
adaptive traits or fitness (sensu lato) charac-
ters are of paramount importance for
tropical livestock (Menendez-Buxadera and 3.4 Fitness: Adaptation
Mandonnet, 2006; Wilson, 2009). and Reproduction
For meat output, muscle and fat parti-
tioning must be taken into account. For Meat output is a product of complex
instance, in a study comparing Texel and traits and is dependent on numerous abi-
Scottish Blackface (SB) lambs of two otic, biotic and socio-economic factors
36 G. Alexandre and 0. Mahgoub

(Alexandre et a/., 2010). One of the most Mandonnet, 2005). One of the most
prominent attributes of goats as meat pro- important adaptations of goats to ecological
ducers is their high reproductive capacity, conditions is their variable body size. One
specifically under harsh conditions (Deven- of the best examples known in marginal
dra and Burns, 1983; Bosman et al., 1997). environments is the West African Dwarf
Another important attribute is 'fitness'. goat, which remains the only domestic spe-
Menendez-Buxadera and Mandonnet (2006) cies that is able to survive in its particular
studying genotype-environment interac- region of West Africa (Daramola and Ade-
tions under tropical conditions developed loye, 2009). Among its physiological fea-
the concept of fitness defined as follows: tures are small body size and low metabolic
In natural conditions, the best-adapted requirements, which are important traits to
animals will be those that utilize the enable the animal to minimize its require-
available resources in the most efficient ments in an area or season where food
way to face the adverse environmental resources are limited in quality and quan-
conditions. As all living organisms require tity. Daramola and Adeloye (2009) reported
energy to carry out their vital cycle, the that hereditary dwarfism is common in the
surviving individuals will be those that humid tropical zone. This complies with
have a metabolism more specialized in the rule of Bergmann and Allen, which can
functions of resistance, adaptation, and be interpreted as a correlation between
therefore, will be the best prepared and
active during the mating season.
morphological variation (body surface area)
Consequently, such adapted individuals and ambient temperature (heat dissipation).
will be the greater contributors of genes to Other findings reviewed by Daramola and
the next generation (with higher quantity Adeloye (2009) suggest that body size is
of offspring produced). This property is also correlated with primary plant produc-
called fitness and is the basis of the tivity, drought resistance, and type and
population evolution process. Fitness is quality of food. Selection pressure towards
the result of a group of functions and a smaller size explains the widespread
physiological properties that cumulatively dwarfism in domestic ruminants occupying
offer a specific genotype a higher adaptive the same niche. In accordance with Berg-
functional component.
mann's rule, even non-dwarfed breeds of
According to Wilson (2009), many fit- ruminants in the humid tropics are, in most
ness characters of tropical livestock are cases, much smaller than tropical exotic
poorly developed or are absent in temper- breeds (Devendra and Burns, 1983). The
ate breeds These include a lower meta- small size of many tropical breeds is
bolic rate that generates less heat, reduced directly associated with other important
panting but more readily sweating to con- traits such as early maturity, quality of
serve energy, a feed intake that is less products (meat, milk) and nutrient require-
affected by high temperatures, a higher ments for maintenance. Low per-head
intake of poor-quality feed, higher digest- nutrient requirements mean that the dwarf
ibility and efficiency of feed conversion, a goat fits the limited resources of small farm-
reduced water requirement, a greater abil- ers or marginal grazing lands, which cannot
ity to retain feed and water in the large sustain large ruminants throughout the
intestine, and better resistance to parasites production cycle.
and some diseases. Research on small or medium-sized
It is well known that goats are kept goat breeds such as the West African Dwarf
under a wide range of production and farm- or Caribbean Creole goat indicates very high
ing systems throughout the tropics. This reproductive abilities (Alexandre et al.,
could be attributed to their high adaptive 1999; Baiden, 2007; Khanum et al., 2007;
capacity (Silanikove, 2000) and also to Mahieu et a/,. 2008) and disease resistance
levels of fitness. Goats are able to produce (Mandonnet et al., 2001, 2006; Bambou et al.,
under varying and frequently unfavourable 2009; Chiejina et al., 2009; Nnadi et al.,
environmental conditions (Alexandre and 2009), which emphasize their high fitness
Carcass Traits of Tropical Goats 37

characteristics (Alexandre and Mandonnet, (66%), i.e. composed of forage supple-


2005; Daramola and Adeloye, 2009). mented with concentrates, whereas 34%
were composed of forage only. The forages
used were half grass (22%), and half brush
3.5 Comparisons of Carcass Data of and by-products. Male growing animals
Tropically Adapted and Temperate represented 98% of the overall total. Gen-
Goat Breeds erally, animals were chosen for slaughter-
ing according to their age (57%) or weight
There is a considerable body of literature (43%).
on goats of different breeds and that vary
greatly in body sizes and functions, as well
as varying systems of production (Deven- 3.6 Variations in Slaughter and
dra and Burns, 1983; Peacock, 1996). How- Carcass Weights
ever, only a few objective comparative
studies between these breeds are available
and such comparisons may be confounded The distribution of slaughter weight (SW) of
by the environmental conditions in which some published data for various goats is
the goats are kept. Among goat breeds, given in Fig. 3.1. The mean ± standard devi-
European dairy breeds and the improved ation (se) was 22.0 ± 8.0 kg. Corresponding
Boer goat of South Africa appear to be the values for carcass weight (CW) were
fastest growing as they are large-sized 10.4 ± 4.0 kg (Fig. 3.2). Two subsets of data
breeds. The Boer goat, which is gaining were separated (Table 3.1): data obtained
popularity in many parts of the world, has from papers where calculations of carcass
a higher proportion of muscle in the car- yield were defined as dressing percentage
cass compared with most goat breeds. (CW/SW, n = 112) and others with the yield
However, the data are not very conclusive defined as carcass output per empty body
weight (CW/EBW; n = 93). The means were
because of variations in production sys-
46.1% (± 5.7%) and 52.9% (± 3.4%), respec-
tems (Warmington and Kirton, 1990).
Extensive goat-raising systems, which are tively. Four classes of SW were discrimi-
common in the tropics, markedly reduce nated in these two subsets of data (Fig. 3.2a
the productive performance and carcass and b). As expected, carcass yield improved
with increasing SW. However, clear thresh-
characteristics in the Boer goat (Almeida
et al., 2006). olds appeared in the values (regardless of
The numerous and variable breed/sys- the mode of calculation) for classes of SW
tem combinations and their multiple inter- higher than class 1. For lightweight kids,
actions have resulted in a wide variation the dressing percentage (Fig. 3.2a) was on
of carcass weight, size and frame. Comp- average 39%, while, for heavier kids (SW >
ilation of data from the literature has 13.5-14 kg), it ranged from 48 to 50%. The
allowed us to make comparisons and reach corresponding values for carcass output
viable conclusions. Ninety-four publica- (Fig. 3.2b) were 50% for light kids and
tions, comprising 214 comparisons, were 53-55% for heavier ones.
reviewed. In order to be integrated into this
database, data on carcass (weight, yield,
measurements, cuts) and/or data on dissec- 3.7 Carcass Indices and Cuts
tion (carcass, shoulder and leg) were
obtained on different genotypes, fed vari- Since the work of Fehr et al. (1976), very
ous diets and slaughtered at different few studies have dealt with the importance
weight/age. More than half of the studies of goat carcass conformation per se. Prasad
(52%) dealt exclusively with indigenous and Kirton (1992) outlined the importance
breeds, whereas 31% dealt with cross- of carcass weight for conformation classifi-
breeds. The diets studied were diverse, cation. These studies indicated that carcass
with most of them being mixed diets weight/yield increases within conformation
38 G. Alexandre and 0. Mahgoub

50-
45-
40-
35-
30-
25-
20-
15-
10-
5-
0 "
<8 8-12 12-16 16-20 20-24 24-28 28-32 32-36
1-1
36-40
1-1
40-44
Slaughter weight (kg)

Fig. 3.1. Distribution of slaughter weight data.

(a) 60.0 -
EISW (kg)
D P (%)
50.0 - I I
I
I 49.9
40.0 -
46.3
I 47.8
30.0 - 35.9
39.0 I
28.4
20.0 -
19.1
10.0 - I
11.7

0.0
1 2 3 4

SW (kg)
(b) 60.0 - Carcass yield (%)
T T
50.0 I 53.3
53.8
I
54.6

40.0 49.7

T
30.0
32.2
T
20.0 24.3

18.2
-r
10.0
10.6

0.0
1 2 3 4

Fig. 3.2. Values of goat carcass yields calculated as (a) dressing percentage (DP) = carcass weight/
slaughter weight (SW), and (b) carcass output = carcass weight/empty body weight, according to SW
class (1-4).
Carcass Traits of Tropical Goats 39

Table 3.1. Descriptive statistics of carcass weights and yield of growing kids of different genotypes fed
various feeding regimes.

Characteristic No. goats Mean SD CV (%) Minimum Maximum

Data without calculation of EBW (36 papers)


Slaughter weight (kg) 112 22.1 7.88 35.6 8.5 43.2
Carcass weight (kg) 122 11.0 4.46 40.5 3.4 24.0
Dressing out percentage (%) 112 46.1 5.70 12.4 27.5 56.6
Data with calculation of EBW (30 papers)
Slaughter weight (kg) 78 21.4 10.25 47.8 6.1 55.0
Carcass weight (kg) 89 10.1 4.20 41.4 2.9 24.5
Carcass output ( %) 94 52.9 3.78 7.1 38.0 60.1

so, Standard deviation; CV, coefficient of variation.

classes, given that these three criteria are minimum and maximum values amounted
interrelated (Fehr et al., 1976; Prasad and to 160%. Although the sets of data for calcu-
Kirton, 1992). Oman et al. (1999) attempted lations of carcass index and carcass/leg
to describe the US goat carcass conforma- compactness (n = 75 versus n = 25) were not
tion based on muscle shape and thickness similar and did not cover the same range of
of the leg, loin, rack and shoulder adapted carcass weights, it was possible to conclude
from the US Department of Agriculture that the shape of the goat carcass differs
(USDA) sheep grading system. However, in greatly from one genotype x system to
the absence of an official US goat grading another.
system, even in most recent work, sheep The evolution of the carcass index
grading systems are still used for goat according to the carcass weight is given in
carcasses (Ryan et al., 2007). In the French Fig. 3.3. Three groups of data were sepa-
West Indies (where meat is not a by-product rated according to range of variation in car-
of milk production systems, in contrast to cass weight: light (6.8 ± 2.1 kg), medium
France, the 'mother country'), there is no (10.1 ± 2.9 kg) and heavy carcasses
official grading standard designed specifi- (12.3 ± 4.1 kg). Regression equations were
cally for the French goat carcasses. There- computed (PROC REG program; SAS, 2000)
fore, it is generally accepted that the light to predict carcass index according to car-
lamb grid employed in the Mediterranean cass weight (Table 3.3). The quadratic terms
regions within production systems with were all significant (P < 0.05) in the differ-
some similarities to those employed in ent groups, with R2 approaching 0.89, 0.92
tropical regions could be suitable for goat and 0.77, respectively.
grading. An effective grading system for meat
Given that it is difficult to compare con- goats is needed to standardize the descrip-
formation scores because of scarcity of data tion and allow comparisons between breed-
and differences in grading methods, differ- ing values and/or system differences. There
ent indices have been calculated: is a lack of information on this specific and
Carcass index: weight/length multifactorial concept of carcass conforma-
Carcass compactness: width/length tion and meat yield in tropical regions.
Leg compactness: width/length. Therefore, the use of criteria such as car-
cass cuttability, yield of lean meat and
It appears that there is a wide variabil- muscularity is of paramount importance.
ity within the literature (Table 3.2) for car- Tatum et al. (1998) noted that the intrinsic
cass indices, which varied from 0.076 to value of a feeder animal is appreciated
0.297 with a 32% coefficient of variation. owing to its optimal proportions, at a
For carcass compactness and leg compact- preferred market weight, of the different
ness (Table 3.2), the difference between carcass cuts. As for goat carcass cut
40 G. Alexandre and 0. Mahgoub

Table 3.2. Descriptive statistics of carcass shape and cuts of growing kids of different genotypes fed
various feeding regimens.

Characteristic No. treatments Mean SD CV (%) Minimum Maximum

Carcass index (weight/length); n = 21 papers


Slaughter weight (kg) 66 19.3 7.74 40.2 6.1 38.2
Carcass weight (kg) 78 9.4 3.79 40.4 2.9 21.7
Carcass index 75 0.161 0.0517 32.0 0.076 0.297
Carcass compactness (length/width); n = 11 papers; CW = 6.6 ± 2.0 kg.
Carcass compactness 25 3.78 0.522 13.8 2.95 4.73
Leg compactness (length/width); n = 12 papers; CW = 7.6 ± 3.0 kg.
Leg compactness 26 1.97 0.239 12.1 1.46 2.38
Shoulder (% of carcass); n = 18 papers; CW = 11.0 ± 4.3 kg.
Shoulder 41 21.1 2.65 12.5 15.9 26.9
Leg (% of carcass); n = 22 papers; CW = 10.6 ± 4.4 kg.
Leg 50 29.6 5.59 18.9 22.0 41.9

so, Standard deviation; CV, coefficient of variation; CW, carcass weight.

0,350 -

/
0,300 -

0,250 -
/
, /
/
/
/
I

/ "
,/ / /
/ -- 1
/
/
/4 / .....
, '''.
.4- *\

/ // zf
e///
riYI '/ /r//r//e
0,200 - /
/ /
/
/ , ' //
// ,i . // ' 40
0,150 - / /dol
/
, " '/ /
/i_. z --
/
// ,0 //'to
0,100 -
/ ,4 ---
/

0,050 -

0,000
0 5 10 15 20 25
Carcass weight (kg)

Fig. 3.3. Evolution of carcass index (weight/length, kg/cm) according to carcass weight (kg) in goat
studies (description of three groups) (Limea, 2009).

composition, a standardized method has carcass cutting, the proportions of shoulder


been developed (Colomer-Rocher et al., and leg were 21.1 ± 2.65% and 29.6 ± 5.59%,
1987) and is increasingly being used in respectively (Table 3.2). Values are lower
many countries (e.g. in Africa; Sanon et al., than for lambs, as demonstrated in studies
2008). Among the studies reporting on comparing goat and sheep (Mahgoub and
Carcass Traits of Tropical Goats 41

Table 3.3. Regression equations to predict carcass index (weight/length; y) according to carcass weight
(kg; x) .

Carcass group n Formulae r2 Significance

Total data set 75 y = 0.0446x° 5672 0.5514 P > 0.05


75 y = -0.0006x2 + 0.021x + 0.0184 0.5019 P > 0.05
Light carcasses 29 y= 0.0496e° 152x 0.8672 P < 0.01
29 y= 0.0034x2 - 0.024x+ 0.1379 0.8898 P < 0.01
Medium-weight carcasses 30 y= 0,0335x° 73°4 0.9203 P < 0.01
30 y= -0.002x2 + 0.0182x+ 0.0215 0.8892 P < 0.01
Heavy carcasses 16 y= 0.0446x°5672 0.7550 P < 0.05
16 y= -0.0006x2 + 0.021x+ 0.0184 0.7746 P < 0.05

Lodge, 1996; Sheridan et al., 2003; Sen Conclusions on the differences among
et al., 2004). breeds are generally inconclusive because
of the effects of degrees of maturity. This
was reported in sheep and cattle (Sellier et
3.8 Tissue Dissection al., 1992), but studies on effects of breed
maturity are scarce in goats. In this species,
The carcass of a meat animal is composed the accretion of fat and muscle regulation
of varying proportions of muscle, fat and and their relative body partitioning within
bone. Muscle, being more edible, is usually the perspective of meat potential assess-
regarded as the most important carcass tis- ment have been insufficiently studied (e.g.
sue to the consumer, while fat is more Mahgoub and Lodge, 1996; Mahgoub and
related to health issues, especially in Lu, 1998). Two of the main reasons for this
developed countries. Based on consumer are thought to be:
expectations, the goat carcass and goat 1. Meat production in many cases is a
meat are very well qualified as lean meat
secondary product of the milk or fibre
(Webb et al., 2005). Consequently, it is
sector.
important to give factual data on tissue 2. There are not many specialized goat
proportions. The shoulder and leg are meat breeds.
known to have the highest percentage of
muscle within carcass cuts (Tahir et al., However, some results can be high-
1994; Dhanda et a/., 2003a). The results of lighted from the database generated for this
dissections of the whole carcass, shoulder study. Proportions of lean vary from 60 to
and leg into lean, bone and fat (subcutane- 65% (within treatments and cuts) and those
ous + intramuscular) reviewed from the lit- of fat vary from 9 to 14%, which indicates a
erature are shown in Table 3.4. There was a satisfactory meat potential for goat, which is
great variability in the proportion of fat generally defined as a multifunctional ani-
dissected in the carcass, the shoulder or mal (Peacock, 1996).
the leg 39, 42 and 45% of coefficient of In the tropics, a high proportion of
variation, respectively. This is most proba- bone in the carcass is considered a negative
bly due to the effects of different feeding characteristic. This indicates a lack of mus-
regimes. cularity, which characterizes most local
Tissue partitioning is also known to breeds, rendering them poorly rated due to
differ among genotypes and according to a small frame/size. An additional feature
animal age. Since the pioneering work of that would help in describing the meat
Hailu Hammond (1962), it has been shown potential of small stock is the muscle:bone
that maximal growth rate is attained first by ratio (Hopkins et al., 1997). Many studies
bone, then muscle and lastly by fatty tissue. with sheep have shown that a fleshy sheep
42 G. Alexandre and 0. Mahgoub

Table 3.4. Descriptive statistics on carcass dissection of growing kids of different genotypes fed various
feeding regimes.

Characteristic No. treatments Mean SD CV ( %) Minimum Maximum

Dissection of carcass (% of carcass); n = 27 papers


Slaughter weight (kg) 87 21.9 8.20 37.6 6.1 43.2
Carcass weight (kg) 87 11.2 4.72 42.2 3.4 24.0
Lean 87 62.5 7.28 11.6 44.9 79.1
Bone 87 22.9 6.95 30.3 12.0 45.7
Fat 84 13.6 5.31 39.0 3.1 29.5
Lean:bone ratio 87 2.97 1.064 35.9 0.98 5.65
Lean:fat ratio 84 5.76 3.244 56.3 1.89 21.32
Dissection of shoulder (% of shoulder); n = 12 papers (mean 21.2 ± 2.5%)
Lean 28 60.2 12.88 21.4 26.0 71.5
Bone 28 22.9 3.28 14.3 15.0 31.9
Fat 26 12.3 5.18 42.1 5.8 16.9
Lean:bone ratio 28 2.68 0.758 28.3 1.16 4.77
Lean:fat ratio 26 5.40 2.696 49.9 1.29 12.17
Dissection of leg (% of leg); n = 14 papers (mean 29.9 ± 2.6 %)
Lean 37 65.4 10.03 15.3 34.8 78.1
Bone 37 24.7 5.19 21.0 16.1 38.9
Fat 28 9.3 4.20 45.2 3.4 17.8
Lean:bone ratio 37 2.80 0.878 31.4 1.28 4.72
Lean:fat ratio 28 10.20 7.645 74.9 2.54 27.12

so, Standard deviation; CV, coefficient of variation.

breed would be graded as 'superior' for its the abdominal cavity, than the carcass
muscularity while it could be 'inferior' for (Kempster, 1981; Warmington and Kirton,
its muscle:bone ratio. For instance, Purchas 1990) and therefore carcass fat parameters,
et al. (1991) demonstrated that, although as used for sheep, might not be appropriate
these two characteristics often change for grading goat carcasses.
together, there are situations where differ-
ences in muscularity are not accompanied
by differences in muscle:bone ratio and
vice versa. In goat studies, the lean:bone 3.9 Case Studies
ratios calculated either in the whole carcass,
shoulder or leg reached values ranging from 3.9.1 Indigenous Caribbean goats
2.68 to 2.97 (Table 3.4). As with lean:fat
ratios, the values were higher and very In many countries of the Caribbean and
satisfactory, in contrast to sheep. In fact, Latin American region, the local popula-
differences in levels of fatness, rather than tions of goats are frequently named `Chevre
muscle weight distribution, account for Creole', Creole goat or `Criollo' (Devendra
most differences in carcass grading between and Burns, 1983). They are derived mainly
sheep breeds (Butler-Hog et al., 1984; from crossbreeding between various West
Laville et al., 2002). Poor fat accretion and African, European and sometimes Indian
leggy conformation of goat carcasses breeds (Naves et al., 2000). Over time, the
(Colomer-Rocher et al., 1992; Mahgoub and native population has evolved naturally
Lu, 1998; Oman et al., 1999) support the through adaptation to agroecological condi-
assumption that these criteria are not suit- tions. Goat farming systems in the French
able for grading goat carcasses. Goats are West Indies are based on the use of the Cre-
known to have more fat deposits, mainly in ole goat breed (Alexandre et al., 1999) on
Carcass Traits of Tropical Goats 43

grazed pastures (Mahieu et al., 2008). This output) were very similar to performance of
influences meat production aspects such as other meat breeds (Table 3.1).
live weight, growth performance and car- When fed intensively, the kids reached
cass abilities. The Creole goat is known for the slaughter weight of 22 kg 3 months
its high weaver productivity (Mahieu et al., sooner than their counterparts fed forage
2008) and its genetic ability to resist gastro- only. Comparing the HL and LL diets in kids
intestinal parasites (Mandonnet et al., 2001, at the same age, the increase reached 120-
2006). The Creole goat is a medium-sized 140% for slaughter weights and 153-179%
meat breed with a traditional slaughter for cold carcass weights. Undoubtedly, the
weight of 18 kg, which can be reached at proportion of fat was affected by the level of
6-18 months of age, depending on the sys- energy in the diets (Limea et al., 2009b),
tem (Mahieu et al., 2008). The local goat although the absolute values remained at a
industry in the French West Indies faces a very adequate levels compared with values
`fundamental' threat to its very existence in the literature (Table 3.4).
that will eventually result in loss of genetic The distribution of prime cuts (not tab-
diversity (Alexandre et al., 2009), a guaran- ulated) remained similar (-50%), irrespec-
tee for its future. The trend of importing live tive of the conditions and attained values of
exogenous animals or frozen carcasses has the well-conformed genetic breeds reported
resulted in a gradual decline in the ratio of by Dhanda et al. (2003a). Given that the
local production:local demand (Alexandre shoulder and leg are reported to have the
et al., 2008). To effectively reverse this highest percentage of muscle (Dhanda et al.,
trend and to stop the anarchic crossing of 2003b) within carcass cuts, dissection of
native goats with exogenous breeds, a their tissues can give an assessment of the
genetic improvement programme for this potential of the meat production from the
breed is presently under way (Alexandre animals. In the present set of data, the val-
and Mandonnet, 2005). ues were in favour of the leg compared with
Studies have begun with Creole male the shoulder (2-4 points more) where the
goats to study carcass characteristics and values ranged from 71 to 78%. In other
meat quality in relation to feeding systems studies, values ranged from 68.5 to 71.4%
(Limea et al., 2009a) and slaughter condi- and from 65.3 to 67.6% in the leg and shoul-
tions (Limea et al., 2009b). This has facili- der, respectively. The higher muscle per-
tated accumulation of a database on many centage in the Creole goat leg and shoulder
of the carcass traits (yield, quality scores, is most probably due to the lower fat con-
carcass cuts and linear measurements). The tent (3-7%), compared with a value of
database includes 131 intact male kids of 10-13% reported by Dhanda et al. (2003b).
the Creole genotype raised indoors. Two Similar trends were observed by comparing
contrasting groups were discriminated the Creole and New Zealand Saanen goat
according to their feeding level. The low within a similar slaughter weight range
level (LL) group (n = 65) received a basal (Colomer-Rocher et al., 1992). However,
diet (green tropical forage) without concen- these differences may have arisen not only
trate, while the high level (HL) group (n= from a higher fat but also from a higher bone
66) received, in addition, a concentrate diet percentage, which was 23-26% in the New
(280-320 g/day on average). Animals were Zealand Saanen goats compared with
slaughtered when they reached either their 18-24% in the Creole goats.
final live weight or age. Standardized proce- A trait that better describes the meat
dures of carcass measuring and cutting production potential is the muscle:bone
(Colomer-Rocher et al., 1987) were fol- ratio, which is particularly relevant for Cre-
lowed. The different carcass data obtained ole male goats. Values of 2.8-4.2 fell within
are shown in Table 3.5. The carcass weight the upper range of values reported in the lit-
and yield in the Creole goat steadily erature. The carcass indices followed a sim-
increased within ages as expected. The val- ilar trend of slaughter weight, i.e. an
ues (up to 30 kg carcass and 62% carcass increase with age and better diets. Creole
44 G. Alexandre and 0. Mahgoub

Table 3.5. Carcass weight, yield, cuts, measurements and dissection of Creole kids according to their
feeding level (LL, low level, basal green tropical forage; and HL, high level, an additional 300-350 g
concentrate/day) and their age at slaughter (from Lim 6a et al., 2009a,b).

Carcass characteristic Feeding level

LL HL

Age at slaughter (months) 7 12 15 7 9 11 15


Number of kids 16 36 13 15 20 16 15
Slaughter weight (kg) 16.0 22.3 25.5 19.2 22.9 30.5 36.5
Empty body weight (kg) 10.5 15.6 18.1 14.8 18.8 24.4 29.5
Hot carcass weight (kg) 5.8 9.2 10.6 8.6 12.3 15.1 18.7
Cold carcass weight (kg) 5.5 8.9 10.3 8.4 11.7 14.8 18.4
Dressing percentage (%) 34.4 41.4 40.4 43.8 51.0 48.5 50.4
Carcass output ( %) 52.8 56.9 57.0 57.1 60.0 60.7 62.4
Carcass indices
Carcass compactness 4.025 3.648 4.007 4.023 3.391 3.974 3.909
Leg compactness 2.463 2.482 2.322 2.451 2.502 2.377 2.378
Carcass index 0.113 0.160 0.176 0.157 0.200 0.242 0.287
Dissection of shoulder
Muscle ( %) 69.1 72.7 73.7 71.3 72.8 74.2 75.1
Bone (%) 25.2 21.3 21.2 20.7 19.4 19 17.9
Fat (%) 5.6 6.8 5.1 7.9 7.75 6.8 7
Muscle:bone ratio 2.74 3.39 3.48 3.44 3.70 3.90 4.19
Muscle:fat ratio 12.34 10.74 14.45 9.02 9.41 10.92 10.73
Dissection of leg
Muscle ( %) 71.4 74.1 75.5 74.8 75.2 77.9 76.8
Bone (%) 25.5 22.1 21.2 21.7 20.8 18.5 19.3
Fat (%) 3.1 3.7 3.3 3.5 4.05 3.5 3.9
Muscle:bone ratio 2.80 3.37 3.56 3.45 3.75 4.21 3.98
Muscle:fat ratio 23.03 20.0 22.88 21.37 18.79 22.26 19.69

kids, when compared within a similar range The small-sized Creole goat breed
of carcass weights, exhibited very good car- could be a valuable meat producer based on
cass indices that were similar to or even satisfactory carcass and leg indices,
higher than the larger Boer crossbreds, con- muscle:bone ratios and carcass yield and
trary to the widely held belief in their cuttability. These descriptors for carcass
inferiority in the French West Indies meat conformation and meat potential suggest
sector (Alexandre et al., 2008). that Creole goats, although not yet geneti-
The leg indices may be regarded as a cally improved, may be comparable to some
similar concept to 'muscularity', a trait used fleshy meat breeds, and provide a prospec-
for sheep by Purchas et al. (1991) based on tive potential incentive for the local goat
femur length and the weight of surrounding meat sector. However, more research on
muscles. Comparing our findings (not tabu- genetic improvement is needed for the
lated) with other available studies, our val- future.
ues of 0.036-0.048 are comparable to those
of other breeds such as Florida kids (0.029-
0.047; Pena et al., 2007), Italian Jonica 3.9.2 Omani native meat goats
(0.035-0.044; Marsico et al., 1993) and
Canary caprine (0.022-0.053; Marichal Goats are the most important meat-producing
et al., 2003) but were lower than Omani animal in many Asian and African coun-
breeds (0.070-0.078; Kadim et al., 2003). tries. Goats are the most numerous livestock
Carcass Traits of Tropical Goats 45

and their meat is preferred over other meats Dhofari goat's reproductive performance
in Oman. There are three major goat breeds was found to be above average. Al Ojai li
of importance in Oman including Al-Jabal (1995) reported a conception rate of 65%, a
Al-Akhdar, Batina and Dhofari goats. The twinning rate of 23% and a litter size of
Dhofari goat contributes about 44% of goats 1.29. Dhofari goat males are reputed for
in the country and has the smallest body having a markedly high precocity and they
size (Mahgoub, 1997a). It is a hardy breed, reach sexual maturity early in life (Mah-
living mostly in the southern mountainous goub and Lu, 1998). The breed has also been
region of Dhofar, and resembles the Somali reported to have better milk production per-
goat. It is used here for comparative pur- formance than the other Omani goat breeds
poses with the Creole goat of the French (Chesworth and Horton, 1996). This is an
West Indies as it is of similar body weight important meat production characteristic,
range. The Creole goat has been described as it enables dams to nurse their kids for a
as a medium-sized meat breed traditionally better growth performance.
slaughtered at 18 kg, which is reached at Very few studies have been carried out
6-18 months of age, depending on the on the breed to evaluate its potential for
system (Mahieu et al., 2008). meat production under improved manage-
Apart from a limited experimental ment systems (Mahgoub, 1997a,b; Kadim
genetic improvement programme in Wadi et al., 2003). Some of the published data are
Qurayat Research Station and limited cross- presented in Table 3.6. Both sets of data
breeding with Anglo-Nubian goats (Al originated from animals raised under inten-
Ojai li, 1995) and cashmere goats (M.G. El sive management with concentrate feed
Hag, personal communication), the Dhofari being offered besides ad libitum Rhodes
goat has not been subjected to major genetic grass hay feeding.
improvement. Dhofari goats are raised When fed intensively, kids can reach
mainly under transhumant systems, the slaughter weight of 16 kg at 5 months of
depending mainly on natural range grazing, age, a faster rate than that of range-fed kids.
which is characterized by lush green sea- The carcass weight and yield in Dhofari
sonal grass in the south of the country for goats steadily increased within ages as
about 3-4 months. Supplementary feeding expected. The carcass weight of the Dhofari
is customarily given to fattened goats and goat (9.2 kg at 5 months) was comparable to
lactating does in the form of Rhodes grass that of tropical breeds (Table 3.6). However,
hay, dates, concentrates, banana leaves, bar- there was only an increase of 3 kg of carcass
ley and household leftovers (Mahgoub and weight at the age of 17 months (Table 3.6).
Lodge, 1996). Natural selection has been The values for carcass output (64.9 and
carried out on the breed mainly for survival 56.5% at 18 and 30 kg body weight, respec-
traits. tively) are comparable to those mentioned
The breed is the smallest of the local previously for Creole goats in the French
breeds with a mature weight of 30-35 kg but West Indies, as well as for other meat breeds
fattened males are usually slaughtered at (Table 3.6). The dressing percentage value
6 months of age at 18-22 kg body weight. of 56.5% reported by Mahgoub (1997a,b)
The small size of the breed is regarded as a was higher than those elsewhere reported
favourable characteristic, as the whole for goats but had been calculated on fasted
roasted goat carcass would comfortably fit body weight. The dressing percentage of
on a tray of rice. This is important from a 41.8% at 30 kg live weight (17 months) of
cultural food traditional point of view in the Dhofari goats was below the average
Arabia Gulf region. (46.1%) computed for tropical breeds
The genetic diversity of the breed is (Table 3.6).
relatively conserved, although increasing The Dhofari goat showed different
numbers of the Somali goat, which resem- indices from that of pooled data (Table 3.6)
bles the Dhofari, have been imported in the or Creole goats (Table 3.5). The value for
country. Under improved management, the carcass compactness was much higher for
46 G. Alexandre and 0. Mahgoub

Table 3.6. Carcass weight, yield, cuts, measurements and dissection of Dhofari Omani kids fed Rhodes
grass hay and a concentrate (from Mahgoub, 1997a,b; Kadim et al., 2003).

Parameter Mahgoub (1997a,b) Kadim et al. (2003)

Number of kids 10 14
Age at slaughter (months) 5 17
Slaughter weight (kg) 16.3 29.9
Empty body weight (kg) 14.3 22.1
Hot carcass weight (kg) 9.2 12.7
Cold carcass weight (kg) 12.5
Dressing percentage (%) 56.5 41.8
Carcass output ( %) 64.9 56.6
Carcass indices
Carcass compactness 7.48
Carcass index 0.291
Carcass dissection
Muscle ( %) 70.0
Bone (%) 13.2
Fat (%) 12.9
Muscle:bone ratio 5.35
Muscle:fat ratio 5.64
Shoulder (% of carcass) 43
Leg (% of carcass) 32

the Dhofari goat, indicating longer car- This was mainly because of the lower bone
casses. The carcass index for Dhofari was content. They were above the upper range
also higher than for tropical goat breeds of values reported in the literature. How-
(Table 3.6). ever, the muscle:fat ratio was similar to that
The prime cuts of shoulder and leg con- of the pooled data (Table 3.4).
tributed to a large proportion of the carcass Mahgoub and Lu (1998) compared
in the Dhofari goat (Table 3.6). The shoul- Omani goats of large size (Batina) and small
der and leg are reported to have the highest size (Dhofari) for meat production. Although
percentage of muscle (Dhanda et al., 2003b). Batina goats grew faster and reached the
The values for the Dhofari goat carcass destined slaughter weights earlier, the
tissue contents (Table 3.6), which can give smaller Dhofari goat had higher growth
an indication of the potential of the meat rates relative to final body weight. At 18 kg
production from the animals, differed from body weight, Dhofari goats had a higher
those of tropical breeds (Table 3.1) and Cre- dressing percentage, carcass muscle con-
ole goats (Table 3.5). The higher muscle tent, and carcass and non-carcass fat con-
percentage in the Dhofari goat is due to the tent but a lower bone content. There were
lower bone content (13.2%) compared with differences in muscle distribution, with
23% for pooled data (Table 3.4), as fat con- Dhofari goats having higher proportions of
tents were similar. A high bone percentage muscle in the proximal hind limbs and
of 23-26% was reported for New Zealand around the vertebral column, which are
Saanen goats (Colomer-Rocher et al., 1992) regarded as muscles of higher value.
and 18-24% for Creole goats (Limea et al., Similar to the Creole goat, the small
2009a,b). size of the Dhofari goat breed could favour it
The muscle:bone ratio describes the to become a valuable meat producer based
meat production potential. Values for the on the satisfactory carcass indices,
Dhofari goat were much higher than those muscle:bone ratios, and carcass yield and
in the pooled data or for the Creole goat. cuttability. These descriptors for carcass
Carcass Traits of Tropical Goats 47

conformation and meat potential suggest Indigenous hardy goat breeds such as
that Dhofari goats, although not yet geneti- those in the tropics should not be
cally improved, may be comparable to some automatically replaced with imported
larger meat breeds, and offer a prospective large breeds for meat production under
potential for the local goat meat sector. local systems.
Despite the increasing interest in
indigenous livestock, breed evaluation
schemes for tropical goats are relatively
3.10 Conclusions scarce (Shrestha and Fahmy, 2007b).
Production efficiency should be
The fitness and meat production evaluated for the integrated system
potential of hardy indigenous does are (Alexandre et al., 2010), not just the
superior compared with modern single- individual animal.
purpose breeds in the tropics, espe- Analyses of published work on body
cially if modern husbandry techniques sizes and/or carcass frames are some-
are not available. what inconclusive when tissue parti-
There is no universal genotype for use tioning is insufficiently studied.
in all environments (Tsukahara et al., Consumer expectations should be taken
2008; Wilson, 2009). into account at the local sector level.

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4 Genetics and Breeding of Meat Goats

J.N.B. Shrestha
Dairy and Swine Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food
Canada, Quebec, Canada

4.1 Abstract dairy and pashmina goats, often impeding


efforts to allocate the resources necessary to
The Bezoar, Savannah and Nubian types of develop meat goats. Researchers have pro-
goat that were domesticated from their vided irrefutable evidence to confirm that
respective wild Bezoar, Markhor and Ibex climate, terrain, breed (or population, or
ancestors are the predecessors of the 1183 landrace), availability of feed and grazing
breeds, populations and landraces in the land, diseases, culture, economic status of
world. More than 10,000 years of exposure to the producer and government policy, which
the forces of evolution and creative human vary from country to country and from region
activity have contributed towards a colossal to region within a country, significantly
amount of variability in morphological influence the productivity of goats. Studies
characteristics and production performance. of breeds and their crosses under varying
Despite the available diversity, goats have management schemes, although mostly from
not benefited from scientific achievements in institutional herds, have identified breeds
quantitative genetics, nutrition and disease with the necessary potential to improve effi-
prevention to the same extent as other live- ciency of meat-goat production. Estimates of
stock and poultry species. This is because heterosis demonstrate prospects for improv-
goats were often a neglected species, kept in ing vigour, reproduction and the maternal
developing countries by the poor and the ability of the dam, as well as survival,
landless at the end of the social scale. At the growth, uniformity of the carcass and meat
same time, goats were considered responsi- quality of the kid. Crossbreeding of comple-
ble for soil erosion due to controversy and mentary breeds such as Alpine, Beetal, Boer,
ignorance ascribed to their destructive Damascus, Jamunapari, Nubian and Saanen
nature. Only in the last three decades has with indigenous goats, as well as composite
their role in alleviating poverty and sustain- populations derived from the combination of
ing food production by increasing household two or more breeds, has improved the pro-
income gained recognition. In goats, the pri- ductivity of goats worldwide. Consumer
mary source of knowledge prior to the 1970s acceptability of meat and meat products
has been from their use as an experimental from crossbred animals has been well estab-
animal in biomedical research. A great deal lished. Genetic parameter estimates for
of attention continues to be directed towards reproduction, growth, meat quality and milk
© CAB International 2012. Goat Meat Production and Quality
52 (eds 0. Mahgoub, I.T. Kadim and E.G. Webb)
Breeding Meat Goats 53

yield in goats assembled from numerous and poultry utilized in the production of
studies offer theoretical promise in direct milk, meat, eggs, fibre and power. General
selection for efficiency of meat production. principles have included breed evaluation,
Likewise, purebred selection has benefited crossbreeding, formation of composite popu-
from a greater proportion of additive genetic lations and selection criteria based on realis-
variance associated with economically tic economic values. Goats in general have
important production traits. As additive not benefited from scientific achievements
genetic variance is exhausted, the role of made in genetics, nutrition and husbandry to
direct selection for non-additive genetic the same extent as other livestock and poul-
covariance among crossbred offspring needs try species. Furthermore, depiction of the
to be exploited. The breeding of populations goat as evil in medieval ages, along with con-
with as broad a genetic base as possible is troversy and ignorance ascribed to the
therefore critical in sustaining the genetic destructive nature of the goat species, has not
response to selection. Improvement in meat helped their development. Prior to the 1970s,
quality and production in goats can be the use of the goat as an experimental animal
accomplished with a comprehensive and in biomedical research was the primary
technically sound assessment of important source of scientific knowledge (Gall, 1982).
production traits that have sufficient flexibil- The majority of research that followed,
ity to meet diverse environmental and mana- although negligible compared with other
gerial conditions in harmony with social, livestock and poultry species, was from
religious and cultural attributes. An integral developing countries. In the goat species,
and indispensable part of breeding strategies more attention has been and continues to be
to maximize production efficiency in other directed towards dairy and pashmina goats
domestic livestock and poultry has been the (Fahmy and Shrestha, 2000). The limited
establishment of optimal breeding objectives number of studies on genetics and the envi-
along with the use of multi-trait mixed ani- ronment influencing production traits of eco-
mal model methodology to obtain precise nomic importance has impeded efforts to
estimates of genetic parameters and the pre- develop the goat as a meat animal (Shelton,
diction of breeding values of the offspring 1978). Only in the last three decades has the
and their parents. In practice, genetic genetics of goat meat production been fea-
improvement of meat goats can be accom- tured in the scientific literature (Shrestha and
plished by a simple procedure that involves Fahmy, 2005, 2007a,b).
the identification, measurement, recording, Goat numbers and production statistics
selection criteria based on realistic economic and their relation to human populations as
values, estimation of genetic parameters and well as economic standing are important
prediction of breeding values intended for parameters necessary for the development
pertinent morphological characteristics and of national policies worldwide in support of
production performance. In the future, novel development activities. Countries have
technology based on molecular markers been grouped according to gross national
associated with economically important income (GNI) per capita into low (US$995
morphological characteristics and produc- or less), lower middle (US$996-3945), mid-
tion performance could be integrated into dle (US$3946-12,195) and upper middle
genetic improvement of productivity in meat (US$12,196 or more) according to the World
goats. Bank. Furthermore, countries are classified
according to economies into emerging and
developing, and advanced as described in
4.2 Introduction the World Economic Outlook Database -
WE0 Groups and Aggregates Information of
In the last century, advances in the theory the International Monetary Fund. The num-
and application of quantitative genetic prin- ber of goats worldwide (in 1980, 1990, 2000
ciples have played an important role in and 2008), goat breeds (2008), human
exploiting the biological potential of livestock population (2008) and GNI per capita
54 J.N.B. Shrestha

(World Bank, http://databank.worldbank. for 1980 are compared with those in 1990,
org/) for individual countries, continents 2000 and 2008: a recurring increase of 27,
(Africa, Asia, Europe, America and Ocea- 61 and 86%, respectively can be seen
nia), countries grouped according to GNI (Table 4.1). Emerging and developing econ-
per capita (low, lower middle, middle and omies with 85% of the human population
upper middle) and economies (emerging share 75% of all breed populations and
and developing, and advanced) are pre- 97% of goats worldwide, distributed mainly
sented in Table 4.1. Worldwide statistics in the continents of Asia (59%) and Africa
illustrating the number of goats slaughtered, (34%). The ratio of goats to humans is 1:7 in
average carcass weight and total meat pro- emerging and developing economies in con-
duction are presented in Table 4.2. trast to 1:5 in advanced economies. Notably
In 1994, the European Union produced goats are concentrated in some of the poor-
75,000 million t of meat from more than 11 est countries with the highest human popu-
million goats in Greece (50%), Spain (25%), lations, demonstrating their importance to
Italy (10%), France (8%) and other coun- the livelihood of the poor and landless. The
tries (Carbo and del la Calle, 1995). Spain countries that raised the largest number of
produced 16,000 million t of meat from 2.8 goats in 2008 were China (17%), India
million goats of the Serrana (30%), Murci- (15%), Pakistan and Bangladesh (7% each),
ana Granadina (20%), Malaga (10%), Canary Nigeria (6%), Sudan (5%), Iran and Ethiopia
Island (6%) and Verata (4%) breeds, while (3% each), and Mongolia, Indonesia and
20% were crossbreds. France with 1 million Kenya (2% each).
goats in 1996 produced goat meat as a by- In emerging and developing economies,
product of the dairy industry (Decoster and farmers with smallholdings and the landless
Berinstain-Bailly, 1996). Australia was the through the ownership of goats utilize milk
leading exporter of goat meat from the for domestic consumption while meat and
Angora, Cashmere, Dairy, Feral, Boer and meat products provide much-needed cash
Boer x Cashmere populations valued at accounting for 70-80% of the total income
about A$20 million annually (B.A. of the household. Sources of goat meat tend
McGregor, Victoria, Australia, 2004, per- to vary according to the husbandry prac-
sonal communication). Currently, the total tised, with no specific age or weight require-
production of goat meat in the world, ment for slaughter. This is because little
4,938,655 million t (FAOSTAT, 2010, attention is paid to quality, as much of the
http://faostat.fao.org/), represents only a meat produced is either for home consump-
fraction of the meat produced by other live- tion or sold at local markets. Previously, the
stock: 5% of pig meat and 8% of cattle meat. total number of goats, number slaughtered,
Nevertheless, there has been a steady rise in average carcass weight and total goat meat
the consumption of goat meat, as a result of production in the world (FAO, 1999)
a growing appetite for food of exotic origin revealed that the continents of Asia (71%)
and an influx of ethnic populations into the and Africa (22%) produced most of the
developed countries where goat meat tends world's goat meat. These figures exclude
to be a by-product of the dairy and fibre informal slaughter and consumption of goat
industry. meat. In 2008, the number of goats slaugh-
The first inventory of domestic animal tered in the emerging and developing
diversity in the world listed 570 goat breeds, economies was 97% of goats worldwide,
types, populations and landraces, of which distributed mainly in the continents of Asia
187 (33%) were in Europe, 146 (26%) in (69%) and Africa (25%), being concentrated
Asia and the Pacific region and 89 (16%) in in the dry and humid, and tropical and sub-
Africa (Scherf, 2000). Goat numbers con- tropical climates (Table 4.2). The major
tinue to increase worldwide, although the countries that slaughtered goats for their
resources allotted for their development has meat and skins were China (34%), India
been negligible (French, 1970; Devendra, (12%), Bangladesh (8%), Nigeria (5%),
1998). This is apparent when goat numbers Pakistan and Sudan (4% each), and Ethiopia,
Breeding Meat Goats 55

Table 4.1. Countries, continents, gross national income (GNI) per capita and economies for the years
indicated in relation to numbers of goats, goat breeds, human populations and GNI per capita.

Human
population
Number of goatsa (x1000) Breedsb (x1000)c
GNI per
Source 1980 1990 2000 2008 2008 2008 capita (US$)d

Africa
Algeria 2,723 2,472 3,027 3,751 8 34,373 4,260
Angola 1,270 1,500 2,150 2,478 3 18,021 3,340
Bahrain 15 16 19 19 776 25,420
Benin 931 872 1,234 1,472 4 8,662 700
Botswana 638 2,092 1,900 1,980 5 1,921 6,760
Burkina Faso 3,400 6,580 9,104 11,805 8 15,234 480
Burundi 657 927 855 1,650 2 8,074 140
Cameroon 2,340 3,520 4,410 4,400 7 19,088 1,120
Cape Verde 65 109 109 202 499 2,830
Central African 956 1,242 2,614 4,069 3 4,339 410
Rep.
Chad 2,620 2,838 5,179 6,288 8 10,914 540
Comoros 87 113 113 118 3 644 750
Congo Democratic 2,681 3,850 4,131 4,046 7 64,257 150
Rep.
Congo, Rep. of the 159 278 280 295 1 3,615 1,810
Cote d'Ivoire 900 888 1,116 1,282 1 20,591 980
Djibouti 545 502 511 512 2 849 1,210
Egypt 1,451 2,400 3,425 4,473 10 81,527 1,800
Equatorial Guinea 7 8 9 9 1 659 14,980
Eritrea 1,700 1,730 6 4,927 300
Ethiopia 8,598 21,884 26 80,713 280
Ethiopia 17,180 17,200
PDR
Gabon 78 80 91 92 1 1,448 7,320
Gambia 162 180 145 374 1 1,660 400
Gaza Strip 1,527
Ghana 1,934 2,019 3,077 4,405 2 23,350 680
Guinea 405 525 1,008 1,696 1 9,833 350
Gunea-Bissau 183 208 325 393 1 1,575 250
Kenya 8,000 10,186 9,923 14,478 10 38,765 730
Lesotho 784 844 830 917 5 2,049 1,060
Liberia 200 230 220 285 1 3,793 170
Libyan Arab 1,500 1,100 1,263 2,500 1 6,294 12,380
Jamahiriya
Madagascar 1,438 1,256 1,033 1,260 3 19,111 420
Malawi 650 853 1,689 3,106 7 14,846 260
Mali 6,750 6,086 7,087 10,150 9 12,705 610
Mauritania 2,597 3,400 5,087 5,610 8 3,215 980
Mauritius 70 95 73 26 3 1,269 6,720
Mayotte 191
Morocco 6,154 5,335 4,931 5,178 7 31,606 2,520
Mozambique 335 2,000 4,900 4,325 7 22,383 380
Namibia 1,917 1,860 1,850 2,100 9 2,130 4,210
Niger 9,132 6,240 9,327 12,641 3 14,704 330

Continued
56 J.N.B. Shrestha

Table 4.1. Continued.

Human
population
Number of goatsa (x1000) Breedsb (x1000)c
GNI per
Source 1980 1990 2000 2008 2008 2008 capita (US$)d

Nigeria 11,297 23,321 42,500 53,800 9 151,212 1,170


Palestine, 309 322
Occupied Tr.
Qatar 56 98 178 160 1,281
Reunion 33 31 38 40 1

Rwanda 885 1,075 757 1,736 7 9,721 410


Saint Helena 2 1 1 1 7
Sao Tome and 4 4 5 5 5 160 1,020
Principe
Senegal 973 2,552 3,879 4,471 2 12,211 980
Seychelles 4 5 5 5 4 87 10,530
Sierra Leone 136 149 200 540 1 5,560 320
Somalia 17,000 18,500 12,300 12,700 8 8,926
South Africa 5,794 6,100 6,706 6,529 15 48,793 5,870
Sudan 12,748 15,277 38,548 43,100 11 41,348 1,120
Swaziland 303 298 422 276 2 1,168 2,560
Tanzania, United 5,662 8,526 11,889 12,550 13 42,484 460
Rep.
Togo 516 2,043 1,425 1,508 4 6,459 410
Tunisia 922 1,279 1,448 1,496 10,327 3,540
Uganda 2,544 4,710 6,396 8,523 7 31,657 420
West Bank 3,937
West Sahara 147 162 172 173 394
Zambia 258 534 1,249 2,000 5 12,620 960
Zimbabwe 982 2,540 2,950 3,100 6 12,463
Asia
Afghanistan 2,850 3,350 7,300 6,386 6 29,021 370
Armenia 43 39 4 3,077 3,350
Azerbaijan, Rep. 494 587 2 8,680 3,830
Bangladesh 9,208 21,031 34,100 56,400 3 160,000
Bhutan 16 37 31 30 1 687 1,770
Brunei 1 3 3 3 392
Darussalam
Cambodia 1 14,562 630
China 80,762 98,313 148,401 149,377 62 1,324,655 3,060
Cyprus 220 208 346 368 5 862 26,940
Dhekelia 16
Georgia 80 83 5 4,307 2,450
Hong Kong 6,978 31,420
India 86,900 113,200 123,533 125,732 39 1,139,965 1,080
Indonesia 7,691 11,298 12,566 15,147 14 227,345 2,010
Iran, Islamic Rep. 17,358 24,748 25,757 25,300 10 71,956 4,120
Iraq 2,080 1,550 1,300 1,475 6 30,711 2,060
Israel 145 120 62 90 4 7,309 24,710
Japan 67 35 35 15 4 127,704 37,930
Jordan 453 600 461 1,083 7 5,812 3,520
Kazakhstan 931 2,610 5 15,674 6,140
Korea Dem Rep. 490 650 276 3,441 23,819

Continued
Breeding Meat Goats 57

Table 4.1. Continued.

Human
population
Number of goatsa (x1000) Breedsb (x1000)c
GNI per
Source 1980 1990 2000 2008 2008 2008 capita (US$)d

Korea, Rep. 201 211 445 266 7 48,607 21,570


Kuwait 273 40 153 160 2,728
Kyrgyzstan 543 873 8 5,278 790
Lao People's 49 139 122 289 3 6,205 750
Dem. Rep.
Lebanon 444 435 417 450 2 4,194 6,860
Macau 526
Malaysia 342 331 238 285 11 27,014 7,250
Maldives 2 305 3,690
Mongolia 4,715 4,959 11,034 19,969 9 2,641 1,670
Myanmar 610 1,036 1,392 2,624 3 49,563
Nepal 4,650 5,324 6,325 8,136 11 28,810 400
Oman 630 720 979 1,620 6 2,785 17,890
Pakistan 24,953 35,446 47,426 56,742 36 166,112 950
Philippines 2,960 4,790 6,245 4,174 9 90,348 1,700
Saudi Arabia 2,240 3,406 2,462 2,200 4 24,807 17,700
Singapore 0.8 0.2 0.5 0.6 4,839 37,650
Sri Lanka 493 522 495 377 7 20,156 1,780
Syrian Arab Rep. 1,026 1,000 1,050 1,579 4 19,748 2,150
Taiwan 22,921
Tajikistan 706 1,424 8 6,836 600
Thailand 56 121 144 374 2 65,493 3,670
Timor-Leste 26 97 75 137 1,098 2,460
Turkey 18,775 11,942 7,774 6,286 11 73,914 8,890
Turkmenistan 500 900 3 5,044 2,760
United Arab 342 657 1,279 1,570 4,485
Emirates
Uzbekistan 886 2,000 7 27,314 910
Vietnam 173 372 544 1,484 9 86,211 910
Yemen 2,898 5,333 6,918 8,708 8 22,917 960
Europe
Albania 811 1,144 1,104 820 20 3,143 3,840
Austria 35 36 72 60 13 8,337 46,350
Belarus 58 72 9,681 5,380
Belgium 16 31 8 10,708 45,010
Belgium 6 9
Luxembourg
Bosnia and 98 70 1 3,773 4,530
Herzegovina
Bulgaria 433 433 1,046 495 7,623 5,390
Croatia 79 84 5 4,434 13,580
Czech Rep. 32 17 6 10,424 16,670
Czechoslovakia 63 50
Denmark 3 5,493 58,550
Estonia 3 4 1 1,340 14,410
Finland 2 4 9 6 1 5,313 47,630
France 1,125 1,226 1,211 1,224 14 62,279 42,190
Germany 61 90 135 190 22 82,110 42,800

Continued
58 J.N.B. Shrestha

Table 4.1. Continued.

Human
population
Number of goatsa (x1000) Breedsb (x1000)C
GNI per
Source 1980 1990 2000 2008 2008 2008 capita (US$)d

Greece 4,532 5,348 5,614 5,346 7 11,237 27,650


Hungary 15 16 189 67 11 10,038 12,800
Iceland 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 1 317 49,360
Ireland 8 9 8 4,426 49,480
Italy 978 1,246 1,397 920 54 58,832 35,230
Latvia 8 13 3 2,266 11,940
Liechtenstein 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.3 36 113,210
Lithuania 25 20 6 3,358 11,890
Luxembourg 1 3 489 74,890
Malta 6 6 5 6 1 412
Moldova, Rep. 99 99 2 3,633 1,500
Netherlands 30 61 179 390 14 16,445 48,990
Norway 85 89 76 70 2 4,768 86,670
Poland 190 136 7 38,126 11,820
Portugal 733 857 630 496 6 10,622 20,540
Romania 375 1,017 558 865 2 21,514 8,290
Russian 2,148 2,213 15 141,950 9,650
Federation
Serbia 154 0.5 7,350 5,520
Serbia and 241
Montenegro
Slovakia 51 37 3 5,406 16,590
Slovenia 15 28 5 2,021 24,280
Spain 2,100 3,780 2,627 2,959 24 45,556 31,630
Sweden 3 9,220 52,460
Switzerland 80 68 62 81 11 7,648 56,370
Ukraine 825 645 3 46,258 3,210
UK 114 77 95 12 60,944 46,150
USSR 5,824 6,562
Former Yug. Rep. 65 133 2 2,041 4,120
Macedonia
America
Antigua and 12 12 34 37 6 87 13,020
Barbuda
Argentina 3,000 3,300 3,490 4,250 13 39,883 7,190
Aruba 3 105
Bahamas 13 14 14 15 338
Barbados 15 4 5 5 5 255 520
Belize 1 0.1 0.1 0.2 322 3,740
Bermuda 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.4 64
Bolivia 2,007 1,445 1,714 1,979 5 9,694 1,460
Brazil 8,326 11,895 9,347 9,355 21 191,972 7,490
British Virgin 12 10 10 10
Islands
Canada 22 27 30 30 11 33,311 43,490
Cayman Islands 0.3 0.3 0.3 2 54
Chile 600 600 740 740 8 16,804 9,470

Continued
Breeding Meat Goats 59

Table 4.1. Continued.

Human
population
Number of goatsa (x1000) Breedsb (x1000)C
GNI per
Source 1980 1990 2000 2008 2008 2008 capita (US$)d

Colombia 645 959 1,185 1,200 4 45,012 4,610


Costa Rica 1 2 3 5 5 4,519 6,060
Cuba 99 90 715 1,134 7 11,205
Dominica 6 10 10 10 6 73 4,790
Dominican Rep. 451 550 178 190 0.7 9,953 4,330
Ecuador 257 311 280 150 1 13,481 3,700
El Salvador 14 15 13 11 5 6,134 3,460
French Guiana 1 1 1 1

Grenada 13 10 7 7 3 104 5,870


Guadeloupe 64 69 34 48 2
Guatemala 72 105 111 101 5 13,686 2,680
Guyana 70 78 79 79 3 763 1,450
Haiti 1,000 1,110 1,942 1,910 5 9,876
Honduras 24 26 31 25 7 7,319
Jamaica 380 440 440 440 7 2,687 4,800
Martinique 9 28 14 14 0.1
Mexico 9,638 10,439 8,704 8,831 12 106,350 10,000
Montserrat 6 7 7 7 1

Netherlands 21 14 14 14 1 195
Nicaragua 6 6 7 7 5 5,667 1,050
Panama 6 5 5 6 4 3,399 6,290
Paraguay 115 148 123 130 6 6,238 2,140
Peru 1,699 1,722 2,023 1,904 4 28,837 3,990
Puerto Rico 25 21 9 3 1 3,955
St Kitts and Nevis 10 10 14 9 6 49 11,210
St Lucia 10 12 10 9 5 170 5,430
St Pierre and 0.04
Miquelon
St Vincent and 4 6 6 1 109 5,130
Grenadines
Suriname 6 10 7 4 2 515 4,760
Trinidad and 50 57 58 60 6 1,333 15,580
Tobago
USA 1,400 1,900 2,300 3,118 16 304,375 48,190
Uruguay 12 14 15 17 5 3,334 8,020
US Virgin Islands 6 4 4 4 110
Venezuela, 1,338 1,650 1,205 1,415 7 27,935 9,170
Bolivar Rep.
Oceania
Australia 65 1,630 1,905 3,000 14 21,432 41,890
Cook Islands 3 5 3 1 3
Fiji 110 170 241 250 1 844 4,060
French Polynesia 12 14 17 17 266
Guam 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.7 176
Micronesia, 4 4 110 2,460
Fed. States
New Caledonia 8 17 10 8 247

Continued
60 J.N.B. Shrestha

Table 4.1. Continued.

Human
population
Number of goatsa (x1000) Breedsb (x1000)c
GNI per
Source 1980 1990 2000 2008 2008 2008 capita (US$)d

New Zealand 53 1,063 183 96 4 4,269 26,830


Pacific Islands 4 4
Trust Tr.
Papua New Guinea 2 2 2 3 1 6,577 1,090
Tonga 13 16 13 13 2 104 3,240
Tuvalu 0.04
Vanuatu 11 11 12 19 1 234 2,490
Wallis and 7 7 7 7
Futuna
Continents
Africa 141,520 177,766 235,999 296,606 289 995,514 2,650
Asia 273,757 351,366 454,592 509,224 341 3,999,738 7,484
Europe 17,294 22,157 18,765 17,860 301 733,912 34,083
America 31,464 37,139 34,937 37,286 220 910,363 8,904
Oceania 288 2,939 2,396 3,418 32 35,275 8,314
GNI (US$/year: 2008)c
Low 90,579 120,051 175,035 230,442 267 898,530 551
($995)
Lower middle 228,622 294,461 410,439 442,279 303 3,440,275 2,342
($996-3,945)
Middle ($3,946- 75,206 83,412 80,404 82,230 246 1,003,648 6,863
12,195)
Upper middle 16,403 23,449 22,615 25,547 323 1,036,540 40,429
(412,196)
Economiesd
Emerging and 451,954 572,791 728,516 844,768 889 5,678,394 4,136
developing
Advanced 12,003 18,170 17,524 18,953 283 984,189 40,962
Total 464,323 591,367 746,689 864,394 1,183 6,674,801 12,687

aDAD- IS: http://dad.fao.org/.


bFAOSTAT: http://faostat.fao.org/.
'World Bank: http://databank.worldbank.org/.
dlnternational Monetary Fund: http://www.imf.org/.

Iran and Indonesia (2% each). The ranking of Somalia, Afghanistan, Turkey, South Africa,
countries based on total goat meat produced Tanzania, Burkina Faso, Yemen, Brazil,
was as follows: China (38%), India (10%), Uganda and Saudi Arabia.
Nigeria (6%), Pakistan (5%), Bangladesh In the years following World War II,
and Sudan (4% each) and Iran (2%). The fol- more emphasis was placed on improving
lowing countries each share 1% of the total efficiency to encourage the production of
goat meat production in the world: Indone- cheaper commodities to meet the growing
sia, Ethiopia, Greece, Philippines, Niger, demand of the increasing number of afflu-
Mongolia, Kenya, Nepal, Mexico, Mali, ent families worldwide. This has increased
Table 4.2. Countries, continents, gross national income (GNI) per capitaa and economiesb in relation to the number of goats slaughtered, average carcass
weight and total meat productionc.

Goats slaughtered (x1000) Average carcass weight (kg) Total meat production (million t)

Source 1980 1990 2000 2008 1980 1990 2000 2008 1980 1990 2000 2008

Africa
Algeria 926 841 1,230 1,410 10 10 10 10 9,259 8,405 12,300 14,100
Angola 380 450 645 743 9 9 15 15 3,420 4,050 9,675 11,149
Bahrain 60 25 10 380 15 15 15 15 900 375 150 5,700
Benin 279 305 408 491 10 10 10 10 2,792 3,050 4,076 4,914
Botswana 219 460 440 460 12 12 12 12 2,630 5,520 5,280 5,520
Burkina Faso 1,100 2,105 2,913 3,736 7 8 8 8 7,700 17,053 23,594 30,259
Burundi 197 370 324 610 10 10 9 10 1,971 3,700 2,850 6,100
Cameroon 702 1,254 1,570 1,570 10 10 10 10 7,020 12,540 15,700 15,700
Cape Verde 23 39 45 85 10 10 10 10 230 394 450 846
Central 170 267 530 809 16 16 19 19 2,720 4,278 10,000 14,800
African Rep.
Chad 700 760 1,557 1,970 13 12 12 12 9,100 8,740 18,684 23,640
Comoros 27 35 35 38 10 10 10 10 270 350 350 380
Congo Dem. 736 1,492 1,638 1,602 10 11 12 11 7,300 17,097 19,000 17,753
Rep.
Congo Rep. 48 83 85 87 9 9 9 9 430 749 760 783
Cote d'Ivoire 470 395 314 370 10 10 9 9 4,700 3,950 2,919 3,471
Djibouti 220 178 188 188 13 13 13 13 2,744 2,222 2,350 2,350
Egypt 1,176 1,528 1,351 970 18 18 19 19 21,000 27,500 25,000 18,000
Equatorial 2 3 4 4 11 11 11 11 22 31 42 44
Guinea
Eritrea 680 683 9 9 5,800 5,800
Ethiopia 3,007 7,600 9 9 25,560 64,600
Ethiopia PDR 6,800 7,850 9 8 57,800 66,700
Gabon 21 23 27 28 10 10 10 10 210 225 270 280
Gambia 49 54 36 94 11 11 11 11 534 592 394 1,028
Ghana 480 505 769 1,035 10 10 13 13 4,560 4,794 10,150 13,662
Guinea 84 118 398 678 16 16 11 12 1,344 1,887 4,459 8,426
rn
Continued
Table 4.2. Continued.

Goats slaughtered (x 1000) Average carcass weight (kg) Total meat production (million t)

Source 1980 1990 2000 2008 1980 1990 2000 2008 1980 1990 2000 2008

Guinea-Bissau 55 62 98 121 9 9 9 9 495 561 877 1,095


Kenya 1,600 2,800 2,800 4,200 11 11 11 11 17,600 30,800 30,800 46,200
Lesotho 260 330 245 225 8 8 9 9 2,080 2,640 2,205 2,025
Liberia 63 74 74 89 9 9 9 9 567 666 666 800
Libyan Arab 420 350 400 790 12 15 15 15 5,050 5,250 6,000 11,850
Jamahiriya
Madagascar 486 420 351 425 15 15 15 15 7,291 6,300 5,265 6,375
Malawi 195 256 600 1,630 12 12 12 12 2,341 3,072 7,200 19,557
Mali 1,900 1,666 1,976 3,045 13 14 14 14 24,700 23,321 27,665 42,631
Mauritania 505 521 830 970 15 15 15 15 7,575 7,815 12,450 14,550
Morocco 1,850 1,550 1,550 1,980 10 14 14 11 19,000 21,500 22,000 22,000
Mozambique 134 800 2,050 1,770 12 12 12 12 1,608 9,600 24,600 21,240
Namibia 380 370 400 329 12 12 12 12 4,560 4,440 4,800 3,840
Niger 3,020 2,048 2,986 4,400 12 12 12 12 36,240 24,576 35,832 52,800
Nigeria 4,650 9,500 17,420 21,318 13 13 13 13 59,054 120,649 221,234 270,742
Palestine, Occupied 184 230 21 22 3,946 4,945
Tr.
Qatar 21 24 48 46 14 14 14 14 294 341 669 644
Reunion 5 7 8 9 12 11 11 11 61 76 86 94
Rwanda 270 341 242 555 11 11 11 11 2,970 3,751 2,662 6,105
Sao Tome and 1 2 2 2 11 11 11 11 13 16 18 19
Principe
Senegal 337 895 1,009 1,219 10 10 10 11 3,370 8,950 10,422 13,736
Seychelles 1 2 2 2 11 11 11 11 13 17 20 20
Sierra Leone 34 37 47 128 9 9 9 9 306 333 423 1,152
Somalia 3,108 4,190 2,500 3,250 13 13 13 13 40,403 54,469 32,500 42,250
South Africa 1,820 2,100 2,240 2,310 16 16 16 16 28,400 34,600 36,000 37,190
Sudan 3,382 2,691 9,077 14,530 13 13 13 13 43,966 34,987 118,000 188,900
Swaziland 145 115 160 103 18 18 18 18 2,610 2,070 2,880 1,854
Tanzania, United 1,278 1,790 2,450 2,550 12 12 12 12 15,332 21,484 29,400 30,600
Rep.
Togo 129 520 399 420 9 9 9 9 1,161 4,680 3,591 3,777
Tunisia 489 744 850 870 6 10 11 12 3,130 7,300 9,200 10,500
Uganda 890 1,500 2,050 2,400 12 12 12 12 10,680 18,000 24,600 29,000
West Sahara 42 50 54 55 12 12 12 12 504 600 648 660
Zambia 77 160 387 640 12 12 12 12 927 1,922 4,644 7,680
Zimbabwe 255 870 1,100 1,147 12 12 12 12 3,063 10,440 13,200 13,764
Asia
Afghanistan 1,380 1,540 3,700 3,200 13 13 13 13 17,940 20,020 48,100 41,600
Bangladesh 4,604 10,516 18,400 30,000 5 7 7 7 23,673 73,639 129,000 210,000
Bhutan 8 16 17 15 9 9 9 9 74 139 153 135
Brunei Darussalam 0.1 1 3 4 10 10 10 10 1 11 25 35
China 18,841 44,042 96,816 133,340 11 12 13 14 200,500 520,571 1,211,688 1,828,316
Cyprus 167 185 243 166 13 23 26 23 2,200 4,200 6,300 3,874
India 30,240 43,000 43,931 47,775 10 10 10 10 302,400 430,000 469,000 477,750
Indonesia 3,630 5,830 6,900 6,602 10 10 10 10 36,300 58,300 44,890 66,027
Iran, Islamic Rep. 5,200 7,100 7,821 7,550 14 14 14 14 72,800 99,500 109,500 106,000
Iraq 760 652 590 610 12 12 12 24 9,120 7,827 7,080 14,335
Israel 70 70 150 247 16 16 16 15 1,120 1,120 2,400 3,702
Jordan 136 81 138 314 15 23 11 13 1,980 1,900 1,568 4,210
Kazakhstan 278 1,319 14 16 3,900 20,631
Korea Dem. Rep. 147 195 680 940 15 15 15 15 2,205 2,925 10,200 14,100
Korea Rep. of 56 64 185 105 15 15 15 15 840 960 2,775 1,575
Kuwait 130 10 43 45 13 13 13 13 1,690 130 559 585
Kyrgyzstan 200 420 18 18 3,656 7,365
Lao People's Dem. 8 24 31 80 14 14 14 14 105 331 429 1,120
Rep.
Lebanon 204 182 140 228 18 18 18 18 3,678 3,276 2,520 4,098
Malaysia 85 52 66 94 9 9 9 9 775 472 602 855
Mongolia 1,600 1,551 2,402 3,044 15 16 12 14 24,000 24,700 30,000 47,510
Myanmar 216 527 907 2,504 10 10 10 9 2,155 5,271 9,070 23,700
Nepal 2,611 2,609 3,268 4,240 9 11 11 11 23,500 28,896 36,930 46,188

Continued
rn
Table 4.2. Continued.

Goats slaughtered (x1000) Average carcass weight (kg) Total meat production (million t)

Source 1980 1990 2000 2008 1980 1990 2000 2008 1980 1990 2000 2008

Oman 140 179 190 550 25 25 25 43 3,500 4,475 4,750 23,500


Pakistan 16,310 19,141 18,760 15,350 10 15 17 17 157,000 296,000 310,000 261,000
Philippines 1,184 1,915 3,151 3,037 12 14 11 17 14,000 26,704 33,721 53,152
Saudi Arabia 379 1,627 2,079 1,730 13 14 11 14 5,000 22,900 22,200 24,900
Singapore 0.5 1 0.6 1 15 11 12 12 7 16 7 11
Sri Lanka 137 83 85 58 20 20 20 20 2,730 1,640 1,690 1,160
Syrian Arab Rep. 397 362 281 338 17 17 17 25 6,544 5,976 4,633 8,444
Thailand 17 36 43 93 15 15 15 15 250 541 649 1,395
Timor-Leste 8 29 23 42 10 10 10 10 80 290 225 420
Turkey 3,830 4,204 3,400 2,700 14 16 16 15 52,600 66,000 53,000 41,600
Turkmenistan 300 413 15 16 4,500 6,400
United Arab 155 270 1,400 950 16 16 16 16 2,480 4,320 22,400 15,200
Emirates
Vietnam 87 186 320 754 15 15 15 15 1,305 2,790 4,800 11,310
Yemen 1,350 1,766 2,254 2,958 10 10 10 10 13,500 17,660 22,540 29,579
Europe
Albania 332 377 900 725 12 11 8 8 3,900 4,000 7,200 5,800
Austria 37 31 66 45 11 9 12 13 410 280 799 583
Belgium 3 2 20 21 56 45
Bulgaria 299 278 600 463 11 11 13 11 3,301 2,974 7,500 5,115
Croatia 13 12 18 18 225 216
Czech Rep. 34 16 9 8 300 119
Czechoslovakia 37 34 11 12 405 411
Estonia 1 20 24
France 1,126 1,298 847 846 7 7 8 8 8,000 9,104 6,600 7,100
Germany 11 9 17 26 9 18 18 18 100 165 306 478
Greece 4,114 5,252 4,458 5,174 10 10 10 11 41,984 50,715 44,200 55,500
Hungary 5 25 21 13 13 14 65 325 305
Italy 689 557 453 311 7 7 8 8 5,110 3,972 3,687 2,372
Lithuania 20 20 29 15 559 300
Malta 2 1 4 3 20 17 10 11 31 12 40 35
Netherlands 27 69 23 50 14 13 13 13 381 897 305 650
Norway 26 28 21 24 11 13 12 13 286 356 257 306
Portugal 560 460 256 143 7 6 8 6 3,844 2,911 2,105 889
Romania 312 858 490 542 13 8 8 8 3,900 7,000 3,966 4,154
Russian Federation 1,000 977 20 18 20,316 17,923
Serbia and 41 18
Montenegro
Slovakia 23 35 8 8 298
Slovenia 15 24 13 16 200 329
Spain 1,416 2,164 1,951 1,220 10 8 8 8 13,682 16,417 16,488 9,253
Switzerland 50 46 33 32 13 13 15 17 648 576 505 536
Ukraine 619 543 13 16 8,000 8,750
USSR 1,960 2,375 15 16 30,000 38,000
Americas
Antigua and 4 4 11 13 10 10 10 10 36 39 105 125
Barbuda
Argentina 950 1,000 1,364 1,500 7 7 7 7 6,270 6,600 9,002 9,900
Bahamas 5 5 5 6 12 12 12 12 55 57 62 72
Barbados 6 2 2 2 14 14 14 14 81 23 25 28
Belize 0.4 0.05 0.06 0.08 12 12 12 14 4
Bermuda 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.1 12 12 12 12 2 3 1 1

Bolivia 480 389 524 525 11 11 11 11 5,280 4,279 5,764 5,775


Brazil 2,000 3,000 2,550 2,570 11 11 11 11 22,800 34,200 29,300 29,450
British Virgin Islands 3 3 3 3 12 12 12 12 40 36 36 36
Chile 240 240 297 320 18 18 18 18 4,320 4,320 5,346 5,760
Colombia 158 259 425 435 15 16 16 16 2,425 4,202 6,670 6,850
Costa Rica 0.5 0.7 1 0.8 12 12 12 12 5 7 12 9
Cuba 30 55 118 306 12 12 14 13 354 660 1,651 3,850
Dominica 2 3 4 4 12 12 12 12 25 40 42 42
Dominican Rep. 135 110 60 60 12 12 12 15 1,620 1,320 720 720
Ecuador 88 105 35 42 15 15 29 30 1,320 1,575 1,023 1,299
El Salvador 6 6 5 6 15 15 15 15 82 87 81 88
French Guiana 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 10 10 10 10 3 4 6 7
Grenada 2 3 2 2 10 11 11 12 20 32 24 25

Continued rn
Table 4.2. Continued.

Goats slaughtered (x 1000) Average carcass weight (kg) Total meat production (million t)

Source 1980 1990 2000 2008 1980 1990 2000 2008 1980 1990 2000 2008

Guadeloupe 23 24 14 11 11 13 13 15 250 312 180 165


Guatemala 28 30 31 29 15 15 15 15 420 450 465 435
Guyana 19 25 26 27 10 10 10 10 190 250 260 270
Haiti 220 244 432 400 15 15 15 15 3,300 3,660 6,480 6,000
Honduras 11 10 13 10 15 15 15 15 166 156 187 148
Jamaica 33 35 40 41 14 13 14 16 450 450 551 681
Martinique 2 8 7 6 11 12 13 13 20 100 83 80
Mexico 2,696 2,777 2,510 2,550 11 13 15 17 30,305 36,102 38,760 43,128
Montserrat 1 2 2 2 12 12 12 12 15 20 25 25
Netherlands Antilles 5 13 4 4 9 9 9 9 47 113 35 38
Nicaragua 2 2 3 2 16 16 16 19 30 27 46 33
Paraguay 62 69 74 95 10 10 10 10 619 693 739 950
Peru 742 748 542 499 12 12 13 13 9,100 8,750 6,963 6,447
Puerto Rico 23 24 0.3 1 11 11 11 12 262 254 3 16
St Kitts and Nevis 4 4 5 1 14 14 14 13 49 54 70 13
St Lucia 4 5 4 3 14 14 14 14 49 63 51 47
St Vincent and 1 2 2 3 12 24 23 30
Grenadines
Suriname 3 4 2 1 10 10 10 10 30 39 20 13
Trinidad and Tobago 24 25 25 27 15 15 15 15 352 375 375 405
USA 796 28 22,600
US Virgin Islands 2 2 2 2 11 11 11 11 26 19 19 20
Venezuela 502 656 407 480 11 8 17 12 5,457 5,119 7,051 5,870
Oceania
Australia 15 315 425 650 25 25 25 25 375 7,875 10,625 16,250
Cook Islands 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.2 15 15 15 15 8 8 9 2
Fiji 33 56 73 74 14 12 13 13 451 648 934 983
French Polynesia 4 4 5 5 15 15 15 15 54 63 75 75
Guam 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 36 35 43 50 6 7 10 15
Micronesia, Fed. 1 1 11 11 13 14
States
New Caledonia 4 9 2 2 12 12 12 12 48 108 22 22
New Zealand 55 162 115 107 17 12 11 11 950 1,998 1,285 1,153
Pacific Islands Tr. 1 1 11 11 13 13
Papua New Guinea 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.8 15 15 15 15 6 8 8 11
Tonga 3 2 2 2 15 15 15 15 42 30 24 26
Vanuatu 2 2 3 3 10 10 10 10 23 23 26 28
Wallis and Futuna 1 1 1 1 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15
Continents
Africa 42,841 56,219 74,213 98,339 12 12 12 12 496,620 663,928 916,923 1,193,211
Asia 93,936 147,781 218,358 271,255 13 14 14 15 983,648 1,729,326 2,593,215 3,386,936
Europe 10,997 13,843 11,911 11,257 11 11 13 13 115,982 137,857 124,870 121,080
Americas 8,515 9,893 9,550 10,788 12 12 13 14 95,891 114,514 122,256 151,451
Oceania 119 554 628 846 17 16 17 17 1,991 10,796 13,046 18,594

GNI (US$/year: 2,008)a


Low (<_$995) 37,017 45,564 59,491 71,273 12 12 12 12 389,585 597,042 775,413 890,326
Lower middle 71,316 117,079 190,657 240,750 12 13 13 14 774,757 1,326,783 2,263,105 3,078,049
(US$996-3,945)
Middle (US$3,946- 20,817 25,395 26,464 26,975 12 12 13 13 265,634 334,579 367,013 371,700
12,195)
Upper middle 9,451 12,936 12,081 13,552 13 14 14 15 94,873 135,220 133,724 194,746
(alS$12,196)
Economiesb
Emerging and 147,828 217,388 305,044 382,125 12 12 13 13 1,612,309 2,552,537 3,665,519 4,737,344
developing
Advanced 8,462 10,754 9,329 10,027 13 14 14 14 80,449 102,133 99,592 127,712
Total 156,407 228,291 314,659 392,484 12 13 13 13 1,694,132 2,656,421 3,770,310 4,871,272
aWorld Bank, http://databank.worldbank.org/.
blnternational Monetary Fund, http://www.imf.org/.
eFAOSTAT, http://faostat.fao.org/.

rn
68 J.N.B. Shrestha

Table 4.3. Goat breeds in the world by speciality, climate-environment and country of origin.
(From Shrestha and Fahmy, 2005, 2007a.)

Breed/speciality Country Breed/speciality Country

MEAT Tropical dry


Tropical very dry Barbari India
Sudan Desert Sudan Beetal India
Tropical dry Dera Din Panah Pakistan
Barbari Pakistan Granadina Spain
Black Bengal Indian subcontinent Jamunapari India
Bugri Pakistan Jhakrana India
Cutchi India Kamori Pakistan
Damani Pakistan Nigerian Dwarf West Africa
Ganjam India Nubian Sudan
Kaghani Pakistan Surti India
Kail Pakistan Zaraiby Egypt
Lehri Pakistan Tropical humid
Marwari India Malabar India
Nigerian Dwarf West Africa Subtropical dry
Nubian Sudan, UK Damascus Syria and Lebanon
Osmanabadi India Subtropical mild
Patteri Pakistan Alpine Switzerland
Sangamaneri India Fawn Belgium and Germany
Sirohi India La Mancha USA
Tap ri Pakistan Oberhasli Switzerland
Tropical humid Rove France
Fijian Fiji Saanen Switzerland
Katjang Indonesia Toggenburg Switzerland
Katukachchiya Sri Lanka PROLIFIC
Subtropical dry Tropical very dry
Boer South Africa Sudan Desert Sudan
Subtropical humid Tropical dry
Angora Turkey Barbari India
Banjiao China Black Bengal Indian subcontinent
Chengdu Ma China Tropical humid
Du An China Malabar India
Fuquing China West African Dwarf West Africa
Guizhou White China Subtropical dry
Haimen China Boer South Africa
Huai China Subtropical humid
Kheri Nepal Ma'tou China
Leizhou China Tropical and subtropical dry
Long lin China Criollo South America
Ma'tou China PASHMINA (Cashmere)
Okinawa Japan High mountains cold
Shanzi White China Chyangra Nepal
Terai Nepal Kashmiri Central Asia
Subtropical mild Singhal Nepal
Rove France MOHAIR
Spanish UK Subtropical humid
Mountain humid Angora Turkey
Khasi India SKINS
MILK Tropical dry
Tropical very dry Black Bengal Indian subcontinent
Black Bedouin Israel and Egypt Tropical humid
Maradi Niger and Nigeria
Mubende Uganda
Breeding Meat Goats 69

production efficiency, uniformity of car- studies of bones uncovered adjacent to


casses and consumer acceptability, while human settlements in areas adjoining Iran,
adding value to meat and meat products. Turkey, Syria, Jordan, Pakistan, Israel and
Crossbreeding of the dairy (Alpine, Damas- the Palestinian Territories, along with
cus, Jamunapari, Saanen and Toggenburg) radiocarbon dating, suggest that prehistoric
and meat (Beetal, Boer and Nubian) breeds communities as early as 8500 sc (the end of
with indigenous breed populations in many the Mesolithic period) domesticated herds
parts of the world has produced kids suit- of goats and flocks of sheep. Three predomi-
able for meat production (Shrestha and nant types, the Bezoar, Savannah and
Fahmy, 2005, 2007a). Meat goats represent Nubian goats, evolved from their respective
the majority of goats in the tropics and wild ancestors, the Bezoar or Pasang (Capra
include those not specialized in the produc- aegagrus aegagrus), Markhol (C. aegagrus
tion of milk, pashmina (cashmere), mohair falconer]) and Ibex (C. aegagrus ibex) goats.
and skins (Table 4.3). There is evidence that According to Herre (1958), the Bezoar type
goat producers have benefited from the may have been the first domesticated goat.
application of breeding strategies that have The expansion of agriculture and the stock
helped reduce costs associated with goat raising culture led to the movement of
meat production (Quartermain, 1991). Esti- nomadic and semi-nomadic pastoralists
mates of genetic parameters and the genetic with their goats in westerly and easterly
response to selection for economically directions from the west Asian centre of
important traits in goats corroborate theo- civilization. Goats travelled from Iran and
retical promise for improving the efficiency Afghanistan through Turkistan to Mongolia
of meat production. The use of mixed ani- arriving at North and South China, which
mal model methodology (Henderson and was later known as the 'silk road', and to the
Quaas, 1976), which has contributed to Hainan Island and the western plain of
genetic improvement in other livestock and Taiwan. The Tsinghai and Mongolian goats
poultry, is also applicable in the breeding of were established in the Tibetan plateau
meat goats. Thus, predicting breeding val- sometime during this era. Goats indigenous
ues of parents and their offspring from the to central and eastern China may have origi-
simultaneous evaluation of multiple traits nated from crosses between Mongolian
associated with improving production effi- goats and the meat goat from south China.
ciency has considerable potential. The sub- The expansion of the Aryan Empire in
ject of this chapter is the application of the 2nd century sc contributed to the migra-
quantitative genetic principles and skilled tion of goats through the Khyber Pass into
practices of the breeder, along with comple- the Indian subcontinent. In the 6th century
mentary goat genetic resources worldwide, sc, the thriving trade between the Indian
to achieve rapid and permanent improve- subcontinent and south-eastern Asia along
ment of morphological characteristics and the maritime route to Burma, Thailand,
production performance that are of eco- Malaysia and Indonesia, and from South
nomic importance to meat production. China into south Asia was responsible for
the introduction of goats to these regions. It
has been suggested that the present popula-
4.3 Domestication and Dissemination tion of indigenous goats in Thailand, Malay-
of Goat Genetic Resources sia and Indonesia may have been derived
from crosses of Jamunapari and Anglo-
Domestication has contributed to physicalNubian goats (Devendra and Nozawa, 1976).
changes in the wild goat species during Kambing Katjang or Pea goats indigenous to
their adaptation in captivity while being Malaysia and Indonesia are morphologi-
made suitable for farming. This is an ongo- cally similar to goats in the Philippines,
ing process of artificial selection and skilful Taiwan and the Islands of south-west Japan,
breeding practice in an environment and resemble Black Bengal and south China
provided by the farmer. Archaeological goats.
70 J.N.B. Shrestha

The rise and the expansion of the with similar morphological characteristics,
Roman Empire were characterized by Euro- and established Coates' Herdbook for Short-
pean goats with large body size (Bokonyi, horn Cattle and Herd Societies in England.
1974). It has been suggested that hornless This was followed by registration of animal
goats first appeared during this period. Fol- ancestry and the maintenance of herd books
lowing the demise of the Empire, body size to restrict introductions contributing to the
decreased in the 3rd to 6th centuries, development of a large number of pure
remaining small during the Middle Ages to breeds (Lush, 1945). Dairy goats from Swit-
the 14th century. In the 5th century sc, goats zerland were introduced into England lead-
with scimitar-shaped horns, which origi- ing to the development of the Saanen,
nated in Egypt, migrated into areas adjoin- Toggenburg and Alpine breeds. Purebred
ing Syria and Palestine. Migration of goats goats also accompanied voyages, which
from north to south in East Africa and east contributed to their introduction into the
to west in North Africa was followed by colonies where a large number of goat herds
subsequent dispersal across the African currently remain. The rapid expansion of
continent. Currently, Savannah-type goats the goat numbers in the newly established
are widespread across the African continent colonies could be attributed to favourable
where the majority of animals are raised for climatic conditions, an abundance of vege-
their meat and milk by pastoralists. Nubian- tative growth and the absence of communi-
type goats raised by sedentary agriculturists cable diseases as well as predators.
in North Africa possibly originated from Domestication and the history of goats have
goats in India or Iran that subsequently been described in comprehensive reviews
migrated into Syria and Egypt. It has been on the subject (Harris, 1962; Epstein, 1971;
suggested that Anglo-Nubian goats were Bokonyi, 1974; Devendra and Nozawa,
derived from crosses between prick-eared 1976; Nozawa, 1991).
goats indigenous to the UK and Nubian- In the mid-20th century, Mason (1951)
type Zaraibi, Chitral and Jamunpari goats published the first edition of A World Dic-
from Africa and India. tionary of Livestock Breeds, Types and Vari-
Goats indigenous to Europe accompa- eties. This has been complemented with
nied voyages from Spain and Portugal to the further details on distribution, morphologi-
Americas; from France and England into cal characteristics and production perfor-
North America; from England to Australia, mance of goats in China (Phillips et al.,
New Zealand and South Africa; and from 1945; Epstein, 1969; Cheng, 1984; Ying,
Africa to the Caribbean countries. Conse- 1995), India (Acharya, 1982), Pakistan
quently, large populations of feral goats were (Hasnain, 1985), Turkey (Yalcin, 1986) and
established in Australia and New Zealand. Europe (Simon and Buchenauer, 1993). This
In the USA, Spanish goats account for 20% was followed by the development of the
of the population and produce most of the Global Animal Genetic Data Bank (Simon,
goat meat in the country. These goats, of 1990) and the publication of the Animal
Mexican origin, are distinct from the Angora Genetic Resource Information by the Food
or dairy breeds. Natural selection and contri- and Agriculture Organization of the United
bution from the Nubian (syn. Anglo-Nubian) Nations (FAO). Centuries of evolution and
or Toggenburg breeds have resulted in a vari- skilful breeding practice have established
ety of morphological characteristics. specific genetic combinations contributing
to the development of a colossal amount of
goat genetic resources distributed world-
wide across all ecosystems. These goats
4.3.1 Concept of breed have adapted to varying production envi-
ronments (Mason and Maule, 1960; Gall,
In the early 18th century, Robert Blakewell, 1982, 1996; Gala', 1987; Simon, 1990; Simon
known as the father of animal breeding, and Buchenauer, 1993; Mason, 1996; Scherf,
developed the concept of combining stocks 2000; Morand-Fehr et al., 2004) and exhibit
Breeding Meat Goats 71

diversity in performance providing clear White goat, Matou and Nanjiang yellow.
evidence of their potential for genetic Further details on issues relating to the con-
improvement of productivity. servation of goat genetic resources have
been described in detail in the textbook
Goat Science and Production and a compre-
hensive review on the subject (Shrestha and
4.3.2 Classification of indigenous goats Galal, 2010, 2011).

There are many goats indigenous to the


tropical, subtropical and high mountain cli- 4.4 Divergent Production Environments
mate exposed to humid, very dry, dry, and
humid and cold environments. The absence
In general, meat goats are raised in small
of herd books in many developing countries
and large multi-species herds under nomad-
has led to the classification of goats accord-
ism and semi-nomadism in a range of agro-
ing to morphological characteristics distinct
pastoral production systems, arid rangelands
from other populations in the vicinity. and within the perimeter of the farm, or in
Goats have been described according to spe-
the vicinity of smallholder farming systems.
cific local names, distribution and primary
The divergent management practices are tra-
product. In India, the Council of Scientific
and Industrial Research (CSIR, 1970) classi-
ditional, socially tolerant and in harmony
with the natural vegetation and prevailing
fied goats into the following breed groups
according to their primary product: 34 for
environment but make efficient use of
labour surplus to household requirements
meat, 12 for milk, eight for prolificacy and
with sustained productivity. The resource-
three each for pashmina and skin produc- poor households not only lack the neces-
tion. Cashmere-like goats were distributed
sary finance to purchase concentrates but
in the trans-Himalayan mountain range, also fail to appreciate the scientific logic
milk goats in the northern dry regions and
meat goats in the Deccan Plateau and areas
behind the concept of fattening goats to
adjoining the Bay of Bengal. Goats in India
improve meat quality. The practice of fat-
tening livestock prior to slaughter by pro-
were further classified into 20 breeds: Sirohi,
Marwari, Beetal, Jhakrana, Barbari, Jamu-
viding high-energy concentrate diets in
feedlots, which is common in other meat
napari, Mehsana, Gohilwadi, Zalawadi, Kut-
animals, does not exist in goats.
chi and Surti in the north-western arid and
semi-arid regions; Sangamneri, Malabari,
Osmanabadi and Kannaiadu in the southern
peninsular region; Ganjam and Bengal in 4.4.1 Asia
the eastern region; and Gaddi, Changthangi
and Chigu in the northern temperate region. Goats are often tethered in stubble fields or
In Pakistan, goats were classified on the browse along roadsides, adjoining forests
basis of hair and smooth coat characteristics and community pastures, while frequently
into 25 breeds: Kajli, Khurassani and Lehri being supplemented with cut-and-carry
of Baluchistan; Damani, Gaddi and Kaghani fodder. In general, women and children in
of the North-west Frontier province; Beetal, rural areas are responsible for daily feeding
Nachi, Dera Din Panah and Teddy of Pun- and husbandry requirements. Around urban
jab; Barbari, Chappar, Kamori and Sind areas, goats browse on vegetation surround-
Desi of Sind; Baltistani, Jararkheil, Kohai ing irrigated fields or verdure along prop-
Ghizer and Piamiri of northern areas; and erty boundaries and vacant land but remain
Beiari, Buchi, Desi, Kooti, Labri, Pothohari secure and always within the proximity of
and Shurri of Azad Kashmir. In China, meat the owner. During the summer months, the
goats were classified into 12 breeds: Ban- availability and quality of forage and shrubs
jiao, Chengdu Ma, Du An, Fuqing, Guizhou diminish in adjoining villages and areas of
White, Haimen, Huai, Leizhou, Longlin, the city. Thus, goats need to travel a greater
72 J.N.B. Shrestha

distance for foraging or are supplemented production by integrating the raising of


with agricultural by-products from indus- goats with crop production and farming sys-
trial waste produced during food process- tems. Devendra (1988) has described the
ing, along with vegetable toppings from integration of goat meat production and
kitchen waste. crop farming systems based on wheat, rice,
In countries bordering the Himalayan maize, oilseeds, cash crops, vegetables, cut-
mountain range, goats raised in large multi- and-carry fodders, coconuts, oil palm and
species herds benefit from an abundant sup- rubber plantations for various stocking den-
ply of natural vegetation, which is the sities owned by small farmers, the landless,
primary source of diet in transhumance sys- labourers and peasants. In the Philippines,
tems (Shrestha et al., 1998). Nomadic pasto- a 300-goat herd kept for meat production
ralists practise the age-old tradition of along with fish culture of Nile tilapia (Oreo-
ascending in the spring to the high moun- chromis niloticus) at a stocking density of
tain pastures of indigenous grasses, moun- 10,000/ha resulted in the harvest of fish
tain vegetation and shrubs, and descending weighing 78 g at 120 days (Libunao, 1990).
in autumn into populated areas adjoining In South China, including Hainan Island
croplands or irrigated fields. During gesta- and the western plain of Taiwan, small
tion and lactation, supplementary feed to herds of goats continue to thrive around
meet the dietary nutrient requirements well-irrigated river basins.
comes from green and stored fodder, stubble
from recently harvested fields, and concen-
trates or locally available agricultural by-
products. Feed is the major constraint to the 4.4.2 Africa and the Middle East
number of animals that can be maintained
during the winter months. There is also In the Sahel region of Africa, nomadic tribes
competition from humans due to the limita- move with their goats in search of vegetation
tion of concentrates available in the region. around oases, waterholes and adjoining irri-
The practice of slaughtering large numbers gated lands to provide milk and meat for
of goats and sheep in the autumn coincides domestic consumption. Each household
with cultural practices and religious rituals maintains three to four goats that roam freely,
that occur during the harvesting of crops. producing meat with minimum labour and
In the Tibetan plateau, large herds of input costs. This form of traditional hus-
Tsinghai and Mongolian goats are raised for bandry results in a 30% greater return over
milk, meat, skin and hair by nomadic pasto- investment. In the south-eastern region of
ralists under adverse environmental condi- Nigeria, an average household has six West
tions of low rainfall, hot summers and cold African Dwarf goats raised under intensive
winters under a transhumance system. In management, while women participate as
the late 19th century, the mountain and meat retailers (Chidebelu and Ngo, 1998).
community pastures began to experience Details and description of meat-goat produc-
rampant overgrazing because of increasing tion and marketing in Asia, Africa and Latin
numbers of livestock continuing to share a America, as well as consumer preference,
fixed acreage of land. The transhumance carcass quality and composition, and the
system of management is under threat from influence of season, climate, breed, sex, age
loss of pasture, restricted access to National and nutrition have been reviewed (Devendra
Parks, overgrazing, predators, a toll for graz- and Burns, 1983; Devendra, 1988; Upton,
ing, diseases and rural exodus of the human 1988; Wilson, 1992).
population. Consequently, an increasing In the Mediterranean and northern
number of sedentary herds graze around Europe, goats are kept with the primary
irrigated land and rely on locally available objective of producing milk for cheese-
feed and feed by-products for subsistence. making. In Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco,
In South and South-east Asia, there Greece, Spain, Italy and France, significant
have been attempts to increase goat meat amounts of meat and meat products are sold
Breeding Meat Goats 73

in the domestic market within an industry food of exotic origin. This has contributed
that varies among countries (Le Jaouen, to research on silvopastoral production sys-
1997). In Tunisia, sedentary goat keepers of tems based on a high proportion of browse
the oases of Nefta and Tozeur usually keep in diets composed of herbage from several
five does in smallholdings together with species of the genus Paulownia (Mueller
sheep or dairy cattle to provide income for et al., 2001). In the north and west central
the household from the sale of meat while regions of Argentina, 50,152 farms have 3.7
the milk is used for human consumption million Criolo (syn. Creole) and Anglo-
(Rekik et al., 1996). This production system Nubian goats on pasture for meat produc-
appears to be highly efficient, despite a low tion (Angel-Neelem and Nel lem, 1998). In
return from a negligible investment of capi- Mexico, Galina et al. (2000) reported that
tal and labour. In 1991, Algeria had 2.5 mil- goats grazing on semi-arid woody brush
lion goats, which were located mostly in the (Caducifolio espinoso) rangeland were more
eastern and southern regions of the country profitable when supplemented with a com-
and raised together with multiple species in plex catalytic feed containing non-protein
herds of 20-200. Larger herds of more than nitrogen compared with those fed tradi-
50 goats were common in the mountains of tional rations balanced by feeding supple-
the Kabylie region of central Algeria. In gen- ments. In Guadeloupe, Creole meat goats on
eral, indigenous goats of the Barber breed a semi-intensive production system based
were kept for meat, whereas those of the on breeding cycles of 8 months and grazing
Arabia breed provided both meat and milk. on fertilized and irrigated pastures of Digi-
In 1985, approximately 20,000 million t of taria decumbens, weaned 1.4 kg of kid
goat meat was produced in Morocco, dem- weight/ha (Alexandre et al., 1997, 1999).
onstrating the importance of goats to the Creole goats attained 90% fertility, a prolifi-
economy. In 1989, drought, along with the cacy of 2.25 and 78% viability to weaning,
implementation of a regressive legislation to doubling their productivity. The authors
protect forests, decreased the goat popula- concluded that meat production in the
tion dramatically, from 8 million in 1960 to humid tropics should be assessed in rela-
5 million in 1999. In France, the endangered tion to agronomic sources of variation that
Rove goat raised under a transhumance sys- included grazing systems, animal manage-
tem is being promoted to produce meat from ment and ingestion levels other than inci-
feed based on wild flora. This concept is dence of gastrointestinal parasitism.
based on the idea of safe keeping of the for-
est diversity while protecting employment
in areas where rural exodus is rampant.
Details and descriptions of the herding sys- 4.5 Breed Evaluation
tems including transhumance and sedentary
herds, breed, vegetation, grazing and pro- Important information pertinent to the
duction management, as well as socio-eco- genetic improvement of morphological
nomic and marketing aspects of goat-meat characteristics and production performance
production and processing in Europe, have of goats maintained under specific manage-
been reviewed (Flamant and Morand-Fehr, ment conditions is available from world-
1990; Morand-Fehr et al., 1992; El-Aich wide studies, which include performances
et al., 1995; d'Avant, 2001). of pure- and crossbred goats kept under
varying management practices across all
ecosystems. Worldwide, 28% of goat breeds
and populations either have not been
4.4.3 The Americas reported or are of unknown origin. Com-
pared with other ruminant livestock, this
In the eastern USA, demand for goat meat is represents the largest proportion (Galal,
from the increasing population of ethnic 2005). The problem can be attributed to dif-
origin and the growing appreciation for ficulties encountered in collecting census
74 J.N.B. Shrestha

data from remote regions of the world. Only Also included in the study were growth rate
a fraction of the 1183 goat breed popula- and milk production of crossbred offspring
tions worldwide as reported by DAD-IS from bucks of the Alpine, Saanen and
(2010, http://dad.fao.org/) have been sub- Anglo-Nubian breeds and does of the Mala-
jected to evaluation. The majority of studies bari, Beetal, Assam Hill, Black Bengal and
are based on a small number of offspring Jamunapari breeds. At the National Dairy
derived from few sires. These studies are Research Institute in India, Alpine x Beetal
often confounded with feeding and manage- and Saanen x Beetal produced crossbred
ment practices that are not consistent with offspring that exceeded their indigenous
smallholder farming systems in the country. parental breeds in body weight and dressing
In developing countries, income from car- percentage (Acharya et al., 1982). The Jamu-
cass weight should not be considered as the napari breed characterized with large body
only saleable product for meat goats because size weighed significantly more at maturity
non-carcass components have economic than the Beetal, Barbari, Jhakrana, Sirohi
and religious significance. While the repro- and Marwari breeds (Taneja, 1982). At the
ductive rate of the doe and kid survival are Haryana Agricultural University in India,
considered important, there is no conscious Alpine x Beetal and Anglo-Nubian x Beetal
effort to improve growth rates and meat kids fed individually to 5 months on feedlot
quality. This is because increased numbers exceeded their purebred contemporaries in
of animals in the household are indicators body weight, hot carcass weight and dress-
of wealth and status in the community. ing percentage. Bucks of the Jamunapari
Haenlein (1996) reported that improved and Beetal breeds crossed with does of the
goat breeds, such as the Alpine breeds from Black Bengal, Beetal and Sirohi breeds pro-
continental Europe, recognized for their duced offspring that were more productive.
mature body size and higher milk yield In addition, Jamunapari-sired Black Bengal
when crossed with the Anglo-Nubian, Boer does produced offspring that weighed sig-
and Jamunapari breeds, have demonstrated nificantly more than their smaller parent.
potential for increasing meat and milk pro- The Beetal breed, known to be highly
duction. Galal (2005) assessed the produc- fecund and better adapted when crossed
tivity of goat breeds worldwide and with does of the smaller Sirohi breed, pro-
concluded that breeds in Europe were more duced large goats for meat production
prolific with a higher milking ability and (Misra et al., 1980).
heavier body weight compared with those In Nepal, Jamunapari-, Barbari- and
in Latin America. Breeds in Africa, Asia, the Beetal-sired indigenous does produced kids
Pacific and Near East regions, and North that grew rapidly to 6 months, weighing
America were intermediate, whereas those more than their indigenous contemporaries;
in the Caribbean were smallest (Table 4.4). however, at 12 months of age, the indige-
Meat breeds in India have a mature weight nous goats were heavier (Sainju et al., 1994).
ranging from 19-37 kg at 15-18 months of Crossbred kids from Jamunapari x Khari
age in contrast to large breeds that weigh and Saanen x indigenous goats weighed
58-60 kg, while dwarf breeds weigh more than their parental breeds at 15 weeks
15-25 kg at the same age (Taneja, 1982). of age by 3.4-3.5 and 5.9-13 kg, respec-
Evidence has been presented that sug- tively. In Malaysia, crossbreeding of the
gests the presence of significant diversity German Fawn breed with the indigenous
among breeds for economically important Katjang goats produced large difference in
traits associated with goat meat production. growth rate (Hirooka et al., 1997). In China,
In India, meat goats such as the Sirohi, Kan- the productivity of the Banjiao, Chengdu
naiada, Black Bengal and Assam Hill breeds Ma, Du An, Fuqing, Guizhou White, Hai-
and their crosses, as well as the Jamunpari, men, Huai, Leizhou, Longlin, White goat,
Beetal, Barbari and Black Bengal breeds, Matou and Nanjiang yellow breeds and
were evaluated for growth, feed conversion their crosses, considered as meat goats, has
and carcass characteristics (Acharya, 1988). been assessed (Jiang, 1982, 1995). In Japan,
Breeding Meat Goats 75

Table 4.4. Diversity in the production performance of goats by region of the world (from Gala!, 2005).

Performance Region Sex Goatsa Mean ± SD Minimum Maximum

Body weight (kg) Africa Male 32 53 ± 37 20 130


Female 32 39 ± 22 20 94
Asia and Male 106 43 ± 17 16 130
Pacific Female 106 32 ± 12 14 100
Europe Male 123 66 ± 13 35 120
Female 124 49 ± 12 24 120
Latin America Male 10 40 ± 14 15 70
and
Caribbean
Near East Male 48 44 ± 14 17 75
Female 47 33 ± 8 15 50
North America Male 5 41 ± 21 22 67
Female 4 35 ± 26 13 60
Litter size (kid) Africa 17 1.4 ± 0.33 1 2.1
Asia and 79 1.4 ± 0.37 1 2.9
Pacific
Europe 28 1.6 ± 0.35 1 2.2
Latin America 11 1.4 ± 0.3 1.1 2.0
and
Caribbean
Near East 27 1.6 ± 0.43 1.1 2.5
North 4 1.0 1 1

America
Milk yield Africa 3 126 ± 116 50 500
(kg/lactation)
Asia and 63 136 ± 109 16 550
Pacific
Europe 41 299 ± 225 40 775
Latin America 2 63 ± 4 60 65
and
Caribbean
Near East 32 150 ± 97 35 460

so, Standard deviation.


aNumber of goat breeds with records.

Shinjo and Toma (1985) reported that indig- the Nubian and Saanen breeds resulted in
enous Okinawa meat goats were more pro- kids that were 8% heavier in post-kidding
lific with year-round kidding than the body weight compared with those sired by
Japanese Saanen goats, whereas fecundity the Toggenburg breed (Montaldo et al.,
was lower. 1995). Also, litter weights of kids sired by
In the Bahamas and Fiji, indigenous the Alpine breed were 18% heavier at birth
goats sired by the Anglo-Nubian breed pro- than those sired by the Granadina breed.
duced kids with superior body conforma- The performance of goats indigenous to
tion and larger body size, demonstrating an Africa such as the Bornu White, Red Sokoto,
advantage in favour of the exotic sire breed Small East African, Sudanese Desert and
(Wilson et al., 1980; Hussain et al., 1983). In West African Dwarf breeds has been
Mexico, indigenous Mexican goats sired by described in detail (Quartermain, 1991). In
76 J.N.B. Shrestha

Egypt, kids of Alpine x Rove surpassed their efficiency and dressing percentage were
parental breeds for weight gain from 30 to similar. The advantage of crossbred off-
90 days of age, carcass yield, width and spring under an abundance of feed has also
shape but produced more internal fat (Mou- been reported in Fiji, where stall-fed
rad and Anous, 1998). Alpine x Beetal, Anglo-Nubian x Beetal and
There has been a wealth of information Saanen x Beetal goats not only grew rapidly
on breed evaluation published in the sec- but had heavier pre-slaughter weight and
ond half of the last century, demonstrating hot carcass weight to 5 months of age.
the opportunity to identify breeds with In the USA, kids of the Boer breed fed a
potential genetic merit for increased goat diet based on high-quality forage weighed
meat production. These studies are com- more than Spanish kids, whereas the feed-
prised of crossbreeding the Damascus with ing of diets based on medium-quality forage
the Anglo-Nubian and Jamunapari in Oman; resulted in a reduction or reversal of the
the Katjang with the Saanen, Anglo-Nubian, advantage in growth rate (Blackburn, 1995).
British Alpine and Jamunapari in Malaysia; In another study, Mislevy et al. (2000) was
the Boer with the Small East African in not able to demonstrate any association
Kenya and Malawi; the Creole with the Saa- with type and quality of grass when
nen and the Barbados in Puerto Rico, and Spanish x Boer kids foraged Argentine,
with the Nubian, French Alpine and Paraguay-22 and Tifton-9 Bahia grasses and
Toggenburg in Venezuela; the Anatolian Florico stargrass. Boer x Spanish and
Black with the Saanen and Maltese, and the Boer x Angora kids fed a concentrate-based
Saanen with the Sardinian and the Kilis in diet resulted in similar early post-weaning
Turkey; and the Jamunapari with indige- growth rates, whereas Boer crosses exceeded
nous goats in Sri Lanka. Further evaluations Spanish crosses (Cameron et al., 2001).
encompass the Alpine, Anglo-Nubian and Boer x Alpine kids gained substantially
Saanen breeds with the Beetal goat in India more with better feed conversion at
and Fiji; the Jamunapari, Saanen, Barbari 31 weeks than at 50 weeks of age, suggesting
and Beetal breeds with indigenous goats in that growth rate tended to decrease as kids
Nepal; the German Fawn breed and Katjang grew older (Luo et al., 2000). Kids slaugh-
goats in Malaysia; the Alpine and Rove tered at a constant age showed that a
breeds in Egypt; the Japanese Saanen breed Boer x Spanish cross compared with the
with Okinawa meat goats in Japan; the Spanish breed produced heavier body
Nubian, Saanen, Toggenburg, Alpine and weight and hot carcass weight, whereas
Granadina breeds with indigenous goats in Boer x Spanish and Spanish x Angora were
Mexico; and the Boer breed with the Span- similar, and the Angora breed was signifi-
ish and Angora, and the Nubian and Alpine cantly lighter (Oman et al., 2000). Breeds
breeds in the USA. did not vary in lean colour, surface discol-
A number of studies have reported that oration, overall appearance or off-odour,
offspring derived from breeds with genetic although kids of a Spanish x Angora cross
potential for increased growth rate have a tended to have a higher proportion of lean
requirement for a high-quality diet, signify- and less fat than those of the Angora breed,
ing the importance of breed x nutrition suggesting crossbreeding as an option to
interaction. Glimp (1995) suggested that improve carcass characteristics.
increased productivity could be achieved
by providing better nutrition for crossbred
kids from any improved breed. In India,
kids of Beetal x Sirohi raised extensively on 4.6 Crossbreeding
range failed to demonstrate any advantage
in body weight at 12 months of age over Progressive breeders made use of cross-
those of the Sirohi breed. When kids were breeding long before the importance of het-
raised on feedlot, performance was signifi- erosis was well recognized by the scientific
cantly superior, whereas mortality, feed community, recommended by specialists
Breeding Meat Goats 77

and willingly accepted for commercial pro- the combination of specific breeds and rota-
duction. Previously, breeding strategies in tional crosses.
livestock and poultry were patterned some- The breakdown of desirable combina-
what after methods employed by plant tions of segregating alleles inherited from
breeders to produce hybrid maize. Commer- many of the parental breeds during cross-
cial producers not only benefited from out- breeding or the development of synthetic
standing genetic merit in the parental populations could lead to a loss of desirable
breeds but also profited from heterosis prev- morphological characteristics and produc-
alent among complementary breed crosses. tion performance (Dickerson, 1969a,b;
There has been irrefutable evidence from Kinghorn, 1980). This may be attributed to
researchers worldwide to suggest that cross- the inter-breed recombination among non-
bred offspring obtained in a systematic allelic genes (epistasis) decreasing the pro-
manner grew more rapidly, were more portion of retained heterosis, both direct
fecund and survived better than their pure- and maternal. In addition to recombination
bred contemporaries. loss, selection over subsequent generations
Studies with pigs and sheep have con- increases the loss of within-breed variabil-
firmed that heterosis improves the maternal ity, decreases the effective population size
environment and enhances milk production and hastens the rate of inbreeding. Research
in the crossbred female parent, as well as results on recombination loss in the parents
the growth performance of their offspring and their offspring have often been conflict-
(Shrestha, 1973; Shrestha and Heaney, ing because precise estimates require a large
2003, 2004). Multiparous domestic mam- number of breeds and their crosses indepen-
mals, which include meat goats, benefit dent of environmental influence. Shrestha
from the maternal environment provided (2010) has discussed in detail heterosis
during gestation and the nursing of their off- retention and inter-breed recombination
spring. In industrial nations, the practical among non-allelic genes associated with
importance of heterosis in improving crossbreeding and synthesis of breeds.
efficiency of production for livestock and In practice, breeders are faced with the
poultry has been widely appreciated by difficulty of simultaneously improving a
commercial producers. Therefore, breeders number of economically important charac-
should opt for crossbreeding to maximize teristics to increase efficiency of goat meat
production efficiency for the commercial production. Therefore, genetic and environ-
production of goat meat. ment components associated with produc-
Earlier studies using single crosses tion traits of economic importance need to
derived from two divergent inbred popula- be considered. There have been several
tions authenticated the benefits from heter- reports suggesting substantial improvement
osis. Unlike plants, the concept of inbred in the productivity of offspring from crosses
lines is not practical in the livestock spe- between exotic breeds and indigenous
cies. This is because substantial loss in pro- goats, leading to the myth that exotic crosses
ductivity can result from lower inherent are more productive under prevailing con-
potential for reproduction in the inbred par- ditions and requirements (Shrestha, 1998).
ents, along with an increase in inbreeding In developing countries, this approach has
and susceptibility to diseases in their off- contributed to successive generations of
spring. In livestock and poultry species, unintentional crossbreeding, which has
approaches to crossbreeding that have been often resulted in upgrading indigenous
widely practised are contingent on the goats to resemble the exotic breed. On the
number of parental breeds or populations, other hand, the lack of adequate nutrition
and the order of mating among specialized and husbandry has contributed to loss of
pure breeds and their crosses. These include adaptability, fecundity and disease resis-
a number of approaches, such as specific or tance, while the genetic base has been
rotational crosses involving multiple reduced by repeated use of the same parents
breeds, backcrossing to the male parent, and to the detriment of performance in the
78 J.N.B. Shrestha

crossbred population. The success or failure resources or for their inherent potential
of the breeding programme to a large extent without jeopardizing the animal health sta-
depends on socio-economic values, fiscal tus of the country. There is always the pos-
constraints, religious rituals, responsive- sibility of a disadvantage associated with
ness to indigenous knowledge and the tradi- the imported breed, due to restrictions asso-
tional skills acquired by the producer. ciated with the test environment and inad-
Of the large number of breeds world- equacy of nutrients necessary for expression
wide, some have considerable merit for of the full inherent potential in the cross-
meat production while others have shown bred offspring. The problem is more pro-
promise in crossbred combinations (GarcOa nounced with incidence of mortality. This
and Gall, 1981; Devendra, 1982, 1988; Gall, is because goat production tends to be con-
1982, 1996; Devendra and Burns, 1983). centrated in marginal lands that are not
The lack of inherent potential for lean suitable for crossbred offspring with higher
muscle yield among established or indige- nutritional requirements.
nous goats demonstrates prospects for Reproductive technology, which
complementing with exotic breeds that includes collection, processing, storage and
excel in genetic merit. Potential sources of use of fresh and frozen buck semen and
exotic breeds have demonstrated consider- embryos from does, has achieved success in
able promise in improving efficiency of controlling the spread of diseases. Cur-
production when used for crossbreeding rently, semen and embryos can be trans-
and development of composite popula- ported with relative ease while minimizing
tions. Some of the popular goats in the the risk of introducing diseases. This ave-
Asia-Pacific region with potential genetic nue provides an opportunity to sample a
merit are the Barbari, Beetal, Damani, Daira large number of unrelated goats and estab-
Deen Panah, Jamunapari and Kamori lish a foundation herd consisting of as broad
breeds for milk and meat; the Black Bengal, a genetic base as possible. Achieving accept-
Fijian, Kambing, Katjang, Kheri, Marwari, able fertility will reduce associated costs
Ma'tou, Nubian, Sirohi, Teddy and Terai incurred during the importation of exotic
breeds for meat; the Chyangra, Kashmiri breeds and their propagation. The choice of
and Singhal breeds for meat and pashmina; animals within breeds selected for cross-
and the Black Bengal, Malabari, Barbari breeding may depend largely on previously
and Ma'tou breeds for fecundity (Shrestha acquired knowledge and the availability of
and Fahmy, 2005). The Alpine, Saanen and a healthy breeding stock of appropriate age.
Toggenburg dairy breeds from continental Experience has shown that fiscal constraints
Europe and the Boer breed from South usually result in the introduction of a lim-
Africa have considerable merit for use in ited number of unrelated animals, mostly
goat meat production. bucks. Details and descriptions of findings
In each country, the sources of animals from studies worldwide presented in the
selected for crossbreeding need to be following sections substantiate the advan-
assessed carefully. If breeds must be tage of crossbreeding complementary breeds
imported, consultation with breed associa- to maximize production efficiency for com-
tions or societies as well as producer organi- mercial production of goat meat.
zations before making any decision on their
importation is essential. It is important to
note that breeders, besides having raised
goats for a number of years, are privy to a 4.6.1 Backcrosses
great deal of information on the goats'
genetic background, health status, behav- A common practice among goat breeders in
iour and previously available knowledge on developing countries is to produce purebred
their performance. Breeding animals may offspring necessary for herd replacement
be introduced into the population chosen from about one-third of the superior female
either as a source of divergent genetic parents, while the remaining two-thirds are
Breeding Meat Goats 79

crossed with bucks of an alternative breed to sis estimates for body weight were 0.16, 1
produce two-breed-cross offspring. Selected and 1.4 kg, respectively, and for kid mortal-
two-breed-cross does are mated to bucks of ity was 3%. Maternal heterosis had a sig-
the sire breed to produce backcross offspring nificant influence on weaning weight,
for market. The operational advantage lies in demonstrating the advantage of using cross-
keeping a single breed in the farm or house- bred dams for goat meat production. In
hold and purchasing only bucks of an alter- order to reduce the high mortality in cross-
native breed to produce both the single- and bred offspring, management issues need to
backcross offspring. In this procedure, there be addressed.
is an advantage from heterosis in maternal In Egypt, Barki x (Zaraibi x Barki) and
performance and survival of the crossbred Barki x (Damascus x Barki) goats exceeded
female parent, along with growth rate and the Barki breed in productivity (Abdelsalam
survival of their offspring. The drawback is et al., 1994). Barki x (Zaraibi x Barki) com-
associated with the inability to benefit from pared with Zaraibi x Barki goats weighed
the full complement of heterosis, which can -15 to 11% from birth to market, and pro-
result in lower performance of the backcross duced 21% less total 16-week milk yield.
than that of a single cross. In addition, the Similarly Barki x (Damascus x Barki) com-
genetic superiority associated with parental pared with Zaraibi x Barki goats weighed
breeds may not be optimal. It is important to 12-4% less from birth to market, and pro-
note that backcross combinations involving duced 5% more total 16-week milk yield
exotic breeds may result in offspring that (Table 4.8). At the same time, the Zaraibi
may not be well adapted to their new envi- breed was more productive than the Damas-
ronment unless there is provision for ade- cus breed (Abdelsalam et al., 2000). Does
quate nutrition and husbandry. of the Barki breed compared with those of
A number of studies worldwide revealed Zaraibi x Barki and Damascus x Barki pro-
that productivity of crossbred kids exceeded duced 47 and 71% less total 16-week milk
that of their contemporary purebred parents. yield than the Barki breed. In addition, does
In India, Saanen x (Saanen x Malabari) com- of the Barki breed compared with those of
pared with Saanen x Malabari goats weighed Barki x (Zaraibi x Barki) and Barki x (Damas-
-5 to 17% from birth to 6 months of age cus x Barki) produced 16 and 54% less total
(Acharya, 1982). Similarly, Angora x (Angora 16-week milk yield. These results suggest
x Sangamaneri) compared with Angora x that crossbred does with a higher propor-
Sangamaneri goats weighed -11 to 4% from tion of the Barki breed produced less milk
birth to 12 months of age (Table 4.5). In con- from a shorter lactation period.
trast, Taneja (1982) reported that Beetal x In Sri Lanka, the Boer, Jamunapari and
(Beetal x Sirohi) compared with Beetal x Kottukachchiya breeds and 50% Boer cross
Sirohi goats weighed 7-19% less from birth weighed 3, 2.8, 2.2 and 2.7 kg, respectively
to 9 months of age (Table 4.6). at birth (Premasundeba et al., 1998). Back-
In the USA, Gebrelul et al. (1994) crossing with the Boer breed resulted in off-
reported that the Alpine and Nubian breeds spring with heavier birth weight, while
and their single crosses varied in body inter se mating of Boer crosses did not
weight at birth, weaning and 6 months by decrease body weight.
4-11, 8-17 and 3-5% of their dam breed, In Thailand, the Thai breed, Anglo-
respectively, while mortality to 90 days Nubian x Thai and Anglo-Nubian x (Anglo-
increased substantially (Table 4.7). Corre- Nubian x Thai) slaughtered at 6, 11 or
sponding estimates for backcross kids were 14 months of age produced carcasses with
-3 to 6, 8-16 and -1 to 16%, respectively, similar yield and percentage of fat and bone
while mortality to 90 days was variable. (Pralomkarn et al., 1995). Correspondingly,
Estimates of direct heterosis for body weight Anglo-Nubian x (Anglo-Nubian x Thai)
at birth, weaning and 6 months of age were compared with the Thai breed and Anglo-
0.24, 1.9, 0.6 kg, respectively, and for kid Nubian x Thai produced lower lean muscle
mortality was 4%, whereas maternal hetero- by 1 and 4%, respectively.
Table 4.5. Means (± sEM) for body weight at birth (kg) and at various ages, age at first kidding, kidding interval, service period and litter size for various goat co
breeds and crossesa (from Acharya et al., 1982 and Acharya, 1988).

Sire breed Beetal Alpine Saanen Malabari Alpine Saanen Saanen Sangamaneri Angora Angora
Saanen x Angora x
Dam breed Beetal Beetal Beetal Malabari Malabari Malabari Malabari Sangamaneri Sangamaneri Sangamaneri

Body weight at:


Birth 2.9 ± 0.05 3.2 ± 0.05 3.4 ± 0.06 1.7 ± 0.02 1.9 ± 0.05 2.3 ± 0.02 2.7 ± 0.11 1.9 ± 0.00 2.1 ± 0.02 2.2 ± 0.07
3 months 7.7 ± 0.11 10.3 ± 0.13 10.4 ± 0.20 5.7 ± 0.12 6.3 ± 0.16 6.1 ± 0.11 5.9 ± 0.26 7.3 ± 0.28 7.3 ± 0.06 8.2 ± 0.09
6 months 12.2 ± 0.21 13.8 ± 0.20 14.3 ± 0.53 9.3 ± 0.19 8.9 ± 0.36 10.2 ± 0.25 9.7 ± 0.52 10.6 ± 0.39 10.6 ± 0.09 11.2 ± 0.11
9 months 11.1 ± 0.19 12.2 ± 0.57 13.3 ± 0.20 13.5 ± 0.14 13.0 ± 0.15 13.4 ± 0.17
12 months 21.8± 0.8 40.1 ± 1.8 26.9 ± 1.4 15.2 ± 0.4 17.6 ± 1.2 17.8 ± 0.5 17.3 ± 2.2 16.0 ± 0.2 15.4 ± 0.2
Age of first 534 ± 34 495 ± 14 546 ± 19 700 ± 23 685 ± 27 585 ± 28
kidding (days)
Kidding interval 313 ± 7 323 ± 5 300 ± 11 295 ± 10 329 ± 20 407 ± 23
(days)
Service period 173 ± 5 201 ± 9 141 ± 9 184 ± 19 260 ± 63
(days)
Litter size ( %)
Single 41 59 67 55 65 31
Twin 51 36 29 41 63
Triplet 9 5 5 4 35 6

Anglo
Sire breed Alpine Nubian Beetal Alpine Saanen Sangamaneri Angora
Dam breed Beetal Beetal Beetal Beetal Beetal Sangamaneri Sangamaneri
Slaughter
Age (months) 5 5 9 9 9 9 9
Live weight 14.1 ± 1.70 23.9 ± 3.40 15.2 ± 0.65 18.3 ± 0.41 18.8 ± 0.81 11.5 ± 1.46 12.9 ± 0.50
(months)
Hot carcass (%) 5.3 ± 0.83 9.3 ± 1.48 7.7 ± 0.30 9.5 ± 0.36 9.4 ± 0.44 5.1 ± 0.16 4.4 ± 0.42
Dressing 38 39 50 52 50 44 38
percentage
Table 4.6. Means (± sE) for body weight of single born kids at birth (kg) and at various ages by breed and their crossesa.

Breed Body weight (kg)b at:

No. No. No. No. No.


Sire Dam kids Birth kids 3 months kids 6 months kids 9 months kids 12 months

1978-1979
Sirohi Sirohi 309 2.8 ± 0.02 (0) 288 9.9 ± 0.12 (0) 190 13.6 ± 0.17 (0) 167 17.1 ± 0.18 (.0) 164 21.3 ± 0.18 (0)
Beetal Sirohi 261 3.1 ± 0.04 (11) 244 10.3 ± 0.13 (4) 163 14.3 ± 0.19 (5) 142 17.1 ± 0.19 (0) 138 22.3 ± 0.20 (5)
Year: 1980
Sirohi Sirohi 57 2.9 ± 0.04 (0) 55 9.6 ± 0.29 (0) 34 12.5 ± 0.33 (0) 39 17.0 ± 0.41 (0)
Beetal Sirohi 36 3.1 ± 0.06 (7) 33 10.4 ± 0.43 (8) 22 13.3 ± 0.44 (6) 21 17.6 ± 0.52 (4)
Beetal Beetal x 24 2.9 ± 0.08 (-6) 19 8.4 ± 0.46 (-19) 13 12.4 ± 0.47 (-7) 10 16.2 ± 0.53 (-8)
Sirohi

Breed Body weightb (kg) at:

No. No. No. No. No.


Sire Dam kids Birth kids 1 month kids 2 months kids 3 months kids 4 months

Black Black 65 1.2 ± 0.03 (0) 44 2.1 ± 0.10 (0) 41 3.0 ± 0.16 (0) 29 3.8 ± 0.30 (0) 24 4.4 ± 0.37 (0)
Bengal Bengal
Jamunapari Black 135 1.4 ± 0.04 (17) 64 2.5 ± 0.12 (19) 56 3.3 ± 0.14 (10) 38 4.4 ± 0.21 (16) 27 5.5 ± 0.40 (25)
Bengal

Breed Body weightc (kg) at:

No.
Sire Dam kids Birth 3 months 6 months 12 months

Black Black 131 1.8c ± 0.07 (0) 7.6ab ± 0.28 (0) 11.4b ± 0.40 (0) 16.5b ± 0.55 (0)
Bengal Bengal
Beetal Beetal 274 2.5a ± 0.04 (0) 8.6a ± 0.18 (0) 12.9a ± 0.23 (0) 19.0a ± 0.34 (0)
Beetal Black 115 1.9c ± 0.07 (6) 7.9ab ± 0.30 (4) 12.4ab ± 0.43 (9) 18.7ab ± 0.58 (13)
Bengal
Black Beetal 96 2.3b ± 0.06 (-8) 7.2b ± 0.28 (-16) 12.7ab ± 0.40 (-2) 18.2ab ± 0.54 (-4)
Bengal
co
Continued
Table 4.6. Continued.

Breed Reproductive traits

Age at first
No. conception Age at first kidding First service First kidding
Sire Dam does (days) (days) period (days) interval (days)
Black Black 91 307a ± 12 (0) 451b ± 13 (0) 151b ± 3 (0) 294b ± 3 (0)
Bengal Bengal
Beetal Black 241 395a ± 12 (29) 543a ± 12 (20) 167a ± 3 (11) 314a ± 3 (7)
Bengal

aThe percentage deviation from the dam breed is shown in parentheses.


bTaneja (1982).
'Means within a column and class not followed by the same letter differ significantly (P < 0.05).
Table 4.7. Means (± sE) for body weight (BW) at birth and at various ages, and mortality to 90 days by breed and their crossesa.

Breed Body weight (kg)b at:

No. kids No. kids 10-12 weeks No. kids Mortality to


Sire Dam born Birth (kg) weaned (kg) marketed 6 months (kg) 90 days ( %)

Alpine Alpine 89 2.7 ± 0.08 (0) 68 13.2 ± 0.4 (0) 54 19.9 ± 0.7 (0) 1.8 ± 2 (0)
Nubian Nubian 47 2.6 ± 0.11 (0) 24 12.7 ± 0.7 (0) 17 18.3 ± 1.1 (0) 4.5 ± 4 (0)
Alpine Nubian 48 2.7 ± 0.11 (4) 33 13.7 ± 0.6 (8) 27 18.8 ± 0.9 (3) 10.9 ± 4 (142)
Nubian Alpine 79 3.0 ± 0.09 (11) 62 15.5 ± 0.4 (17) 47 20.9 ± 0.7 (5) 5.3 ± 3 (194)
Alpine Alpine x Nubian 25 2.8 ± 0.16 (4) 16 15.9 ± 0.9 (16) 13 20.3 ± 1.3 (8) 13.1 ± 5 (20)
Alpine Nubian x Alpine 57 2.9 ± 0.11 (-3) 41 14.8 ± 0.5 (-5) 29 20.7 ± 0.8 (-1) 5.2 ± 3 (-2)
Nubian Alpine x Nubian 26 2.8 ± 0.15 (4) 14 13.8 ± 0.9 (1) 11 21.9 ± 1.3 (16) 11.4 ± 5 (5)
Nubian Nubian x Alpine 24 3.2 ± 0.16 (6) 17 14.2 ± 0.8 (-8) 13 20.6 ± 1.3 (-1) 11.2 ± 5 (111)

Breed Body weight (kg)c at:


No. Litter size
Sire Dam does at birth No. kids Birth 90 days

Spanish Spanish 38 1.46a ± 0.1 (0) 38 2.8a ± 0.1 (0) 13.6a ± 0.4 (0)
Boer x Spanish Spanish 31 1.40a ± 0.1 (-4) 31 3.1b ± 0.1 (11) 15.8b ± 0.5 (16)

aThe percentage deviation from the dam breed is shown in parentheses.


bGebrelul et a/. (1994).
'Lopez-Perez et al. (1998).
Co

Table 4.8. Means (± sE) for body weight (BW) at birth and at various ages, and reproductive traits by breed and their crossesa.

Breed Body weightb (kg) at:

Sire Dam No. kids BW at birth No. kids 4 months No. kids 9 months

1982-1985
East African East African 189 2.0 ± 0.06 (0) 95 8.8 ± 0.33 (0) 21 11.9 ± 0.64 (0)
Toggenburg East African 218 2.2 ± 0.06 (10) 98 9.7 ± 0.33 (10) 31 14.2 ± 0.64 (19)
Anglo-Nubian East African 98 2.2 ± 0.06 (10) 55 9.5 ± 0.33 (8) 20 13.0 ± 0.64 (9)
Galla Galla 75 2.6 ± 0.06 (0) 43 9.1 ± 0.33 (0) 19 13.1 ± 0.64 (0)
Toggenburg Galla 139 2.6 ± 0.06 (0) 57 10.2 ± 0.33 (12) 26 13.9 ± 0.64 (6)
Anglo-Nubian Galla 91 2.8 ± 0.06 (8) 44 10.4 ± 0.33 (14) 25 15.1 ± 0.64 (15)

Breed Body weightc at: Productivityd

Total 16 weeks'
56 days Mortality to Litter weight at Milk intake milk yield
Sire Dam No. kids Birth (kg) (kg) Market (kg) 56 days (%) No. does weaning (kg) per 1 kg gain (kg)

Barki Barki 146 2.1 (0) 6.2 (0) 12.6 (0) 24 (0) 47 7.6 ± 0.78 (0) 9.17 ± 0.45 (0) 80.0 (0)
Zaraibi Zaraibi 309 2.1 (0) 6.3 (0) 10.9 (0) 31 (0) 38 9.2 ± 0.78 (0) 7.43 ± 0.45 (0) 116.5 (0)
Damascus Damascus 225 3.1 (0) 9.1 (0) 17.5 (0) 35 (0) 73 11.9 ± 0.78 (0) 6.78 ± 0.45 (0) 146.0 (0)
Zaraibi Barki 52 2.6 (24) 7.1 (15) 13.2 (5) 25 (4) 19 10.2 ± 0.78 (29) 7.70 ± 0.45 (-16) 117.7 (47)
Damascus Barki 80 2.6 (24) 7.8 (26) 15.6 (24) 33 (38) 20 10.4 ± 0.78 (33) 7.70 ± 0.45 (-16) 136.8 (71)
Barki Zaraibi 32 2.2 (-15) 7.5 (6) 14.7 (11) 34 (36) 16 7.9 ± 0.78 (-22) 8.73 ± 0.45 (13) 93.0 (-21)
x Barki
Barki Damascus 66 2.3 (-12) 7.5 (-4) 14.8 (-5) 21 (-36) 29 10.4 ± 0.78 (-1) 8.20 ± 0.45 (6) 123.0 (5)
x Barki

aThe percentage deviation from the dam breed is shown in parentheses.


bRuvuna et al. (1988).
cAbdelsalam et al. (1994).
dAbdelsalam et al. (2000).
Breeding Meat Goats 85

In Taiwan, Nubian x Taiwan, Nubian x 4.6.3 Specific breed crosses


(Nubian x Taiwan) and Nubian x
[Nubian x (Nubian x Taiwan)] varied in per- In theory, the genetic basis of the average
formance with fertility of 84, 72, 73 and superiority of the three-breed crosses over
100%, a prolificacy of 1.6, 1.8, 1.9 and 1.6, constituent single crosses can be explained
and average daily gains of 97, 124, 99 and by heterosis in maternal performance and
88 g, respectively, while feed efficiencies its interaction with transmitted and mater-
were similar (Wen et al., 1997). The Nubian nal deviations in performance of the pure-
breed was lower in performance than their breds. These have been described to
crosses, with fertility of 77% and a higher include epistasis and the average level of
prolificacy of 2.1. Kids from the Nubian and inbreeding characteristic of the breed
Taiwan breeds and Nubian x Taiwan breeds together with greater average heterozygos-
varied in performance, with carcass fat con- ity in the offspring (Dickerson, 1969a,b;
tents of 10.5, 7.1 and 8.3%, respectively. Hill, 1972a,b). The production of specific
three-breed-cross offspring involves cross-
ing bucks of a meat-type sire breed usually
recognized for superior growth rate and
4.6.2 Rotational crosses meat quality with single-cross does derived
from fecund-type dam breeds that excel in
These involve the mating of selected reproductive rate and maternal ability of
crossbred female offspring derived from the female parent. One of the two dam
two or more breeds to bucks of a pure breeds may be indigenous in order to ben-
breed not used in the previous breeding, efit from availability, adaptability, mother-
in succession (Figs 4.1 and 4.2), while ing ability and survival, while the other is
kids surplus to breeding requirements are a complementary, highly fecund dam
marketed. There is a drawback that can breed. In practice, facilities and resource
result from large differences in the perfor- requirements to maintain three breeds can
mance of offspring due to the changing be a serious drawback. It is, however, pos-
proportion of parental breeds in succes- sible to maintain only one fecund-type
sive breeding. This contributes to lack of breed or indigenous goat population and to
uniformity in the marketing of meat and purchase bucks of an alternative breed to
meat products to the consumer. In theory, produce the crossbred female parents.
the performance of the two-breed rota- These crossbred females are mated to a
tional cross is expected to be lower by meat-type sire breed resulting in terminal-
one-third of the difference between the cross offspring. The specific three-breed-
single cross and the average of the two cross kids produced will benefit from rapid
parental breeds, which corresponds to the growth rate, carcass quality and increased
reduction in heterozygosity. Furthermore, uniformity in the marketing of meat and
the benefit from maternal versus individ- meat products to the consumer.
ual performance from the use of all breeds Usually, goat breeders produce a two-
in succession is not the same as in specific breed-cross female parent by mating two-
crosses. In a three-breed rotational cross, thirds of does in the herd to bucks of an
the performance may decrease by one-sev- alternative dam breed. Purebred goats for
enth, the difference between the average herd replacement are retained from the
performance of three single crosses and remaining one-third of does. In practice, the
the average of the three parental breeds. female parent, probably from a breed popu-
Further loss in maternal and individual lation indigenous to the region, can be
performance can occur from inter-breed raised within the farm, while male parents
recombination in the gametes of the off- with potential for either growth or fecun-
spring associated with genetic compo- dity may be purchased from reputable
nents transmitted from the dam and breeders. Galal (1987) proposed a breeding
maternal grand dam. strategy that involves mating a proportion
86 J.N.B. Shrestha

Proportion in dam
Generation Breeds utilized A

AB

B.AB 3/4

NB AB) 0 34

Y6 1y6

A[A{A(B.AB)}] 2/32 1A2

Fig. 4.1. Rotational crossbreeding based on two breeds (A and B).

Proportion in dam
Generation Breeds utilized A B C

Fig. 4.2. Rotational crossbreeding based on three breeds (A, B and C).
Breeding Meat Goats 87

of indigenous goats to produce purebred of age than the Xuhuai breed. Consequently,
goats for herd replacement. The remaining Zhou et al. (2001) recommended Boer-sired
indigenous goats are crossed with bucks of offspring for meat production.
an improved dairy breed to produce cross- In Kenya, indigenous East African and
bred does for milk production. Finally, the Gal la goats and their crossbreds sired by the
mating of crossbred does to bucks of a meat- Toggenburg and Anglo-Nubian breeds were
type breed produces specific three-breed- evaluated for body weight from birth to
cross kids with rapid growth rate deemed 9 months of age, including their growth
suitable for meat production. rates (Table 4.8). Ruvuna et al. (1988)
In India, Acharya (1988) summarized ranked East African goats as the lightest,
the performance of the Beetal, Malabari and Anglo-Nubian x Gal la as the heaviest and
Sangamaneri breeds and their crosses sired Gal la, Toggenburg x East African, Toggen-
by the Alpine, Saanen and Angora breeds burg x Gal la and Anglo-Nubian x East Afri-
and concluded that crossbred offspring sired can as intermediate. Toggenburg- and
by dairy breeds tended to exceed the female Anglo-Nubian-sired East African and Gal la
parent in body weight from birth to does exceeded the dam breed in body
12 months of age, age at first kidding, kid- weight at birth by 10 and 0-8%, respec-
ding interval, service period, litter size and tively, and at 9 months by 9-19 and 6-15%,
weight, age and weight at slaughter, hot car- respectively. In another study, Ruvuna
cass weight and dressing percentage (Table et al. (1992) reported that kids born to Gal la
4.5). According to Taneja (1982), the Beetal does compared with those from East Afri-
and Sirohi breeds with marginal differences can does produced 2.3 kg heavier live
in mature weight produced Beetal x Sirohi weight, 3.2% greater hot and chilled car-
and Sirohi kids that were similar in average casses at 14.7 months, 0.9% more internal
body weight from birth to 12 months of age, fat, 1.4% more lean at 7.2 months and 2%
feed efficiency and dressing percentage at more lean at 14.7 months. Toggen-
6-7 months of age, whereas overall mortali- burg x Gal la goats slaughtered at 2 years of
ties were 3.5-11.9 and 2.4-10.1%, respec- age compared with those of Toggen-
tively (Table 4.6). Misra (1983) evaluated burg x East African, Anglo-Nubian x East
Jamunapari x Black Bengal, Beetal x Black African and Anglo-Nubian x Gal la pro-
Bengal and Black Bengal kids for body duced significantly more carcass lean con-
weight and carcass traits. The author con- tent by 3.1, 3.4 and 3.8%, respectively. Kids
cluded that the larger Jamunapari and Beetal from Toggenburg- and Anglo-Nubian-sired
breeds had potential merit for improving does had a similar growth rate, slaughter
meat production when crossed with small weight and carcass composition, while
and medium-sized goats in India. Black Gal la does exceeded East African does in
Bengal and Beetal x Black Bengal goats had producing heavier and leaner kids.
a similar age at first conception and, in the In Bangladesh, the Black Bengal, Bar-
latter, age at first kidding, first service period bari and Anglo-Nubian breeds and Bar-
and first kidding interval were significantly bari x Black Bengal breeds weighed 1.4, 2.2,
longer (Singh et al., 2000). The Beetal breed 3.2 and 1.6 kg at birth, 7.7, 11.5, 19 and
exceeded the Black Bengal breed, as well as 10.6 kg at 6 months, and 11.3, 21.9, 31.9 and
their reciprocal crosses, in body weight at 16.5 kg at 12 months of age, respectively
birth, 3, 6 and 12 months of age, resulting in (Mia et al., 1993). The body weight of Bar-
heterosis estimates of -2, -7, 3 and 4%, bari x Black Bengal goats was intermediate
respectively (Singh et al., 2002). These find- to their parental breeds with heterosis esti-
ings further support the use of bucks from mates of -11% at birth, 10% at 6 months
breeds characterized by larger body size and and -1% at 12 months of age.
mature weight to produce heavier crossbred In Oman, male kids of Anglo-
offspring. Nubian x Dhofari compared with the Dho-
In China, Boer x Xuhuai crossbreds fari breed were significantly heavier from
weighed more at birth, 2, 6 and 12 months birth to 1 year of age, with greater wither
88 J.N.B. Shrestha

height and body length (Al-Ojaili, 1995). empty), more muscle and less subcutaneous
The author concluded that crossbreeding and intermuscular fat at each of the three
does of the Dhofari breed with bucks of a slaughter weights. The reduction in inter-
temperate breed demonstrated potential for muscular fat was presumed to be detrimen-
increasing meat production. tal to eating quality. Boer x British Saanen
In Egypt, the Alpine breed compared compared with the British Saanen breed
with the Rove breed was more fecund with slaughtered at 28 or 33 kg live weight pro-
a lighter body weight and similar carcass duced carcasses with proportionately more
traits. The estimate of heterosis for body intermuscular fat. Those slaughtered at
weight increased from 7% at 10 days to 38 kg live weight showed a little increase in
27% at 210 days for female kids, 12% at 90 internal and intermuscular fat deposition,
days of age for male kids, and -9 to 4% for resulting in carcasses with slightly more
lean yield, width and shape of carcass and subcutaneous fat and lower overall fat con-
internal fat (Anous and Mourad, 1993). Het- tent. The authors recommended mating
erosis estimates for length, width and con- bucks of the Boer breed to a proportion of
formation of gigot were not significant. The does of the British Saanen breed to produce
authors concluded that crossbreeding the kids for market. Dairy-goat producers were
Alpine breed with the Rove breed produced encouraged to grow kids to a live weight of
does that were more prolific, while their 38 kg or more for slaughter in order to take
kids grew rapidly with wide and compact advantage of heavier carcasses without
carcass but more internal fat. Heterosis esti- incurring excessive fat.
mates of Zaraibi x Barki goats for body In the USA, Johnson et al. (1995)
weight at birth, 56 days and market age reported that Nubian x Florida native com-
were 24, 14 and 12%, respectively, and for pared with Florida native and Span-
mortality to 90 days was -9%, whereas ish x Florida native goats weighed
those for Damascus x Barki goats were 0, 2 significantly more at slaughter (22 versus 19
and 4%, respectively, with 12% for mortal- and 19.3 kg, respectively) with a heavier
ity to 90 days (Table 4.8). The authors con- carcass weight (10.9 versus 9.5 and 9.6 kg,
cluded that Zaraibi x Barki and respectively) and larger rib eye area (8.3
Damascus x Barki were intermediate versus 7.42 and 7.11 cm2, respectively),
between those of their parental breeds for whereas Florida native compared with
body weight at birth, 56 days and market Nubian x Florida native and Spanish x Flor-
age (Abdelsalam et al., 1994). Barki goats ida native goats were significantly lower in
sired by the Damascus breed were more the percentage of bone (20.4 versus 21.7 and
productive than those sired by the Zaraibi 21.2%, respectively) and had more fat than
breed, resulting in more milk from a longer Nubian x Florida native (11.6 versus 9.3%).
lactation, heavier litter weights and better Boer x Spanish goats compared with the
milk conversion ratio, while contributing Spanish breed weighed more at birth and
towards improved performance of kids 90-day weaning by 0.26 and 0.67 kg, respec-
(Abdelsalam et al., 2000). At the same time, tively, and at 8 months (either on pasture or
the crossbreds had an advantage over the feedlot by 2.1 and 4.1 kg, respectively),
Barki breed by producing more milk and whereas feed consumption, subcutaneous
heavier litters. backfat thickness and longissimus muscle
In the UK, castrated male kids of the area adjusted for carcass weight were simi-
British Saanen breed were heavier than lar (Waldron et al., 1995).
Boer x British Saanen kids at 8 weeks of age Feedlot trials revealed that
and when slaughtered at 28, 33 and 38 kg Boer x Spanish compared with Spanish
live weight, whereas the latter were heavier goats resulted in kids that had significantly
than the Anglo-Nubian breed (Gibb et al., heavier live and carcass weights, as well as
1993). The Anglo-Nubian breed compared greater actual and adjusted fat thickness,
with the British Saanen breed resulted in carcass conformation score and leg circum-
kids with heavier carcasses (hot, cold and ference (Oman et al., 1999). Only actual
Breeding Meat Goats 89

and adjusted fat thickness and carcass con- In a Northern Mexican farm, Alpine,
formation remained significant when Granadina, Nubian, Saanen and Toggen-
adjusted for live weight. Again, kids on burg goats raised in a stall-fed system were
feedlot compared with those on pasture grouped according to the proportion of
were significantly heavier in live and car- exotic breed into high-grade (Y/8) and low-
cass weights, with more fat and lean but grade (<7) goats (Sanchez et al., 1994). The
less bone as a percentage of carcass weight. high- and low-grade Alpine, Saanen and
In another study, the Angora breed com- Toggenburg goats compared with Nubian
pared with the Spanish breed, Boer x Span- goats were similar in birth weight (Table
ish and Spanish x Angora resulted in kids 4.10). In another study under stall-feeding
that had significantly lighter live and hot conditions, high- and low-grade Alpine,
carcass weights, smaller longissimus mus- Saanen and Toggenburg goats compared
cle area and leg circumference, a lower per- with local Mexican goats produced more
centage of lean and a higher percentage of milk from a longer lactation period, while
fat (Oman et al., 2000). In addition, kids of increasing their efficiency, litter size and
Boer x Spanish goats exceeded those of the weight (Montaldo et al., 1995). The authors
Spanish breed in live and hot carcass suggested the need to estimate heterosis for
weights and carcass conformation score economically important traits based on fur-
(P < 0.05) but were similar to Span- ther studies of crossbred goats raised under
ish x Angora goats. In general, the Spanish varying goat production systems. Potential
breed and Boer x Spanish compared with merit consistent with bioeconomic effi-
the Angora breed and Spanish x Angora ciency indices of performance for stall-fed
breeds produced carcasses with a higher systems resulted in Montaldo and Meza
percentage of lean and a lower percentage (1999) proposing crossbreeding local goats
of fat. Again, Spanish x Angora compared in Mexico with the Granadina and Nubian
with the Angora breed produced carcasses breeds for meat production, and with the
with more lean and less fat in most side and Alpine and Saanen breeds for both meat
primal cuts (Table 4.9). There was no dif- and milk production.
ference among breeds and their crosses for In Australia, capretto (6-10 kg carcass
lean colour, surface discolouration, overall of pink meat from suckling kids) production
performance and off-odour. The authors from Boer x Saanen (BS) and Saanen x Feral
concluded in favour of crossbreeding due (SF) compared with Feral (FF) and Saa-
to an advantage associated with large body nen x Angora (SA) goats resulted in signifi-
size, rapid growth rate and carcasses with a cantly higher daily gain (165 and 162 versus
greater proportion of lean. 128 g/day), reducing the time to reach
In Canada, preliminary evaluation market weight (77 and 83 versus 99 and
revealed that bucks of the Boer breed com- 101 days), and longer carcasses (49 and
pared with those of the Alpine breed 49.9 versus 46.7 and 47.9 cm), while
resulted in kids that were 9% heavier at Boer x Angora (BA) goats (19 g/day, 88 days
birth, whereas the Alpine breed and 38.4 cm) were similar or lower (Dhanda
(Alpine x Saanen and Boer x Alpine) kids et a/., 1999a). Also, SA produced 0.9%
had similar body weights at weaning and more kidney and pelvic fat, and 1% more
160 days (Goonewardene et al., 1998). omental fat measured as a ratio of empty
There was a significant breed of dam effect body weight, while BA compared with
for body weights, while the Alpine breed other crossbreeds and FF produced 2.6 cm
and crosses with Saanen does had a similar more subcutaneous fat. Chevon (16-22 kg
dressing percentage and rib eye muscle carcass from older kids) production from BS
areas. The authors suggested that research and SF compared with BA and FF resulted
based on a larger sample size was necessary in a significantly higher average daily gain
to verify why carcass traits of Boer-sired (140 and 130 versus 106 and 95 g/day),
kids failed to demonstrate an advantage reducing the time required to reach market
over Alpine-sired kids. weight (238 and 257 versus 282 and
Table 4.9. Least squares means (± sE) for carcass yield and quality measures of Boer x Spanish, Spanish, Spanish x Angora and Angora goats on range and
feedlot.

Range Feedlot

Source Boer x Spanisha Spanisha Boer x Spanisha,b Spanisha,b Spanish x Angorab Angorab

No. of kids 12 12 12 12 6 6
Live weight (kg) 20.5z ± 1.4 18.4z± 1.4 38.2a,x± 1.4 33.5b,y ± 1.4 36.5ab ± 2.0 28.0c ± 2.0
Hot carcass weight (kg) 10.0z ± 0.7 8.8z ± 0.7 21.7a,x ± 0.7 19.2b,y ± 0.7 20.1ab ± 1.0 14.5c ± 1.0
Longissimus muscle area (cm2) 6.3y ± 0.7 5.3y ± 0.7 12.5a,x ± 0.7 11.5a,x ± 0.7 11.5a ± 0.5 9.3b ± 0.5
12th rib (cm)
Actual fat thickness 0.03y ± 0.01 0.03y ± 0.01 0.12a,x ± 0.01 0.07b,x ± 0.01 0.13a ± 0.02 0.12a ± 0.02
Adjusted fat thickness 0.04z ± 0.02 0.04z ± 0.02 0.16ab,x ± 0.02 0.11b,y ± 0.02 0.23a ± 0.03 0.22a ± 0.03
Body wall thickness (cm) 0.62y ± 0.09 0.53y ± 0.09 1.32x ± 0.09 1.40x ± 0.09 1.55 ± 0.12 1.40 ± 0.12
Carcass conformation scorec 3.3z ± 0.8 1.8z ± 0.8 11.4a,x ± 0.8 8.3b,y ± 0.8 10.7ab ± 1.1 9.0ab ± 1.1
Carcass length (cm) 92y ± 1.1 90y ± 1.1 107a,x ± 1.1 105a,x ± 1.1 103b± 1.6 94c± 1.6
Leg circumference (cm) 44z ± 0.6 43z ± 0.6 55a,x ± 0.6 53ab,y ± 0.6 53a ± 0.9 48b ± 0.9
Lean maturity scored 1.4x ± 0.15 1.4x ± 0.15 1.4x ± 0.15 1.5x ± 0.15 1.9 ± 0.21 1.4 ± 0.21
Skeletal maturity scored 1.4y ± 0.08 1.5y ± 0.08 1.7x ± 0.08 1.7x ± 0.08 1.5 ± 0.12 1.5 ± 0.12
Marbling scoree 1.7y ± 0.23 1.8y ± 0.23 3.4ab,x ± 0.23 3.1b,x± 0.23 4.1a ± 0.32 4.1a ± 0.32
Frank streaking scoree 2.0y ± 0.17 1.8y ± 0.17 3.6b,x ± 0.17 3.4b,x ± 0.17 4.3a ± 0.24 4.2ab ± 0.24
Buckiness score' 1.6y ± 0.3 1.3y ± 0.3 4.4a,x ± 0.3 4.0a,x ± 0.3 4.8a ± 0.4 3.2b ± 0.4

a0man et a/. (1999); "Oman et a/. (2000).


'Means based on a 15-point descriptive scale (1 = very angular, narrow and thin and 15 = extremely thick and bulging).
dMeans based on the USDA (1992) skeletal and lean maturity score for lambs, where 1 = Add and 2 = Bdd.
'Means based on the USDA (1992) marbling and flank streaking scores, where 1 = practically devoid00 and 5 = modestdd.
'Means based on a 5-point scale where 1 = no buckiness and 5 = extreme buckiness.
a,b,c or x,y,z Means within a row not followed by the same letter differ (P < 0.05).
Table 4.10. Means (± sE) for birth weight, total milk production, lactation length, post-kidding body weight, efficiency, and litter size and weights.

Total milk Post-kidding Litter at birth


Birth weight No. production Lactation body weight Efficiency
Genetic group No. kidsa (kg) doesb (kg) length (d) (kg) (kg)c Size Weight (kg)

Local 30 299c±34 288c ± 11 42.7c ± 1.3 7.2bc ± 0.7 1.72ab ± 0.11 5.2ab ± 0.4
Low-grade
Alpine 290 3.2ac ± 0.04 91 459ab ± 20 251bc ± 7 43.2bc ± 0.8 10.5a ± 0.4 1.73ab ± 0.07 5.5ab ± 0.2
Granadina 192 2.9c ± 0.05 52 353c ± 26 237bc ± 9 43.5bc ± 1.0 8.3bc ± 0.6 1.57ab ± 0.08 4.6ab ± 0.3
Nubian 355 3.2ef ± 0.03 105 370c ± 19 230c ± 7 46.3ab ± 0.8 8.0bc ± 0.4 1.77a ± 0.06 5.5ab ± 0.2
Saanen 240 3.3ab ± 0.04 71 428bc ± 23 244bc ± 8 43.5bc ± 0.9 9.9ab ± 0.5 1.79ab ± 0.07 5.6ab ± 0.2
Toggenburg 180 3.1ef ± 0.05 54 422bc ± 26 259abc ± 9 41.9c ± 1.0 10.0ab ± 0.4 1.53ab ± 0.08 4.8ab ± 0.3
High-grade
Alpine 871 3.3b ± 0.03 330 469ab ± 13 270ab ± 4 44.6bc ± 0.5 10.6a ± 0.3 1.65ab ± 0.04 5.6a ± 0.1
Granadina 601 2.7d ± 0.03 186 370c ± 16 230c ± 5 43.6bc ± 0.6 8.4b ± 0.3 1.70ab ± 0.05 4.8b ± 0.2
Nubian 1062 3.1f ± 0.02 180 339c ± 15 228c ± 5 48.1a ± 0.6 7.0c ± 0.3 1.69ab ± 0.05 5.3ab ± 0.2
Saanen 454 3.3ab ± 0.03 160 513a ± 16 283a ± 5 45.9ab ± 0.6 11.2a ± 0.3 1.61ab ± 0.05 5.4ab ± 0.2
Toggenburg 378 3.3b ± 0.03 165 450b ± 16 263ab ± 5 42.7c ± 0.6 10.6a ± 0.3 1.51b ± 0.05 5.1 ab ± 0.2

aSanchez et a/. (1994); bMontaldo et al. (1995).


'Total milk production as a ratio of post-kidding body weight.
a,b,c,d,e,f, Means within a column not followed by the same letter differ (P < 0.05).
92 J.N.B. Shrestha

295 days) and longer carcasses (62.1 and Surplus milk in summer and a growing
60.3 versus 54.9 and 56.4 cm). Also, SF pro- niche market for goat meat were expected
duced 1.3% more kidney and pelvic fat, to increase farm family earnings by 18.5%
and 2.1% more omental fat. Capretto pro- annually.
duction from BS compared with other Modelling based on economic and
crossbreeds and FF resulted in significantly genetic parameters has been helpful in
paler longissimus muscle, a desirable qual- developing crossbreeding strategies for the
ity with a mean objective score of 1.4 on a raising of livestock and poultry. Bett et al.
scale of 1-5, chromameter values of 53.6, (2011) used bioeconomic models to study
8.6 and 6.2 for lightness (L*), redness (a *) profit and the economic values of four
and yellowness (b*) (Hunter scale), and a breeding groups: purebreds (indigenous
fibre optic probe value of 53 (Dhanda et al., goats and German Alpine breed), single
1999b). In addition, BS compared with SA crosses, backcrosses, and second back-
resulted in significantly more muscle in the crosses with the objective of defining breed-
flank (57.7 versus 52.1%) and ribs, and ing objectives to determine optimum
compared with FF and SA leg length (64.3 crossbreeding levels for goats in small-
versus 68.8 and 67.7%) was lower (Dhanda holder production systems. The authors
et a/., 1999c). Chevon production from FF concluded that crossbred goats derived
compared with other crosses resulted in from backcrossing would increase the prof-
43-73% more muscle (P <0.05) and various itability of the smallholder production in
primal cuts in carcasses, while BA and SF Kenya, whereas crossbreeding to a higher
compared with FF produced more subcuta- proportion of the German Alpine breed
neous fat (6.2 and 6 versus 4.5%) and with second backcrossing was not
intermuscular fat (8.2 and 7 versus 5.5%). recommended.
Capretto production in the carcass side
from SA compared with BS and SF resulted
in more subcutaneous fat (6.6 versus 4.1 4.7 Composite Populations
and 4.2%) and intermuscular fat (5.3 versus
3.3 and 3%), whereas BS resulted in a bone An integral part of breeding approaches
content of 23-38% (P < 0.05) and various employed by livestock and poultry breed-
primal cuts. Capretto and chevon produc- ers for commercial production of eggs,
tion from FF compared with other cross- meat, and fibre has been the concept of
breeds resulted in higher muscle to bone composite populations (Figs 4.3 and 4.4).
ratios of 2.7:1 and 3.6:1, respectively. Con- This is because it may be possible to
currently, BA had a longissimus thoracis achieve the same level of performance in a
muscle with 7.2% more extractable fat con- single composite population with a much
tent compared with 5% for BS and 3.2% for simpler breeding structure compared with
SF, while the proportion of individual fatty the crossbreeding of two or more breeds.
acids varied significantly among the cross- The operational advantage arises from the
breeds and FF (Dhanda et a/., 1999d). The reduced risk of introducing diseases
authors concluded that growth rate, carcass because all replacements are produced
characteristics and composition were in within the farm. There is also a lower
favour of crossbred goats with no important resource requirement from having to man-
influence on meat quality and chemical age a single population with no require-
composition. ment to purchase breeding stock. A large
In Norway, Asheim and Eik (1998) pro- number of newly developed breeds world-
posed an alternative source of revenue to wide have been described by Mason (1996)
cashmere production for a specialized and Gall (1996). However, the more recent
dairy goat farm. This approach would methods differ from the older principally
require kidding in the month of May and in their intensity and deliberate application
raising offspring for slaughter at about of a greater store of scientific knowledge on
8 months of age or 16 kg live weight. qualitative genetics and complementing
Base population

Generation I BA

Generation II

Generation III

Generation IV

Fig. 4.3. Flow chart showing crossbred combinations of two breeds (A and B) leading to the development of a composite population (Shrestha, 2005).
Parents Sire Dam Sire Dam Sire Dam Sire Dam Sire Dam Sire Dam
Base population A B B A A C C A

Generation I C AB BA B AC B CA A BC A CB
AB C BA C AC B CA B BC A CB A

441
Generation 1ff AB C.AB BA C.BA AC B.AC CA B.CA BC A.BC CB A.CB
C.AB AB C.BA BA B.AC AC B.CA CA A.BC BC A.CB CB
AB AB.0 BA BA.0 AC AC.B CA CA.B BC BC.A CB CB.A
AB.0 AB BA.0 BA AC.B AC CA.B CA BC.A BC CB.A CB

1011111
'40
Generation III b C.AB AB(C.AB) C.BA BA(C.BA) B AC AC(B.AC) B CA CA(B.CA) A.BC BC(A.BC) A.CB CB(A.CB)
AB(C.AB) C.AB BA(C.BA) C.BA AC(B.AC) B.AC CA(B.CA) B.CA BC(A.BC) A.BC CB(A.CB) A.CB
C.AB (C.AB)AB C.BA (C.BA)BA B.AC (B.AC)AC B.CA (B.CA)CA A.BC (A.BC)BC A.CB (A.CB)CB
(C.AB)AB C.AB (C.BA)BA C.BA (B.AC)AC B.AC (B.CA)CA B.CA (A.BC)BC A.BC (A.CB)CB A.CB
AB.0 AB(AB.C) BA.0 BA(BA.C) AC.B AC(AC.B) CA.B CA(CA.B) BC.A BC(BC.A) CB.A CB(CB.A)
AB(AB.C) AB.0 BA(BA.C) BA.0 AC(AC.B) AC.B CA(CA.B) CA.B BC(BC.A) BC.A CB(CB.A) CB.A
AB.0 (AB.C)AB BA.0 (BA.C)BA AC.B (AC.B)AC CA.B (CA.B)AC BC.A (BC.A)BC CB.A (CB.A)CB
(AB.C)AB AB.0 (BA.C)BA BA.0 (AC.B)AC AC.B (CA.B)AC CA.B (BC.A)BC BC.A (CB.A)CB CB.A
Offspring Offspring Offspring Offspring Offspring Offspring
Generation IV C.AB{AB(C.AB)I C.BA{BA(C.AB)} B.AC(AC(B.AC)) B.CA{CA(B.CA)} A.BC{BC(A.BC)1 A.CB{CB(A.CB)}
{AB(C.AB)1C.AB {BA(C.AB)1C.BA {AC(B.AC)}B.AC {CA(B.CA)}B.CA {BC(A.BC)}A.BC {CB(A.CB)}A.CB
{(C.AB)AB}C.AB {(C.BA)BA}C.BA {(B.AC)AC}B.AC {(B.CA)CA}B.CA {(A.BC)BC}A.BC {(A.CB)CB}A.CB
C.AB {(CAB)AB} C.BA{(C.BA)BA} B.AC{(B.AC)AC} B.CA{(B.CA)CA} A.BC{(A.BC)BC} A.CB{(A.CB)CB}
AB.C{AB(AB.C)) BA.C{BA(BA.C)} AC.B{AC(AC.B)1 CA.B{CA(CA.B)} BC.A{BC(BC.A)I CB.A(CB(CB.A))
{AB(AB.C)1AB.0 {BA(BA.C)IBA.0 {AC(AC.B)}AC.B {CA(CA.B)}CA.B {BC(BC.A)}BC.A {CB(CB.A)} CB.A
AB.C{(AB.C)AB} BA.C{(BA.C)BA} AC.B{(AC.B)AC} CA.B{(CA.B)AC} BC.A{(BC.A)BCI CB.A{(CB.A)CB)
{(AB.C)AB}AB.0 {(BA.C)BA}BA.0 {(AC.B)AC}AC.B {(CA.B)AC}CA.B {( BC.A)BC}BC. A {(CB.A)CB}CB.A

Fig. 4.4. Flow chart showing crossbred combinations of three breeds (A, B and C) leading to the development of a composite population (Shrestha, 2005).
aCrossbred parents with genetic contribution from two or three breeds. bCrossbred parents with genetic contribution from three breeds.
Breeding Meat Goats 95

husbandry requirements (Winters, 1953, productivity of feral goats improved with


1954; Dickerson, 1969a; Lopez-Fanjul, the introduction of the Angora breed.
1974; Shrestha and Heaney, 2003, 2004). The interbreeding of a number of indig-
In theory, a newly developed breed is enous goat populations located in isolated
expected to have a lower genetic potential regions has resulted in the development of
for performance from a reduced level of het- small meat-type breeds in Sri Lanka, India,
erozygosity compared with a specific or Papua New Guinea and Fiji; various Criollo
rotational cross involving the same number (syn. Creole) breeds in Latin America and
of breeds (Shrestha, 1973). This is because a West Indies; Spanish goats in the south-
single population is not capable of exploit- west USA; and Sem-Raga Definida goats in
ing breed difference in maternal versus indi- Brazil (Quartermain, 1991). Some of the
vidual performance. The expected loss in newly developed goat breeds, such as
heterozygosity can be reduced by increasing Anglo-Nubian, Boer, French Alpine, Killis,
the number of breeds assembled to three, La Mancha and Prenakan Etawah, have con-
four or more, retaining two-thirds, three- siderable genetic potential for increased
quarters or more of the average of single productivity (Gall, 1996). Crossbreeding
crosses among constituent breeds. Further- with breeds that have demonstrated poten-
more, there is the possibility of minimizing tial genetic merit has resulted in the devel-
loss in heterosis arising from the rearrange- opment of 80 composite breed populations
ment of genetic combinations in the devel- in 37 countries (Table 4.11).
opment of a composite population. In the early 1920s, South African farm-
In developing countries, the practice of ers from the Eastern Cape crossbred indige-
indiscriminate crossbreeding of the indige- nous goats kept by the Hottentot and Bantu
nous population with imported breeds has tribe with imported Nubian and Indian
led to breed replacement, and often the goats, resulting in the development of the
development of composite populations `Boer breed' (Skinner, 1972). In the follow-
with no record of their genetic background. ing years, recurrent selection for size and
This point is illustrated in Algeria where conformation had a significant influence in
the Muria and Maltese breeds were origi- the development of this breed. The history,
nally imported with the intention of cross- origin and characteristics of the Boer breed
breeding indigenous Berber, Makatia and in South Africa have been reviewed (Malan,
Arabia goats (Taferrant et al., 1995). In the 2000). The author reported advantages of
following years (1967-87), further introduc- 210% fecundity, 29 kg weaning weight at
tion of the Alpine, Toggenburg and Saanen 120 days, productivity to 10 years of age,
breeds for crossbreeding in the Kabylie the ability to raise twins, increased lean
region resulted in the development of muscle yield, hardiness, adaptability and
composite populations. In Korea, Germany, resistance to diseases. According to Grey-
the Russian Federation, India, Australia and ling (2000), the Boer breed has a reproduc-
New Zealand, grading up to European dairy tive potential for early maturity with
breeds with considerable potential for puberty at 28-31 kg body weight, an
improving productivity has been wide- extended breeding season and rebreeding
spread. In Korea, Saanen bucks have been within 55 days of kidding. Furthermore,
mated to a number of indigenous goats (Lee Boer goats have exhibited oestrus in all
et al., 1974). In the Russian Federation, the months of the year, although the frequency
grading up of local goats has been achieved was <50% in breeding cycles of 9 months
by crossbreeding through the use of semen and <30% in 4-month breeding cycles with
from the Toggenburg- and Saanen-derived a 62-day mean interval from kidding to con-
breeds (Orekhov, 1980). In India, the grad- ception. Boer goats are also known predom-
ing up of the Deccani and Gaddi breeds was inantly as browsers, demonstrating potential
based on the use of the Angora breed, which for use in controlling shrubs and bush (Eras-
excels in mohair production (Shrestha, mus, 2000). Australia, Canada, China,
2005). In Australia and New Zealand, the France, Germany, Israel, New Zealand, Sri
Table 4.11. Composite breed populations in the world, number of foundation breeds and year of origin or recognition (from Shrestha, 2005).

Country Composite breed No. foundation breedsa Country Composite breed No. foundation breedsa

Australia Cashgora 2 Kyrgyzstan Kirgiz 2


Brazil Branca sertaneja 2 Malaysia Jermasia 2
Parda sertaneja 2 Mongolia Gobi Wool goat 2
SRD 2 Unjuul 2 (1982)
Bulgaria Bulgarian White Dairy 2 Uuliin Bor 2 (1991)
China Guanzhong Dairy 2 (1940) Morocco Fnideq 2
Hailun 3 Mozambique Pafuri 2 (1928)
Hongtong 2 Netherlands Dutch Pied 2
Laoshan Dairy 2 (1919) Dutch Toggenburg 2
Nanjiang Yellow 2 (1960) Dutch White 2
Cyprus Peratiki 2 Nigeria Savannah Brown 2+
Denmark Danish Landrace 3 Norway Norwegian 5
Fiji Fiji 3 New Zealand Kiko 2
France French Alpine 2 (1930)b Pakistan Beiari 2
Germany German Improved Fawn 2 (1928)b Buchi 2
German Improved White 2 (1928)b Jattal 2
Hungary Hungarian Improved 2+ Pak Angora 2
India Indian Mohair 3 (1973) Shurri 2
Malabari 2 Sind Desi 2
Ramdhan 2 Romania Banat White 3
Indonesia Peranakan Etawah 2 Russia Altai Mountain 2 (1982)
Israel Israeli Saanen 2 (1932) Angora-Don 2
Yaez 2+ Dagestan White 2
Italy Aquila 4 Don-Kirgiz cross 2
Benevento 4 Russian White 2 (1905)
Campobasso 4 South Africa Boer 2 (1959)b
lonica 2 (1981)b Spain Barrefia 3
Potenza 3 Murcia-Granada 2 (1980)b
Kazakhstan Soviet Mohair 2 (1962) Murcian 2 (1933)b
Kenya Kenya Dual-Purpose 4 Tajikistan Soviet Mohair 2 (1962)

aYear of origin or year recognized.


bYear breeds society, association or stud book was established.
Breeding Meat Goats 97

Lanka and the USA, as well as many other the number of traits considered in the selec-
countries, have imported this breed to meet tion criteria reduces the annual increment
the growing demand for increased produc- of genetic response to selection for each
tion of goat meat. Nevertheless, claims stat- trait. There is agreement among researchers
ing that Boer goats have resistance to in the scientific community that perfor-
specific diseases need to be substantiated. mance traits known to be highly heritable
benefit from mass selection by exploiting a
greater proportion of additive genetic varia-
tion. Genetic gains realized from selection
4.8 Selection for performance traits of economic impor-
tance, which are primarily associated with
Morphological characteristics and produc- additive genetic variance, are permanent
tion performance considered by the breeder and cumulative. At the same time, lowly
to be of economic importance for improving heritable traits benefit more from family
productivity are numerous. Studies in many selection that could make the most of non-
goat breeds and their crosses fed diets that additive genetic variation.
vary in nutritive value and raised under An important issue in goat breeding is
conditions of sedentary, nomadic and semi- how selection should be exploited for the
nomadic management substantiate the recurrent improvement of performance
importance of environmental influences on traits considered to be of economic impor-
performance (Guha et al., 1968; Moulick tance for commercial production of goat
and Syrstad, 1970; Mavrogenis et al., 1984; meat. Years of intensive selection in popu-
Nicoll, 1985; Bakshi et al., 1986; Herrera lations derived from narrow genetic bases
et al., 1987; Gebrelul et al., 1994; Gerstmayr could eventually exhaust additive genetic
and Horst, 1995). The general statement of variance available for selection. Breeding
environment influencing many of the eco- populations with large effective numbers of
nomically important traits may be summa- parents comprised of sufficient genetic vari-
rized as follows: bucks are heavier than ability for economically important traits
does; single-born kids are heavier than allow increased intensity of selection while
twins, which are heavier than triplets; and reducing the rate of inbreeding. There is
body weight tends to increase with age of evidence to suggest that selection will even-
the dam up to 5-6 years of age, declining at tually exhaust additive genetic variation in
older ages. In addition, location, year of the population when a greater proportion of
birth, season of kidding, parity and weight genes influencing a quantitative trait is
at slaughter, as well as diet, have an impor- additive and a smaller proportion is non-
tant influence on productivity. The inci- additive. Possibly, breeding populations
dence of mortality has been reported to be today may already have experienced a
lower in goats raised under range condi- reduction in reproductive rate and perfor-
tions and in arid and semi-arid regions of mance traits. Therefore, it is pertinent that
the country that are well drained with ways and means of exploiting variance
sandy soil compared with those in hot, associated with dominance and epistasis
humid environments. In contrast, mortality are explored. When overdominance is pres-
is higher in confinement and stall feeding as ent, even in a few loci, the value of progeny
a result of the concentration of animals and testing and family selection for improving
diseases. The influence of environment on performance could become inadequate.
performance has been described in detail in In animal breeding, the practical impor-
a number of publications and is important tance of heterosis has long been appreci-
but is beyond the scope of the present ated, and meat from crossbred animals is
review. well accepted by the consumer. Conse-
In theory, any breeding plan that is quently, in developed countries, the major-
most efficient for one performance trait may ity of the meat animals marketed today
be less efficient for another. Also, increasing are of crossbred origin. Researchers have
98 J.N.B. Shrestha

provided irrefutable evidence to suggest the selection of meat goats. Estimates of


that livestock and poultry species can ben- genetic parameters in many goat breeds
efit from selection, both within and among worldwide, including large populations of
populations, without tremendous costs in the Angora, Boer and Saanen breeds, have
time and facilities compared with the devel- been summarized in Table 4.13. In Angora
opment of inbred lines. Breeders must rely goats, the heritability estimates for body
on the genetic superiority of parents for any weight from weaning to yearling ranged from
improvement of crossbred progeny perfor- 0.23 to 0.59, while corresponding estimates
mance. This leads to an important issue - of phenotypic and genetic correlations
whether selection for commercial ranged from 0 to 0.38 and from 0.28 to 0.58,
production should be based on performance respectively (Nicoll, 1985). In Saanen goats,
within the purebred populations or their heritability estimates for body weight from 1
crossbred progeny. There is evidence to to 7 months of age ranged from 0.48 to 0.63,
suggest theoretical promise in direct selec- while corresponding estimates of pheno-
tion for maximum performance of crosses typic and genetic correlations ranged from
among complementary populations based 0.41 to 0.95 and from 0.36 to 0.95, respec-
on progeny tests of individuals and families tively (Ricordeau et al., 1972). In Damascus
in test-cross mating (Comstock et al., 1949; goats, phenotypic and genetic correlations
Comstock, 1961). Selection based on cross- between body weight at birth and 70-day
bred progeny performance could possibly weaning were 0.43 and 0.34, between body
achieve further gains in productivity by weight at birth and 140 days were 0.71 and
exploiting additive genetic covariance 0.82, and between body weight at 70 and 140
between genotypes of both parental days were 0.71 and 0.82, respectively (May-
populations. rogenis et al., 1984). In Ganjam goats, pheno-
Research results suggest that genetic typic and genetic correlations between body
parameters (Tables 4.12-4.14) for weight weight at birth and 6 months were 0.33 and
gain and meat quality are low to moderately 0.92, between body weight at birth and
heritable and in the desired direction, dem- 12 months were 0.03 and -0.35, and between
onstrating considerable potential for genetic body weight at 6 and 12 months were 0.50
improvement of meat goats (Acharya, 1982, and 0.14, respectively (Madeli and Patro,
1988; Taneja, 1982). At the same time, the 1984). Pooled estimates of genetic parame-
influence of environment on performance is ters from six studies, which included
of a positive nature. Prediction of genetic Alpine x Beetal, Beetal, Sirohi, Black Bengal,
merit of meat goats based on a comprehen- Jamunapari and Indigenous x exotic goats
sive and technically sound assessment of resulted in heritability estimates for body
performance can be relatively simple to weight at birth, 3, 6, 9 and 12 months of age
implement in terms of fiscal constraints and of 0.11, 0.22, 0.43, 0.33 and 0.41, respec-
resource requirements for labour and time. tively (Acharya, 1988). Corresponding esti-
This includes measuring and recording per- mates of phenotypic and genetic correlations
formance consisting of reproduction, growth were large and in the positive direction.
and survival followed by estimated breeding Phenotypic and genetic correlations between
values for each trait. Estimated breeding val- body weight at birth and 3 months of age in
ues are a function of the additive genetic Black Bengal goats were 0.51 and 0.78,
variation among performance traits trans- in Jamunapari goats were 0.47 and 0.56, and
mitted from one generation to the next (heri- in Beetal x Black Bengal goats were 0.51
tability) and their corresponding associations and 0.49, respectively (Singh et al., 1991). In
(genetic, phenotypic and environmental). local Assam goats and their crosses with the
The estimate of genetic parameters for Beetal breed, heritability estimates for body
performance traits of economic importance weight at 6, 9 and 12 months of age were
in the several breeds and their crosses with moderate, while phenotypic and genetic cor-
higher levels of accuracy under the prevail- relations were also moderate and in the
ing environment is of vital importance for desirable direction (Nahardeka et al., 2001).
Breeding Meat Goats 99

Table 4.12. Estimates of heritabilities and repeatabilities (± sE) for age at first kidding, litter size, multiple
births, daily gain from birth to 150 days and bone content in the whole carcass.

Breed Heritability Repeatability Reference

Age at first kidding


Alpine x Beetal 0.56 ± 0.08 Nagpal and Chawla (1987a,b)
Beetal 0.48 ± 0.09
Litter size
Beetal 0.15 Amble et al. (1964)
Beetal, Black Bengal 0.09 ± 0.25
Alpine x African common 0.02 Mourad (1994)
Multiple births
Egyptian Baladi 0.25 0.29 Tantawy and Ahmed (1960)
Beetal 0.15 0.22 Amble et al. (1964)
Black Bengal 0.09 0.15 Moulick et al. (1966)
Black Bengal 0.17 ± 0.20 Ali (1983)
Daily gain (birth to 150 days)
West African Dwarf 0.38-0.63 0.21-0.38 Ebozoje and Ngere (1995)
Bone content in whole carcass
Black Bengal, Beetal x Black 0.71 ± 0.30 Singh and Yadava (1997)
Bengal, Jamunapari x Black
Bengal

Estimates from a number of studies have direct and maternal heritabilities for body
shown direct and maternal heritability for weight at birth were 0.14 and 0.17, and at
body weight range from low to moderate, 60-day weaning were 0.26 and 0.01, respec-
while genetic correlations between direct tively. In Angora goats, direct and maternal
and maternal effects were low to moderate in heritability estimates for body weight were
magnitude, varying from negative to positive 0.29 and 0.09, respectively, while pheno-
in direction (summarized in Table 4.14). Pro- typic and genetic correlation between body
cedures developed by Dickerson (1969a) and weight and greasy fleece weight were 0.57
Kinghorn (1980, 1983) resulted in similar and 0.56, respectively (Snyman and Olivier,
estimates. In Turkish Angora goats, estimates 1996). In Boer goats, estimates of direct and
of direct and maternal heritability for body maternal heritability for body weight at birth
weight at birth and 100 days, yearling fleece and weaning were in the range of 0.16-0.33
weight, litter size and total weight of kids at and 0.05-0.60, respectively, while genetic
100 days were low, while genetic correla- correlations between the direct and maternal
tions between the direct and maternal effects effects of body weight were small to moder-
for body weight at birth and weaning varied ate and in the desired direction (Schoeman
from 0.18 to 0.91, for yearling and adult et al., 1997). Corresponding estimates for the
fleece weight varied from -0.91 to -0.95, for Adelaide herd were smaller compared with
litter weight was -0.07, and for kid weight at the combination of Adelaide and Omatjenna
100 days was -0.98 (Gerstmayr et al., 1989, herds. In local Malaysian goats and their
1992; Gerstmayr and Horst, 1995). In Can- crosses with the German Fawn breed, esti-
ada, field records on 11 breed types consist- mates of direct and maternal heritability for
ing of Alpine, Angora, Nubian, Saanen, body weight at birth, 3 and 6 months of age,
Toggenburg, non-descript goats and their as well as genetic correlations between the
crosses were assessed (Nadarajah and Burn- direct and maternal effects, were low to
side, 1994). Corresponding estimates of moderate and in the desired direction
Table 4.13. Estimates of heritabilities (± sEM) for body weights from birth to 12 months.

Body weight (kg) at:

Breed Birth 3 months 4 months 6 months 9 months 12 months Reference

Black Bengal 0.07 ± 0.01 0.15 ± 0.04 0.21 ± 0.21 0.32 ± 0.08 Guha et al. (1968)
Saanen 0.63 (1 month) 0.48 0.49 (5 months) 0.49 (7 months) Ricordeau et al. (1972)
Sirohi 0.29 ± 0.16 0.11 ± 0.12 0.32 ± 0.18 Misra (1983)
Black Bengal 0.40 ± 0.24 0.09 ± 0.18 (4 weeks) 0.25 ± 0.56 (wean) Ali (1983)
Damascus 0.31 ± 0.08 0.27 + 0.07 (70 d) 0.24 0.07 (140 d) Mavrogenis et al. (1984)
Osmanabadi 0.10 ± 0.03 0.75 ± 0.03 0.66 ± 0.6 0.02 ± 0.01 Siddiqui et al. (1981)
Ganjam 0.19 ± 0.14 0.34 ± 0.23 0.36 ± 0.26 Madeli and Patro (1984)
Angora 0.59 ± 0.38 (wean) 0.23 ± 0.14 0.40 ± 0.28 Nicoll (1985)
Sirohi, Beetal x Sirohi 0.59 ± 0.38 CIRG (1986)
Indigenous x Exotic 0.30 ± 0.11 0.17 ± 0.23 (2 months) 0.10 ± 0.11 0.08 ± 0.10 de Souza et al. (1987)
Alpine x Beetal 0.27 ± 0.03 0.93 ± 0.12 0.71 ± 0.10 1.00 ± 0.14 0.60 ± 0.09 Nagpal and Chawla (1987a)
Beetal 0.24 ± 0.03 0.43 ± 0.10 0.86 ± 0.17 0.40 ± 0.16 Nagpal and Chawla (1987a)
Black Bengal 0.16 ± 0.12 0.16 ± 0.15 Singh et al. (1991)
Jamunapari 0.55 ± 0.18 0.42 ± 0.18 Singh et al. (1991)
Beetal x Black Bengali 0.12 ± 0.12 0.09 ± 0.15 Singh et al. (1991)
Teddy 0.05 ± 0.02 0.10 ± 0.01 Tahir et al. (1995)
(weaning)

Jamunapari 0.46 ± 0.15 0.43 ± 0.15 0.25 ± 0.13 0.13 ± 0.10 0.13 ± 0.17 Misra (1995)
South African Angora 0.29 ± 0.06 - Snyman and Olivier (1996)
(8 -9 months)

Boer 0.18 ± 0.04 0.19 ± 0.05(5 mo) Niekerk et al. (1996)


Criollo x imported 0.15 0.08 0.22 Garcia et al. (1996)
Angora 0.25 0.25 (1 mo) 0.25 (2 mo) Hermiz, et al. (1997)
Boer at Omatjenne 0.36 ± 0.14 0.60 + 0.12 (4m°) 0.60 ± 0.17 0.40 ± 0.18 0.36 ± 0.19 Schoeman et al. (1997)
Jamunapari - 0.30 0.51 0.23 0.31 Roy et al. (1997)
German Fawn, Katjang 0.34 0.18 0.30 0.24 Hirooka et al. (1997)
African, French Alpine cross 0.68 ± 0.14 0.49 ± 0.16 0.47 ± 0.14 0.43 ± 0.16 Mourad and Anous (1998)
Assam local, Beetal cross 0.26 ± 0.12 0.16 ± 0.11 0.31 ± 0.21 Nahardeka et al. (2001)

Superscripts in parentheses represents the age when weight was measured, if different from column heading.
Breeding Meat Goats 101

Table 4.14. Estimates of direct and maternal heritability (± sE) and heritability (± sE) of feed
conversion.

Heritability
Correlation
Breed Direct Maternal (direct x maternal) Reference(s)

Turkish Angora Gerstmayr et al.


Birth weight 0.02 0.10 0.18 (1989, 1992);
100-day weaning weight 0.03 0.10 0.91 Gerstmayr and
Yearling fleece weight 0.06 0.04 -0.91 Horst (1995)
Adult fleece weight 0.01 0.02 -0.95
Litter size 0.06 0.04 -0.07
Total weight of kids at 0.06 0.04 -0.98
100 days
Boer in the Adelaide and Schoeman et al.
Omatjenna herds (1997)
Birth weight 0.33 ± 0.07 0.36 ± 0.14
Weaning weight 0.27 ± 0.09 0.60 ± 0.12
Boer in the Adelaide herd
Birth weight 0.16 ± 0.06 0.14 ± 0.04 -0.31
Weaning weight 0.18 ± 0.05 0.05 ± 0.03 -0.15
Malaysian local goats Hirooka et al.
and their German Fawn (1997)
crossesa
Birth weight 0.16 (0.17) 0.24 (0.24) 0.19 (0.14)
3-month weight 0.07 (0.07) 0.11 (0.12) 0.47 (0.41)
6-month weight 0.18 (0.21) 0.12 (0.14) 0.25 (0.07)
9-month weight 0.18 (0.16) 0.12 (0.09) 0.0 (0.31)

Breed Trait Heritability Reference

Sirohi; Sirohi x Beetal Dry matter 0.23 ± 0.42 Misra (1983)


Total digestible 0.04 ± 0.42
nutrients
Barbari 6-9 months 0.12 ± 0.10 Khan and Singh
9-12 months 0.06 ± 0.10 (1995)
3-12 months 0.17 ± 0.11

'Estimates are based on Dickerson (1969a), while those in parentheses are based on Kinghorn (1980, 1983).

(Hirooka et a/., 1997). In Saudi Aradi and respectively (Khalil et al., 2010). Corre-
Damascus breeds and their crosses, estimates sponding estimates of direct heterosis were
of direct additive genetic effects were signifi- significant for growth traits in the Jouf and
cantly greater and in favour of the Damascus Qassim experiments, ranging from 0.16 to
breed in the Jouf and Qassim experiments 1.39 kg, and from 0.31 to 1.56 kg, respec-
(Table 4.15), for body weight from birth to 24 tively. Maternal heterosis estimates were
weeks by 12-32 and 17-34%, respectively, generally favourable in the Jouf experiment
and for daily gains from birth to 24 weeks in for body weight by 2-11% and for daily
4-week intervals by 14-31 and 12-37%, gains by 2-8%, suggesting that crossbred
Table 4.15. Estimates (± sE) for direct additive effect, direct and maternal heterosis for growth traits, carcass and meat composition of Saudi Aradi (A) and
Damascus (D) goats at breeding stations at Jouf and Qassim (from Khalil et al., 2010)a.

Direct additive effect (DI = DIA - DID) Direct heterosis Maternal heterosis

Source Jouf Qassim Jouf Qassim Jouf

Growth traits
Weight (kg) at:
Birth -0.4 ± 0.06 (-12) -0.9 ± 0.16 (-25) 0.16 ± 0.05 (5) 0.31 ± 0.14 (9) 0.12 ± 0.05 (4)
4 weeks -2.5 ± 0.08 (-29) -2.7 ± 0.48 (-34) 0.76 ± 0.06 (9) 0.52 ± 0.21 (7) 0.93 ± 0.08 (11)
8 weeks -3.8 ± 0.12 (-29) -3.3 ± 0.82 (-26) 0.93 ± 0.07 (7) 1.39 ± 1.04 (11) 0.33 ± 0.08 (3)Ns
12 weeks -5.0 ± 0.13 (-32) -2.7 ± 1.09 (-17) 1.20 ± 0.09 (8) 1.48 ± 0.48 (10) 0.38 ± 0.07 (2)Ns
16 weeks -5.6 ± 0.15 (-30) -3.8 ± 1.51 (-21) 0.79 ± 0.10 (4) 1.44 ± 0.69 (8) 0.45 ± 0.12 (2)Ns
20 weeks -6.2 ± 0.15 (-28) -4.8 ± 1.54 (-23) 0.55 ± 0.10 (2)Ns 1.80 ± 0.81 (9) 0.46 ± 0.20 (4)
24 weeks -4.2 ± 0.19 (-17) -4.9 ± 1.64 (-21) 1.39 ± 0.13 (6) 1.56 ± 0.46 (7) 0.98 ± 0.23 (4)
Daily gain (g)
0-4 weeks -47 ± 7.1 (-27) -52 ± 4.1 (-34) 12 ± 3.0 (7) 14 ± 2.1 (9) 15 ± 6.1 (8)
4-8 weeks -21 ± 6.2 (-14) -36 ± 8.2 (-24) 7 ± 2.0 (4) 14 ± 5.2 (9) 5 ± 8.2 (3)Ns
8-12 weeks -39 ± 6.3 (-31) -54 ± 5.2 (-37) 8 ± 3.1 (6) 17 ± 4.1 (12) 5 ± 2.3 (4)
12-16 weeks -24 ± 6.1 (-17) -26 ± 4.1 (-21) 7 ± 2.2 (5) 15 ± 6.1 (12) 16 ± 5.2 (7)
16-20 weeks -47 ± 4.2 (-25) -34 ± 2.2 (-26) 6 ± 2.9 (3)Ns 19 ± 2.2 (15) 5 ± 9.1 (2)Ns
20-24 weeks -40 ± 3.1 (-23) -16 ± 4.1 (-12) 9 ± 3.2 (5) 16 ± 1.1 (12) 14 ± 6.2 (6)
Carcass traits
Pre-slaughter weight (kg) -6.3 ± 0.6 (-22) 1.4 ± 0.34 (5)
Hot carcass weight (kg) -7.1 ± 1.2 (-49) 0.8 ± 0.13 (6)
Dressing percentage -5.5 ± 1.4 (-12) 1.2 ± 0.32 (2)Ns
Weight of carcass components (g)
Head -0.48 ± 0.05 (-24) 125 ± 90 (6)
Skin -0.08 ± 0.22 (-4)Ns 93 ± 230 (4)
Viscera -0.01 ± 0.02 (-1)Ns 126 ± 136 (1)Ns
Heart -27 ± 11 (-21) 62 ± 12 (4)
Liver -128 ± 18 (-25) 13 ± 34 (0.5)Ns
Lungs -52 ± 8 (-15) 12 ± 52 (0.2)Ns
Kidneys 14 ± 4 (15) 16 ± 3 (6)
Spleen -17 ± 2 (-30) 12 ± 92 (3)NS
Meat chemical compositon (%)
Moisture 0.2 ± 0.12 (0.2)Ns -0.6 ± 0.23 (-0.8)Ns
Crude protein 0.4 ± 0.56 (0.5) 0.7 ± 0.56 (0.9)NS
Ether extract 0.5 ± 0.38 (3)NS -0.5 ± 0.64 (-2.5)Ns
Ash content 0.1 ± 0.23 (2)NS -0.3 ± 0.05 (-6.1)

aThe percentage deviation from the average of the purebreds is shown in parentheses.
All estimates are significant except where indicated as NS (P> 0.05).
104 J.N.B. Shrestha

dams were marginally superior to their pure- European and Boer breeds known to exceed
bred contemporaries in growth. In the Qas- 100 kg in body weight (Warmington and
sim experiment, estimates of additive genetic Kirton, 1990) have considerable potential
effects for carcass traits were significant and for use in crossbreeding and the formation
in favour of the Damascus breed; in contrast, of composite populations to facilitate the
chemical composition of meat traits were in commercial production of meat from goats
favour of the Saudi Aradi breed. Estimates of (Shrestha 2005; Shrestha and Fahmy,
direct heterosis were positive and in the 2007a).
desired direction for pre-slaughter weight, In Barbari, Beetal, Osmanabadi, Mala-
hot carcass weight and weight of head, skin, bari and Bengal breeds, estimates of herita-
heart and kidneys. The wider range of varia- bility for reproductive trait, although
tion in these estimates warrants further negligible in magnitude, were positive.
studies to establish the nature of the genetic These estimates are indicative of prospects
relationship between direct and maternal for improvement of reproduction. Despite
effects associated with performance traits of the potential for genetic improvement,
economic importance. The difficulty in breeding strategies have often ignored the
obtaining consistent estimates of genetic cor- value of year-round kidding. According to
relation arises from the inability to obtain Devendra and Burns (1983), the income and
large amounts of data necessary to increase profitability associated with the commercial
precision. production of goat meat to a large extent
An important constraint for the depends on the reproductive rate of does.
improvement of economically important The authors suggested that fecundity should
performance traits in meat goats is the be included as a selection criterion for
absence of precise estimates of genetic goat meat production, along with body
parameters and response to selection that weight and meat quality. Correspondingly,
would have been possible with large data any measure of body weight close to market
sets and long-term studies such as those in age would benefit from including repro-
developed countries for other livestock and ductive rate, maternal ability and resistance
poultry species. Genetic parameter esti- to diseases in the selection criteria. An
mates and their standard errors derived alternative approach that could be consid-
from different procedures using the same ered is to include body weight at 6 months
data set tend to vary (Henderson, 1953; or older along with age at kidding to
Dickerson, 1969a; Patterson and Thompson, augment the number and weight of kids
1971; Rao, 1971; Hemmerle and Hartley, marketed.
1973; Henderson, 1984; Meyer, 1989, 1991; In Bangladesh, the Black Bengal breed
Gilmour et al., 1995; van Tassell and van selected for body weight at 6 months of age
Vleck, 1996). The pooling of additive exceeded the random-bred Black Bengal
genetic variance estimates from pure breeds and Jamunapari x Black Bengal in body
and their crosses may be questionable in weight per doe at birth and 60 days (Amin
terms of scientific merit. This is because et al., 2001). Concurrently, no detrimental
additive genetic variance within breeds and influence on fertility, age and weight at first
additive genetic covariance among breeds oestrus, litter size and kidding interval was
are considered alike. Nevertheless, in prac- observed. In the same study, crossbreeding
tice, additive genetic variance and covari- did not offer any advantage as a result of
ance components are combined to reduce delayed sexual maturity and post-partum
the sampling variance associated with service period, leading the authors to favour
genetic parameter estimates. selection over crossbreeding. In Black Ben-
There is the opportunity to increase the gal and Jamunapari x Black Bengal goats,
body weight of goats by exploiting additive chilled carcass weight, loin eye area and
genetic variability from genetically diverse edible body parts were similar, leading
breed populations based on the use of indi- Das et al. (2001) to favour selection for
vidual and family selection. This is because commercial chevon production. According
Breeding Meat Goats 105

to Acharya (1988), economically important 4.9 Genetic Improvement Programmes


traits that need to be considered in the
selection criteria for improvement of goat One of the most challenging issues for goat
meat in India are growth, survival, feed con- meat production is to implement genetic
version and carcass yield for kids, along improvement programmes for the resource-
with reproduction, age at first kidding, milk poor goat keeper in developing countries.
yield, kidding interval and longevity for Lack of adequate resources, provision of
mature goats. essential services and facilities that extend
In Mexico, the average generation inter- across households over great distances as
val of the Granadina, Nubian, Saanen, well as serious concerns over their feasibil-
Alpine and Toggenburg breeds was 3.5, 3.6, ity have caused a great deal of difficulty in
3.7, 3.8 and 4.3 years, respectively. The the delivery of performance testing pro-
average generation interval between sire grammes across countries. There is reason to
and offspring was 3.4-3.5 years, and believe that biological, cultural, statistical,
between dam and offspring was 4-4.1 years social, economic and management aspects
(Meza et al., 1994). Goats are known to kid are necessary components of the decision-
year-round, demonstrating the opportunity making process. This is because goats reared
to accelerate the genetic response to selec- in large herds under transhumance systems
tion by minimizing generation interval. along with many small herds around urban
Goats carry a substantial amount of areas are closely associated with the envi-
abdominal and intestinal fat, which could ronment, religious rituals and sustainable
be lowered, eliminating costs associated development. The improvement of meat
with producing unwanted fat. Reducing fat goats must include a comprehensive and
not only improves feed conversion but also technically sound assessment with suffi-
promotes consumer acceptance. Despite the cient flexibility to meet the needs of diverse
lack of precise estimates of genetic parame- environmental and managerial conditions.
ters for meat quality in goats, there is an Therefore, a breeding strategy for improve-
opportunity for improvement. Aids to selec- ment of meat goats should include more
tion such as the use of ultrasonic devices to than a prediction of breeding values for eco-
measure back fat and loin muscle area in nomically important production traits.
live animals or dissecting individual car- It is also crucial to have a clear under-
cass cuts to permit the separation of fat, standing of the nature of the underlying
meat and bone from a sample of slaughtered quantitative genetic principles involved in
siblings have achieved considerable success exploiting genetic resources for genetic
in improving lean muscle yield (Stouffer, improvement. This is particularly impor-
1969). Furthermore, technology for scan- tant when examining possible benefits from
ning of live animals has improved notice- crossbreeding against selection in terms of
ably over the years, making it possible to genetic gain in performance, improved
obtain a clear image of muscle area at a frac- vigour, uniform animal products and a
tion of the cost of marketing the animal. decline in inbreeding depression against
Ultrasonically measured longissimus mus- expenses incurred during breed evaluation.
cle area and depth in Alpine goats have The negative association between the pro-
demonstrated potential merit for use in duction of fibre and meat when nutrition is
genetic improvement of muscling (Stanford a limiting factor suggests that fibre produc-
et al., 1995). In Australian cashmere goats, tion occurs at the expense of meat (Shelton,
boneless meat yield has been predicted 1998). Under such conditions, productivity
from live weight and hot carcass weight could be enhanced with provision for sup-
(McGregor, 1990). In addition, Angora kids plementary feeding.
fed a high-quality energy diet and slaugh- Developing breeding strategies for
tered at 5 months of age produced meat of improvement of economically important
commercially acceptable quality (McGregor, performance traits associated with goat meat
1996). production may rely on the diversity of goat
106 J.N.B. Shrestha

genetic resources worldwide, along with National breeding programmes for the
evaluation of breeds and their crosses (Shres- evaluation of genetic merit in breeding
tha and Fahmy, 2005). The genetic base animals usually adopt mixed animal
should be as broad as possible to provide suf- model methodologies to determine esti-
ficient genetic variation in performance traits mated breeding values for multiple traits.
to sustain the genetic response to selection The evaluation of parents along with their
over a number of generations. One should offspring has achieved considerable suc-
also consider the prior selection history of cess in other livestock and poultry spe-
the base population for economically impor- cies, demonstrating potential merit in
tant production traits, the relative magnitude meat-goat production. Precise estimates
of non-additive to additive genetic effects of genetic parameters, performance
and the possible role of stress environments records of parents and their siblings,
during the choice of sire and dam breeds. pedigree relationships among animals and
Likewise, the decision to continue with performance across herds have improved
either selection or crossbreeding must take the accuracy of predicting breeding val-
into consideration the time and resource ues. Information processing along with
requirements necessary for breed evaluation software, lowered costs of processing,
and the benefit achieved from genetic gain. memory and storage requirements has
In the short run, crossbreeding has an advan- made the application of mixed model
tage whereas selection of replacement par- methodology feasible for breeding meat
ents based on genetic merit of the individual goats. Likewise, goats with sufficient
accelerates the genetic response, enhancing genetic merit should rapidly be dissemi-
performance with either crossbreeding or nated among herds under sedentary,
composite breed formation. In this context, nomadic and semi-nomadic management
parameter estimates in a number of meat across the country to multiply genetic gain
breeds and their crosses for traits including for the production of goat meat.
body weight at various ages, age at kidding, India, with one of the world's largest
kidding interval, service period, litter size, goat populations, has no breeding pro-
live weight at slaughter, hot carcass weight, gramme for improvement of productivity of
dressing percentage and feed conversion goats (Acharya, 1988). In practice, central
have been assembled from numerous studies and state government farms maintain small
and are presented in Tables 4.12-4.15. herds of goats, while animals surplus to
Goat breeders may employ simple means breeding requirements, usually unproven in
of identifying, measuring and recording per- terms of their genetic merit, are sold as
formance on the farm for use in the genetic potential breeding stock to breeders. It has
evaluation of their breeding stock. In general, been suggested that goat meat production
the genetic potential of goats under uniform could be improved in India by increasing
feeding and management conditions are eval- reproduction and kid survival without
uated on the basis of growth rate of their off- increasing the total number of breeding ani-
spring or in combination with reproduction mals in the country. At the same time,
of their dam. Furthermore, bucks and does China, with one of the largest goat popula-
are evaluated on the basis of productivity and tions in the world, has no organized breed-
the contemporary performance of their kids. ing activity for improvement of goats across
In some instances, bucks from a number of the country (Wenxiu, 1988). The prospects
adjoining farms are evaluated for their perfor- for West African Dwarf goat production in
mance under more uniform environments in the south-eastern region of Nigeria appear
test stations located at a convenient distance uncertain. Nevertheless, it has been sug-
from herds. In practice, bucks and does with gested that women producers can benefit
superior genetic merit are often certified by a from vertical integration of goat production
government agency or breed organization from the producer to the market.
based on their performance and are sold at The past few decades have seen a rise
auctions across the country. in goat improvement programmes around
Breeding Meat Goats 107

the world, although mostly for dairy and tion performance based on the application
fibre production (Devendra, 1988; Wilson, of mixed model methodologies, breeders
1992; El-Aich et al., 1995; Delfosse and can rely on simple measures for genetic
Jaouen, 1998). In South Africa, the National improvement similar to those used to deter-
Small Stock Improvement Scheme provides mine ewe productivity (Shrestha et al.,
the stud and commercial farms with the 2002), which may include body weight of
breeding values of all the animals assessed kids at weaning or an older age adjusted to
based on their performance records and a male equivalent basis. The efficient use of
pedigree information. The organization not a selection index is based on the emphasis
only maintains breed standards but also placed on several production traits relative
encourages breeders to improve production to their economic value necessary to opti-
performance. In Canada, Ontario has imple- mize breeding objectives. Prevailing mar-
mented breeding programmes for genetic kets, either in the region or across the
improvement of meat goats (Nadarajah and country, could help in determining costs
Burnside, 1994). The USA is in the process and benefits associated with meat, milk and
of developing breeding programmes for fibre production in order to derive appro-
meat goats. priate weighting factors for economically
Evaluation of production performance important production traits. An aggregate
based on available records of the individual breeding value derived from a combination
goat along with those of their parents should of relative economic weights and produc-
be adequate for the identification of goats tion traits will be meaningful for improving
with potential genetic merit. These include meat goats. Further details on breeding and
body weight at birth and 6 months of age, genetics for goat production have been
dams' litter size and milk yield, survival, explained in the textbook Goat Science and
dressing percentage, hot carcass weight, fer- Production (Shrestha and Crow, 2010).
tility, prolificacy and mortality. Breed orga-
nizations or governments could possibly
encourage breeders to establish a hierarchi-
cal structure, which might include nucleus, 4.10 Future Considerations
multiplier and commercial goat breeders, or
group breeding schemes similar to those Prediction of performance of breed crosses
available for other livestock species. In from the evaluation of the performance of
India, there are proposed Group Breeding all possible two or more breed cross combi-
Schemes with nucleus herds comprised of nations can be useful to predict the perfor-
selected bucks and does for producing mance of the optimum cross approaching
breeding stock (Acharya, 1988). In Malay- maximum efficiency of production. Unfor-
sia, accelerating genetic gain based on open- tunately, when more than two breeds are
nucleus herds along with embryo transfer considered, the number of possible two-
has been proposed for milk and meat goats breed-cross combinations that need to be
(Mukherjee et al., 1996). An alternative evaluated can be cumbersome. Even the
would be to establish an open-nucleus testing of two- and three-breed crosses
structure where the nucleus herd produces alone, neglecting reciprocals, can be a for-
bucks for the replacement male parent in midable task, and for a large number of
commercial herds, while both the nucleus breeds it soon becomes impossible. Carmon
and commercial herds contribute replace- (1960) predicted the performance of specific
ment females for the nucleus herd. This three-breed cross, i.e. A x (B x C), where A,
approach will reduce inbreeding (James, B and C are the parental breeds from the
1977), as well as the lag associated with the average of (A x B) and (A x C). This includes
transfer of genetic gain from the nucleus to the two possible combinations of the breeds
the commercial herds. being crossed with the exception of (B x C),
In the absence of genetic evaluation of which is the female parent. Similarly, the
morphological characteristics and produc- performance of a four-breed cross, i.e.
108 J.N.B. Shrestha

(Ax B) x (C x D), where A, B, C and D are the stressful to purebreds due to unfavourable
parental breeds, can be predicted from the climate, grazing condition and diseases.
average of (A x C), (A x D), (B x C) and This is because purebred bucks may not be
(B x D) crosses. These crosses represent all able to express their full genetic potential
possible two-breed crosses among the four under extensive and harsh environments,
parental breeds with the exception of habitats typical of a large proportion of
(A x B) and (C x D), which are the male and goats worldwide. In practice, it is possible
female parents. The success in the predic- to raise one fecund-type goat breed within
tion of performance of the multiple breed the farm and to purchase crossbred bucks
crosses depends largely on the nature of from meat-type breeds for breeding.
genetic variability associated with the eco- Specific three-breed-cross offspring can
nomic trait in the two-breed cross. Prefera- also be produced by mating a crossbred
bly, management and environmental buck based on two meat-type sire breeds
conditions should be alike. with a purebred doe of a fecund-type breed.
The combination of rotational and spe- A drawback can occur from the lower per-
cific crossbreeding may be based on mating formance associated with the absence of
of fecund-type crossbred does derived from maternal heterosis and favourable genes in
a two or more breed rotation to bucks of an the crossbred dams including the rearrange-
unrelated meat-type sire breed. In theory, an ment of genetic combinations between the
advantage in performance associated with chromosomes of crossbred parents. In a pre-
two-thirds of the maximum maternal hetero- liminary study, (Boer x Spanish) x Spanish
sis as well as individual heterosis can be compared with the Spanish breed weighed
achieved. The drawback is the need to fol- more at birth and 90 days by 11 and 16%,
low a complex breeding protocol, which respectively (Table 4.7), whereas prolificacy
requires a large number of animals from was similar (Lopez-Perez et al., 1998).
diverse breeding populations. In practice, Specific four-breed-cross offspring may
the replacement females for rotational cross- be produced by mating does derived from
breeding and crossbred does are usually two fecund-type dam breeds with bucks
raised within the premises of the farm and from two meat-type sire breeds. In theory,
derived from about one-third of the cross- this approach could capitalize on the full
bred offspring. The remaining two-thirds of potential of maternal, paternal and individ-
the crossbred offspring are mated to bucks of ual heterosis. In this procedure, goats from
a meat-type breed purchased from highly one or two parental breeds and their crosses
reputed breeders to produce specific breed may be kept within the farm premises to
cross offspring that are marketed. produce does to be female parents. Cross-
The use of crossbred males as sires has bred bucks of alternative breeds, as required,
received little attention in animal breeding. may be purchased to be male parents.
In theory, crossbred male parents could Despite the drawback of having to maintain
capitalize on possible hybrid vigour in more than two breeds for crossbreeding,
terms of libido and sperm production, as there may be potential merit from increased
well as realized paternal heterosis from productivity in commercial goat meat pro-
optimization of gene frequency for categori- duction. However, no research results are
cal or composite traits in the livestock spe- available on goat meat production based on
cies. According to Notter (1987), the use of the use of three- and four-breed-cross off-
crossbred males may be optimum at the spring.
production system level, e.g. net effect of The use of hill and lowland breeds of
heterosis for male fertility, non-linearity sheep in the UK demonstrates regional seg-
between individual traits, optimized gene mentation of production to support com-
frequencies of sire and dam combinations plex and efficient crossbreeding. In
and overall profit. One would expect cross- developing countries, efficient meat-goat
bred bucks to exhibit increased vigour that production from the crossbred combination
may be more appropriate in environments of indigenous goats with productive exotic
Breeding Meat Goats 109

breeds is possible (Ruvuna et a/., 1992). The significant role in maintaining cultural heri-
authors proposed producing specific breed tage and sustaining biodiversity, can con-
combinations to complement breed differ- tribute to alleviation of poverty.
ences in carcass merit with segmentation of Alpine, Saanen and Toggenburg dairy
varying production systems and established breeds have benefited from research
markets for meat and meat products. In directed towards their genetic improvement
remote or tribal communities, there is the (Flamant and Morand-Fehr, 1982). Evi-
opportunity to produce crossbred does for dence presented from a number of studies
use, as a terminal cross to be sold for imme- support the use of dairy breeds of goats from
diate cash, or under intensive production in continental Europe for crossbreeding with
areas adjoining urban markets. Further- indigenous goats to produce offspring with
more, the infrastructure for the transporta- a rapid growth rate and potential for
tion and marketing of extra kids from increased milk production. Besides produc-
crossbreeding is crucial. ing more milk for sale, there is the opportu-
Breeders of goats of nomadic and semi- nity for meat-type breeds to sire crossbred
nomadic origin that receive a substantial does to produce terminal-cross offspring for
portion of their income from meat and meat meat production.
products are not aware of the scientific The influx of ethnic populations in
accomplishments in the field of genetics, developed countries and the growing appe-
nutrition and husbandry that have helped tite for food of exotic origin have resulted in
other livestock and poultry become more increased demand for goat meat. Goat meat
productive. Emerging and developing econ- from domesticated feral populations in New
omies with 85% of the human population, Zealand and Australia (Horton and Dawson,
75% of the breed population and 97% of 1987; Kelly, 1988; B.A. McGregor, personal
goats worldwide could benefit from communication) is being exported to help
increased productivity of meat goats raised meet the demand from increased consump-
by the poor and landless at the end of the tion. This is indicative of potential for
social scale that are not only illiterate but import replacement by promoting commer-
also lack the necessary husbandry skills and cial production of meat from goats. Physi-
finances. The difficulty of establishing cal, chemical and sensory properties of
breed improvement programmes in devel- meat from kids of Boer and Cashmere breeds
oping countries lies in establishing produc- and their crosses compared with those from
tion criteria in the absence of an industry lambs were of less intense flavour, tender-
structure with no specific advantage from ness and juiciness, while panellists
rapid growth rate, early maturity and accepted curries and patties made from goat
favourable meat quality (Norman, 1991). meat (Swan et al., 1998), demonstrating the
Large numbers of bucks, possibly with opportunity to market more meat to con-
potential genetic merit, continue to be sacri- sumers in developed countries. Neverthe-
ficed for religious rituals in accordance with less, goat meat continues to be a by-product
the tradition and culture of the region. of the dairy and fibre industries in devel-
According to Purohit (1982), private or oped countries (Decoster and Berinstain-
cooperative ventures to increase goat meat Bailly, 1996; Asheim and Eik, 1998).
production in the villages of India could The application of quantitative genetic
benefit from periodic culling of less produc- methodologies in combination with
tive animals followed by the feeding of advances in molecular methodologies could
high-energy diets in feedlots to culled ani- accelerate genetic progress in selection,
mals starting one month before slaughter. while developing more efficient means for
Developing breeding strategies for goats commercial production of meat from goats.
raised under sedentary, nomadic and semi- Constraints due to the seasonality of pro-
nomadic management presents a real chal- duction and labour shortages may be
lenge. Adding value to meat and meat avoided with controlled reproduction based
products, as well as recognizing their on induction and synchronization of
110 J.N.B. Shrestha

oestrus, fixed-time artificial insemination, performance of meat-goat breeds in Asia, as


year-round breeding based on 6-month well as strategies to achieve genetic improve-
breeding cycles, the use of meat-type sire ment, have been published (Devendra, 1988).
and fecund-type dam breeds and cross-
breeds, fattening and marketing activities.
Green and stored forage and concentrates 4.11 Conclusions
along with vitamin and mineral supple-
ments to supply the necessary dietary nutri- Challenges to attain the biological ceiling of
ents to lactating goats, feeding high-energy goats for meat production reveal the com-
diets to promote rapid growth rates for kids plexity of implementing innovative breeding
surplus to breeding requirements for slaugh- technologies that involve the application of
ter at 90 days or earlier at 40-45 kg body quantitative genetic methodologies for
weight, milking does following a suckling improvement of meat goats. Wilson (1968)
period of 3 weeks or less, milk replacers and estimated the biological ceiling at seven off-
solid feed to earlier-weaned kids, and the spring per lambing and a potential mean
prevention of mastitis, abortions and para- lambing interval of 6 months, possibly simi-
site infestations provided in herd health lar for goats. The availability of 1183 breed
programmes can contribute towards populations worldwide along with previ-
increased production efficiency. ously documented information on their
Despite only a few objective evalua- background, adaptability, productivity and
tions of goats raised independent of range husbandry need to be critically assessed.
conditions (Warmington and Kirton, 1990), Furthermore, meat goats lack precise esti-
complementing specific breed combina- mates of genetic parameters based on large
tions to exploit breed differences in carcass data sets as well as selection studies to cor-
merit with segmentation of varying produc- roborate research results. Constraints, limita-
tion systems and established markets for tions and social and cultural attributes may
meat and meat products (Ruvuna et al., include diseases, diet, climatic conditions,
1992) has considerable merit in increasing natural vegetation and terrain, labour sur-
the efficiency of meat-goat production in plus to household requirements, the avail-
developing countries. The application of ability of trained personnel and equipment,
innovative breeding technologies can facili- religious rituals, economic reality and
tate genetic improvement in large herds due proximity to markets. Smallholders under
to the ease in recording of performance and sedentary, nomadic and semi-nomadic man-
pedigree, uniform feeding and manage- agement must rely on breeding animals with
ment, proximity to markets and the ability sufficient genetic merit to improve the effi-
to deliver goods and services to the breeder ciency of goat meat production, and benefit
on a low-cost basis. Nevertheless, one from crossbreeding and composite breed
should examine the relative costs in terms development. Evidence to suggest that addi-
of capital expenditure, labour, selection, tive genetic variance may have been
crossbreeding, breed formation and recur- exhausted for performance traits of economic
rent crossbreeding to exploit heterosis importance, although not currently likely,
before agreeing on a particular strategy for would warrant family selection and progeny
commercial production of meat goats. testing to achieve a genetic response. There
The Winrock International (USA), Inter- is overwhelming evidence to support the
national Development Research Centre (Can- genetic improvement of goat meat by cross-
ada) and International Livestock Research breeding complementary breeds, the forma-
Institute (Kenya) have promoted meat-goat tion of composite populations and selection
production in developing countries. Pro- for economically important performance
grammes supporting the production of goat traits. At the same time, genetic improve-
meat in Africa (Upton, 1988), South-east ment will depend on how widely animals
Asia (Jalaludin et al., 1992) and Africa and with potential genetic merit can be dissemi-
Latin America (Wilson, 1992) and the nated rapidly across commercial herds.
Breeding Meat Goats 111

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5 Reproductive Efficiency for Increased
Meat Production in Goats

M. Rekik" , I. Ben Salem' and N. Lassoued2


1 Ecole Nationale de Medecine Veterinaire, Tunisia; 2INRA-Tunisie, Laboratoire des
Productions Animates et Fourrageres, Ariana, Tunisia

5.1 Introduction will determine the age at first kidding and


therefore initiates the start of the reproduc-
Reproduction efficiency in female goats tive career of the animal. Puberty can be
(does) is determined by many different pro- defined in several ways. In the female, it is
cesses. These processes include, for exam- commonly defined as being the age at which
ple, early initiation of reproductive life, oestrus is first detected and is followed by
length of the breeding season, cyclic activ- the establishment of a functional corpus
ity, ovulation rate, fertilization rate and luteum and a characteristic cyclic ovarian
post-partum anoestrous period. All these activity in the non-pregnant animal. Sexual
reproductive traits depend on numerous maturity is different from puberty and
components: genotype, environment and occurs later. In young female sheep and
husbandry factors. In goats, and for small goats, sexual maturity, which indicates
ruminants in general, the most important acquisition of a full reproductive potential
factor affecting flock efficiency is reproduc- (maturation of the hypothalamic-pituitary
tion. Increasing reproduction is the most axis, oestrous expression, embryo survival),
important way of improving meat produc- is reached at a later age than puberty
tion. This chapter addresses ways of (Drymundsson, 1983). In this respect, one
improving reproductive efficiency in meat major feature of sexual immaturity in Creole
goats by reviewing data from highly special- goats is the dissociation between oestrus
ized and less intensive production systems. and ovulation at puberty (Delgadillo et al.,
However, it is first important to describe the 1997). Half of the first detected oestruses are
main features of the reproductive biology of not accompanied by ovulation and 36% of
meat goats. the first ovulations are silent.
The occurrence of puberty in goats is
similar to ewe lambs and fits within the
model that classifies chronologically the
5.2 Doe Reproductive Biology events leading to the first luteotropic hor-
mone (LH) surge in young female sheep
5.2.1 Onset of puberty (Foster and Ryan, 1981). At puberty, the
response of the hypothalamic-pituitary axis
As in other livestock species, puberty is an to inhibition by oestradiol is considerably
important reproductive trait in goats that reduced. Basal secretions of LH therefore
© CAB International 2012. Goat Meat Production and Quality
(eds O. Mahgoub, I.T. Kadim and E.G. Webb) 119
120 M. Rekik et al.

increase as a result of the acceleration in the summer), respectively (Greyling, 2000). In


rate of LH discharges, thus resulting in one northern Mexico, Creole does born in Janu-
or more of the follicles developing towards ary demonstrate their first oestrus at an age
the pre-ovulatory stage. This is the first fol- of 250 days and on average at an age of
licular phase, which is associated with a 172 days for females born in August or
steady increase in the concentration of oes- December (Delgadillo and Malpaux, 1996).
tradiol, which eventually elicits the first In both the previous studies, the authors
pre-ovulatory LH surge. concluded that season of birth is the main
There are several factors that could play cue for the onset of puberty and that
a role in the attainment of puberty in the observed differences could not be ascribed
female goat. These include season of birth, to body weight, level of nutrition or the
season of weaning, body weight, nutritional buck effect.
status and presence of bucks. The effect of Boer kids weaned in April (during the
the presence of bucks on puberty will be normal breeding season in the southern
reported later in the chapter related to hemisphere) exhibited oestrus significantly
induction of puberty in young females. earlier than those weaned in December (out-
Under field conditions, some of the pre- side the natural season) (Greyling, 1996).
vious factors, such as season of birth and Animals weaned during the natural breed-
season of weaning and also body weight ing season maintained higher LH levels
and nutritional status, act in complex inter- compared with those weaned outside the
actions, which makes objective assessment normal breeding season, indicating greater
of the individual effects on the attainment pituitary activity during the breeding
of puberty very difficult. These factors seem season.
to involve a breed effect, probably with two A compilation of the age at puberty for
major types of genotypes: early and late sex- some breeds of meat-producing goats is
ually maturing breeds. presented in Table 5.1.
In the young doe, body weight is of crit-
ical importance to the attainment of puberty.
In general, breeding in goats should be
delayed until the animal has attained 5.2.2 Seasonality of reproduction
60-75% of its mature body weight (Smith,
1980). The mean body weight at puberty of The seasonal character of sexual activity in
Boer goat does has been set at 30.6 kg for small ruminants has long been known.
animals on a high-energy diet and 27.5 kg Among the factors controlling seasonal
on a lower-energy diet (Greyling, 1988). reproduction and birth seasonality, the
However, there are reports (Attwood, 2007) change in day length is the most important
that Boer goats in South Africa can reach component. Long days are reported to be
puberty at 18 kg body weight. It has also inhibitory and short days stimulatory to
been documented that delayed attainment sexual activity (Karsch et al., 1984). Indeed,
of puberty in temperate breeds of goats the most reliable environmental cue to set
under tropical conditions is explained by kidding at the optimal time of year is the
the low growth rates of animals of these seasonal cycle of day length, which does
breeds under unfavourable management not vary from one year to another and there-
conditions in the tropics. The effect of inad- fore allows predictability. The photoperi-
equate nutrition hampering normal growth odic information is perceived by the retina
of the animals could be mediated through and transmitted to the pineal gland where
adverse effects on pituitary function. this signal modulates the rhythm of melato-
Puberty is also influenced by the season nin secretion (Legan and Karsch, 1983;
of birth of the kids. The recorded mean age Karsch et al., 1984).
at the onset of puberty in Boer goat does is The majority of goat breeds show
191.1 and 157.2 days for does born during seasonality in reproduction activities
August (late winter) and January (mid- (Chemineau et al., 1992). For goats bred
Reproduction of Meat Goats 121

Table 5.1. Age at puberty for some meat-producing breeds of goats.

Breed Country Age at puberty (days) Specific information Reference

Boer South Africa 191 Born during seasonal Greyling (2000)


anoestrus
Boer South Africa 157 Born during the breeding Greyling (2000)
season
Creole Mexico 172 Born between August and Delgadillo et al. (1997)
(128-204) December
Black Bengal NS 196 Bhattacharrya et al.
(1984)
Baladi Syria 180-210 Kassem (2005)
Damascus Cyprus 220-270 Mavrogenis (2005)
Matou China 108 (79-216) Based on first oestrus Moaeen-ud-Din et al.
(2008)

NS, Not specified.

under temperate latitudes (above 40°N), the For Damascus goats reared under desert
female experiences a period of anoestrus conditions in Egypt, oestrus occurrence is
from the beginning of spring to late sum- correlated with the decrease in day length.
mer, with no behavioural or ovarian activ- The percentage of goats manifesting oestrus
ity. In the northern hemisphere, the is high from July to October, while the per-
breeding season starts in the summer and centage of kidding is high in January, Febru-
autumn months and ends in winter. In con- ary and March (Shalaby et al., 2000).
trast, tropical breeds do not appear to be It has often been assumed that the goat
seasonal breeders (Devendra and Burns, is similar to the sheep with regard to repro-
1983). duction, but differences between the two
In Argentina, based on the monthly dis- species exist, and extrapolation from one
tribution of parturition, Creole goats reared species to the other could be misleading.
under range conditions were classified as Seasonal variation in reproductive activity
non-seasonal breeders (Molina et al., 1997). in Australian goats was investigated and
Conversely, other results (Rivera et al., showed that does did not begin spontane-
2003) based on the systematic recording of ous ovulation until April, with peak inci-
oestrus and ovulations indicate that Argen- dence occurring in June (90%), and no
tine Creole goats, maintained under natural ovulations were recorded between Septem-
photoperiod and controlled nutritional lev- ber and February (Restall, 1992). In con-
els, are seasonal breeders. Transitions trast, the sheep began to ovulate in February
between seasons were gradual, with maxi- with a peak incidence in March (95%), and
mum and minimum levels of sexual activity the proportion ovulating remained high
concentrated at about the winter and sum- until July and then declined with no
mer solstice, respectively. For the Creole ovulations observed between August and
goats under southern latitudes in South December.
America, a shorter breeding season with In Tunisia, the breeding season of local
concentration of sexual activity during the goats occurred from September to March
months of June and July has been reported (Lassoued and Rekik, 2005), during which
(Santa Maria et al., 1990). For feral goats at 80% of the nanny goats exhibited oestrus at
similar latitudes in Australia, spontaneous least once and 53% of all oestrous cycles
ovulation was shown beginning in April, were accompanied by ovulations. The pro-
with peak incidence occurring in June and portion of ovulations increased gradually
no ovulation between September and Feb- from September to reach 100% during
ruary (Restall, 1992). December, and then declined to reach a
122 M. Rekik et al.

minimum of 14% during March. This season dual-purpose goats of north Senegal, most
preceded a period of sexual inactivity goats (65%) kid once a year, but some (22%)
(March-August) that was distinctly longer fail to reproduce, while others (13%) repro-
than for local breeds of sheep in the same duced three times in 2 years (reviewed by
environment (Khaldi, 1984). The trends for Walkden-Brown and Bocquier, 2000).
the local Tunisian goat are similar to what The social environment, in particular
has been reported for the Bedouin goat native the presence of bucks, is an important factor
to the Algerian Sahara, where seasonal that affects the length of the breeding sea-
anoestrus extends from the end of winter to son. In Australian goats, exposure to males
the end of summer (Charallah et al., 2000). extended the period of ovulatory activity
Some examples related to sexual activity in both before and after the period of sponta-
several goat breeds in tropical, subtropical neous ovulation. In the absence of males,
and temperate zones are reported (Table 5.2). does only ovulated between April and
Unlike most goat breeds, Boer goats are August, but exposure to bucks, either inter-
partially seasonal breeders. Anoestrus does mittently or continuously, extended the
not occur and Boer does will cycle virtually ovulatory period from March to September
all year round if favourable rearing condi- (Restall, 1992). Other results support the
tions are provided (Greyling, 1990). This is suggestion that continuous exposure to the
similar to indigenous goats in Zimbabwe, male prolonged, to some extent, the ovula-
which exhibit ovarian activity throughout tory period and also an earlier initiation of
the year (Llewelyn et al., 1993). the ovulatory activity in Creole goats than
At locations close to the equator and in in females kept isolated from male stimuli
the tropics, local breeds of goats either are (Rivera et al., 2003). This may suggest that
non-seasonal breeders or exhibit only a weak the annual ovulatory rhythm in does reflects
seasonality of reproduction (Chemineau, a changing sensitivity to exteroceptive stim-
1986). Under these conditions, seasonal uli that initiate reproductive activity.
reproductive patterns relate more to The effects of season on reproduction
variations in rainfall, available nutrition and in sheep and goats are mediated by similar
temperature than to day length (Devendra mechanisms. The change in the duration of
and Burns, 1983). In the Mediterranean and the night-time melatonin pattern alters the
tropical areas, the majority of goats are hypothalamic responsiveness to oestradiol,
maintained in extensive or semi-extensive and this leads to changes in the frequency of
systems and may be mated more than once a LH pulses. A low pulse frequency switches
year and subject to seasonal variations in off the reproductive system and a high fre-
food availability. It is often thought that quency switches it on. During the sexual
nutrition is responsible for the seasonal season, the hypothalamus shows little
reproductive pattern; in particular, insuffi- response to oestrogen and the LH pulse fre-
cient nutrition is often responsible for pro- quency is high, whereas, during anoestrus,
longed anoestrous and anovulatory periods, the hypothalamus is very responsive to oes-
a reduction in fertility and prolificacy. In the trogen and the LH pulse frequency is low.

Table 5.2. Examples of seasonality of sexual activity of some goat breeds in tropical, subtropical and
temperate zones.

Cyclicity Country Breed Sexual season Reference

Seasonal Tunisia Local Maure September-March Lassoued and Rekik (2005)


Seasonal Algeria Bedouine End summer-end winter Charallah et al. (2000)
Seasonal Argentina Creole March-October Rivera et al. (2003)
Non-seasonal Guadeloupe Creole All year Chemineau (1986)
Non-seasonal Morocco D'Man All year Derquaoui and El Khaledi (1994)
Reproduction of Meat Goats 123

At the onset of the breeding season, the ovulation time) and remain high until day
secretion of gonadotropins, particularly the 15 (SimOes et al., 2006).
frequency of LH pulses, increases to more Starting on days 16-17 of the oestrous
than three pulses every 6 h in mid-September cycle, the prostaglandin Fla (PGF2e)
(Chemineau et al., 1988). These seasonal released from the non-pregnant uterus,
changes in pulse frequency are mediated by most likely influenced by ovarian oxytocin
melatonin-induced differences in respon- (Homeida, 1986), will induce luteolysis.
siveness to gonadal feedback (Chemineau The rapid decline of plasma progesterone
et al., 1988). This gradual enhancement of concentrations is associated with an accel-
gonadotropic activity stimulates ovarian eration of the frequency of LH pulses and an
folliculogenesis and therefore may be increase in their amplitude (Mori and Kano,
responsible for the gradual onset of cyclic 1984). This is the major event triggering the
ovarian activity. start of the ovulatory follicular phase during
which there is stimulation of the growth of
follicles with a mean diameter >1 mm
(Akusu et al., 1986). These growing follicles
5.2.3 The ovarian cycle and related will increase their steroidogenic activity
endocrine events and hence start secreting oestradiol 1713 at
high concentrations >10 pg/ml (Rubianes
During the natural breeding season, female and Menchaca, 2003). The sustained
goats are seasonally polyoestrous with a increase in oestradiol concentration will in
spontaneous ovulation. When the does are turn induce a positive feedback action on
not pregnant, they will display a succession the pituitary gland, culminating in the pre-
of oestrous cycles lasting 21 days on aver- ovulatory LH surge. This surge usually lasts
age, which can be very irregular as we will between 8 and 10 h; its maximum is reached
discuss later. At each cycle, the doe can 3 h after the peak of oestradiol and 10-15 h
ovulate producing one or more oocytes at after the onset of oestrus (Chemineau and
approximately 30-36 h after the beginning Delgadillo, 1994). Ovulation usually occurs
of oestrus (Gonzalez-Stagnaro et al., 1984). 20 h after the pre-ovulatory LH surge with
Following ovulation, the Graafian follicle some variation, as will be discussed later.
transforms into the corpus luteum (the These endocrine events are those that
luteinization process), which is active in have been reported for natural oestrous
secreting progesterone during the luteal occurrence or when oestrus has been
phase, which lasts 16 days. If the female induced following luteolysis with exoge-
does not conceive, the corpus luteum nous PGF2ec. Nevertheless, it is worth men-
regresses (luteolysis) and a new follicular tioning that when oestrus is induced with
phase starts. equine chorionic gonadotropin (eCG),
Several hormonal changes are associ- growth of the follicles is faster and some
ated with the main events of the oestrous features of the endocrine changes are modi-
cycle. These hormonal changes are mainly fied, such as a longer interval between the
the result of interactions between the ova- peak of oestradiol 1713 and the pre-ovulatory
ries, the hypothalamic-pituitary axis and surge of LH, which occurs earlier in relation
the uterus. Throughout the luteal phase, the to the onset of oestrus (5.6 versus 15.7 h;
frequency of LH pulses is negatively corre- Chemineau and Delgadillo, 1994).
lated (r = -0.97) with the level of circulating In parallel to the endocrine changes,
plasma progesterone (Sutherland, 1987). the doe oestrous cycle is also characterized
These concentrations exert a very potent by major changes in follicular turnover.
negative feedback on LH secretion during Useful information on this topic can be
the luteal phase, hence keeping the ampli- found in recent reviews (Rubianes and
tude of LH pulses to less than 1 ng/ml. The Menchaca, 2003; SimOes et al., 2006) and
maximum plasma progesterone concentra- we shall report here the main characteris-
tions are attained around day 10 (day 0 is tics of follicular dynamics in the doe.
124 M. Rekik et al.

The use of ultrasonography has facili- Schwarz and Wierzchos, 2000) and in
tated a rapid increase in our knowledge of Saanen goats (7.3 ± 0.9 days; de Castro
animal reproductive physiology and its et al., 1999).
control. The efficiency of transrectal ultra- Some of the more frequently observed
sonography to study ovarian function in characteristics of the follicular waves are
goats provides a means for repeated, direct, as follows: (i) the diameter of the largest
non-invasive monitoring and measuring of follicle of a wave differs between waves;
follicles >2 mm, regardless of their depth commonly the largest follicles of waves
within the ovary. The results of daily two and three attain smaller maximum
ultrasonographic studies indicate that the diameters than both the largest follicle of
inter-ovulatory cycle of goats is character- wave one and the ovulatory follicle; (ii)
ized by a wavelike pattern of follicular two or more follicles per wave frequently
development, as has been reported for other attain 5 mm or more; (iii) the growth rate
ruminant species. A follicle wave involves between the day of emergence (i.e. first day
the emergence of a group of small antral with a size of 3 mm) and the day of maxi-
follicles from which commonly one or two mum diameter is around 1 mm/day; (iv) as
follicles are selected to grow to >5 mm in the luteal phase progresses, follicular turn-
diameter. According to different authors, over increases and the inter-wave intervals
the number of follicular waves ranges are shorter than during the early luteal
between two and five waves per cycle, but phase; (v) during the mid- to late luteal
the predominant pattern for goats that phase, the follicles that do not grow
developed an inter-ovulatory cycle of nor- beyond 4 mm often are not a part of the
mal length (19-22 days) is of four waves wave phenomenon and it is suggested that
(Fig. 5.1). The emergence of waves one, two, they represent a dynamic underlying pool;
three and four (the ovulatory wave) occurs (vi) most of the ovulatory follicles are the
on days 0, 5-6, 10-11 and around day 15 largest follicles on the day of luteolysis;
post-ovulation, respectively. However, (vii) in most double-ovulatory goats, the
some breed differences have been reported ovulatory follicles emerge as part of the
and the duration of the first inter-wave same follicular wave but in a few cases
interval in Serrana goats (5.6 ± 0.3 days; also as a part of different waves; and (viii)
SimOes et al., 2006) was between the values double ovulations occur on the same day
observed in Boer goats (4.0 ± 1.4 days; in most cycles.

70 -

60 -

50 -

40

0 30-
20 -

10- a
0
3 4 5
Number of waves per oestrous cycle

Fig. 5.1. Distribution of the number of follicular waves per oestrous cycle in goats. Different letters within
columns (a versus b) show that the difference was significant (P < 0.001) (SimOes et al., 2006).
Reproduction of Meat Goats 125

There is good evidence showing that between 19 and 22 days. Frequencies of


the pattern of fluctuations of serum follicle- short (<16 days) and long (>27 days)
stimulating hormone (FSH) concentrations oestrous cycles were, respectively, <5% and
is tightly associated with the emergence of around 15% of all observed cycles. Such
most follicular waves in sheep (Evans et al., data are similar to those reported for the
2000). An increase in FSH concentrations Boer goat (Greyling, 1988) in which the fre-
commonly precedes the emergence of the quencies of short and long cycles have been
wave and this is followed by a decrease, recorded as being 16.6 and 10.2% and also
which is negatively correlated with the oes- for the Barbari goat breed (Prasad and Bhat-
tradiol produced by the largest follicle of tacharyya, 1979) for which the oestrous
the wave. Reports regarding the relation- cycle was categorized into short, medium
ship between FSH and follicular dynamics and long cycles, with the frequency of each
are scarce in goats, and several reports category being 19.7, 68.8 and 11.5%. Oes-
related to FSH fluctuations along the oes- trous cycles were found to be significantly
trous cycle of the goat are inconclusive. shorter during periods of the year with mod-
However, the positive effects of an exoge- erate climatic conditions, compared with
nous FSH treatment on follicle recruitment extreme cold/dry and hot/wet periods. For
are well established in goats (Rubianes and the local Maure goat, it was reported that,
Menchaca, 2003). on average, a goat has a mean of 1.2 normal
Goats are reported to have more irregu- cycles during the whole breeding season
lar oestrous cycles than ewes. The period of with an average length of 21.1 ± 1.5 days
the season (beginning or end of the sexual (Lassoued and Rekik, 2005). All other cycles
season) or post-partum are the major factors were irregular, delimited either by silent
related to irregular oestrous cycles. How- ovulations or by oestruses without ovula-
ever, buck introduction to anoestrous tion. The mean length of the oestrous cycle
females or the administration of exogenous for different breeds of meat goats in many
hormones can also contribute to the appear- countries are summarized in Table 5.3.
ance of irregular oestrous cycles. Irregular-
ity of the oestrous cycle refers to the length
of the cycle, silent ovulation or oestrus 5.2.4 Oestrous expression and
without ovulation (Lassoued and Rekik, occurrence of ovulation
2005). When studying the seasonality of
oestrus and ovulation in Creole goats of Oestrous expression in goats is hormone
Argentina (Rivera et al., 2003), it was found dependent and is triggered by the sustained
that the mean length of the oestrous cycle increase of oestradiol following regression
was 21.7 ± 0.6 days with >90% of the cycles of the corpus luteum at the end of the luteal

Table 5.3. Mean length (days) of the oestrous cycle for some breeds of meat-producing goats.

Length of oestrous
Breed Country cycle (days) Specific information Reference

Boer South Africa 20.7 ± 0.7 Greyling (2000)


Creole Argentina 21.7 ± 0.7 Regular cycles only Rivera et al. (2003)
Mau re Tunisia 21.1 ± 1.5 Regular cycles only Lassoued and Rekik (2005)
Dwarf Pakistan 19.7 ± 1.5 Post-partum period Khanum et al. (2007)
Damascus New Zealand 21.2 ± 1.5 Zarkawi and Soukouti (2001)
Se rrana Portugal 20.6 ± 1 Induced oestrus with SimOes et al. (2006)
PGF2a
Matou China 19.7 ± 1.5 Moaeen-ud-Din et al. (2008)

PGF2a, Prostaglandin Fla.


126 M. Rekik et al.

phase and the rapid fall in progesterone onset of oestrus (86.7% of does ovulating by
plasma concentrations. On the day of oes- 38 h after the onset of oestrus), with the
trus, progesterone plasma concentrations mean time interval between the LH peak
are very low, i.e. <0.5 ng/ml. The duration of and ovulation being 24.7 h (Greyling, 2000).
the oestrous period in goats appears to be The timing of the LH peak relative to the
variable in length, but on average it lasts onset of oestrus was recorded as being
36 h, with a variation of between 22 and between 4 and 20 h after the onset of oes-
60 h (Riera, 1982). The mean duration of the trus. These data on the Boer goat are similar
natural oestrous period in the mature Boer to what have been reported for the Jakhrana
goat is 37.4 ± 8.6 h, with a variation of goat for which ovulation occurred 28 h after
24-56 h among individuals (Greyling, 2000). the onset of oestrus (towards the end of the
No significant difference was recorded oestrous period) and reached its peak at
between multiparous, biparous and primip- 36 h post-oestrus (Goel and Agrawal, 2003)
arous does (38.2, 34.0 and 38.6 h, respec- and also for local Egyptian goats for which
tively). When in oestrus, the doe is more ovulation occurred at about 27 h after the
expressive than other females of mammalian onset of oestrus (Salama, 1972).
domestic species (Fabre-Nys, 2000). During Timings of oestrus and ovulation are
the first phase of oestrus, behaviour known hastened when the does are hormonally
as `proceptivity' or pro-oestrus occurs, when treated. Knowledge of time, rate and syn-
the female seeks partners for stimulation chrony of ovulation after treatment with
through intermittent approaches. The female intravaginal devices is important to establish
then moves on to the second phase of 'recep- a suitable schedule in fixed-time artificial
tivity' or oestrus, when she is in heat, insemination programmes. For the Tunisian
expressing the following signs: seeking out local goat, it has been found that treatment
bucks more frequently, wagging of the tail, of the does with eCG advances oestrus by
mounting behaviour, bleating, clear mucous approximately 10 h (N. Lassoued and
discharge from the vulva, urine emission, M. Rekik, 2010, unpublished results). This is
and reddening and swelling of the vulva. similar to other results (Ritar et al., 1989)
These signs will end with the female accept- showing that ovulation had occurred by the
ing mounting. When in oestrus, the female final laparoscopy (65-75 h) in all females
goat can express a homosexual behaviour by (n = 22) injected with 200 or 400 interna-
mounting other goats in heat. The intensity tional units (IU) eCG at 0 or -48 h in relation
of the oestrous signs may vary; this often to withdrawal of the progestogen treatment,
happens with young does for which these whereas only seven of the does not injected
behaviours are not so obvious. with eCG (control) had ovulated by this time.
The time of ovulation in the goat is
reported as occurring towards the end of the
oestrous period (van der Westhuizen et al., 5.2.5 Ovulation rate and reproductive
1985). Ovulation is a complex process, initi- wastage
ated by the surge of gonadotropins, and is
characterized by resumption of meiosis, For meat production breeds of goats, ovula-
culminating in rupture of the follicular sur- tion rate has a major impact on their litter
face, release of a mature fertilizable (sec- size and hence on their reproductive effec-
ondary oocyte) ovum and restructuring of tiveness. A high ovulation rate is an impor-
the follicular wall. To decide the precise tant characteristic, referring to the number of
time of mating and also to make effective ova liberated and eventually the number of
use of modern reproductive tools such as kids born per doe kidding. Physiologically,
artificial insemination and embryo transfer the number of ova shed by a goat at each
technology for improving goat production, ovarian cycle is the interaction between
information on ovulation profiles is essen- three levels of regulatory mechanisms: the
tial. In the Boer goat doe, the time of ovula- concentrations of circulating gonadotropins
tion is recorded as occurring 36.8 h after the (mainly FSH), the response of the follicles to
Reproduction of Meat Goats 127

these hormones and the internal regulations environmental factors such as nutrition
at the ovarian level, whether paracrine (Delgadillo et al., 1997) or health status.
(between follicles) or autocrine (within a fol- Breed is also a major variation factor for
licle) (Driancourt et al., 1990). Ovulation rate ovulation rate. The Boer doe with a mean
is influenced by the stage of breeding season, ovulation rate of 1.72 is considered one of
genotype, parity and nutrition. the more prolific breeds in the world
When studying seasonal variations of (Greyling, 2000). In terms of litter size, the
reproductive traits of the local Maure goat percentage of singletons, twins, triplets and
in central Tunisia, an important effect of quadruplets born in the Boer goat are quoted
season on ovulation rate was reported as being 24.5, 59.2, 15.3 and 1%, respec-
(Lassoued and Rekik, 2005). Ovulation rate tively (Campbell, 1994). Because of the close
dropped from a mean value of 1.51 at the relationship between ovulation rate and
start of the breeding season in September- litter size, we would expect most of Boer
October to <1.25 at the end of the breeding goats to shed twin ovulations. The ovulation
season towards January and February. rate of the Boer goats is higher than that
These findings are consistent with other quoted for Malawian goats (1.68; Campbell,
published data (Restall, 1992) reporting a 1994) or Jakhrana goats native to semi-arid
decreasing gradient of ovulation rate India (1.33; Goel and Agrawal, 2003). Other
between the beginning and the end of the breeds can have much higher ovulation
breeding season for Australian goats, with a rates, such as the Black Bengal goat with a
trend for the ovulation rate to be higher for mean rate of 4 (Rao and Bhattacharrya, 1980).
does kept in the presence of males. When For the prolific Matou breed in China, it is
ovulation rate shows seasonal variation, anticipated that ovulation rate, although not
maximum prolificacy in the flocks can be measured, would be high on the basis of
obtained by presenting does to bucks at the litter sizes recorded in the flocks: mean litter
start of the breeding season. For breeds that size was reported to be 2.09 (Moaeen-ud-Din
are not seasonal, as in the case of the Creole et al., 2008), with the percentages of single-
goat in Guadeloupe (Chemineau, 1986) or tons, twins, triplets and quadruplets being
the D'Man in Morocco (Derquaoui and El 27.4, 45.4, 16.3 and 10.9%, respectively.
Khaledi, 1994), seasonal variations of Lower frequencies of does gave birth to quin-
ovulation rate are less important. However, tuplets or sextuplets. However, the survival
under such conditions, this trait can rate of kids was 90.8% and was negatively
show variations associated with other associated with litter size (Fig. 5.2).

120 -

100 -

80 -
2
E 60-
Ts
>
2 40-
(/)
20 -

0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Litter size

Fig. 5.2. Association of survival rate at puberty of kids with litter size in the Matou breed (redrawn from
Moaeen-ud-Din et al., 2008).
128 M. Rekik et al.

Nutrition is known to play a funda- In goats with no permanent teeth, 57.6% of


mental role in controlling several reproduc- the does had multiple ovulations compared
tive events, including hormone production, with 96.3% for goats with six or more per-
gametogenesis, fertilization and early manent teeth. Interestingly, embryo losses
embryonic development in farm animals. increased from 7.7 to 16.1%, but it was not
Like sheep, but in contrast to cattle, most possible to conclude whether the trend in
goats have the potential for multiple ovula- embryo loss was correlated with age or ovu-
tions, but this ability may be impaired by lation rate.
inadequate nutrition. Long-term effects In mammals, reproductive losses can
(3 weeks) of overfeeding on ovulation rate occur from mating time up to the end of
are mediated through improved body con- pregnancy. These losses can be summarized
dition (dynamic component of nutrition on as being due to fertilization failure, early
ovulation rate), whereas short-term effects embryonic losses and fetal losses (abortion).
are achieved through the provision of nutri- In goats, many of the data related to fertiliza-
ents that modify the hormonal environ- tion failure emanate from studies on super-
ment, with no alteration of body condition ovulation and embryo recovery. Fertilization
(static component). The appearance and failure in goats has been summarized as
continuation of oestrous activity of goats being the result of a poor synchronization of
are less dependent on nutrition than ovula- oestrus and ovulation, especially following
tion rate. In British Saanen and Toggenburg fixed-time artificial insemination, and also
thin goats, severe energy deprivation dur- of abnormal maturation of the oocytes fol-
ing the 19 days before a synchronized oes- lowing superovulation (Lehloenya, 2008).
trus did not affect the proportion of goats In sheep, most early embryo losses
coming into oestrus but did decrease the occurred during the period immediately
ovulation rate, and timing of ovulation was preceding day 18 after mating during either
delayed (Mani et al., 1992). Ovulation rate blastulation or extension of the embryonic
increased asymptotically in small prolific membranes (Quinlivan et al., 1966). In
Indonesian goats that gained body weight goats, it was also concluded that limited
at 30 g/day before mating (Henniawati and conceptus loss is expected after the first
Fletcher, 1986). Such an effect could be 3 weeks of pregnancy (Anwar and Ahmad,
mediated through an increase in blood glu- 1999). Some of the factors involved in early
cose, insulin and leptin, leading to embryonic mortality are: body condition
increased folliculogenesis and ovulation (does that are too fat or too thin at mating
rate (Viholes, 2003). No negative effect of time); dietary changes within the first few
overconditioning on reproduction has been weeks after breeding negatively influencing
documented in goats, as it has been in functioning of the corpora lutea; extreme
sheep (West et al., 1991). Further examples hot weather within the first month after
on the interaction between nutritional breeding; genetic factors of the sire, dam or
inputs, ovulation rate and litter size will be embryo leading to congenital defects and
discussed in section 5.4. early conceptus loss; maternal hormone
Similarly to ewes, ovulation rate for imbalances; age of the dam (embryo losses
does varies with age, although the effect can are greater in young does and goats over
be confounded by parity. If we assume that 6 years); excessive oestrogen in the diet
the effect of age on ovulation rate is similar (ingestion of plants containing phyto-
to the effect on litter size, maximum ovula- oestrogens); deficient uterine environment
tion rate is reached when does are 5-7 years (insufficient uterine space for the number of
old. Investigations into the genitalia of preg- embryos or too few placental attachment
nant Teddy goats in Pakistan (Anwar and sites or caruncles); and immunologic
Ahmad, 1999) showed that ovulation rate incompatibility (blood types and serum
increased from 1.6 to 2.3 for young does antigens).
with no permanent teeth and old does with During later stages of pregnancy and in
six or eight permanent teeth, respectively. the absence of the incidence of abortive
Reproduction of Meat Goats 129

diseases, it was shown that a severe reduc- effect on gestation length (Greyling, 1988).
tion in the energy allowances well below The influence of nutrition on fetal develop-
the requirements of goats through the third ment during certain months of pregnancy
month of pregnancy was associated with does tend to shorten or lengthen the gesta-
increased embryo loss (Mani et al., 1992). tion period, but the variation due to this fac-
In late gestation, an energy deficit, particu- tor was only 1.5 days (Riera, 1982).
larly for does carrying multiple fetuses, The endocrine balance during preg-
will result in pregnancy toxaemia (ketosis) nancy in goats is complex and involves
and fetal death. Signs of ketosis are anorexia several hormones such as progesterone, oes-
(off feed), lethargy and pain. Caught early, trone sulfate, cPL and pregnancy-associated
ketosis can be treated with propylene glycol glycoproteins (PAGs). Progesterone is
given orally. required to maintain pregnancy (Meites
et al., 1951). Early during pregnancy, pro-
gesterone facilitates the implantation pro-
cess and thereafter maintains pregnancy by
5.2.6 Gestation and uterine involution ensuring closure of the cervix. During gesta-
tion, there is little evidence of any dramatic
For a pregnancy to be established, commu- increase in serum progesterone concentra-
nication between conceptus and mother tion above the levels attained during the
(maternal recognition) and implantation of luteal phase of the oestrous cycle, suggest-
the conceptus on the uterine wall must ing the corpus luteum as the only source of
occur. The establishment of intimate progesterone (Wango et al., 1991). A posi-
contact between the embryo and the tive relationship between multiple pregnan-
mother follows a succession of common cies and maternal serum progesterone levels
critical steps whose chronology and timing was not observed (Thorburn and Schneider,
may vary considerably from species to spe- 1972).
cies. In goats, implantation begins around cPL is somewhat related to prolactin
days 14-17 of pregnancy (Bazer et al., and growth hormone and is secreted
1997) when the embryo starts placentation. by the placenta. The hormone becomes
The placentome serves as immunological detectable in the maternal circulation from
barrier membrane and mediates gas and day 44 of pregnancy (Currie et al., 1990).
micronutrient exchange (Wani, 1996). The The hormone is important for the develop-
placenta secretes steroid hormones (oestra- ment and activity of the mammary gland,
diol and progesterone) and placental lacto- and its secretion increases between weeks
gen (cPL). The latter plays a major role in 10 and 16 of pregnancy, coinciding with the
maintaining pregnancy and in growth of development of the epithelial tissue of the
the mammary gland (Hayden et al., 1979). mammary gland (Hayden et al., 1979).
The length of pregnancy is called the PAGs are of feto-placental origin and
gestation period. For goats, the gestation are detected in the peripheral circulation of
period is about 149 days with a usual range pregnant animals. PAGs are immunosup-
of 145-153 days. The length of gestation is pressants and are believed to play a role in
variable according to breed and the individ- preventing the immune system of the preg-
ual. The mean gestation period for the Boer nant female from attacking the embryo
goat is recorded as being 148.2 ± 3.7 days (Shaw and Morton, 1980; Bose et al., 1989).
(Greyling, 1988). In Black Bengal does, the These proteins are secreted by trophoblastic
length of gestation is 144 days (Jainudeen cells and are found in the peripheral circu-
et al., 2000). Gestation may be shorter in lation of pregnant dairy and beef cows (Zoli
twin-bearing does and in extreme weather. et al., 1992), goats (Benitez-Ortiz, 1992) and
However, for Boer goats, there was no sig- in Churra, Merino and Assaf ewes (Ranilla
nificant difference in the gestation length et al., 1994, 1997). During pregnancy of
between does bearing singletons or triplets, Moxto and Caninde goats, PAG was detected
and the season of mating had no significant on day 24 after artificial insemination
130 M. Rekik et al.

(Sousa et al., 1999). The profiles for PAG tion of its epithelial layers during the pro-
were not different between the breeds cess of uterine involution (Hunter, 1981).
throughout pregnancy. However, a signifi- The interval from parturition to a subse-
cant effect of the stage of pregnancy and the quent pregnancy is a factor of major eco-
number of fetuses on PAG concentrations nomic importance and hence the involution
was found (Fig 5.3). of the post-partum uterus must be seen as
Morphological changes or their delay one of the important limitations in achiev-
in the post-partum uterus and ovaries of ing the goal of optimal reproduction effi-
farm animals exerts limitations on the ciency. The time required for uterine
reproductive performance of females fol- involution in goats is not very precise. In
lowing parturition. After distension and the Boer goat, macroscopic changes of the
distortion of uterine tissues during preg- post-partum uterus show a rapid decline in
nancy and the heightened glandular devel- weight and volume from parturition to
opment for support of the conceptus, the approximately day 12 post-partum. This is
uterus must undergo contractions and loss demonstrated by the fact that, by day 12
of weight, together with extensive regenera- post-partum, the uterus weight is 15% of its

(a)
250

200
E
--E3) 150

< 100

50

5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21

Weeks of gestation

(b)

250

200

--(3) 150

< 100

50

5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21

Weeks of gestation

Fig. 5.3. Pregnancy-associated glycoprotein (PAG) profiles during pregnancy in Moxoto (a) and
Caninde (b) goats with either single (-) or multiple (x) pregnancies. Significant differences (P < 0.05) in
PAG concentrations between prolificacy levels are indicated by asterisks (*) (Sousa et al., 1999).
Reproduction of Meat Goats 131

weight at parturition. By day 20, it is 8% of meat-producing livestock breeds than for


that at parturition and only 27% more than dairy breeds, which are usually managed to
the uterus weight of maiden Boer goats. reach the target of one reproductive cycle
Decreases in uterine horn length and diam- per year, i.e. one lactation per year. In goats,
eter were less pronounced and the external an early restart of oestrous activity during
diameters were back to normal by day 28 the post-partum period is important to
post-partum. According to these observa- obtain a suitable kidding interval. Physio-
tions, it would seem that the involution logically, the endocrine mechanisms under-
process of the Boer goat uterus is macro- lying post-partum anoestrus in goats are
scopically complete by approximately similar to those described for sheep and
28 days post-partum (Grey ling and van cattle and are illustrated by an increased
Niekerk, 1991). oestradiol feedback at the hypothalamo-
Pseudopregnancy occurs when the pituitary axis leading to inadequate pulsa-
corpus luteum persists in the absence of a tility of LH to promote follicular growth at
viable conceptus in the uterus. During pseu- the ovarian level.
dopregnancy, aseptic fluid accumulates in When comparing sheep and goats, the
the uterus (visible on ultrasonography), and latter are reported to have an earlier resump-
this pathological uterine condition is known tion of post-partum ovarian activity (Mbaya-
as hydrometra (Pieterse and Taverne, 1986). haga et al., 1998). However, various
Progesterone secreted by the corpus luteum abnormalities characterize the post-partum
is also high and the lifespan of the corpus ovarian activity in goats, namely a higher
luteum is longer in comparison with a cyclic incidence of atypical cycles with short and
corpus luteum and can prolong the duration long luteal phases. Regular ovarian cycles
of a gestation period. From field studies are usually observed in sheep. The first
based on the use of ultrasonography, it post-partum oestrus precedes the first ovar-
appears that the incidence of hydrometra in ian activity in goats (4 days for local Burun-
herds of dairy goats varies between 3 and dian goats) but occurs later in sheep
21%, although hydrometra is rare in young (36 days) (Mbayahaga et al., 1998). These
goats (Mialot et al., 1991; Hesse link, 1993a; differences could be related to the require-
Leboeuf et al., 1994). There are no specific ment for progesterone priming between the
reports on the incidence of hydrometra in two species. In fact, the central nervous sys-
meat goats. Treatment of pseudopregnant tem of the ewes needs to be primed with
goats with a luteolytic dose of PGF2ec will progesterone before they can become
cause discharge of the uterine fluid (Pieterse responsive to oestrogen, but goats do not
and Taverne, 1986). It has been demon- require this progesterone priming for oes-
strated under field conditions that a second trous behaviour.
treatment with PGF2ec given 12 days For goat breeds, a strong correlation was
after the induced discharge significantly observed between kidding interval and the
improves the reproductive performance of latitude of the area where the breeds origi-
the goats when they are mated during the nate from (Fig. 5.4; Delgadillo et al., 1997).
oestrus induced by the second injection For breeds thriving near the equator, the kid-
(Hesse link, 1993b). ding interval is approximately 250 days,
which means that the post-partum anoes-
trous period is relatively short. In contrast,
when the latitude increases (such as areas at
5.2.7 Post-partum anoestrous period latitude 30°), the kidding interval becomes
longer, around 1 year. This relationship
Early resumption of ovarian and oestrous between kidding interval and latitude can
activities during the post-partum period is be modified by several environmental fac-
a necessary requirement for successful tors such as seasonal anoestrus, breed, nutri-
rebreeding in domestic animals. Such tion and body condition (a statement that is
a requirement is more critical for true for all reproductive traits), number of
132 M. Rekik et al.

400

380

360

340

320

300

280

260

240

220

200
0 10 15 20 25 30 35
Latitude (C)

Fig. 5.4. Relationship between the length of the kidding interval and the latitude of the geographical
area where the breed of goat originates from (each point represents a breed) (redrawn from Delgadillo
et al., 1997).

suckled kids and parity. Another factor that The uniqueness of these two latter breeds,
has a role to play in resumption of ovarian rendering them more sensitive to post-
activity is the presence of the male. The partum endocrine interactions, may be
practical applications of the buck effect will one of the reasons for the large interval
be discussed later. between parturition and the occurrence of
One explanation for a delayed resump- first oestrus. Dwarf goats are also known to
tion of reproductive activity following kid- have a shorter period of post-partum anoes-
ding is an interaction between seasonal trus than other meat breeds (e.g. Black
anoestrus and post-partum anoestrus. For Bengal, West African Dwarf or Malaysian
local goats of North Mexico, 50% of females Katjang). For Dwarf goats in Pakistan, a
resumed reproductive activity 3.5 months mean post-partum anoestrous period of
after parturition in May, while the same only 28 days (range 15-59 days) was
percentage was reached at 5.5 months if reported (Khanum et al., 2007).
parturition occurred in January (Delgadillo In several mammalian species, the
et al., 1997). Intervals for resumption of presence of the young strongly inhibits the
reproductive activity after kidding are resumption of post-partum sexual activity,
therefore shorter when the kidding season and the sensory stimulation caused by suck-
coincides with the natural breeding season, ling is an important component in this
and this can be the basis for management process, although its mechanisms of action
practices to accelerate kiddings in meat- may vary between species. In domestic
producing breeds. ruminants, there is also some effect of the
Breed of goat is another factor that alters young on post-partum anoestrus duration.
length of the post-partum anoestrus. In Bra- For example, in sheep, there is a positive
zil, local Caninde and mixed breeds of goats correlation between nursing activity and
resumed post-partum reproductive activity post-partum anoestrus duration (Fletcher,
on average between 46 and 52 days after kid- 1971), and ewes separated early from their
ding (Freitas et al., 2004); this interval was young and submitted to milking return to
much shorter than for Anglo-Nubian and heat sooner than the mothers that keep
Saanen goats raised in the same environment. nursing, an effect partly due to an inhibitory
Reproduction of Meat Goats 133

action of prolactin. The effect of suckling feedback control on gonadotropins. LH is


stimulus on post-partum anoestrus in goats secreted in pulses controlled by GnRH from
remains controversial. Twin-bearing goats the hypothalamus. Between pulses, basal
tend to have a longer post-partum anoestrus secretion is recorded. It has been shown that
than single-bearing does (Mbayahaga et al., the frequency of the pulses and their ampli-
1998), but the numbers of animals were not tude are key factors determining the response
sufficient to demonstrate this statistically. of the gonads to LH (Delgadillo and
Similarly, the mean duration of the post- Chemineau, 1992).
partum anoestrous period in the Boer goat In seasonal breeds, variations in the
is quoted as being 55.5 ± 24.9 days with gonadotropic activity are responsible for the
this period being 53.2 ± 14.3 days for low reproductive activity of the bucks dur-
does bearing singletons, 58.5 ± 30.0 days for ing spring when the photoperiod is increas-
does with twins and 61.7 ± 30.7 days ing and for the intense activity during
for does bearing triplets (no significant dif- autumn and winter under a decreasing pho-
ferences) (Grey ling, 2000). The duration of toperiod. In the northern hemisphere, the
the suckling period did not have an effect basal plasma concentrations, pulse fre-
on the length of the post-partum period. In quency and amplitude of LH are low from
North Mexican goats, weaning of the kids at January to May (Chemineau and Delgadillo,
2, 30 or 90 days of age did not influence the 1994). The amplitude of the pulses then
time of resumption of post-partum ovarian shows sustainable increases from June to
activity (Delgadillo et al., 1994). January. In September, the pulse frequency
Parity seems also to be a source of increases while the amplitude declines
variation of the length of post-partum because of the inverse relationship between
anoestrus. It was shown that goats in their the two features. It is also likely that the
first and second lactation had a longer post- reduction in the LH pulse amplitude results
partum anoestrus when compared with from the negative feedback action of testos-
goats in later lactations (Freitas et al., 2004). terone, which reaches its highest concentra-
It is possible that this difference is due to a tions in autumn. After the peaks reached by
better ability for the return to oestrous activ- LH and testosterone concentrations in
ity after kidding in higher parity goats. Such autumn, these two hormones then show a
a fact may be related to the faster uterine gradual decrease until January when a new
involution and/or to the return of the annual cycle begins. The close relationship
responsiveness to gonadotropin-releasing between changes in gonadotropin plasma
hormone (GnRH) post partum. levels, the weight of the testes (as an indica-
tor of spermatogenesis) and sexual behav-
iour confirms that seasonal changes in
reproduction of the buck are controlled by
5.3 The Buck Reproductive neuroendocrine activity. Seasonal changes
Physiology in reproductive activity of bucks have also
been reported in areas where changes in
5.3.1 Neuroendocrine control and photoperiod are less important than in tem-
seasonality of reproduction perate countries. This is the case for the low
libido and semen quality of Zaraibi bucks in
In bucks, spermatogenesis (all the processes Egypt during the spring season, which has
that converge to the production of spermato- been attributed to the low level of circulat-
zoa) are under the control of LH and FSH. ing plasma testosterone and a reduction in
These two pituitary hormones participate in the thickness of the seminiferous tubules
the differentiation and multiplication of ger- due to the lower number of spermatic layers
minal cells and also in the synthesis and (Barkawi et al., 2006). Seasonal changes in
secretion of testosterone by Leydig cells. Tes- reproductive activity of bucks are also illus-
tosterone in turn maintains spermatogenesis, trated by a number of other observations
triggers male sexual behaviour and exerts where the month of collection significantly
134 M. Rekik et al.

affected the mass motility, progressive the pastures in the dry season (Clariget et al.,
motility, percentage of abnormal sperm and 1998). The effect of seasonal weight loss on
volume of ejaculate. Additionally, different several reproductive parameters has been
trends in seasonality of ejaculate volume described extensively for several goat breeds
have been reported for Murciano-Granadina such as Damascus (Al-Ghalban et al., 2004)
(at latitude 37°) and Verata (at latitude 40°) and Zairabi (Barkawi et al., 2006) goats. For
bucks (Roca et al., 1992; Perez and Mateos, Boer bucks in arid areas of South Africa, the
1996). In these studies, higher semen vol- feeding of non-supplemented winter veld
umes were recorded in summer and autumn hay significantly reduced the reproductive
(June-November). As has already been dis- performance in the Boer goat buck (de Waal
cussed for the doe, changes in photoperiod and Combrinck, 2000). From this study, it
are the primary cue for the seasonal changes was possible to conclude that the feeding of
in neuroendocrine activity. Photoperiod only winter veld hay had a significant detri-
would act through the secretion of mental effect on testicular development and
melatonin from the pineal gland, hence semen quality in the young Boer goat buck.
modulating the sensitivity of the hypotha- Such interactions between nutrition and
lamic-pituitary axis to feedback by steroids. reproduction have also been well described
Differences between breeds with regard for Cashmere bucks receiving a lucerne-
to seasonal variation of reproduction can based diet, which had a frequency of seven
also have a genetic component. Under the LH pulses in 7 h in comparison with only
same environment, photoperiod did not two pulses in their counterparts fed a
have the same effect on semen characteris- tropical grass with a low protein content
tics of the Verata and Malaguetia bucks. The (Walkden-Brown, 1991).
Verata breed was more affected by photope- Age is also considered an important
riod, with higher semen production and factor affecting the reproductive efficiency
better semen quality during the decreasing of bucks. Mature bucks of the Damascus
photoperiod (Perez and Mateos, 1996). breed were heavier, with a greater scrotal
circumference, total number of sperm per
ejaculate and sperm concentration when
compared with yearling bucks (Al-Ghalban
5.3.2 Other factors affecting reproduction et al., 2004). This is in line with previous
in bucks reports (Osinowo et al., 1988), showing that
mature rams generally have higher ejaculate
Nutrition is one of the factors of utmost volumes, sperm concentrations and total
importance in the expression of the repro- number of sperm per ejaculate than younger
ductive characteristics. Nutrition can have rams. The percentage of abnormal sperm
long-, medium- and short-term effects on the was lower in mature bucks compared with
reproductive function of small ruminants. yearlings (Al-Ghalban et al., 2004), although
To alter reproduction, nutrition can act on other workers (Osinowo et al., 1988) found
the hypothalamic-pituitary axis through no significant differences in this trait
changes in gonadotropin secretion or between yearlings and mature rams.
directly on the gonads, interfering with the Although the male goat has an excep-
processes of gamete production. It is well tionally high libido, particularly during the
established that the effects of nutrition are breeding season, infertility is reported only
mediated through a number of metabolites in polled bucks, which are, in reality,
and metabolic hormones, such as insulin, intersex (hermaphroditism and pseudo-
leptin, insulin-like growth factors, glucose hermaphroditism). The presence of horns
and amino acids. In most tropical and (as an indication of masculinity) has a sig-
subtropical climates, undernutrition poses nificant effect on sperm concentration, total
serious limitations on animal production sperm per ejaculate and viable sperm
and animals may lose up to 40% of their concentration for all breeds. This statement
body weight because of the poor quality of is in agreement with other results showing
Reproduction of Meat Goats 135

that fertility improved when using horned One major factor explaining variation
rather than polled Damascus bucks during of sexual behaviour in the buck is the level
the breeding season (Hasan and Shaker, of testosterone. In temperate zones, sexual
1990). In addition, the number of live kids behaviour is usually preceded by an
per litter was greater in the case of horned increase in the concentration of testoster-
bucks. Polledness was also associated with one approximately 6 weeks earlier (Ahmad
an increasing incidence of intersexuality in and Noakes, 1995). The two parameters
goat kids (Hancock and Louca, 1975). remain high during autumn and winter,
Because of the genetic link between the after which testosterone concentrations
locus for the presence of horns and the start to decline. This is followed by a dimi-
fertility characteristics of bucks (Devendra nution of sexual behaviour a few weeks
and Burns, 1983), it is suggested that afterwards.
replacement sires should preferably be Other factors are also implicated in the
horned, and all bucks from two polled control of sexual behaviour of the buck. The
parents should be excluded from the effect of age and previous experience are
breeding flock. difficult to dissociate in the young buck.
Only 40% of young bucks show an interest
in females at the age of 12 weeks (Ahmad
and Noakes, 1996). At 21 weeks of age, all
5.3.3 Sexual behaviour in bucks bucks will mount the females and collec-
tion of semen becomes possible at the age of
In the buck, the level of sexual activity fluc- 24 weeks.
tuates during the year in relation to the con- If bucks are raised exclusively in groups
centration of testosterone. However, such of males, they can develop homosexual
dependence is less accentuated than in behaviour at the adult age and a sexual inhi-
other species and can be modulated by the bition in the presence of receptive females
social environment, such as the presence of (Price and Smith, 1984). In the adult, sexual
other males and regular exposure to recep- behaviour shows little improvement with
tive females. Sexual behaviour of the buck age. Nevertheless, regular stimulation of
has been reviewed extensively (Fabre-Nys, bucks with receptive females maintains a
2000) and we report here the major elements high level of sexual activity, even outside
of this review. The first step of the buck sex- the breeding season (Khaldi, 1984). The
ual behaviour is illustrated, as in the ram, same author also reports that males kept
by the adoption of a posture where the head near other males expressing sexual behav-
is stretched to the front with the ears in a iour will have a shorter period of inactiva-
down position. It is then followed by sniff- tion between two ejaculations and a higher
ing of the anogenital area of the female, and frequency of ejaculations than males kept
the buck urinates and displays the charac- alone.
teristic 'flehmen' reaction. If the doe shows
signs of receptivity, then the buck moves on
to a courtship behaviour, rotating his head
in the direction of the female, emitting brief 5.3.4 Photoperiodic treatment of bucks
sounds at a low frequency and striking the and semen biotechnology
doe with his foreleg.
The second sequence of steps starts by Bucks kept under photoperiodic treat-
copulation attempts, ending with the ments, initially developed for rams, would
following sequence of events: erection, suppress the problem of seasonality of
mounting, intromission and ejaculation. In reproduction, particularly sperm produc-
the buck, ejaculation follows the first intro- tion. Accelerated alternation of treatments
mission and usually lasts a few seconds. of increasing photoperiod (1-2 months
Following ejaculation, the buck usually of long days:16 h light:8 h dark) and
turns to feeding if available. decreasing photoperiod (1-2 months of
136 M. Rekik et al.

short days: 16 h dark:8 h light) has been semen production in artificial insemination
shown to abolish seasonal variations of centres.
testicular weight and sperm production
(Chemineau et al., 1999). Over a period of
3 years, all reproductive traits were 5.3.5 Managing bucks for reproduction
improved for treated in comparison with
untreated bucks maintained under a natu- Bucks must be in excellent condition at
ral photoperiod (Delgadillo et al., 1993). mating, otherwise mating performance and
For photoperiodically treated bucks col- subsequent kidding performance could be
lected twice a week, sperm yield was depressed. Bucks must be capable of serv-
improved by 61% and the total number of ing at least ten does each day when intro-
doses for artificial insemination over a duced during the second oestrous cycle of
2-year period was increased by 62%. How- the breeding season. Spermatogenesis is
ever, the fecundity of the bucks tested on susceptible to outside influences such as
artificially inseminated does was not elevated temperature, the season of the year
improved by the treatment. and nutrition, and breeding males need to
The increase of sperm output by be evaluated for reproductive soundness
photoperiod-treated bucks can be explained 3-4 weeks prior to the mating season
by improvement of the biological efficiency
(Memon et al., 2007), while other actions
of spermatogenesis. Spermatogonia and are required several months before the
spermatogenic divisions in treated bucks breeding season:
reach maximum yields similar to those
usually observed during the breeding . Sufficient feed.
season (Delgadillo et al., 1995). . Fresh, clean water.
A specific problem during conservation . Adequate shade during summer and in
of buck sperm in artificial insemination the time leading up to mating. If this is
centres is the deleterious effect of the semi- not done, semen production will be
nal plasma on the viability of spermatozoa reduced and sperm numbers may be
after freeze-thawing when milk- or egg inadequate for fertilization of more
yolk-based diluents are used. There is an than a few does.
enzyme in the seminal plasma that reduces . Regularly trimming of bucks' feet to
survival of the spermatozoa in vitro (Corteel, make sure they are kept in good order.
1975; Memon et al., 1985). The protein that Bucks place most of their body weight
is incriminated in these deleterious effects on their hind legs and feet during
is found in the fraction of the seminal mounting. If they are in pain from bad
plasma that is produced by the bulbo-ure- feet, they will refuse to mate.
thral glands. It is a glycoprotein of 55-60
kDa (named BUSgp60) and causes a reduc- Examination (palpation) of the external
tion in mobile spermatozoa, rupture of the genitalia (scrotum and scrotal content,
acrosome and death of spermatozoa when sheath and penis) for signs of infections and
the semen is diluted in skimmed milk other abnormalities is also an important
(Pellicer-Rubio et al., 2008). So far, a wash- step of the breeding soundness examination
ing step during which the seminal plasma is (Memon et al., 2007). The testes should be
removed prior to sperm conservation is firm and spongy and free of lumps. A male
necessary before cryopreservation of the with large symmetrical testes, free of defects,
bucks' semen. More recently, commercial is likely to produce semen of good quality.
extenders with no biological components There are currently no age and breed stan-
have been developed to improve sanitary dards for scrotal circumference in meat-type
safety in semen processing (Gil et al., 2003). breeds, and there is a need for guidelines to
Techniques of sperm-cell cryopreservation be developed. Alternatively, examination
and fresh semen production require further involves the collection and evaluation of an
studies in order to increase the efficiency of ejaculate. In trained bucks, this is achieved
Reproduction of Meat Goats 137

using an artificial vagina, but in most Social interactions can play an impor-
instances an electroejaculator or battery- tant role in modifying expression of some
operated ejaculator is used (Memon et al., reproductive traits in both sexes. There is
1986). The ejaculate scored is immediately evidence that the presence of the buck may
assessed for sperm motility using a light modify the age of puberty in the goat
microscope and a pre-warmed slide. It is (Grey ling, 1996). In an early study (Amoah
also possible to assess libido by allowing and Bryant, 1984), it was suggested that
the buck access to an oestrous doe as a contact with the male goat has an effect on
teaser Animals deficient in any part of the the timing of puberty and is associated with
examination should be considered ques- rapid and highly synchronous attainment of
tionable and retested after several weeks. puberty in the majority of kids. Similarly,
For young bucks, it is important to on the basis of the oestrous response, it was
ensure that both testicles have descended. shown that the permanent, rather than the
The breeding potential and value of a buck intermittent, presence of bucks had a
are considerably reduced if it has only one marked beneficial effect on the number of
descended testicle. This abnormality (crypt- young kids exhibiting oestrus (Grey ling,
orchidism) can be passed to the next genera- 1996).
tion (Mickelsen and Memon, 2007). Young, Exogenous ly administered melatonin
inexperienced bucks need extra management from continuous slow-release implants has
to ensure that they get on with mating. Young been shown to advance the onset of the
bucks should be confined in yards or small breeding season in sheep and goats by
secure paddocks with mature does in oes- mimicking the stimulatory effect of short
trus. When the young bucks show interest in days. It is well known that melatonin is
mating and staying with the flock, they can implicated in the sequence of events leading
be put into larger paddocks used for mating. to the onset of puberty in small ruminants,
The best method of checking if bucks but there are very few reports on the use of
are working is to use mating crayons. Bucks exogenous melatonin to advance the onset
are fitted with a harness that holds a of puberty. Melatonin implants adminis-
coloured crayon over the sternum. When a tered during the last month of spring in
buck mates, a coloured mark is left on the autumn-born female Damascus goats
rump of the doe. It is essential that the har- advanced their breeding season by about
ness is correctly fitted. Records can be kept 11-12 weeks when joined with young males
of when does are mated for rational manage- also implanted with melatonin (P apa-
ment of kidding. By changing the colours of christoforou et al., 2007). In the anticipa-
the crayons every 21 days, it is easy to deter- tion that such improvement would not
mine when does have conceived. affect later performances with regard to the
earlier breeding of Damascus female kids, it
was found to have positive effects on their
lifetime performance (Mavrogenis and
5.4 Manipulating Reproduction for Constantinou, 1983).
Increased Meat Production Insufficient dietary energy/protein
intake before puberty retards growth and
5.4.1 Induction of puberty delays puberty in livestock. Energy restric-
tion prevents or slows the maturation
Inducing early puberty in young female process at the hypothalamus-pituitary
goats is one way for intensive meat produc- level, and ovarian steroidogenesis may be
tion. Initiation of early reproductive life has compromised in energy-/protein-restricted
been studied extensively in sheep, but little animals. In a study designed to examine
information is available in goats. We sum- the effects of dietary supplementation with
marize below the techniques that have maize and cottonseed cake given at differ-
proved to be promising for early induction ent ratios on the age and weight at first
of puberty in goats. oestrus in nulliparous Savannah Brown
138 M. Rekik et al.

young does (Fasanya et a/., 1992), it was induces ovulation in goats (Chemineau
demonstrated that supplemented animals et al., 1986). The mechanism that can be put
were younger and heavier at the first forward to explain the action of melatonin
pubertal oestrus. Dietary supplementation is that it provides a short-day signal
allowed animals to undergo fairly rapid (O'Callaghan et al., 1989). Short-day treat-
growth, hence attaining a desirable size ment can therefore be replaced by melato-
and weight at an early age. nin treatments so that the maintenance of
constantly high levels of melatonin mimics
a short-day effect.
5.4.2 Out-of-season breeding Melatonin can be supplied either as an
orally active compound, by injection or as a
For seasonal breeds, out-of-season breeding subcutaneous implant for about 3 months
and resumption of post-partum anoestrus (several commercial products are available
are necessary to intensify the rhythms of in many countries), all of which have been
kidding and to increase meat output per shown to be similarly effective to increase
doe per year. In this section, we will the pregnancy rate in Spanish does (Wuliji
address the techniques that are used most et al., 2003). A prerequisite for the advance-
in diverse production systems in order to ment of the breeding season through mela-
induce breeding in anoestrous does. Two tonin treatment is for animals to have
main techniques will be discussed: the use experienced a sufficient period of long
of melatonin and the buck effect. Other days. Two months of photoperiod treat-
pharmacological means to induce breeding ment, followed by melatonin treatment
in anoestrous does such as the association (daily injection or drenching or subcutane-
between progestogens and exogenous ous implants) allows cycles with ovulation
gonadotropins (such as eCG) will be to be maintained for a few months. In the
reported in the section dedicated to the seasonal breeds of sheep and goats, origi-
discussion on oestrous induction and nating from northern Europe, melatonin
synchronization. alone cannot be used too early in the sea-
son and is only able to advance the natural
Use of exogenous melatonin breeding season by about 1.5 months (Eng-
lish et al., 1986). Conversely, in Mediterra-
An alternative pharmacological means of nean breeds of sheep and goats, which are
modifying the seasonal breeding patterns is normally mated in the spring, melatonin
through manipulation of the melatonin can be used alone without previous light
signal. Treatments with exogenous melato- treatment.
nin in sheep and goats have increased the The results indicate that melatonin
duration of melatonin elevation in spring treatment, in comparison with untreated ani-
and summer, which caused an increase in mals, improved the kidding rate (71 versus
gonadotropin secretion and an early onset 36%) and the percentage of kids born (180
of the breeding season, as well as decreased versus 160%) (Wuliji et al., 2003). Further-
prolactin secretion (Lincoln and Clarke, more, the ability of melatonin treatment to
1997). interrupt seasonal or post-partum anoestrus
Exogenous melatonin is administered implies that an accelerated out-of-season
continually to supplement endogenous breeding system with goats, scheduling
release and thus mimic the 'short days' kidding twice, in both the autumn and
associated with the onset of breeding season spring, is feasible. Such a system should
in autumn, while animals' eyes perceive increase the total annual meat-goat produc-
long days of spring and summer (Chemineau tion. However, it must be remembered that
et al., 1988). Giving (orally or by intramus- the type of treatment used and likely rate of
cular injection) a large amount of melatonin success will depend greatly on the extent of
during the early afternoon in June to ani- breed susceptibility to photoperiod, time
mals artificially exposed to long days of the treatment application in relation to
Reproduction of Meat Goats 139

onset of the breeding season year (depth of 1.5 days (i.e. days 4-5). After this short cycle
anoestrus is greatest in late spring/early of highly constant duration (5-6 days), these
summer), physiological state, body-condition females reovulate a second time, around
score and nutritional status. day 29. If does continue to cycle, subsequent
ovulations generally occur at the normal
The buck effect interval of approximately 21 days and are
accompanied by fertile oestrus. The induced
The existence of a two-peak abnormal dis- ovulations are associated with oestrus in a
tribution of lambing and kidding 5 months variable proportion of goats: in 68% of
after the reintroduction of males in sheep Creole goats (Chemineau, 1983) and in 35%
and goat flocks was described very early in of native goats in Tunisia (Lassoued et al.,
the literature. In the 19th century, this tech- 1995).
nique was presented as 'being able to fertil- The first ovulation is usually of low
ize all adult ewes of the flock in the shortest fertility and the second ovulation 5 days
time possible' (Girard, 1813). In Angora later is accompanied by a fertile oestrus
goats, careful description of the distribution with a luteal phase of normal length. The
of lambing and kidding induced by the vol- ovulation rate may be enhanced at this
untary reintroduction of males was given second ovulation (Chemineau, 1987;
(Shelton, 1960). The existence of two peaks Lassoued et al., 1995).
of kidding, clearly separated by some days, Injecting adequate doses of progester-
suggested that the underlying physiological one (i.e. 20 mg per doe) at exactly the same
mechanisms were probably not so simple. time as the introduction of males provokes
They suggested that this reintroduction a delay in the induced ovulations and
probably provoked induction of synchro- prevents short cycles in 85% of females
nous ovulations and oestrous behaviour, (Lassoued et al., 1995). Similarly, progesto-
being able to induce such synchronizations gen pre-treatment through vaginal sponges
of parturitions. This phenomenon has is efficient to control short ovarian cycles in
attracted attention during recent years and 96% of Creole meat goats (Chemineau,
the reasons for this distribution have been 1985).
investigated. A global explanation of the underlying
Many authors have separated the short-, physiological mechanisms controlling these
medium- and long-term responses to the short cycles points to the uterus being
male effect to allow a rationalization in the involved in the early regression of the cor-
understanding of female responses (reviews pus luteum, induced by the bucks through
in goats by Chemineau, 1987 and Walkden- the secretion of PGF2a (Chemineau et al.,
Brown et al., 1999). 2006). However, it appears that the quality
Immediately after introduction of males of the follicles induced to ovulate are poor
(day 0), LH pulse frequency increases and because of the unsustained long-term
remains elevated if the male remains pres- gonadotropin activity during anoestrus.
ent among females in the flock. The gonado- In goats, the reproductive condition in
tropin stimulation of the ovarian follicles the buck seems to be the limiting factor
provokes an increase in plasma oestradiol determining the response of anoestrous does
1713, which centrally triggers the onset of the to the male effect (Flores et al., 2000). A sea-
pre-ovulatory surge of LH, around 20 h after sonal decline in the intensity of the induc-
day 0, and females ovulate before day 3 after tive stimulus from the male may also be
the introduction of males. After the first involved. Treating bucks with long days and
male-induced ovulation, in one group of melatonin increased their teasing capacity
females, the corpora lutea develop and to induce sexual activity in females during
secrete progesterone during normal dura- anoestrus, which indicated that the absence
tion, leading to a second ovulation around of response to teasing at this time of the year
day 23 in goats. The second group of females is not due to female unresponsiveness but to
experience a very early luteolysis, after only insufficient stimulation from the male.
140 M. Rekik et al.

Recent published results (Luna-Orozco response involving the integration of a range


et a/., 2008) demonstrated that parity of of exteroceptive stimuli from the buck.
female goats does not influence their oes- In addition to the 'male effect' in which
trous and ovulatory responses to the male sexually active males induce pulses of
effect. The same results indicated that, GnRH, female-female effects have been
regardless of parity, female goats respond to demonstrated in goats (Restall et al., 1995).
male introduction if they are stimulated by It was clearly established that oestrous
males that were previously exposed to arti- females can induce ovulation in anovula-
ficial long days to increase their sexual tory Australian Cashmere goats. The oes-
behaviour. trous state is essential for the phenomenon,
A model of factors influencing the male as the presence of non-oestrous females had
effect was developed and presented as one no effect. The nature of the induced ovula-
component of a complex cycle of social tory response is similar to that following
interaction between sexes, markedly influ- exposure to males. Ewe-ewe interactions
enced by environmental, social and physi- play no part in timing seasonal transitions
ological factors. Work on Australian in reproductive activity.
Cashmere goats indicated that improving The proportion of initial ovulation with
buck nutrition, selecting bucks for maxi- oestrus and of initial ovulation followed by
mum libido and exposing bucks to oestrous a short luteal phase was shown to vary with
does prior to or during joining are all `depth of anoestrus' as reflected by the per-
likely to enhance the ovulatory response to centage of anovular goats in the group at the
bucks by advancing and synchronizing it time of stimulation (Chemineau, 1983). In
(Walkden-Brown et al., 1993b). less seasonal breeds, the depth of anoestrus
Exposure to buck fleece alone may as defined by the percentage of anovulatory
induce an ovulatory response in seasonally females before introduction of males is deep
anovulatory does. However, this response is when >50% of Creole goats are in anoes-
attenuated in comparison with that induced trous and shallow when <50% of the goats
by bucks, with fewer does ovulating, and are anoestrus (Chemineau, 1983). The mean
fewer ovulating does going on to reovulate. interval (days) between teasing and ovula-
The response is not enhanced by the addi- tion seems to be related to the proportion of
tion of buck urine. The intensity and dura- non-cycling females at the time of introduc-
tion of exposure to buck stimuli appeared to tion of males. In the case of Creole goats, it
influence not only the proportion of does averaged 3.3 days when the proportion was
ovulating but also the timing and persis- >50% and only 1.8 days when it was <50%
tence of the ovulatory response (Walkden- (Chemineau, 1983).
Brown et a/., 1993a). Nevertheless, there are
reports of the successful induction of ovula-
tion in seasonally anovulatory does follow-
ing short-term intermittent exposure to 5.4.3 Hormonal manipulation of the
male fleece odours. oestrous cycle
Suppression of the sense of smell by
irrigation of nasal mucosa with zinc sulfate This section will be dedicated exclusively
solution markedly modified the ovulatory to synchronization protocols leading up to a
and oestrous responses of female goats to the grouping of oestrus and ovulation over a
introduction of males. The proportions of short time (days) using exogenous hor-
responding females were reduced by -50% mones. Other means for synchronization of
but were not completely suppressed, proba- oestrus over longer intervals (weeks)
bly because the females detected the males include melatonin implants or the buck
using other senses (Chemineau et al., 1986). effect, which are discussed above.
Overall, the data suggest that the male effect Oestrus synchronization in livestock
in these goats is not a simple reflex response focuses on the manipulation of either the
to olfactory cues but rather a complex luteal or the follicular phase of the oestrous
Reproduction of Meat Goats 141

cycle. In does and ewes, the opportunity for et al., 2007). According to different authors,
control of the cycle is greater during the mean fertility results obtained using this
luteal phase, which is of longer duration protocol combined with the use of semen
and is more responsive to manipulation. refrigerated at 5°C and cervical artificial
Strategies can be employed either to extend insemination performed 43-46 h after pro-
the lifespan of the corpus luteum by admin- gestogen treatment can be variable. Under
istration of exogenous progesterone or to the best experimental conditions, mean fer-
shorten this phase through premature tility rates approaching 60% have been
regression of the existing corpus luteum achieved (Leboeuf et al., 1998). One major
using PGF2a. advantage of the treatment is its potential
Oestrus synchronization allows for use irrespective of seasonal effects (breed-
concentration of breeding time and parturi- ing or anoestrus season). For example, when
tion at suitable seasons to take advantage of inducing oestrus during the non-breeding
the following: season, an 18-day sponge treatment in com-
bination with 150 or 200 IU of eCG at sponge
The use of reproductive biotechnolo- withdrawal allowed 100% of indigenous
gies for the dissemination of genetic Damascus does to be mated, with a 65.8%
improvement (e.g. artificial insemina- conception rate, a 64.1% kidding rate and a
tion, embryo transfer). With oestrus 192.2% kid crop compared with buck use
synchronization, producers are able to alone (no animals expressed oestrus or were
use complementary techniques more mated; Zarkawi et al., 1999).
efficiently for reproductive manage- The most commonly used synchroniza-
ment, including artificial insemination tion protocols include methyl acetoxy pro-
and embryo transfer, so that genetic gesterone (MAP; 60 mg) or fluorogestone
material is more easily obtained or acetate (FGA; 45 mg) vaginal sponges. A
transferred domestically and interna- controlled internal drug-releasing device
tionally. Good examples can be given (CIDR) in the form of a silicone intravaginal
for European dairy goat breeds where progesterone insert is also available for use
synchronization of oestrus has been in goats. Comparison of the use of MAP,
used extensively (up to 10% of the FGA and CIDR vaginal inserts in Boer and
French goat population) to develop South African indigenous goats during the
fixed-time artificial insemination with breeding season showed no influence of
improved bucks while obtaining rea- progestogen treatment on oestrous response,
sonably high pregnancy rates. but time to the onset of oestrus was
Oestrus induction of out-of-season advanced by 3-5 h in the CIDR group com-
breeding. pared with the FGA and MAP groups
Improvement of flock management, (Montlomelo et al., 2002). These results are
taking advantage of niche markets, feed confirmed by those in Nubian goats, indi-
supplies, labour and rising price trends. cating that the use of CIDR, MAP and FGA
treatments plus PGF2a following progesto-
Since the initial introduction of tech- gen withdrawal is equally efficient in syn-
niques based on the use of progestogens to chronizing oestrus, with similar fertility
synchronize the reproductive cycle and between treatments (Romano, 2004). The
eCG to stimulate ovarian follicular growth need for an intravaginal hormone-releasing
in ruminants, reproductive technologies device gives rise to problems such as vagini-
applied to goats have not advanced greatly. tis (Lopez-Sebastian et al., 2007), which has
In goats, the treatments of choice are still adverse effects on fertility as a result of
those based on administering intravaginal impaired sperm transport and viability.
progestogens for 11 days, followed by an Moreover, the use of intravaginal progesto-
injection of eCG and PGF2a, or their ana- gens has negative implications for the legal
logues, 2 days before withdrawal of the pro- limits established for progestogen residues
gestogen-releasing device (Lopez-Sebastian in milk and meat.
142 M. Rekik et al.

Besides these shortcomings related to single dose in oil) and provoking early cor-
the use of intravaginal devices to deliver pus luteum lysis using cloprostenol (a pros-
progestogens, the development of anti-eCG taglandin analogue) during the non-breeding
antibodies in repeatedly treated does nota- season 9 days after exposure to bucks
bly reduces fertility, particularly in artifi- (Lopez-Sebastian et al., 2007). The pro-
cially inseminated females (Chemineau posed method was an adequate alternative
et al., 1999). Repeated use of eCG delays the for oestrus synchronization prior to artifi-
timing of oestrus as a result of a delayed cial insemination during the non-breeding
pre-ovulatory LH surge with a major draw- season in the absence of previous oestrus
back on fertility (Fig. 5.5). These limitations detection in goats. The outcome of the pro-
have prompted the development of alterna- tocol provided higher fertility rates than
tive methods of synchronizing oestrus in those observed in response to the classic
female goats. method based on the use of progestogens
Recently, a new concept of synchroniz- and eCG.
ing oestrus was developed, based on induc- Another convenient method to admin-
ing ovulation by the male effect in ister progestogens without having the
progesterone-treated goats (injection of a adverse effects of intravaginal devices is

(a)
34
33
32
0
0_ u) 31
(1)
0
o
-2 -
30
To
29
cu 28
27
26
0 2 3

Number of treatments

(b)
80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
20 40 60 80
Interval from sponge withdrawal to oestrus (h)

Fig. 5.5. Relationship between the interval of withdrawal of sponges to oestrus and the number of
equine chorionic gonadotropin treatments (a) and between the same interval and fertility of the does (b)
(redrawn from Chemineau et al., 1999).
Reproduction of Meat Goats 143

oral dosing in feeds. The use of melenges- it reprogrammes follicle development by


trol acetate has been documented but not as initiating the emergence of a new follicular
many studies have determined its potential wave. To get full control of ovarian func-
value in goats. tion, the Ovsynch treatment includes a
During the breeding season, early stud- prostaglandin injection 7 days after the
ies with a few animals have shown that first GnRH treatment to time luteal regres-
PGF2a and its analogues (as with cattle and sion (natural and accessory corpus luteum)
sheep) can be used for synchronization in in all females. Ovulation is timed by the
cycling females. In Black Bengal goats (n = 6 second GnRH administration. Fertility and
or 8 per treatment), a comparison was made prolificacy following the Ovsynch syn-
between 15 mg PGF2a injections given chronization scheme compared favourably
intramuscularly 11 days apart with treat- with the 'classical' sponge impregnated
ments that included progesterone injections with progestogens and eCG treatment, pro-
for 16 days with or without eCG (Ishwar and vided the animals are cycling (i.e. in
Pandey, 1992). Overall, PGF2a-treated does season).
showed maximum fertility compared with
other treatments, with oestrus and ovula-
tion in four out of six and kidding (per doe 5.4.4 Improvement of litter size
mated) in three out of four treated does. In
Boer goats, it was shown that two injections Like other litter-bearing animals, litter size
of cloprostenol at 62.5, 125 or 250 pg, has a major impact on the reproductive effi-
administered 14 days apart, were effective ciency of goats. This trait shows large varia-
in synchronizing does during the breeding tions between breeds and production
season (Grey ling and van Niekerk, 1986). environments, which make changes in man-
Although the highest dose given (250 pg) agement a primary cause to alter litter size
apparently increased the percentage of does in meat-producing goats. It is important to
in oestrus (100%, compared with 87.5% for note that the scientific literature related to
125 pg and 93.8% for 62.5 pg), overall fertil- improvements of litter size in sheep is much
ity appeared to decrease with increasing more important than for goats. This can be
dose, with seemingly lower conception explained by the higher natural prolificacy
rates and numbers born per doe bred. In of goat breeds in comparison with sheep in
addition, Dwarf goats under different envi- most parts of the world and also by the pres-
ronmental/nutritive conditions responded ence of goats in more marginal production
positively to two injections of a PGF2a ana- systems, making improvement of litter size
logue 10 days apart (Khanum et al., 2006). a risky step in the management of the flock.
The treatment resulted in regression of the With regard to breed differences, we
corpus luteum within 48-56 h, and in 19/20 shall give only a few examples of the rela-
animals oestrus signs appeared 56-72 h tionship between litter size and breed. There
after the second injection. is a growing body of literature in different
Another breakthrough in the develop- environments which indicates that Nubian
ment of oestrus synchronization in goats goats present a higher frequency of multiple
during the breeding season is the method births than goats of European origin (Mellado
known as `Ovsynch', which is derived et al., 2006). When studying the reproductive
from cows and generates control of the fol- performance and pre-weaning growth in the
licular waves as well as of the lifespan of West African Dwarf goat with respect to
the corpus luteum (Holtz et al., 2008). The variations in coat colour, it was reported
method includes a GnRH-PGF2a-GnRH that black or chocolate-brown goats had the
treatment sequence. When the females are highest prolificacy of 210 ± 24, while white
cycling with a large follicle present at the goats had the lowest figure of 162 ± 31
time of injection, the first GnRH injection (Ebozoje and Ikeobi, 1998). Goats with other
triggers ovulation and formation of an colours had intermediate levels of prolifi-
accessory corpus luteum. At the same time, cacy. The authors concluded that coat colour
144 M. Rekik et al.

plays an important role in the adaptation For local goats browsing in the harsh
and survival of the West African Dwarf goat conditions of central Tunisia, condensed
breed. Selection for breed identification tannins in Acacia cyanophylla Lindl. had a
mark on the basis of coat colour would prob- detrimental effect on ovulation rate (Las-
ably favour the black goats based on the soued et al., 2006). Deactivation of these
results of their performance. Although it is condensed tannins by polyethylene glycol
not immediately known why performance increased the ovulation rate to 1.76 ± 0.60
increased with an increase in coat pigmenta- in comparison with 1.25 ± 0.45 for untreated
tion intensity, it could be associated with goats. The probable increased availability of
the suppressive action of the non-pigmented proteins in the polyethylene glycol-receiv-
(white) gene. The top dominant allele at the ing goats could explain their higher ovula-
agouti locus (Awh), which produces white tion rate. The prospects for nutritional
coat colour, depressed ewe fertility in Ice- manipulation of litter size through altera-
landic sheep by about 0.15 lambs per ewe tion of ovulation rate and embryo survival,
mated (Adalsteinsson, 1975). A similar gene similar to what is currently established in
action could have been responsible for the sheep, should be investigated further for
differences in performance observed in the different genotypes under different produc-
West African Dwarf goat. The production tion systems.
environment is also reported to affect the lit- The effect of the social environment of
ter size of goats. Goats mated in the autumn the doe at mating on later litter size remains
were almost half as likely to present multi- equivocal. There was no beneficial effect of
ple births as does mated in the hottest part of buck stimulation prior to the breeding
the year (summer) (Mellado et al., 2006). period in terms of kidding rate or litter size,
Other studies in hot environments (reported either in goats exposed to bucks immedi-
by Mellado et al., 2006) also report signifi- ately before the breeding period (litter size
cantly larger litters in goats mated in the of 1.30) or goats teased by bucks 15 days
spring or summer compared with cooler sea- prior to the breeding season (litter size of
sons of the year. However, no clear explana- 1.40) (Mellado et al., 1994).
tion of these results can be put forward at Litter size can also be manipulated by
this stage. For Korean native goats (Song pharmacological means. Increases in litter
et al., 2006), mean litter sizes were 1.69 ± 0.03 size have been achieved through the immu-
and 1.78 ± 0.16 at birth and 1.31 ± 0.03 nization of does to steroids. Steroid immuni-
(77.5%) and 1.52 ± 0.17 (85.4%) at weaning zation has become commercially available in
(which could passively be seen as an indica- many countries, for example, using Fecun-
tion of mothering ability) for range and din®, which immunizes females to andro-
intensively managed groups, respectively. stenedione Immunization (active or passive)
For Creole goats in Guadeloupe, a significant is achieved by two subcutaneous injections
correlation was found between prolificacy (2 ml each) administered initially 2-3 weeks
and rainfall 1 month before conception apart and in single annual boosters thereaf-
(Chemineau and Xande, 1982). Prolificacy ter. A period of 3 weeks is suggested between
depends on the feeding conditions during the booster immunization and the time of
mating, which is a consequence of the rela- optimum ovulation. Due to the long-term
tionship between natural feed availability, effects and the relative ease of application of
body condition and ovulation rate of the the product, steroid immunization can be
females. Indeed, ovulation rate was higher used for the improvement of ovulation rate
(P < 0.01) in does with a better body condi- and subsequently litter size in more exten-
tion (1.9 ± 0.1) than in those with a worse sively managed flocks. The animal response
body condition (1.6 ± 0.1) (de Santiago- in terms of ovulation rate and litter size var-
Miramontes et al., 2008). A higher ovulation ies with breed and location, but improve-
rate in ewes with a better body condition is ments of ovulation rate (+1) and litter size
well documented for a wide range of breeds (+0.5) have been achieved in does Immuni-
and under various production systems. zation against androstenedione increases
Reproduction of Meat Goats 145

ovulation rate and does not affect embryo incidence of reproductive wastage (unfertil-
losses. Therefore, prolificacy is always ized ova and early embryo losses).
increased and the improvement is higher in A number of other pharmacological
naturally lowly prolific breeds. For the hardy treatments to manipulate litter size in goats
Greek dairy breed, litter size at birth was are under investigation and development
1.25 ± 0.43 in comparison with 1.63 ± 0.64 under research conditions. However, it is
for untreated and immunized goats, respec- not clear to what extent these approaches
tively (Driancourt et al., 1990). Most treated will be biologically and/or economically
goats tend to have twin pregnancies. feasible. Among the concepts under investi-
When using hormone therapies to gation are: (i) immunization against inhibin,
increase litter size, the association between which selectively suppresses FSH but not
sponges impregnated with a synthetic pro- LH; and (ii) the use of GnRH in conjunction
gestogen followed by the injection of eCG with progestogen-based superovulation
can also yield increases in litter size. Such treatments. Both techniques have the poten-
treatment is classic in sheep and is perhaps tial to be used in superovulation treatments
the most widely used for both synchroniza- as part of embryo transfer programmes.
tion of oestrus and increases in litter size. However, their use to increase litter size
There are limited published data on the use under farming conditions is precluded.
of eCG in goats to increase litter size. Our
unpublished results (N. Lassoued and M.
Rekik, 2010, Fig. 5.6) on Tunisian local
breeds show that, at doses of 200 and 300 IU 5.4.5 Reproductive biotechnologies for
of eCG, there is an improvement in concep- improved meat production
tion rate at the induced oestrus. However,
prolificacy was similar to the does not receiv- The application of assisted reproductive
ing eCG after withdrawal of the sponges. A technologies (ART) in livestock production
substantial increase in prolificacy is obtained allows animals of high genetic merit to pro-
only when the eCG dose is increased to duce more offspring than would be possible
400 IU. However, at this dose, fertility at the by natural breeding. ART present producers
induced oestrus is very low because of a high of breeding stock with unique opportunities

Conception rate
180 -
Prolificacy
0 160
as 140 -

2 120 -
0
100 -
U
80 -
0
0_ 60 -
U
C
O 40 -
20
0 200 I 300 400
Dose of eCG (IU)

Fig. 5.6. The effect of increasing doses of equine chorionic gonadotropin on conception rate and
prolificacy at the induced oestrus of local Tunisian female goats (N. Lassoued and M. Rekik, 2010,
unpublished results).
146 M. Rekik et al.

to move their germplasm around with rela-two techniques of insemination (cervical


tive ease. The costs involved in ART are and intrauterine) are used worldwide in
most likely prohibitive for producers of goats (Evans and Maxwell, 1987; Chemineau
goats that are marketed for meat. In the fledg- and Cognie, 1991; Amoah and Gelaye, 1997;
ling meat-goat industry, the recent introduc- Leboeuf et al., 2000).
tion of the Boer goat in several countries is Does can be inseminated with fresh and
an excellent example of the need to apply extended, chilled semen stored for up to
ART for the dissemination of stock. As other 48 h. Fresh semen is the preferred method
superior meat-producing germplasm is iden- when the bucks are collected on the farm,
tified, the application of artificial insemina- especially during the breeding season when
tion and embryo transfer is likely to rise in semen production and quality are at their
the area of meat-goat production. peak. The use of refrigerated semen is a
common strategy in circumstances where a
Artificial insemination particular male is shared by a group of farm-
ers located within a relatively small area. In
Artificial insemination can contribute to the such cases, the semen is stored at -4°C and
optimization of the selection schemes of the can be used for up to 24 h after collection.
main seasonal meat breeds and is consid- However, for most practical purposes,
ered a powerful tool to control kidding semen originates frozen from outside the
dates in order to adapt production to market farm, having a long-term preservation allow-
demands, especially during the non- ing it to be marketed over a wide area and
breeding season in the goat. In addition, used throughout the year, and conserving
proper selection of young bucks and appro- the genetic material in case the animal dies.
priate healthcare of males, as well as Transcervical insemination involves
utilizing artificial insemination, may con- deposition of semen in the body of the
trol some infectious diseases. However, at uterus. The conception rate using this
present, genetics is the main justification for method ranges from 50 to 70% depending
using artificial insemination (and frozen on the season of insemination. The concep-
semen) because of its formidable ability to tion rate is low during spring and summer,
produce many offspring per male in multi- due to lower sperm motility, than in the
ple environments over time. This ability is autumn and winter (Table 5.4; Tuli and
necessary to create and diffuse genetic gains Holtz, 1995). However, photoperiod treat-
and facilitates the application of recent ment of bucks (Delgadillo et al., 1995),
molecular genetics techniques in selection which enables quality sperm collection all
programmes (Leboeuf et al., 1998). year round, may alleviate such seasonal
Three methods of semen preservation variation in sperm quality. In their review of
(fresh, refrigerated and frozen/thawed) and the effectiveness of artificial insemination

Table 5.4. Pre- and post-freezing percentage of progressive motility and percentage of live
spermatozoa in Boer goat semen at different seasons of the year (from Tuli and Holtz, 1995).

Progressive spermatozoa motility ( %) Live spermatozoa ( %)

No. Pre- Post- Freezing Pre- Post- Freezing


Season doses freezing ± SEM freezing ± SEM loss ( %) freezing ± SEM freezing ± SEM loss ( %)

Spring 35 62b ± 2 29b ± 2 54 61b ± 2 32b ± 3 47


Summer 45 65b ± 1 35b ± 2 46 71c ± 2 40c ± 3 44
Autumn 60 71d ± 2 39c ±2 45 75cd ± 3 44c ± 2 41
Winter 37 73d ± 2 45d ± 3 38 76d ± 3 49d ± 3 36

Within columns, different letters (b, c, d) indicate significant differences (P < 0.05).
Reproduction of Meat Goats 147

in dairy breeds in France (Leboeuf et al., for the onset of oestrus, or can be synchro-
1998), the authors enumerated some of the nized (see oestrus synchronization dis-
factors affecting variation in fertility after cussed above) and should be inseminated
artificial insemination: 12-18 h after the onset of oestrus.
Ovarian response to hormonal treat-
ment: 4.3% of the females had a low Embryo transfer
progesterone concentration, i.e. a prob- The first successful cryopreservation of goat
able lack of ovulation following the embryos was reported by Bilton and Moore
synchronization treatment. (1976). Since then, large numbers of goats
Ovulation time after hormonal treat- have been successfully produced from fro-
ment: variability of the ovulation time zen-thawed embryos (Baril et al., 1989). The
seems to be a limiting factor for the effi-
technique of multiple ovulations and
ciency of hormonal treatment plus arti- embryo transfer (MOET) is often referred to
ficial insemination. as a method of producing more offspring
Repeated hormonal treatments and from a genetically valuable female than
antibodies against eCG: this was dis- would be possible by natural breeding.
cussed in an earlier section. However, MOET has not yet become a wide-
Parity of inseminated females: artificial spread tool for genetic improvement for a
insemination of nulliparous does often variety of reasons including its cost, techni-
yields lower fertility rates than the adult cal demands and variable and unpredictable
goats. These low fertility rates could be efficiency (Baril et al., 1989; Cognie et al.,
caused by factors such as weaning age, 2003). The main factors contributing to the
growth rate, body condition and age at unpredictability of this technique are the
first artificial insemination. variability of the superovulatory response,
Laparoscopic insemination involves poor fertilization associated with high ovu-
the use of a laparoscope and depositing latory responses and early regression of the
fresh or frozen-thawed semen directly into corpus luteum (Cognie et al., 2003). An aver-
the uterine horns. Laparoscopic insemina- age of six to eight transferable embryos per
tion procedures are described for sheep and donor can be produced in a successful goat
goats (Ritar and Ball, 1991) and a >80% con- MOET programme (Baril et al., 1989; Cognie
ception rate has been reported. However, et al., 2003). It is common for the number of
the technique requires a skilled operator. transferable embryos to range from 0 to 30
Due to the high cost of the procedure, lapa- per donor, with up to 30% of the donors fail-
roscopic insemination has a very limited ing to produce any transferable embryos due
use in meat goats. to fertilization failure and early regression of
Semen is usually collected from bucks corpus luteum (ERCL) (Pintado et al., 1998).
trained to serve an artificial vagina. Once a The causes of ERCL are not fully under-
collection schedule is initiated, bucks can stood, but its occurrence has been associated
be collected two to three times daily on with inadequate nutrition (Jabbour et al.,
alternate days. Semen is immediately evalu- 1991) and the use of eCG in superovulatory
ated for quality and the concentration deter- regimes (Pintado et al., 1998).
mined. The semen is then extended in a Techniques used for oestrus synchroni-
medium containing egg yolk, sugars and zation of donor and recipient and for super-
buffer to provide an insemination dose of 20 ovulation of the donor with gonadotropins
million (frozen, laparoscopic intrauterine) (FSH and eCG) are similar to those described
to 300 million (fresh, cervical) spermatozoa, above (see oestrus synchronization discussed
depending on the intended insemination above). Insemination of the donor does
technique. The success of the actual insemi- should occur either naturally or through cer-
nation depends to a large degree on appro- vical rather than intrauterine artificial insem-
priate timing in relation to oestrus and ination, to avoid additional manipulation of
ovulation. Does must be observed closely the uterus and oviducts. For the collection,
148 M. Rekik et al.

the uterus of the donor is flushed 3-5 days suggested for increasing the number of
after mating. Particularly in the case of small recruitable ovarian follicles at the
repeated collections, this may cause adhe- time of FSH treatment, while avoiding the
sions interfering with subsequent collections. presence of large (dominant) follicles.
Recent embryo collection techniques using Among these concepts are: (i) immuniza-
laparoscopy have been developed with suc- tion against inhibin, which selectively sup-
cessful outcome in goats (76% pregnancy). presses FSH but not LH: (ii) the use of GnRH
Following collection, the flushing medium is agonist/antagonists and the administration
examined to identify fertilized (cleaved) of FSH shortly after an induced oestrus/
embryos, determine the recovery of embryos ovulation; and (iii) the use of FSH plus
(based on the number of corpora lutea) and GnRH treatment Immunization of goats
evaluate embryo quality. Only high-grade against inhibin has proved to be a practica-
embryos should be used for freezing and stor- ble means of producing embryos for transfer
age, whereas embryos of less quality may be purposes (Wang et al., 2009). Pre-treatment
used for fresh transfer. Embryos should be with GnRH antagonist for 10 days prior to
transferred into the uterine horn of the same superovulation resulted in an increased
side containing an ovary with a corpus number of small follicles at the time of FSH
luteum. Following a sufficient period of rest, administration and an increased number of
donor does can be repeatedly collected. ovulations (Cognie et al., 2003).
It has been reported that blastocysts can
be cryopreserved better than morulae (Puls- Pregnancy diagnosis
Kleingeld et al., 1992). Goat embryos are
successfully traded internationally using Early and accurate diagnosis of pregnancy is
ethylene glycol, which is a better cryopro- important for effective livestock manage-
tectant than glycerol (35 versus 22% kids ment. While not of immediate concern in
born from embryos thawed, respectively; Le extensive goat operations that utilize
Gal et al., 1993). Vitrification of goat extended natural mating, the early determi-
embryos involving embryo exposure to high nation of pregnancy can be a useful manage-
concentrations of cryoprotectants followed ment tool under more intensive production
by direct immersion in liquid nitrogen has conditions, or when artificial insemination
been reported to be successful (Yuswiati and embryo transfer are employed. Inability
and Holtz, 1990). to detect early pregnancy can result in eco-
nomic losses in milk and kid production
Superovulation is an important part of
a MOET programme and has the potential to due to longer kidding intervals. Lack of
increase the reproductive performance of knowledge of techniques to differentiate
selected donors of goat breeds in high pregnant from non-pregnant animals may
demand. Superovulation accomplished by result in heavy reproduction and produc-
gonadotropins (primarily FSH and eCG), tion losses in the form of abortions, still-
used at higher (pharmacological) doses to births and the production of weak kids. It
elicit a superovulatory response, is com- also results in uneconomical feeding of non-
monly used in embryo transfer programmes. pregnant animals. Pregnancy diagnosis will
eCG is more easily administered than FSH, identify the females requiring repeat breed-
usually as a single injection of up to ing or insemination and/or will allow the
1500-2000 IU,but the superovulatory separation of pregnant and open females for
response to eCG can be quite variable and is differential management. When fetal num-
usually lower than in an FSH-induced bers can be determined as part of the preg-
superovulation. Currently, the major factor nancy diagnosis, different feeding regimes
leading to a variable ovulation rate and can be applied to single- and litter-bearing
embryo output seems to be the follicular females. To be most useful to the producer,
status of the donor at the onset of super- pregnant animals need to be identified as
ovulatory treatment (Gonzalez-Bulnes early as possible in gestation. A variety of
et al., 2004). Several strategies have been approaches have been explored for the early
Reproduction of Meat Goats 149

detection of pregnancy and possibly fetal advances. The gravid uterus or fetus can
numbers. The techniques have either sometimes be palpated through the relaxed
focused on the detection of physical changes abdominal wall by placing a hand on either
resulting from pregnancy (fluid accumula- side of the abdomen and squeezing or lift-
tion and presence of a detectable fetus) ing upwards (Ishwar, 1995). If the doe is
through palpation and ultrasound (Wani pregnant, the fetus is felt to drop on to the
and Sahni, 1980; Buckrell, 1988; Goel and palpating hand (Arther et al., 1982). With-
Agrawal, 1989) or been concerned with the holding feed and water for at least 12 h be-
identification of maternal and fetal physio- fore examination increases the ease of the
logical signals (progesterone, oestrone sul- examination (Ishwar, 1995). It is easier in
fate and pregnancy proteins) associated thin does than in fat animals. Pregnancy
with pregnancy (Restall et al., 1990; Ishwar, can be diagnosed to an acceptable accu-
1995). Only a few methods seem reliable racy (up to 70%) after 80 days of gestation
and applicable under field conditions. by the abdominal palpation method. As the
method is simple and does not involve any
NON-RETURN TO OESTRUS The length of the equipment, it can be used by goat owners to
screen their flock.
oestrous cycle ranges from 19 to 24 days
(average 21 days) in goats. Non-return to
oestrus after breeding is considered a sign ULTRASOUND TECHNIQUES There has been
of pregnancy. During the breeding season, increasing interest in the use of ultrasound
goats return to oestrus within 7-23 days if techniques for pregnancy diagnosis in goats
there is a fertilization failure. The sign of by various workers (Aswad et al., 1976;
non-return to oestrus due to pregnancy is not Wani and Sahni, 1980; Shelton, 1982; Buck-
physically different from seasonal anoestrus
rell, 1988; Goel and Agrawal, 1990; Haibel,
at the end of the breeding season and out-of- 1990). Pregnancy may be detected with all
breeding season. Non-return to oestrus is an three types of ultrasonographics available:
unreliable method when does are synchro- amplitude depth (A-mode), Doppler and
nized and bred during the non-breeding sea- real-time B-mode ultrasonics. Each can be
son. In addition, pathological conditions of used under field conditions. The accuracy
the uterus or ovaries may cause anoestrus in
of diagnosis, timing of examination, fetal
non-pregnant does (Ishwar, 1995). numbers and age and fetal viability vary
Therefore, pregnancy diagnosis based considerably among these techniques. One
on non-return to oestrus is not reliable in of the most important features of ultra-
goats that exhibit seasonality in oestrous sound, when used for tissue examination,
behaviour. The use of vasectomized bucks is its safety to the operator and patient. To-
with raddle harnesses with the does after day, the most used method is the real-time
mating to detect the return to service B-mode ultrasonics.
appeared to be unreliable in detecting preg- Real-time, B -mode ultrasonic scanning
nancy in Thai goats, as 36.5% of pregnant appears to offer an accurate, rapid, safe and
does came into oestrus, as evidenced by practical means of diagnosing pregnancy
raddle marks on the rump, during early and determining fetal numbers. The tech-
pregnancy, and this can lead to serious nique allows visualization of the fetus in
errors (Restall et al., 1990). Non-return
the uterus, fetal numbers and fetal viabil-
determination is a method recommended ity. Two types of scanners are available on
for traditional goat owners only, who do not the market and both are utilized for preg-
have other facilities for pregnancy diagnosis.
nancy diagnosis: (i) linear array scanners;
and (ii) sector scanners. There are a num-
ABDOMINAL PALPATION In the late stages of ber of abdominal/rectal probes. A mid-
pregnancy, does can be examined by ab- range abdominal (5 MHz) or rectal (7 MHz)
dominal palpation. This technique becomes probe is ideal for goats (Goel and Agrawal,
easier and more reliable as pregnancy 1992). Sector scanners provide a much
150 M. Rekik et al.

wider angle of view and the entire uterus HORMONAL ASSAYS Progesterone levels can
can be visualized from either side of the be obtained using a radioimmunoassay
animal. They have some advantages over (RIA) or enzyme-linked immunosorbent
linear scanners: they require less skin sur- assay (ELISA). Assays can be performed on
face contact, have a reduced scanning time serum, plasma or milk samples. The con-
and have superior resolution. In goats, centration of plasma progesterone can be
transrectal ultrasonography with a 5 MHz determined on days 19-23 post-breeding
probe allows visualization of the embryo in does with high accuracy (Gonzalez
vesicle starting from day 19 of pregnancy et al., 2004). Progesterone concentration in
(Martinez et a/., 1998). Nevertheless, it is plasma as well as in milk 21-22 days after
only from day 25 onward that precision artificial insemination in the goats was es-
and sensitivity are >90%. timated (Thibier et al., 1982). The level of
Scanning Thai native goat does by real- plasma progesterone was 7.64 ± 4.17 and
time ultrasonic imaging between 55 and 0.86 ± 0.73 ng/ml in pregnant and non-
65 days post-coitus was 100% accurate in pregnant goats, respectively. Its accuracy
detecting pregnancy using an abdominal in early pregnancy diagnosis was 100 and
probe (Restall et al., 1990). It is therefore 87.5%, for non-pregnant and pregnant
apparent that day 45-50 is the ideal time to does, respectively.
make a pregnancy diagnosis by transab- A progesterone test in does is a good
dominal scanning with a high degree of test for non-pregnancy as it allows early
accuracy (Buckrell, 1988). Accuracy of identification of open does with 80-100%
counting numbers of fetuses with real-time accuracy, but it is only a fair test for preg-
ultrasonography is an advantage over other nancy.
ultrasound techniques. The optimal time Oestrone sulfate is produced by the
for counting fetal numbers is between 45 placenta in sheep and goats. Oestrone sul-
and 90 days of gestation (Haibel, 1990). fate can be detected in the plasma of does
After 90-100 days of gestation, fetuses from around 40-50 days post-breeding.
become too large to be consistently differen- Around day 60 of pregnancy, the average
tiated from each other. concentration is 0.6 ng/ml in non-pregnant
In addition to pregnancy diagnosis, goats and 6.1 ng/ml in those that are preg-
ultrasound scanners may be helpful for nant (Refstal et al., 1991). A positive test
early diagnosis of fetal malformation, indicates a viable fetus.
factors influencing fetal growth and diag- In the pregnant doe, PAG concentra-
nosis of diseases of the reproductive tract tions are detectable from day 17-18, reach-
(Buckrell, 1988). Fetal age in ewes and ing concentrations of 3-5 ng/ml on days
21-22. Pregnancies can be detected by
does can also be determined by the use of
real-time ultrasonics at 40-100 days of day 24 (Humblot et al., 1995) or day 25
gestation by measuring the width of the (Folch et al., 1993). PAG determination was
fetal skull (Reichle and Haibel, 1991). This highly accurate on days 24 and 26 (99 and
technique would be helpful in predicting 100%, respectively) (Gonzalez-Bulnes
parturition date when the actual date of et al., 2004).
breeding is not known. The PAG milk-test provides an accurate
The main limiting factor preventing pregnancy diagnosis from day 32 after
greater use of this technique in developing breeding and, in combination with good
countries is its high cost. In addition, train- management practices, this test would be
ing and considerable experience are suitable under farm conditions to confirm
required to obtain better accuracy in terms pregnancies tentatively identified by
of image interpretation. With a decrease in non-return to oestrus on day 21 after breed-
equipment cost and an increase in practical ing (Gonzalez et al., 2001). A summary of
experience, it may be possible in the future the effectiveness and practical applications
to significantly increase the use of portable of different techniques for pregnancy diag-
ultrasound scanners in goats. nosis is presented in Table 5.5.
Reproduction of Meat Goats 151

Table 5.5. Comparisons of techniques available for pregnancy diagnosis in the doe.

Sensitivity Fetal Accuracy Practical


Technique range(days) numbers ( %) application

Vasectomized harnessed >20 No 65-90 High


male
Abdominal palpation 60-115 No 60-90 Moderate
Progesterone assay 18-22 No 90-95 Moderate
Oestrone assay >60 No 90-95 Low
Real-time ultrasound 40-100 Yes 90-95 High
Doppler ultrasound 60-90 No 85-90 Moderate
Radiography >50 Yes 90-95 Low

5.4.6 Genetic improvement of Table 5.6. Estimates of heritabilities and


reproductive traits repeatabilities for some reproductive traits of
meat-producing breeds of goat (from Shrestha and
Fahmy, 2007).
For animals kept primarily for meat pro-
duction, reproductive rate is the single Trait/Breed Heritability Repeatability
most important factor contributing to the
efficiency of production. The economic Age at first kidding
importance of reproductive traits should Alpine x Beetal 0.56 ± 0.08
not be abandoned while selecting for Beetal 0.48 ± 0.09
performance traits associated with improv- Litter size
ing meat production. This is because repro- Beetal 0.15
ductive rate directly influences the income Beetal, Black 0.09 ± 0.25
and profitability for commercial produc- Bengal
Alpine x African 0.02
tion of meat from goats. Reproductive traits
common
of interest in meat goat enterprises are Multiple births
conception rate, kidding rate and ability to Egyptian Baladi 0.25 0.29
breed out of season. In addition, several Beetal 0.15 0.22
studies have demonstrated that twins and Black Bengal 0.09 0.15
triplets produce more total weight of kid Bengal 0.17 ± 0.20
per doe per year. Therefore, prolificacy,
defined as the number of kids born per doe,
is another important reproduction trait.
Genetic improvement of these traits can be their weight) relative to the number of
undertaken by selection within purebred reproductive females. In this case, litter size
strains or by crossbreeding. Prospects for is considered to be one of the most impor-
improvement of reproductive traits in tant components of reproductive perfor-
several meat breeds of goats by selection mance, due to its high correlation with the
are available (Shrestha and Fahmy, 2007). number of animals at weaning. Unfortu-
The heritability estimate for reproductive nately, litter size is a sex-limited character-
traits, although negligible in magnitude, is istic with a low heritability value, which
positive (Table 5.6). However, for some acts as a limiting factor for the improvement
traits such as age at first kidding, heritabil- of reproductive performance. A good exam-
ity estimates are high and this can yield ple in this respect is given for African
important genetic progress. common goats in Rwanda for which herita-
From a practical point of view, it is use- bility and repeatability estimates are 0.025
ful to quantify reproductive performance and 0.061, respectively, for the number of
using the number of weaned animals (and kids born, indicating that the possibility of
152 M. Rekik et al.

selection to improve these reproductive trait that is most improved by crossbreeding


traits would take a long time (Mourad, 1994, a local with a prolific breed, while no sig-
1996). However, the genetic correlation nificant superiority in fertility of crossbred
between the number of kids born and the over purebred goats is reported (Anous and
number of kids alive was positive, which Mourad, 1993).
means that selection for one character may In Tunisia, genetic improvement of the
tend to improve the other. local goat was undertaken through cross-
Most of the breeding programmes in breeding with imported breeds, namely the
goats ignore the frequency of year-round Alpine, Boer and Saanen, in the north of the
kidding, an important characteristic in country. The impact of such crossbreeding
many goat breeds, particularly goats from on the reproductive traits and productivity
tropical regions that are non-seasonal breed- of the does is reported in Table 5.7 (Rekik
ers and kid all year round. Therefore, incor- et al., 2005). It was concluded that, under
porating this trait of non-seasonality into a the pastoral production systems of northern
meat-goat enterprise would be advanta- Tunisia, there is no benefit of crossbreeding
geous. An alternative would be to include with imported breeds; the absence of a clear
reproductive traits and a pre-weaning effect of crossbreeding on the improvement
growth rate that can be combined into an of productivity could be explained by prob-
index to give a measure of productivity of lems of adaptation of the crossbred animals
the doe. An example of such an index is pre- to the prevailing difficult conditions.
sented by Gipson (2008) as: The specific three-breed cross has
demonstrated increased productivity in
Productivity index pig and sheep species and should also
= conception rate x litter size have potential in meat goats (Shrestha
x survivability to weaning and Fahmy, 2007). In order to produce a
x 365/kidding interval specific three-breed-cross offspring, does
x (birth weight + pre-weaning of the fecund-type dam breeds that excel
growth rate x age at weaning) in rate of reproduction, milk production,
As for most livestock species, improve- mothering ability and survival are first
ment of reproductive traits in goats has also mated to bucks of an alternative breed to
been attempted through crossbreeding. In produce fecund-type two-breed-cross off-
Egypt, reproduction, growth and carcass spring. The crossbred offspring selected as
traits of kids from Alpine and Rove breeds the female parent are mated to bucks of a
and Alpine x Rove crosses were evaluated third breed, usually a meat-type terminal
(Anous and Mourad, 1993). The study sire breed recognized for superior growth
revealed that the Alpine breed was more performance and meat quality. The cross-
fecund than the Rove breed but was similar bred offspring is expected to exhibit maxi-
in carcass traits and weighed less. The esti- mum individual and maternal heterosis,
mates of heterosis of 24% for prolificacy resulting in rapid growth and increased
and 4% for fertility were important, but not uniformity in the marketing of meat and
for the rate of abortion. Prolificacy is the meat products to the consumer.

Table 5.7. Compared reproductive and productivity performances of indigenous goat and
its crosses with imported breeds (from Rekik et al., 2005).

Trait Local goat F1 Alpine F1 Boer F1 Saanen

Fertility rate ( %) 94.1 95.6 98.0 89.3


Prolificacy rate ( %) 148.8 144.5 144.5 109.1
Pre-weaning mortality rate ( %) 5.58 23.1 0 12.69
Kids weaned per goat ( %) 134 115 141 85
Kilograms weaned per goat 16.9 16.6 18.7 12.1
Reproduction of Meat Goats 153

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6 Nutrition of the Meat Goat

J.R. Kawas1, 0. Mahgoub2 and C.D. Lu3


1 Cuerpo Academico de Produccian Animal y Recursos Naturales, Facultad de
Agronomia, Universidad Autanoma de Nuevo Lean, Nuevo Leon, Mexico;
2Department of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, College of Agriculture and Marine
Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman; 3University of Hawaii, Hilo, Hawaii, USA

6.1 Abstract possess morphological, physiological and


behaviour characteristics that allow them to
This chapter aims to provide a summary of select and have a greater availability of the
some applications of basic nutrition to the native vegetation than other ruminants
meat goat. Nutrient requirements of goats and (Malechek and Provenza, 1983). Among
nutritional limitations associated with for- these are the mobility of their superior lip,
ages and other feed resources are discussed. their ability to stand in a biped posture and
Some aspects of the feeding habits, feed com- their capability for travelling long distances
position, nutrient requirements, feed formu- (Askins and Turner, 1972).
lation and feeding of goats will be discussed. Forage fibre and other feed components
Present knowledge of nutrient requirements are fermented in their rumen, generating
and nutritional management based on infor- energy precursors, synthesizing microbial
mation available for the meat goat of native protein for post-ruminal absorption as
and specialized breeds in the literature is amino acids, and synthesizing B-complex
summarized. Emphasis is also placed on the vitamins and vitamin K (Haenlein and
use of feed supplements to optimize the pro- Caccese, 1992). Water conservation and
duction potential of goats in semi-arid range nitrogen recycling are important mecha-
environments. Where applicable, compari- nisms that allow goats to withstand better
sons with other relevant species are made. the adverse conditions of semi-arid regions
of the world (Silanikove, 2000).
Many environmental and nutritional
factors influence goat production in range-
6.2 Introduction lands. Reduced forage availability and
quality lead to low consumption of feed
Nutrition involves the consumption, diges- nutrients, which are further exacerbated by
tion, absorption and metabolism of nutri- the effect that plant secondary metabolites
ents required for tissue repair and health, (PSMs) in browse and parasitism have on
reproduction, growth and lactation of the nutrient utilization. Frequently, available
meat goat. Browsing constitutes the main feed resources fail to satisfy the maintenance
diet of free-ranging goats. As intermediate requirements of small ruminants (Ben Salem
opportunistic domestic feeders, goats and Nefzaoui, 2003). Supplementation is
© CAB International 2012. Goat Meat Production and Quality
(eds O. Mahgoub, I.T. Kadim and E.G. Webb) 161
162 J.R. Kawas et al.

required to mitigate both nutrient deficien- Feed components are broken down into
cies and the effect of PSM toxicity. smaller particles by the mechanical action
Supplementary feeds include legumi- of the teeth. The tongue helps in mixing the
nous fodders, which can serve as good feed in the mouth and swallowing it. Five
protein and energy sources, cacti, which pairs of salivary glands (parotid, submaxil-
require very little water, and energy sources laries, sublingual, inferior molar and buccal
such as molasses, cereal grains and by- glands) secrete a mixture of serous and
products and oilseed meals. Mineral and mucous fluids, released by the stimulation
protein supplementation of goats consum- of chewing activities including eating and
ing high-fibre/low-protein forages generally rumination (Haenlein and Caccese, 1992).
improves intake and performance. Nutrient- The saliva secreted aids in cud chewing and
specific supplements should take into swallowing, and is needed for buffering and
consideration the protein content and min- maintenance of rumen pH within an opti-
eral profiles of forages in each region. These mal range (pH 6.2-6.8) for microbial growth
should be formulated to be cost-effective (Lu et al., 2005).
and supply those nutrients required to The insalivated feed then enters the
optimize growth and reproduction of range oesophagus, which is a tube-like duct that
goats (Kawas et al., 2010). carries food from the mouth into the stomach
at the reticulum. The feed bolus is forced
down the oesophagus as a result of voluntary
muscular contractions in its proximal por-
6.3 Gastrointestinal Tract tion, while smooth muscles in the remainder
of the oesophagus cause peristaltic contrac-
The goat gastrointestinal tract has evolved tions that transport the bolus further to the
on the basis of adaptation to feed resources. reticulum. During resting, the ball-like bolus
The goat is a ruminant animal with a diges- of fibrous and coarse feed, called the cud, is
tive tract consisting of mouth, oesophagus, regurgitated from the reticulo-rumen into the
a four-compartment stomach, small intes- mouth through the oesophagus. The rumina-
tine (duodenum, jejunum and ileum), and tion process includes regurgitation of the
large intestine (caecum and colon). cud, which is thoroughly chewed and swal-
Accessory organs such as the salivary lowed again. Goats may spend more than 7 h
glands, liver and pancreas contribute to a day ruminating, depending on the fibre
digestion. Ruminant comes from the word content of the feed (Lu et al., 2005). As chew-
`rumen', which is the first major compart- ing or mastication is comprised of both con-
ment of the four-compartment stomach of sumption and rumination, excess fibre in the
goats where microbial fermentation takes diet may increase the latter, affecting the
place. Some anatomical and physiological amount of feed dry matter (DM) the goat can
aspects of the digestive tract of the goat have eat. Chewing aids in particle size reduction,
been discussed by several authors (Haenlein allowing a greater surface area for microbial
and Caccese, 1992; Silanikove, 2000; Lu digestion and for the smaller particles to flow
et al., 2005; Hart, 2008) and will be summa- out of the rumen. Lateral movements of the
rized in this section. jaw allow effective grinding of forage and
The primary prehensile structures of other feed particles (Haenlein and Caccese,
the goat are the mouth, lips, teeth and 1992).
tongue. Like other ruminant animals, goats The four-compartment stomach is com-
lack upper incisor and canine teeth. They prised of the reticulum, rumen, omasum
depend on the hard and rigid dental pad, and abomasum, the latter being the true
lower incisor teeth, lips and tongue to bite stomach (Fig. 6.1) where enzymatic diges-
and take feed into their mouths. The lips are tion occurs. Each of these compartments
important prehensile organs. This charac- has a specific function in the digestive pro-
teristic enables the greater selectivity of cess. When the goat kid is born, the rumen,
goats when grazing under range conditions. reticulum and omasum are underdeveloped,
Nutrition of the Meat Goat 163

Caecum
Small intestine
Pilorus
Large intestine

Colon Oesophagus

Reticulum
Anus
Omasum

Rumen Abomasum

Fig. 6.1. Diagram of the digestive tract of the meat goat.

and the abomasum or gastric stomach is the organisms to thrive. Microbial fermentation
largest of the four compartments. The accomplished by millions of microorgan-
abomasum functions similarly to the stom- isms such as bacteria, protozoa and fungi
ach of non-ruminant animals. The utiliza- produce enzymes that break down forage
tion of nutrients and absorption of fibre and other feed components, generating
antibodies (immunoglobulins) from colos- energy precursors know as volatile fatty
trum that bypasses the rumen and reticu- acids (VFAs), and synthesizing B-complex
lum through the oesophageal groove and vitamins and vitamin K and providing pro-
into the abomasum is high during the first tein from microbial origin for post-ruminal
days of life. The four stomach compart- digestion and absorption as amino acids by
ments reach their adult size after 2 months the host animal.
of age. In the adult goat, the rumen is the Carbohydrates are fermented in the
largest of the four stomach compartments. reticulo-rumen producing VFAs, primarily
Feed first undergoes microbial diges- acetic, propionic and butyric acids, which
tion in the rumen and reticulum, and these are absorbed through the rumen wall pro-
compartments are collectively referred to as viding most of the energy requirements.
the reticulo-rumen. The reticulum is sepa- Fermentation by rumen microorganisms
rated from the rumen by the reticulo- also generates gases, primarily methane and
ruminal fold. The capacity of the goat carbon dioxide, which are lost through
reticulum is only 1-2 1, whereas the rumen eructation. With the rapid consumption of
contains a considerable amount of fluid large amounts of lush legumes or grain,
(12-25 1; >20 1 in the adult goat), which goats may be unable to eliminate these
depends on the type of feed consumed accumulated gases, producing a condition
(Silanikove, 2000). Small finger-like projec- known as bloat, which may be lethal.
tions called papillae that cover the rumen After forage has been digested and
surface increase the absorptive surface area. broken down into small particles in the
As goat kids grow, they continuously reticulo-rumen, it passes through the omasum
increase their consumption of solid feed, where water absorption occurs, and then
allowing the rumen to develop and micro- enters the abomasum, the true stomach,
164 J.R. Kawas et al.

where hydrochloric acid and digestive 6.4 Feeding Habits of Goats


enzymes are secreted. Here, the digestion
process continues before passing into the Research on feeding behaviour and diet
small intestine. The capacity of the aboma- selection of meat goats in rangelands
sum is approximately 4 1 in the adult goat. explains why goats select certain plants and
The mucosa of the abomasum contains pari- avoid others, as well as their dietary prefer-
etal cells that secrete hydrochloric acid, and ences in different seasons and curious diet
peptic or chief cells that secrete the enzyme selection profile based on the nutrient com-
pepsin, and in the young goat the enzyme position of plants.
rennin is responsible for the formation of Some morphological, physiological
milk curdles and digestion of casein, the and behaviour characteristics of goats are
major protein in milk. The acidic condition inherent in the strategy used to utilize the
of the abomasum is maintained at approxi- available feed resources, and these are
mately pH 3. Lipase in gastric secretions manifested in their feeding behaviour,
degrades fat into glycerol and fatty acids. which we refer to as 'selectivity' (Malechek
Feed passes from the abomasum into and Provenza, 1983). Among these are the
the first segment of the small intestine, the mobile superior lip and their ability to stand
duodenum, through the pyloric sphincter. in a biped posture. The biped posture
The middle and later segments of the small greatly maximizes the available forage in a
intestine are the jejunum and ileum, respec- specific area in which the goat can browse.
tively. In the small intestine, enzymatic Another characteristic of goats is that they
digestion continues and most of the absorp- can travel greater distances than cattle or
tion occurs here. While digestion in the sheep, exposing them to a greater quantity
abomasum occurs in an acid environment of forage and variety of forage species
of pH 3, duodenal digestion takes place in (Askins and Turner, 1972).
an alkaline medium of up to pH 8. Secre- Goats are known as opportunistic her-
tions from the pancreas, liver and duode- bivores due to their versatile feeding habits
num help alkalinize the partially digested and ease of adaptation to vegetation changes
aqueous feed flowing from the stomach into compared with cattle or sheep (Lu and
the duodenum, known as chyme. Enzymes Coleman, 1984). In contrast to other rumi-
secreted by the pancreas are important in nants fed in confinement, goats on grazing
the small intestinal digestion of carbohy- have the liberty to select their diet from a
drates, proteins and fats. Bile produced by complex variety of native plant species
the liver, stored by the gall bladder and available in the range. The selection of some
secreted into the small intestine, helps plant species in relation to others depends
emulsify fat, allowing lipase enzymes to on previous experience, and on the
break down fats. Peristaltic contractions nutritional and physiological state of the
move the chyme through the small intestine animal. Additionally, the diet selected in a
helping to drive the flow of blood and particular situation depends on diverse
lymph in the intestinal wall. interactions between soil, plants and the
The large intestine is comprised of the environment (Malechek and Provenza,
caecum, colon and rectum. Its major func- 1983).
tion is the removal of water from the intesti- In semi-arid climates, meat goats are
nal contents to concentrate the feed residues exposed to the changing vegetation diver-
before excretion, forming faecal pellets at sity that occurs with the extreme climate
the end of the colon. Maximum water conditions of these regions. With changes
removal is attained by reducing the rate of in diet availability, diet preferences are
passage of the intestinal contents, which related to the fibre and nutrient composi-
appears to be an important water-conserva- tion of plants. Thus, goats consume mixed
tion mechanism in goats (Silanikove, 2000). diets and forages based on season and
The capacity of the large intestine of goats opportunities. These animals prefer diets
ranges from 5 to 6 1. based on the concentrate components of
Nutrition of the Meat Goat 165

plant material and will select shrubs and detergent fibre (NDF) contents of the diet of
browse (Silanikove, 2000). goats during the wet season suggest that
Ruminants have been classified accord- the goats' diet may have been composed
ing to their morphological feeding type into largely of grasses (Kawas et al., 1999).
three groups: the concentrate selectors, the 2. Browsing is the habit of feeding on in-
intermediate type and the grass/roughage tact foliage, buds, flowers, stems and
eaters (Hofman, 1989). As intermediate woody trees. Browsing constitutes the
opportunistic domestic feeders, goats tend main diet of the range goat in the semi-arid
to select more nutrient-dense diets such as regions of north-east Brazil (Schacht et al.,
forbs and shrub foliage, whereas cattle and 1992), north-east Mexico (Ramirez et al.,
sheep may consume grass and roughage 1990) and the state of Texas in the USA
(Lu, 1988). (Askins and Turner, 1972). With this feed-
One theory suggests that the superior ing habit, goats can select and have a great-
digestion capacity of goats, in comparison er availability of the native vegetation than
with other ruminant species, is due to the other ruminants (Malechek and Provenza,
presence of large salivary glands, the large 1983). The CP content of diet samples of
absorptive area of their rumen epithelium goats grazing in a dense stand of caatinga
and the ability to rapidly increase foregut woodland in north-east Brazil was high at
volume when high-fibre feeds are consumed the end of the wet season (12%) in com-
(Silanikove, 2000). However, this advantage parison with the dry season (8.4%). Botan-
appears to be true only for certain breeds or ical analyses indicated that >75% of the
strains having particular anatomical dimen- diet during the dry season was composed
sions and is not a characteristic of the entire of dead herbaceous and fallen tree leaves
goat population (Huston, 1978). (Schacht et al., 1992).
The second theory suggests that the
ability for selective feeding of cattle, sheep Generally, the influence of humans on
and goats is inversely related to their ability the grazing behaviour of goats is limited to
to retain and digest fibre in the rumen. The decisions about the season and location of
lower ability to digest fibrous carbohydrates grazing, carrying capacity and herd compo-
has been attributed to their adaptation for sition (Malechek and Provenza, 1983).
selective discrimination of forages for However, the diet selected in a particular
quality. Thus, high-fibre diets may signifi- situation is ultimately dependent on sea-
cantly affect their energy intake, as organic sonal variations and geography. In addition,
matter digestibility and forage intake may palatability is determined by particular
be lower (Huston et al., 1986). characteristics of each plant, and these have
Although forage quality decreases dur- a wide influence on acceptability or rejec-
tion of forage available to goats.
ing the dry season, diet composition may
depend on availability and the botanical
profile of the rangeland grazed by goats. The
goat diet in the range is variable and con- 6.5 Feed Nutrients
sists of shrubs, herbs and grasses. Feeding
habits have been defined as follows (Askins Feedstuffs commonly consumed by meat
and Turner, 1972): goats are mostly of plant origin. Forages con-
tain varying quantities of water, and the DM
1. Grazing is the habit of feeding on veg- fraction is composed of organic and inor-
etation in its natural state at surface level, ganic components. Organic matter includes
including leaves of deciduous trees and nutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins,
the stems of some shrubs. Goats graze grass fats and vitamins, whereas minerals are
and herbs when they are more abundant inorganic components. Both organic and
and prefer browsing when woody vegeta- inorganic entities may provide nutrients for
tion predominates. In north-east Brazil, body maintenance, growth, reproduction,
low dietary crude protein (CP) and neutral pregnancy and lactation.
166 J.R. Kawas et al.

DM may be partitioned based on the production. Water is responsible for the


nutritive value of its components into cell structure and function of cells and serves as
contents and cell wall components (Fig. 6.2) a solvent for digestion, absorption, trans-
as follows (Moore and Hartfield, 1994): port and metabolism of nutrients. Water is
needed as a medium for metabolic reactions
1. Cell contents: and for excretion of metabolic residues.
Organic acids Water intake can be affected by factors
Mono- and oligosaccharides (sugars) related to the animal, the environment, feed
Non-structural polysaccharides (starches) composition and water quality.
Protein and other nitrogen-containing
compounds Animal factors
Lipids, fatty acids and other compo-
nents soluble in ether Water intake depends on the body size, age,
Soluble minerals physical activity and health status of goats,
as well as environmental factors. Goats
2. Cell wall: drink 2 litres of water per kg of DM consumed
Structural polysaccharides (partially in the humid cool winter season, with the
nutritive matter) ratio increasing to 6:1 with heat stress in
o Cellulose the hot summer season (Denek et al., 2006).
o Hemicellulose
With greater physical activity, water con-
o Pectic compounds sumption is also increased. Younger goats
Non-nutritive matter require more water than older animals.
o Lignin
However, more water is required for milk
o Non-nutritive ether extracts (wax, production, as goat's milk is >87% water.
terpenes, etc.) Desert goats are among the most efficient of
domestic animals in their use of water, with-
o Insoluble minerals (silica)
standing prolonged periods of water depri-
vation and grazing far away from watering
sites (Silanikove, 2000). Some mechanisms
6.5.1 Water that make goats less susceptible to high tem-
perature stress than other species of domes-
Water is an essential nutrient of high con- tic livestock include the ability to maintain
sumption and may be the most critical of all water economy together with the capacity to
nutrients. Life is dependent more on the endure severe dehydration and undergo
availability of water than on other nutrients. rapid rehydration. The role of the rumen as
Reduced water availability can restrict feed a water reservoir is more pronounced in
intake and feed efficiency, and adversely desert mammals, particularly desert goats.
affects growth, reproduction and milk The capacity of the desert goat to secrete

Cell contents Cell wall


Protein Cellulose
Lipids Hemicellulose
Starches Pectic compounds
Sugars f3- glucans
Organic acids Galactans
Fructans Lignin
Vitamins Fibre-bound protein
Soluble minerals Insoluble minerals

Fig. 6.2. Plant cell composition.


Nutrition of the Meat Goat 167

large amounts of saliva allows them to determined analytically using chemical and
achieve efficient retention of water follow- enzymatic methods, which should repre-
ing rehydration. In addition to a reduced sent nutritionally relevant fractions. On the
need for body water evaporation for other hand, the non-structural carbohy-
maintaining comfort in hot climates, goats drates are comprised of carbohydrates from
can conserve body water by decreased losses the cell contents including monosaccha-
in urine and faeces (Silanikove, 2000; rides, oligosaccharides (low-molecular-
Merck, 2008). weight carbohydrates), fructans and starch.

Physical activity
6.5.3 Fibre fraction
In comparison with confined goats, activ-
ity under grazing conditions is more In nutrition, the term fibre has been defined
demanding for water. Goats need to walk as 'polymeric compounds from plants and
more to obtain the feed they need, and for other feedstuffs that are not digested by the
this additional activity more water is action of mammalian digestive enzymes'
required. (Moore and Hartfield, 1994). This definition
of fibre in the diet has been accepted by
Environmental factors both ruminant and non-ruminant nutri-
tionists. The mammal digestive tract does
Water is also needed for body temperature not secrete enzymes that are able to hydro-
regulation. Ambient temperature and humid- lyse the 131-4 linkages that predominate in
ity are factors affecting water intake. During plant cell wall polysaccharides, and thus
the summer, especially on hot humid days, depend on microorganisms in the ruminant
water evaporation from the organism through gastrointestinal tract to ferment these
sweat may cause greater water consumption structural carbohydrates, producing vola-
than normal. During cold winter days, freez- tile fatty acids that are further absorbed.
ing of water may reduce its availability for Ruminants are among the most specialized
intake. herbivores using this symbiotic relation-
ship to utilize plant cell walls as a source
Feed quality and composition of nutrients (Moore and Hartfield, 1994;
Protein levels in the ration affect water con- van Soest, 1994).
sumption. During protein metabolism, urea Plant cells can be divided into two
is synthesized in the liver and excreted fractions based on their nutritional avail-
through the kidney. With more protein in ability (Fig. 6.3). One of these fractions is
the diet, which may include the use of feed- soluble in a neutral detergent solution
grade urea, water intake is greater as more (plant cell contents), while the other is an
urine is excreted to eliminate the greater insoluble fraction that represents the plant
quantity of urea being produced in the liver cell wall, also known as neutral detergent
(Quinisa and Boomker, 1998). An excess of fibre (NDF). In forages commonly fed to
salt in the ration will also cause an increase livestock, fibre refers to the plant cell wall.
in water consumption. Another chemical entity that represents
the less digestible fibre is acid detergent
fibre, which is obtained from the dry
residue that results from the further solubi-
6.5.2 Fibre and non-fibre carbohydrates lization of hemicellulose with an acid
detergent solution (Moore and Hartfield,
Carbohydrates comprise the greatest 1994).
proportion of the goat's diet. Forages pri- As the biological functions of the
marily contain fibre carbohydrates, whereas plant cell wall have resulted in a chemi-
grains contain mostly non-fibre polysaccha- cal structure of variable and often low
rides. The carbohydrate fractions may be digestibility, it appears obvious that the
168 J.R. Kawas et al.

Sugars
C
0
M Starches
C P
E 0
L N
L E Organic acids
N NFC
T
S Fructans

Pectic substances NDSF


C
E
Galactans
L
13-Glucans
L

Hemicelluloses
w
A NDF
L
L
Cellulose ADF

Fig. 6.3. Chemical determination of carbohydrate fractions. NDF, Neutral detergent fibre; NDSF, neutral
detergent-soluble fibre; NFC, non-NDF carbohydrates; ADF, acid detergent fibre (adapted from Hall,
2003).

cell wall did not evolve to serve as a feed 6.5.5 Protein


for ruminants. In the rumen, cell walls
physically occupy volume, affecting feed Proteins are nitrogen-containing molecules,
intake and animal performance. Analysis found in the body tissue and milk of the
of the amount of fibre or cell wall present meat goat. Proteins contain one or more
in feedstuffs of meat goats is of major amino acid chains, and their quality relates
importance as their diet often contains to their amino acid profile. Proteins are
large amounts of forage. essential components of blood, muscle, skin
and bone cells. Enzymes, hormones and
antibodies are also protein molecules, and
6.5.4 Non-structural carbohydrates are involved in digestion, metabolism,
reproduction and immunity. Amino acids
As the determination of non-structural car- from protein in the diet are required for
bohydrates is a time-consuming analytical body maintenance, growth, gestation and
procedure, for practical purposes, analo- lactation of meat animals.
gously, the amount of non-fibre carbohy- Protein from feed is partially degraded
drates is commonly calculated by in the rumen, with NH3 being available for
subtracting from the DM content, the NDF, utilization by rumen microorganisms and
CP, ether extract and ash fractions deter- synthesis of microbial protein (Fig. 6.4).
mined in the laboratory. This fraction Urea is commonly used as an economic
encompasses organic acids, mono- and source of non-protein nitrogen for inclusion
disaccharides, oligosaccharides, fructans, in ruminant feeds. Nitrogen from urea is uti-
starch, pectic substances, (13)(14)-13- lized for microbial protein synthesis, for
glucans, and other carbohydrates exclusive which energy is also required. Excess NH3
of the hemicelluloses and cellulose found in the rumen is absorbed and transported
in NDF (Hall, 2003). through the portal vein to the liver, where
Nutrition of the Meat Goat 169

Mouth Rumen Liver Small intestine


Feed protein UIP UIP

DIP

NH3 Urea AA
NPN NH3# NH4+

Bacteria
Urea in saliva

Urine Faeces

Fig. 6.4. Nitrogen utilization in the ruminant. AA, Amino acids; DIP, degradable intake protein; NPN,
non-protein nitrogen; UIP, undegradable intake protein (adapted from NRC, 1985).

urea is synthesized and may be further recy- rumen nitrogen, thereby increasing fibre
cled in saliva or excreted in urine. The car- digestibility (Ben Salem and Smith, 2008).
bon skeletons from the protein molecule DM intake and digestibility are reduced if
will provide energy for the goat. As lush for- dietary protein content is <7%, further
ages and silages contain a high concentra- causing an energy deficiency. Studies on
tion of non-protein nitrogen, the use of urea the effect of energy or protein supplementa-
should be limited in these diets or supple- tion have demonstrated a response in feed
ments for meat goats, whereas urea will be intake of beef cattle (NRC, 1987) and goats
more useful when goats are consuming (Negesse et al., 2001) consuming low-level
straw or other low-quality forage. CP diets based on low-quality roughages.
The degradable protein fraction is Supplements that provide non-protein
known as degradable intake protein, nitrogen and true protein may increase for-
whereas the intact protein fraction that age consumption as the minimum nitrogen
resists rumen degradation is known as requirements for rumen microorganisms
undegradable intake protein or bypass pro- are satisfied. Because an important propor-
tein. Microbial protein and feed proteins tion of the protein associated with the
that escape degradation in the rumen are undegradable fibre fraction may not be uti-
further broken down by the action of diges- lized by rumen microbes, setting a mini-
tive enzymes in the abomasum and small mum CP level for normal rumen function
intestine, absorbed in the small intestine may be especially critical with high-fibre/
and used to replace body losses and for the low-protein roughages.
synthesis of new body tissue. Unlike meat As the CP content of forage increases,
goats, a high percentage of bypass protein is the magnitude of the response in produc-
required by high-yield-producing dairy tion with additional protein supplementa-
goats. Meat goats generally do not require tion may be in response to changes in
much bypass protein, except when grazing forage intake rather than digestibility or to
or browsing lush forage that contains a high a greater metabolic efficiency in nutrient
proportion of degradable intake protein. utilization, which includes the effects of
Improvements in the nutritive value intake of degradable or undegradable pro-
of low-quality forage diets for goats tein (NRC, 1987). As forages from temperate
often depend on increasing the supply of areas have a high level of degradable
170 J.R. Kawas et al.

protein, undegradable intake protein sup- lactating dairy goats (Lu, 1993). With dairy
plementation can improve the performance goats, a high dietary fat level may depress
of ruminants under grazing conditions. fibre fermentation, the rumen concentration
After satisfying the degradable protein of acetic acid and milk fat synthesis. Feed-
needs of the rumen, additional feeding ing meat goats high levels of crushed whole
of undegradable protein may improve soybeans (0-33% of the whole diet) signifi-
performance without affecting intake cantly reduced fibre digestibility, which
(Kawas et al., 1997). With range goats appeared to be related to the fat content of
browsing shrub vegetation, protein supple- the diet. Nitrogen retention also increased
mentation may improve performance as as the level of whole soybeans in the diet
consumption of high levels of condensed increased in response to a greater nitrogen
tannins may reduce protein degradability intake (Kadzere and Jingura, 1993). With
due to binding of food proteins and inacti- low-level supplementation of range goats,
vation of digestive tract enzymes (Kumar overfeeding of fat is not common, and the
and Vaithyanathan, 1990). fat level may represent a greater proportion
of the supplement in contrast to its inclu-
sion in a complete feed offered in confine-
ment (Kawas et al., 2010).
6.5.6 Fats

Whereas carbohydrates are the main source


of energy for ruminants, fats contain more 6.5.7 Minerals
energy per unit weight. Fats, also known as
lipids, are composed of triglycerides, which The ash contents of herbage and other
are esters of glycerol and three fatty acids. feeds represent the inorganic matter frac-
Fats can be of animal or plant origin. Plants tion, or minerals. Minerals are inorganic
contain very small quantities of fat, this nutrients and are subdivided into two
being the reason why the meat-goat diet groups, macrominerals and trace minerals.
is low in fat. In the laboratory, the fat con- The macrominerals are those required in
tent of feed is determined as that fraction percentage quantities in the diet, whereas
that is soluble in ether. Other ether-soluble microminerals or trace minerals are those
plant compounds such as waxes or terpenes required at levels of parts per million
can be found in the diet of browsing or graz- (ppm). Macrominerals include calcium,
ing goats. However, these compounds do phosphorus, sodium, chloride, potassium,
not supply energy to the goat. magnesium and sulfur. The microminerals
The fat content of the range goat is required in the diet of ruminants are iron,
generally <2%. The inclusion of fat in range manganese, zinc, copper, iodine, selenium
supplements is not common Although con- and cobalt.
sumption of small quantities of fat can The diverse functions of minerals in
improve energy intake and goat performance, the body include the structural components
too much fat in the diet may reduce diet of bones and teeth (calcium and phospho-
fibre digestibility Animal and vegetable fat rus) and haemoglobin (iron), electrolytes
sources can be processed to be inert in the involved in water balance (sodium and
rumen, so that fibre digestion is not affected. potassium) and components of enzymes
These soaps (long-chain fatty acid calcium involved in the regulation of metabolism
salts) are commonly called 'bypass fats'. (iodine is a structural component of the hor-
In confinement, fat may be added to the mones thyroxine and tri-iodothyronine
diet of goats to increase their energy con- (NRC, 2007).
tent. This is not a common practice with Under rangeland grazing systems, min-
meat goats, unlike with high-level- erals consumed by goats depend almost
producing dairy goats. Feeding of fat could exclusively on forage intake. Mineral con-
alter the milk fatty acid composition in centrations of forages are dependent on the
Nutrition of the Meat Goat 171

interactions between factors such as soil, include vitamins A, D, E and K. Vitamin K


forage species, stage of maturity, climate is the only fat-soluble vitamin synthesized
and season. The abundant vegetation avail- in the rumen and is required for blood clot-
able for goats during the rainy season may ting (NRC, 2007).
provide energy and protein that allow All the water-soluble vitamins are syn-
maximum growth. Although an abundant thesized by rumen microorganisms. How-
source of feed is available for range goats, ever, a deficiency of two B vitamins may
unbalanced mineral concentrations in for- occur in meat goats:
ages may be a cause of low production and
reproductive problems (McDowell et al., Vitamin B12. A cobalt deficiency in the
1983). diet may result in not enough vitamin
Specific mineral supplementation of B12 being synthesized by microbes in
small ruminants is possible by mapping or the rumen to satisfy needs; and
studying the mineral concentrations in Thiamine (vitamin B1). A thiamine
soil, forage, drinking water and animal tis- deficiency may cause polioencephalo-
sue in a specific region. Supplementation malacia, a neurological disorder of
of major minerals and trace minerals ruminants characterized by necrosis of
should be considered to satisfy the require- the cerebral cortex. The disease may
ments for growth and reproduction appear in some cases of rumen dys-
(NRC, 2007). Other elements required, function. Some predisposing factors
although not needing to be supplemented, include high-concentrate feeding, com-
are molybdenum and fluorine. By knowing bined with a small particle size of for-
the mineral profiles in forages consumed age and other feed ingredients and high
by goats of different regions, specific min- sulfur intake. High sulfur content in
eral supplements can be designed to satisfy water and feedstuffs such as molasses
requirements and optimize productivity and distillers' dried grains in the diet
and health (Kawas et al., 2010). may trigger the disease. Clinical signs
include blindness, ataxia (incoordina-
tion) and recumbency with seizures.
Treatment requires immediate injec-
6.5.8 Vitamins tion of large quantities of thiamine
(Gould, 1998).
Vitamins are organic compounds that are
required in small quantities to maintain Deficiency symptoms of vitamin A
body functions, participating as cofactors include xerophthalmia (failure to produce
in many metabolic processes. A deficiency tears) and diarrhoea. Vitamin A is required
of a vitamin will slow or block the meta- for normal vision and the prevention of
bolic path in which it is involved, result- reproductive and respiratory problems. The
ing in the appearance of clinical symptoms. precursor of vitamin A is 0-carotene found
These symptoms become worse if the vita- in green forages. Of the fat-soluble vitamins,
min is not supplemented in the diet (NRC, vitamin A is of importance for goats con-
2007). suming hay or forage that have been
Vitamins can be grouped into water- exposed to and deteriorated by rain and
soluble and fat-soluble. Among the water- unfavourable climate, especially during a
soluble vitamins are the so-called B-complex prolonged drought period in semi-arid
vitamins such as thiamine (B1), riboflavin regions. If the dry season is not very long,
(B2), niacin (B3), pantothenic acid (B5), vitamin A supplementation may not be
pyridoxine (B6), biotin (B7), folic acid (B9) needed as the liver stores may last up to
and cyanocobalamin (B12). Another water- 4 months in adult goats (Frier et al., 1974).
soluble vitamin, vitamin C, is synthesized Vitamin A requirements are generally
by body tissue in quantities that meet expressed as international units (IU).
the animal's needs. Fat-soluble vitamins One IU per kg is equivalent to 1 United
172 J.R. Kawas et al.

States pharmacological unit (USP) per kg. ammonia in the rumen are utilized in
Synthetic forms of the vitamin are avail- energy metabolism.
able commercially. One milligram of (3- Energy is needed for biochemical reac-
carotene provides 400 IU of vitamin A. tions and for normal daily activities of the
Vitamin D is required for absorption goat. When goats move to select and con-
and metabolism of calcium and phospho- sume their diet, energy is being utilized.
rus for bone growth and development. Energy is also needed for chewing activities,
Vitamin D deficiency results in rickets, a digestion, absorption and metabolism of
disease characterized by lameness, weak feed nutrients. During both cold winters and
bones and bowed and crooked legs. Goats warm summers, energy is required for the
exposed to sunlight can meet their vitamin maintenance of body temperature.
D requirements by the action of ultraviolet Energy is first measured as gross energy
light, which penetrates the skin. Meat goats by the combustion of feed samples using an
continuously exposed to the sun would not adiabatic bomb calorimeter. Oxidation of
normally require vitamin D supplementa- feed organic components generates water
tion. The liver is the main site for storage of and carbon dioxide, with the release of heat.
vitamin D in the body. Vitamin D2 is syn- Ash, the mineral fraction of feeds, will not
thesized during haymaking of sun-cured burn and therefore does not provide energy.
forages. Digestible energy is a term that represents
Both vitamin E and selenium function the gross energy consumed minus the gross
as antioxidants, the requirement of either energy lost in the faeces.
one being partially met by the other; this is Metabolizable energy (ME) is the energy
the reason why vitamin E is important in fraction left after deducting energy losses in
areas in which selenium deficiency has faeces, urine and gases produced during
been detected. A marginal deficiency of rumen fermentation. Another term, net
vitamin E can depress the immune system energy, is the fraction of gross energy con-
and cause reproductive failure. In the goat sumed by the goat that is utilized for body
kid, a vitamin E deficiency may cause maintenance and meat production, after
white muscle disease. Supplementation of considering all body losses including heat
vitamin E will prevent this disease. Vita- generated by body cell metabolism and
min E is commonly supplemented in rela- rumen fermentation, which is known as
tively high quantities in dairy cow and heat increment.
dairy goat diets to stimulate the immune Carbohydrates, especially structural
system, reducing the severity and duration fibre components, supply most of the
of subclinical mastitis. High levels of energy consumed by range goats. Fibre
vitamin E may be found in green grass carbohydrates from browse or grazed for-
and green sun-cured hay. One milligram age are fermented in the rumen and the
of a-tocopherol is equivalent to 1 IU of end products of rumen fermentation are
vitamin E. volatile fatty acids, primarily acetic, pro-
pionic and butyric acids, which are used
as energy precursors (Lu et al., 2005). In
confinement, grain represents an impor-
6.5.9 Energy tant source of energy when included in
the ration.
Energy is obtained from the oxidation of Energy is the major limiting factor in
organic nutrients in the body and is required animal production under grazing conditions
for metabolic reactions. Carbohydrates are prevailing in arid and semi-arid regions.
the main source of energy, but energy may This restriction may increase several fold
also be obtained from protein and fat. The with scarce forage and water conditions.
latter is the most energy-dense nutrient. The Thus, herbage energy availability is a key
carbon skeletons of proteins that remain factor in adaptation to the environment and
after deamination of amino acids to liberate the behaviour and feeding strategies of goats
Nutrition of the Meat Goat 173

(Lachica and Aguilera, 2008). Accurate esti- 2010). Depression of feed intake and reduc-
mates of overall energy expenditure depend tion in production are commonly observed
on the additional energy expenditure and in heat-stressed goats when environmental
heat production due to grazing activity. temperature exceeds 25 -30 °C (Lu, 1989a).
Free-ranging goats may lose weight
during the dry season as forage availability
and quality limit the energy supply for 6.6.1 Forage availability and quality
body maintenance. During the wet season,
the energy consumed by goats will gener- Fibre digestion and utilization in goats has
ally be enough for maintenance, and addi- been thoroughly reviewed (Lu et al., 2005).
tional energy may be used to recover body Under range conditions, the potential for
condition. These changes in body condi- goat meat production is limited by many
tion represent changes in energy balance. environmental and nutritional factors. Sea-
In confinement, with high-level grain sonal fluctuations in forage availability and
diets, excess energy intake may be stored quality are one of the main causes of nutri-
as fat. tional stress that limit animal production in
The nutrient demand of the animal is semi-arid regions of the world. During the
one of the conditions that influences those dry season, inadequate foliage intake occur-
factors used to predict the activity energy ring as a result of reduced availability in the
cost of grazing, and therefore forage intake range, the low protein content and an increase
(Fierro and Bryant, 1990). Forage availability in fibre components and lignification can
can influence both grazing time and reduce the intake of nutrients that are
the nutritive value of ingested forage required by goats for maintenance and
(Seman et al., 1991; Krysl and Hess, 1993; production (Kawas and Huston, 1990; Ben
Herselman et al., 1999). As forage availabil- Salem and Nefzaoui, 2003; Alexandre and
ity decreases, bite size declines, which Mandonnet, 2005; Lachica and Aguilera,
results in at least partial compensatory 2005). Therefore, the physical and chemical
changes in grazing time and rate of biting characteristics of high-fibre feeds may not
(Davies and Southey, 2001). Decreased for- provide enough nutrients for cost-efficient
age quality also increases time spent chew- goat production (Silanikove, 2000; Alexan-
ing (Sahlu et al., 1989). Factors likely to be dre and Mandonnet, 2005).
responsible for increased energy expendi-
ture and the grazing activity energy cost Forage availability
with increasing stocking rate are decreased
forage mass, which elicits increased grazing Frequently, available feed resources fail to
time, and the number of steps or distance satisfy the maintenance requirements of
travelled (Animut et al., 2005). small ruminants. Forage availability may
be as limiting as forage quality to goat per-
formance. In north-eastern Brazil, during
6.6 Nutritional Constraints the dry season, the main component of the
goat diet is the bed of dry leaves from
In semi-arid regions of the world, drastic deciduous trees, which become scarce at
climate changes cause feeding constraints the end of the dry season. As a result of the
that may affect the performance of range reduced availability of feed, seasonal varia-
goats (Lu, 1989a; Silanikove, 2000; Ben tions in body weight of >50% can be
Salem and Nefzaoui, 2003; Alexandre and observed within a period of 5-6 months
Mandonnet, 2005; Ben Salem and Smith, (Figueiredo et al., 1980).
2008). These constraints may include low
forage availability (underfeeding), low for- Forage quality
age quality (low concentrations of nutrients)
and PSMs in browse, which affect nutrient The two most important factors affecting
utilization and parasitism (Kawas et al., forage quality and utilization are forage
174 J.R. Kawas et al.

species and maturity. The cell wall content ficus indica f. inermis) having a CP content
of leguminous fodders is less than that of of <5%. This level of CP may provide less
grasses, and most forages decrease in nitrogen for rumen bacteria than the 7% CP
quality with advancing maturity. The cell needed in the diet for normal rumen func-
wall of legumes has a faster rate of diges- tion (NRC, 1987). The ash content was
tion than that of grasses, which explains reported as 23.8%, of which 5.2% was cal-
why a higher intake is observed for legumes cium and only 0.1% was phosphorus (Ben
(Kawas et al., 1989). When legumes and Salem and Nefzaoui, 2003).
grasses of equal digestibility are fed to ani-
mals, the voluntary intake of legumes
exceeds that of grasses. This has led to the 6.6.2 Plant secondary metabolites
association of cell wall type with feed
intake (Thornton and Minson, 1973). With The nutrient availability and palatability of
forage maturity, the non-structural carbo- certain plant species appear to be affected
hydrates decrease and plant cell wall con- by anti-nutritional compounds, also known
tent increases and becomes more complex as plant secondary metabolites (PSMs),
due to an increase in the presence of poly- such as tannins, phenolic acids and
meric compounds such as lignin and silica. alkaloids (Melechek and Provenza, 1983;
Due to the greater stem:leaf ratio, mature Pfister, 1983; Lu, 1992), which are found at
forages contain more fibre and less soluble higher concentrations in the diet of range
carbohydrate and protein (Kawas, 1983; goats and deer than in that of other rumi-
Kawas et al., 1990).
nants (Silanikove, 2000; Nantoume et al.,
Forage quality is also affected by other 2001). Tannins are heterogeneous polyphe-
factors including cutting date and climate. nolic compounds varying in molecular
The nutritive value of grasses and legumes weight, with the ability to form complexes
generally decreases as temperature increases.
with proteins and other nutrients due to the
Compared with temperate forages, tropical binding properties of their hydroxyl and
forages have increased annual DM yield. carboxyl groups (Silanikove, 2000; Makkar,
However, increased yield is usually associ- 2003). Tannins are usually classified either
ated with decreased forage quality and sub- as hydrolysable tannins or condensed tan-
sequent feeding value (Arthington and
nins; the latter are also known as proantho-
Brown, 2005). Although irrigation is the pri- cyanidins, based on their molecular
mary means of altering climatic constraints structure (MM and Hart, 2003):
in agriculture, physical and economic con-
siderations often limit its use in semi-arid Hydrolysable tannins contain a carbo-
regions where tropical forages are grown hydrate (generally D- glucose) as a cen-
(Sotomayor-Rios and Pitman, 2001). tral core. The hydroxyl groups of these
Cacti are commonly used as an emer- carbohydrates are esterified with phe-
gency feed supplement in semi-arid regions nolic groups, such as ellagic acid or gal-
of countries of the American (Brazil, Chile lic acid. Hydrolysable tannins can be
and Mexico) and African (Morocco, South further metabolized to compounds
Africa and Tunisia) continents (Ben Salem such as pyrogallol by some rumen bac-
and Smith, 2008). Some species of cactus teria involved in these degradative
are high in fibre (up to 58% NDF on DM pathways, which are potentially toxic
basis) and ash (up to 25%) contents, which to ruminants (Min and Hart, 2003).
may reduce energy intake, and a significant However, it appears that goats can
amount of the protein, determined as acid adapt to the consumption of large
detergent insoluble nitrogen, may be associ- amounts of tannins without suffering
ated with the less degradable fraction of the any ill effects (Silanikove et al., 1996).
plant cell walls (Davila-Gutierrez, 1996). Condensed tannins are the most common
Ben Salem and Nefzaoui (2003) reported the type of tannin in forage legumes, trees
composition of spineless cactus (Opuntia and shrubs (Barry and McNabb, 1999).
Nutrition of the Meat Goat 175

Structurally, condensed tannins are With increasing levels of guajillo in the


complexes of oligomers and polymers of diet of goats, palatability, nutrient
flavonoid units linked by carbon-carbon digestibility and both energy and nitro-
bonds. Condensed tannins exist as oligo- gen balance decreased (Nantoume et al.,
mers of flavan-3-ols (catechin) or flavan- 2001). An increased demand for glucose
3,4-diols (epicatechin), and those to detoxify the PSM at high intake lev-
occurring in temperate forages have a els of guajillo (>50%) suggests that sup-
relative molecular mass of 2000-4000 plements are needed to improve
comprising 10-12 oligomers of con- digestibility and availability of nutri-
densed tannins (Foo et al., 1986). ents, and provide energy and other
Together, these differences can pro- nutrients to mitigate the toxic effects of
duce an infinite variety of chemical the PSM ingested.
structures, which in turn affect the
physical and biological properties of Secondary plant compounds at a con-
the condensed tannins. Condensed tan- centration below the level of toxicity can be
nins accumulate in the vacuoles of cells leveraged for disease prevention, control
in various tissues of many forage spe- and treatment, and may fill the vacuum
cies. The different structures and range from the absence of the use of chemicals in
of molecular weights for forage con- organic goat production. In combination
densed tannins have been reported with other naturally occurring materials,
(MM and Hart, 2003).
they have the potential to improve nutrient
digestion and utilization in goats. Goats are
Tannins can induce detrimental effects versatile in harvesting plant materials and
when consumed by herbivores, such as are able to survive under adverse foraging
reduced protein availability, lower palat- conditions. The tolerance of goats towards
ability, gut irritation and systemic toxicity the bitterness of PSMs can have an anthel-
(Kumar and Vaithyanathan, 1990; Makkar, mintic role and make goats more suitable
2003): for high-forage organic production systems
Condensed tannins of the plant quebra- than other ruminant species (Lu, 2011).
cho were shown to cause epithelial
degeneration and ulceration of the gas-
trointestinal tract and reduced DM, 6.6.3 Internal parasites
fibre and nitogen digestibility (Dawson
et al., 1999). Gastrointestinal parasites are a major health
Guajillo (Acacia berlandieri Benth.), a problem for livestock production in tropical
shrub species consumed by goats and and subtropical environments (Sykes,
whitetail deer and high in nitrogen con- 1994). Economic losses are primarily due to
tent, is widely distributed in southern lower performance rates. The incidence of
Texas and northern Mexico. It is partic- parasite infestation may be high for grazing
ularly valuable when grasses are dor- goats because most parasites are found close
mant or during periods of extended to the ground, whereas browsing goats are
drought (Nantoume et al., 2001). Gua- usually parasite free. A reduction in para-
jillo can cause ataxia of the hind limbs site exposure, detection of clinical signs of
of goats (Price and Hardy, 1953), which parasitism and proper treatment of infected
appears to be related to the presence of goats are recommended management prac-
phenolic compounds and alkaloids of tices (Mobley et al., 2007).
which N-methyl-fl-phenethylamine is Control and treatment of gastrointesti-
found in high concentrations (Clement nal parasite infections are usually accom-
et al., 1997). This compound has pro- plished by administering anthelmintic
found physiological effects on the hypo- drugs. Anthelmintics are chemical deworm-
thalamic-adrenal-gonadal axis (Forbes ers used to treat infections of parasitic
et al., 1994; Vera-Avila et al., 1996). worms (helminths), whereas coccidia are
176 J.R. Kawas et al.

normally treated with sulfa drugs. As worm which adult worms thrive and produce eggs
parasites may have acquired resistance over (Knox, 2002; Burke et al., 2004).
decades of use of chemicals, treatment with 3. Condensed tannins. Alternative para-
these chemical dewormers is becoming less site management strategies using forages
effective for parasite control of infected containing condensed tannins have been
goats, sheep and cattle. Therefore, alterna- suggested (Niezen et al., 1995; Barry et al.,
tive treatments have been evaluated to 2001; Min et al., 2002). Condensed tannins
reduce the dependence on these chemical have been reported to reduce gastrointesti-
compounds (Waller, 1994). nal parasite loads in goats by reducing
Nutrition plays a major role in how worm fertility, eliminating adult worms and
well animals are able to withstand the detri- retarding the establishment of incoming
mental effects of internal parasites. In fact, larvae (MM and Hart, 2003; Waller and
signs of parasitism are usually used as a Thamsborg, 2004; Knox et al., 2006; Waller,
symptom of poor nutrition (Wallace et al., 2006). These compounds can be found in
1998). Research has shown that improved leguminous plants and browse. It seems
nutrition increases the animal's ability to possible that the consumption of forage
resist and defend itself against infection. condensed tannins may reduce gastrointes-
Some alternative non-drug methods that tinal parasite numbers and improve animal
appear promising for farm production sys- performance through direct and indirect
tems, especially those focused on organic mechanisms. Direct effects of condensed
goat production (Lu et al., 2010), are nutri- tannins may be mediated through con-
tionally related: densed tannin-parasite interactions, there-
by affecting the physiological functioning of
1. Protein supplementation. Increased pro- the parasites. Condensed tannins extracted
tein intake appears to improve the resistance from various forages can markedly decrease
of the host to gastrointestinal parasites, ap- the viability of the larval stages of several
parently mediated by an enhanced host im- nematodes. Condensed tannins also may re-
munity, which may be especially important act directly by interfering with parasite egg
with selection for immunity to gastrointesti- hatching and the development of infective-
nal parasites (MM and Hart, 2003). Field stage larvae. Indirectly, condensed tannins
studies have shown that supplementation can improve protein nutrition by binding to
with urea molasses blocks can result in plant proteins in the rumen and preventing
increased live weight of lambs at weaning, microbial degradation, thereby increasing
increased reproduction rates in ewes and a amino acid flow to the duodenum. The con-
reduction in faecal egg output of parasites in densed tannins bind proteins and other
grazing sheep. However, pen studies with molecules at the near-neutral pH of the
young goats have shown that urea supple- rumen, dissociating in the acidic pH of the
ments alone gave no production benefits but, abomasum, allowing them to be digested
when accompanied by 100 g/day of cotton- (Min and Hart, 2003). However, condensed
seed meal, beneficial responses were ob- tannins from some plants appear to be effec-
served (Knox and Steel, 1996). tive only against parasites that affect the
2. Copper administration. Copper oxide small intestine and not against those found
wire particle boluses also reduce gastroin- in the abomasums, such as the barber pole
testinal parasite load (Burke et al., 2005, worm.
2007) and were shown to help control
Haemonchus contortus or barber pole worm
in sheep and goats, a highly prolific nema-
tode with a short life cycle. This parasite 6.7 Nutrient Requirements of the Goat
causes a reduction in production and death
losses when severe outbreaks occur during Meat, milk and fibre production are physio-
warm humid months because of its vora- logical processes that require large quantities
cious appetite for blood in the abomasum in of readily available nutrients. A schematic
Nutrition of the Meat Goat 177

representation of feed nutrients, intake, nutrient requirements of goats reported by


digestion and utilization in the meat goat is the NRC (2007), considering a range of body
presented in Fig. 6.5. As the genetic capabil- weights, is presented in Table 6.1.
ity of goat breeds is improved, there is a
greater need for improvement of manage-
ment, nutrition, health and reproduction. 6.7.1 Energy
The last report of the US National Research
Council was published in 2007 (NRC, 2007). Energy is the nutrient component required
However, more research has since been pub- in greater quantities in the diet of meat
lished on requirements and the response to goats. Energy requirements depend on fac-
different feeding regimes, which can be used tors such as physiological state (mainte-
to further complement feeding guidelines for nance, growth, gestation and lactation),
growth and reproduction of meat goats. level of production, activity, ambient tem-
Nutrient concentrations in the diet of perature and nutrition (fibre level, energy
goats are affected by feed intake. One of the density and additives such as sodium
most limiting factors in terms of establishing monensin).
the requirements and feed guidelines for Information in the literature concern-
goats is the lack of precision for predicting ing energy requirements of goats in open
DM intake. Feed intake has been reported for range is scarce. The energy expenditure of
lactating (Lu, 1989b; Lu et al., 1991) and goats in semi-intensive and intensive pro-
growing (Lu and Potchoiba, 1990) goats. A duction systems can represent a significant
National Research Council (NRC, 1987) proportion of their total energy require-
report presented a revision of research con- ments. The average requirements for growth
ducted to predict the feed intake of some derived from regression analysis were
domestic animals but excluded goats. More 4.6 kcal ME/g of average daily gain of grow-
recently, DM intake prediction equations for ing goats of 4-8 months of age (Lu and
growing and mature meat goats were reported Potchoiba, 1990). The average energy
(Sahlu et al., 2004) and used to calculate DM requirement based on 144 lactating dairy
intakes needed to supply the required energy goats during the first 16-20 weeks of lacta-
concentrations of 1.91, 2.39 and 2.87 Mcal tion was 119 kcal ME/kg of 4% fat-corrected
ME/kg, taking into consideration goat body milk (Lu, 1989b). The daily activities of
weights (NRC, 2007). A summary of the grazing goats such as time spent eating and

Fermentable fibre
Sugars,
Feed Crude protein (cellulose and Fat Minerals
starch
hemice lulose)

DIP

UIP

Bacterial protein

Small Proponic
Amino acids Acetic acid Fatty acids
intestine acid

tat Protein Fat Minerals

Fig. 6.5. Feed nutrients, intake, digestion and utilization in the meat goat. DIP, Degradable intake
protein; UIP, undegradable intake protein.
Table 6.1. Nutrient requirements of meat indigenous breeds and Boer goats of various production stages (adapted from NRC, 2007).a

Vitamim Ae Vitamin Ee
Stage MEb (Mcal/kg) CPC (%) MPG (%) DI PG (%) Cad (%) pd (%) (RE/kg) (IU/kg)

Starter (<15 kg BW; 200 g average daily gain/day)


Indigenous breeds
Doelings and male castrates 3.25 22.4 15.3 8.1 1.21 0.52 2451 245
Intact males 3.21 20.5 14.1 8.0 1.11 0.50 2252 225
Grower (15-30 kg BW; 250 g average daily gain/day)
Boer
Doelings and male castrates 3.28 26.5 18.2 8.2 1.11 0.50 2252 225
Intact males 3.25 24.7 17.0 8.2 1.05 0.46 2101 210
Indigenous breeds
Doelings and male castrates 2.73 18.0 12.4 6.9 0.93 0.43 2679 268
Intact males 3.18 19.4 13.4 8.0 0.98 0.44 2885 288
Boer
Doelings and male castrates 3.24 25.1 17.2 8.1 0.99 0.45 2922 292
Intact males 3.21 23.1 15.9 8.0 0.93 0.43 2695 269
Finisher (>30 kg BW; 300 g average daily gain/day)
Indigenous breeds
Doelings and male castrates 2.40 15.4 10.6 6.0 0.77 0.37 2823 282
Intact males 2.60 15.4 10.6 6.5 0.77 0.37 2823 282
Boer
Doelings and male castrates 2.61 19.6 13.4 6.5 0.78 0.37 2846 285
Intact males 2.87 19.9 13.7 7.2 0.79 0.38 2893 289
Mature does
Maintenance 1.91 7.1 4.8 4.8 0.17-0.24 0.14-0.16 1256-1835 212-310
Breeding 1.91 7.1 4.8 4.8 0.17-0.24 0.14-0.16 1142-1662 193-281
Gestation
Early
One kid 1.91 8.4-9.1 5.8-6.3 4.8 0.27-0.53 0.18-0.27 981-1503 166-254
Two kids 1.91 9.0-9.7 6.2-6.7 4.8 0.33-0.69 0.21-0.33 872-1359 147-229
Three or more kids 1.91 9.1-9.6 6.3-6.6 4.8 0.38-0.67 0.23-0.33 924-1279 156-216
Late

One kid 1.91-2.39 9.1-11.5 6.3-7.9 4.8-6.0 0.23-0.47 0.17-0.25 1213-1557 149-192
Two kids 1.91-2.87 9.4-13.6 6.6-9.4 4.8-7.2 0.26-0.65 0.18-0.32 1167-1280 144-158
Three or more kids 2.39-2.87 11.1 -13.4 7.6-9.3 6.0-7.1 0.33-0.62 0.20-0.31 1219-1437 150-177
Lactation
Early
One kid 1.91 5.9 4.1 4.8 0.29-0.56 0.21-0.33 1244-2040 130-214
Two kids 1.91-2.39 5.7 3.9 4.8-5.9 0.39-0.90 0.25-0.50 1216-1660 127-174
Three or more kids 1.91-2.39 5.5 3.8 4.8-5.9 0.43-0.89 0.28-0.49 1216-1450 127-152
Mid
One kid 1.91 6.2 4.3 4.8 0.31-0.62 0.22-0.36 1446-2304 151-241
Two kids 1.91 5.8 4.0 4.8 0.41-0.89 0.26-0.49 1189-1957 101-205
Three or more kids 1.91 5.6 3.9 4.8 0.50-0.89 0.31-0.49 1216-1764 127-185
Late
One kid 1.91 6.5 4.5 4.8 0.34-0.73 0.23-0.40 1726-2660 181-278
Two kids 1.91 6.3 4.3 4.8 0.48-1.10 0.30-0.59 1529-2408 160-252
Three or more kids 1.91 6.2 4.2 4.8 0.60-1.12 0.36-0.61 1605-2261 168-237
Mature bucks
Maintenance 1.91 6.6 4.5 4.8 0.17 0.15 1377-1812 232-306
Pre-breeding 1.91 6.6 4.5 4.8 0.17 0.14 1806-2386 222-294

aNutrient requirement for growing kids and adult does and bucks (greater requirements are for younger does with lower body weight).
'Energy requirements, expressed as metabolizable energy (ME).
'Protein requirements expressed as crude protein (CP), metabolizable protein (MP) and degradable intake protein (DIP). The CP requirement differs with the proportion of
undegradable intake protein because of the minimal DIP required.
dCalcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) are presented as minimum requirements that should be considered in diet formulation.
'Vitamins A, which is often deficient in the diet of goats, is expressed as retinol equivalents (RE = 1.0 g of all-trans retinol, 5.0 g of all-trans (3-carotene and 7.6 g of other carotenoids),
whereas vitamin E is expressed as international units (IU). Inclusion of vitamin E is expensive and is generally not recommended for range supplements.
180 J.R. Kawas et al.

distance travelled are different from those average daily gain for growing goats of
of confined animals (Lachica and Aguilera, 4-8 months of age (Lu and Potchoiba, 1990).
2003). These activities result in greater Average protein requirement based on 144
energy expenditure than in confinement, lactating dairy goats during the first
which can limit the energy available for 16-20 weeks of lactation was 84-100 g CP/kg
maintenance and production. of 4% fat-corrected milk (Lu, 1989b). As the
Huston (1978) suggested that goats can degradable intake protein requirements of
travel greater distances than sheep or cattle. goats have not been well studied, the NRC
For goats, previous recommendations (NRC, (2007), considering several recent studies
1981) suggested an addition of 25% of the with goats (Prieto et al., 2000; Soto-Navarro
suggested ME requirement for maintenance et al., 2003, 2004), estimated a recommended
with light activity, 50% with semi-arid level of 9% of total digestible nutrient intake.
rangeland and slightly hilly conditions, A deficient protein intake may cause sup-
and 75% with sparsely vegetated rangeland pressed oestrus, low conception rates, fetal
or mountainous transhumance pasture. resorption, premature parturition and weak
Because of the close relationship between offspring, whereas an excessive protein
grazing time and energy expenditure (Osuji, intake may cause a low conception rate
1974), predictions based primarily on time (Bearden and Fuquay, 1992; NRC, 2007).
spent grazing and walking, herbage digest-
ibility, distance travelled and terrain rug-
gedness or topography have been suggested 6.7.3 Minerals
(Sahlu et al., 2004).
Presently, the tabulated requirements Drinking water in some semi-arid regions
for goats (NRC, 2007) consider the neces- may contain high concentrations of total
sary muscular activities depending on the dissolved minerals, of which sodium, sul-
availability of feed and water, distance trav- fur, iron, manganese and arsenic are of main
elled and land characteristics to calculate concern. Calcium and magnesium are other
the ME requirements under grazing condi- minerals that should be considered in
tions. When goats satisfy their energy drinking water for diet formulation, espe-
requirements, DM intake starts to diminish; cially in confinement. The deleterious
thus, energy requirement has a relationship effects of high concentrations of minerals in
with the requirements for other nutrients. water include reduced growth and repro-
An inadequate energy intake will cause duction levels. Goats can tolerate a high
delayed puberty, suppressed oestrus and concentration of sodium in water but will
ovulation in females and suppressed libido tend to reduce DM intake and consequently
and spermatozoa production in males. will lose weight.
Excessive energy intake will be reflected in Mineral concentrations required in the
low conception and abortion rates, dysto- diet vary with growth performance,
cia,a retained placenta in females and reproductive status (maintenance, breeding,
reduced libido in males (Bearden and gestation or lactation) and breed (i.e. indige-
Fuquay, 1992; NRC, 2007).
nous breeds versus Boer goats). Some
important facts with respect to excessive or
deficient mineral intake (Bearden and
6.7.2 Protein Fuquay, 1992; NRC, 2007) are listed below:
Calcium and phosphorous deficiency
Meat goats should receive diets with enough will cause anoestrus and irregular oes-
protein to meet their requirements for opti- trus. Prolific does require more calcium
mum performance. Protein requirement is and phosphorus in their diet.
expressed as g/day or percentage of DM. Potassium deficiency will reduce feed
Average requirements for growth derived intake and daily weight gain. A mar-
from regression analysis were 0.26 g CP/g of ginal potassium deficiency is common
Nutrition of the Meat Goat 181

Dietary potassium concentration is a efficiency, altered the serum lipid pro-


good indicator of deficiency. file, decreased carcass fat depth over the
Sulfur. A marginal sulfur deficiency 12th rib and improved carcass boneless
reduces feed intake and digestibility closely trimmed retail cuts in goat kids
and the synthesis of microbial protein fed a high-concentrate diet, without pro-
in the rumen. Sulfur is needed for syn- ducing signs of copper toxicity (Solaiman
thesis of the sulfur amino acids cysteine et al., 2006). The maximum copper toler-
and methionine. When urea is used as ance level in the diet of goats has been
the main source of nitrogen, sulfur sup- set at 40 mg/kg DM (NRC, 2007). A cop-
plementation is needed. On the other per deficiency will cause depressed
hand, an excess of sulfur in drinking reproduction, an impaired immune sys-
water or feed may cause the copper tem and impaired ovarian function
requirement to increase, and may be a (Bearden and Fuquay, 1992).
predisposing factor for the incidence of Iodine. The iodine requirement for
polioencephalomalacia, as discussed growing and mature non-lactating does
previously. Sulfur metabolism and is 0.5%, whereas that of lactating does
requirements in dairy, meat and fibre- is 0.8%.
producing goats have been reported Zinc deficiency will cause reduced sper-
(Qi et al., 1993a,b, 1994a,b,c). matogenesis in bucks.
Iron. The iron requirement for growing Cobalt. The cobalt requirement is
goats is 95 mg/kg DM, and for pregnant 0.11 mg/kg DM (NRC, 2007).
and lactating does is 35 mg/kg DM.
Manganese deficiency will cause a
reduction in reproductive performance 6.7.4 Vitamins
(reduced and irregular oestrus), reduced
conception and abortions. Under normal conditions, B-complex vita-
Selenium deficiency will cause white mins are synthesized in sufficient quantities
muscle disease in kids and a retained in the rumen to satisfy requirements, so
placenta in does. supplementation is generally not required
Copper. Normal plasma copper con- (NRC, 2007). Vitamin K is also normally
centrations in the goat may vary from synthesized in adequate quantities by bacte-
0.9 to 1.39 mg/1 (Galbraith et al., 1997; ria in the digestive tract and goats do not
Solaiman et al., 2001). It is important to generally need to be supplemented.
consider that the toxic level of copper for
Fat-soluble vitamins, specifically vita-
sheep may not be the same for goats, as
mins A and E, must be consumed by goats.
the copper requirements of goats may Goats grazing good-quality green forages
actually be higher (Solaiman et al., will usually consume enough of these vita-
2001). The copper requirements for lac-
mins. Supplementation of these vitamins
tating does (15 mg/kg DM), mature goats
depends on the physiological status and
and bucks (20 mg/kg DM) and growing production potential of goats. A deficiency
goats (25 mg/kg DM) (with both forage
of vitamin A will cause impaired spermato-
and supplement) have been recom- genesis, anoestrus, low conception rates,
mended taking into consideration nor- abortion, weak offspring and a retained pla-
mal molybdenum (1-2 mg/kg DM) and centa (Bearden and Fuquay, 1992; NRC,
sulfur (0.15-0.25%) intakes (NRC, 2007).
2007).
These values are much higher than the
recommended level of 10 mg/kg DM for
beef cattle for all physiological stages
(NRC, 2000). Furthermore, high levels of 6.8 Nutrient Composition of Feeds
copper supplementation may improve
goat performance. Copper supplemen- The availability and utilization of feed
tation of 100 mg/day improved gain resources in North America and Europe
182 J.R. Kawas et al.

have been reviewed (Lu and Rubino, 1992). content of selected feedstuffs is described in
In traditional livestock production systems, Table 6.3.
feed is the single largest expense. An inter-
national feed nomenclature (Table 6.2) has
been established (NRC, 2000). Feeds can be 6.8.1 Feed additives
classified in two large groups, namely for-
ages or concentrates. Forage feeds include Few feed additives have been approved as
grasses, herbaceous legumes and tree supplements for goats, among them deco-
legumes consumed by grazing livestock. In quinate and monensin, both recommended
confinement, forages can be fed as freshly for the prevention of coccidiosis in young
cut fodder, or offered as hay or silage. Crop animals (Animal Health Institute, 2002).
residues from cereal crops and hulls from Although decoquinate is only used to con-
some oilseeds are also classified as forages. trol coccidiosis, monensin can be included
Whereas forages are high in fibre con- in feeds and supplements to improve the
tent, concentrate feeds are more energy growth rates of goats on high-roughage diets
dense and less fibrous. Energy in the con- (Huston et al., 1990; NRC, 2007; Flythe and
centrate feeds comes primarily from starch, Andries, 2009).
sugars, other non-structural carbohydrates, Monensin, an ionophore, modifies the
and oil. Concentrates include cereal grains movement of ions across the membranes
(maize, grain sorghum, oats and barley), of rumen microbes, altering fermentation
grain milling, brewing and distillation mill- patterns by reducing methane and acetate
ing by-products (wheat middlings, brewers' production and increasing propionate pro-
dried grains, maize gluten feed, distillers' duction (Bergen and Bates, 1984; Schelling,
dried grains, etc.), oilseed meals (soybean 1984). An increase in nitrogen digestibility
meal, cottonseed meal, etc.), molasses, veg- due to monensin was reported with goats
etable and animal fat, vitamin and mineral fed a low-protein diet (Beede et al., 1978).
sources, and feed additives. The mineral Monensin appears to inhibit ammonia

Table 6.2. International feed nomenclature (adapted from NRC, 2000).

Class Description

Pasture, range plants and forages Forage feeds either not cut, or cut and fed fresh
fed fresh
Silages This class includes ensiled forages such as sorghum, maize,
grass and legumes. It does not include grain or its
by-products, fruits or tubercles
Dry forages and roughages All forages and roughages cut and cured, and fibrous
by-products with >18% CF or >35% NDF (legume and grass
hay, stover and straw)
High protein sources Products with >20% CP (dry basis) of animal or plant origin
such as meat meal, oilseed meals, urea, maize gluten and
other by-product meals
High energy sources Products with <20% CP and <18% FC or 35% NDF, on a dry
basis, such as cereal grains and their by-products, molasses,
tubercles and fats
Mineral supplements Bone meal and other feeds that contain a mineral as the main
component
Vitamin supplements Synthetic supplements of the water-soluble and fat-soluble
vitamins
Non-nutritive additives Antibiotics, dewormers (febendazole), flavours, ionophores
(sodium monensin, etc.), polyethylene glycol, etc.

CP, Crude protein; CF, crude fibre; FC, fibre carbohydrate; NDF, neutral detergent fibre.
Nutrition of the Meat Goat 183

Table 6.3. Mineral content of selected feedstuffs (adapted from NRC, 2007).

Nutrient Concentrations/characteristics

Calcium and Leguminous fodders have high calcium contents, whereas grasses are generally
phosphorus low. Browse and grasses in semi-arid regions with calcareous soils may have
very high calcium levels, and commonly low phosphorus levels. With maturity,
the phosphorus content of forages is reduced. Cereal grains, oilseed meals
and animal by-products have low levels of calcium and moderate to high levels
of phosphorus. Excess calcium in the diet may affect the metabolism of some
mineral elements such as phosphorus, magnesium and zinc. A high calcium
intake may be tolerated by ruminant animals, especially if goats consume
diets with enough phosphorus. Calcium carbonate is commonly used as a
source of calcium, whereas inorganic sources of phosphorus include calcium
phosphates, monosodium phosphate, ammonium phosphates and rock
phosphate
Sodium Animal by-product feeds generally contain more sodium than feeds of plant
origin. Sodium is commonly deficient in the diet of range goats. Salt is generally
supplemented to provide sodium
Potassium Good-quality forages have a high potassium content (1-4%). Cereal grains are
low in potassium, whereas oilseed meals are good sources of potassium.
Potassium chloride is the most common inorganic source of potassium
Magnesium Concentrations vary with forage species, magnesium concentration in soil, stage
of growth, season of the year and ambient temperature. Leguminous fodders
contain more magnesium than grasses. Cereal grains contain 0.11-0.17%
magnesium, whereas oilseed meals contain twice as much magnesium.
Inorganic sources of magnesium include magnesium oxide and magnesium
sulfate
Sulfur When urea is used as the main source of nitrogen, sulfur supplementation is
needed. Mature forages are sulfur deficient, although most confinement diets
are adequate. Sulfur levels in water of >500 ppm can be deleterious to meat
production, especially if feed ingredients are high in sulfur. The maximum
tolerable level in the diet of ruminants is 0.4%. Elemental sulfur and ammonium
sulfate are common sources of sulfur
Manganese The content in forage depends on forage species, soil pH and soil drainage.
Cereal grains contain 5-40 mg/kg, oilseed meals contain 30-50 mg/kg and
animal protein products have 5-15 mg/kg. Manganese sulfate and manganese
oxide are manganese sources included in supplements and feed
Zinc The content in forages depends on plant species and maturity and the zinc
concentration in soil. Legumes have higher zinc concentrations than grasses.
Cereal grains contain 20-30 mg/kg, whereas oilseed protein sources have
50-70 mg/kg. The most common sources of zinc are zinc sulfate and zinc oxide
Copper Legumes normally contain more copper than grasses. Cereal grains contain
4-8 mg/kg, whereas oilseed meals contain 15-30 mg/kg. Milk contains low
levels of copper. Copper sulfate is commonly used as a copper source
Iodine The iodine content in feed ingredients depends on soil concentration. Calcium
and sodium iodide and ethylenediamine dihydroiodide (EDDI) are used as
iodine sources
Cobalt Soils can be deficient in cobalt, and soil pH affects its concentration in forages.
Cobalt absorption is reduced with a soil pH close to 7.0. Legumes contain
more cobalt than grasses. Cobalt sulfate and cobalt carbonate are cobalt
sources
Selenium The selenium content of forages depends on forage species and selenium
concentrations in soils. Some plants such as Astragalus and Stanleya naturally
accumulate selenium (up to 3,000 mg/kg). Sodium selenite is used as a
selenium source
184 J.R. Kawas et al.

the grazing capacity under pasture and


production in the goat rumen, which may
reduce its excretion in the urine and range conditions (Lusby, 1990; Arthington
increase the flow of amino acids into the and Brown, 2005). Supplementation can
small intestine (Flythe and Andries, 2009). also provide a vehicle for carrying non-
Monensin greatly reduced supplement nutritive additives, antimicrobials and
intake in sheep, with a limited effect in other compounds for the prevention or
goats (Huston et al., 1990). Monensin may treatment of potential health problems such
even have environmental benefits as it is as parasitism, and to facilitate management
reported to reduce methane production by (Lusby, 1990).
25%. It does not present a hazard to human
health by increasing resistant food-borne
bacteria, as ionophores are not used in
human therapy due to their narrow thera- 6.9.1 Nutritional profile of supplements
peutic index (Tedeschi et al., 2003). More
research is needed to evaluate the effec- Supplements should be formulated consider-
tiveness of monensin as a feed additive in ing the animal's requirements in terms of its
supplements of range goats to improve physiological status, the effect of the environ-
growth. ment on the animal and characteristics of the
Polyethylene glycol (PEG) is another available feed (Alexandre and Mandonnet,
additive that has been evaluated more 2005; Lachica and Aguilera, 2005). To
recently (Silanikove et al., 1994; Decandia improve the digestion and intake of grazed
et al., 2000; Gilboa et al., 2000; Ben Salem forage, a supplementation strategy should not
and Nefzaoui, 2003) to reduce the anti- supply nutrients in excess of the goat's
nutritional effects of condensed tannins. requirements. When grazing ruminants are
Makkar (2003) presented a thorough review supplemented, changes in forage consump-
of the use of tannin-binding agents such as tion occur as a result of the changes in
PEG that may alleviate the negative dietary digestion and passage of feed through the
effects of condensed tannins. Dose level digestive tract that are associated with the
may vary depending on the amount of con- additional nutrient intake provided by the
densed tannins in the goat's diet (Decandia supplement (Bowman and Sowell, 1997;
et al., 2000; Makkar, 2003). Caton and Dhuyvetter, 1997). Nutrient
The results reported by Villalba and supplementation should facilitate the syn-
Provenza (2002) implied that PEG may be chronization of nitrogen and carbohydrate
used to modify foraging distribution by degradability in the rumen and increase the
goats browsing tannin-rich fodder, as PEG supply of nutrients for absorption in
appeared to be an effective substance to the small intestine (Wu et al., 2005).
attract goats to underutilized feeding sites Strategic nutrient supplementation of
in plant communities dominated by spe- goats should consider dietary factors such
cies with high concentrations of tannins. as the level of protein needed to satisfy
However, before a large-scale implementa- the nitrogen requirements of microbes in the
tion of this technology, more research is rumen, the quantity of undegradable intake
needed to determine the recommended protein, the effects of supplementation on
dose for specific situations and its profit- ruminal pH, the quantity and frequency of
ability (Decandia et al., 2000). supplementation, the type of carbohydrates
that comprise the supplement (sugars, starch
or rapidly fermented fibre) and the physical
form of the supplement, as well as existing
6.9 Strategic Nutrient Supplementation interactions among them (Paterson et al.,
1994). However, few studies have consid-
The need for supplementation depends on ered all nutrients when formulating the sup-
the presence or lack of adequate forage plement evaluated. Only a few of the studies
nutrients in forage and can help increase reviewed by Ben Salem and Nefzaoui (2003)
Nutrition of the Meat Goat 185

reported using a mineral/vitamin pre-mix in energy source is needed for its utilization by
their hand-crafted feed blocks. rumen microbes (van Soest, 1994). For goats
grazing native vegetation in north-eastern
Brazil during both wet and dry seasons, the
6.9.2 Ingredient characteristics growth response was not different when
supplemented with either urea or molasses
The particle size of forages and grain affects alone. During the wet season, when goats
chewing activities and consequently normal consumed a low-fibre/high-protein diet
rumen function. The reduction in forage (44.9% NDF and 12% CP), rates of weight
intake appears to be related to the amount, gain were not improved with a molasses/
form (whole grain versus processed) and urea supplement. As forage quality declined
during the dry season, diet NDF significant-
source (sugars and starch versus rapidly
digestible fibre) of the energy supplement ly increased to 52.1% and CP decreased to
(Galloway et al., 1993).
8.4%, and the liquid molasses/urea supple-
Maintaining an appropriate forage par- ment allowed weight gains to continue
ticle size and including whole or cracked throughout the dry season (Schacht et al.,
1992). As grain alone does not provide
grain helps maintain normal rumen func-
tion in goats fed high-concentrate diets or enough nitrogen for maximum microbial
supplements. Some advantages of on-farm fermentation, additional nitrogen supple-
supplementation of whole grain include mentation is needed to improve fibre diges-
simplicity and lower costs by not grinding tion and roughage DM intake (Abebe et al.,
2004).
the whole grain, fewer hand-labour
expenses and prevention of the negative 2. Substitution response. Consumption
effect of the readily available starch, espe- of high-energy/low-protein supplements
may decrease forage intake. The rate of sub-
cially at high intake levels (Kawas et al.,
2010).
stitution is defined as the unit of change in
forage intake per unit increment in supple-
ment intake (Paterson et al., 1994; Caton
and Dhuyvetter, 1997). As the digestibility
6.9.3 Effect of supplementation of forage increases, the rate of substitution
on forage intake of forage is also incremented. Energy sup-
plementation should not be excessive, as it
Three scenarios with respect to forage DM can take the form of substitution when
intake can be expected with specific nutri- grazing forage nutrients are removed from
ent supplementation of grazing goats (NRC, animal diets in exchange for supplement
2007). Complementary, substitution and (Caton and Dhuyvetter, 1997), so that most
additive responses on forage DM intake may of the energy consumed by range goats
be observed depending on the type and should be provided through fibre fermenta-
quantity of supplement offered: tion of consumed forage (Lu et al., 2005).
As the starch level increased in the diet of
1. Complementary response. Overcoming grazing cattle, the negative effects on forage
mineral, vitamin or rumen degradable nitro- intake were accentuated, possibly as rumen
gen deficiencies may increase forage DM fermentation is negatively affected or in
intake; protein and minerals are utilized by response to a protein and/or energy imbal-
bacteria needed for optimum rumen fer- ance in the diet (Paterson et al., 1994). A
mentation (Wu et al., 2005; Kawas et al., substitution effect, in which forage intake
2010). Protein supplementation may in- was reduced, was also observed in a study
clude true protein sources such as oilseed with range does supplemented with in-
meals or non-protein nitrogen sources such creasing levels of whole sorghum grain
as urea. The latter is commonly used as a (Kawas et al., 1999).
source of nitrogen in ruminant feeds. When 3. Additive response. Supplementation
urea is supplemented, a readily available may not affect forage intake. A decrease in
186 J.R. Kawas et al.

forage intake by ruminants cannot always be With respect to ingredient characteris-


observed with starch-based supplements. tics, a high level of urea (15-20%) may
Small quantities of a grain-based supplement reduce block intake, as urea is unpalatable.
(0.2-0.3% of body weight) did not affect for- Excessive urea intake is more critical, as it
age DM intake of beef cattle, whereas greater can cause toxicity (Ben Salem and Nefzaoui,
levels depressed forage intake (Vanzant et al., 2003; Ben Salem and Smith, 2008; Kawas,
1990; Pordomingo et al., 1991). 2008). As the CP level of molasses/urea
blocks increased from 17 to 24%, the coef-
ficient of variation (CV) of individual block
intake of grazing sheep decreased from 132
6.9.4 Hand-crafted supplement blocks
to 82% (Kendall et al., 1983).
The distribution and quantity of blocks
The production of hand-crafted blocks is in the paddocks affect their consumption. If
economical and environmentally friendly, block intake is high, they should be placed
as no electric energy or heat is required to far from the water troughs, whereas, if it is
manufacture them. Compared with liquid low, they should be located closer to the
or mash supplements, hand-crafted blocks water source. If a higher intake is desired,
hold several advantages including simplic- more blocks should be offered (Kawas,
ity of transport and management, a more 2008).
homogeneous intake among animals, a Kawas (2008) recommended two types
reduced need for salt as an intake regulator of multi-nutrient lick blocks that can be man-
and less risk in the use of urea as a source of ufactured for wet and dry seasons, respec-
non-protein nitrogen (Ben Salem and Nefza- tively, with the following characteristics:
oui, 2003; Kawas et al., 2010). Flexibility in
the formulation of supplements is required Mineral-protein blocks. This is a low-
so that specific nutrient requirements are intake block (-0.2-0.3% of body
satisfied according to the physiological sta- weight) with 30% CP or more (Fig. 6.6).
tus of goats (Kawas et al., 2010). The purpose of offering this block is to
Multi-nutrient blocks based on molas- supplement protein, macrominerals
ses and urea can be hand-crafted by goat (calcium, phosphorus and magnesium),
producers (Ben Salem and Nefzaoui, 2003; trace minerals (iron, manganese, zinc,
Kawas, 2008). This type of block consists of copper, iodine, cobalt and selenium),
about 35% molasses, 4-6% urea, 10-12% and vitamin A during the dry season.
salt, 8-10% lime, cereal by-products (wheat This product is practical to use in situ-
middlings, maize bran or rice bran), oilseed ations in which it is difficult to provide
meals (cottonseed meal, soybean meal) and and handle supplements, as many ani-
a mixture of a source of phosphorus, trace mals can be supplemented with only
minerals and feed additives. A fibrous by- one block. This supplement can be
product such as soybean hulls will aid in offered during dry or wet seasons as a
compaction. The lime will provide more reproductive management tool for
hardness than cement, which has frequently goats. It is important to consider that,
been used to produce blocks in developing during the wet season, forages contain
countries, and lime is generally much more protein and energy, so it is impor-
cheaper (Kawas, 2008). A vitamin A supple- tant to emphasize this in mineral sup-
ment should be added to the protein/min- plementation so that these nutrients
eral mixture during the dry or winter can be better utilized. During the wet
seasons, when only low-quality forage is season, plenty of vitamin A is available
available. Ben Salem and Nefzaoui (2003) in forages, so no vitamin A supplemen-
have listed the formulas and chemical com- tation is required. Protein supplemen-
position of molasses-containing and molas- tation produces a greater response on
ses-free feed blocks from several studies DM intake with forages of lower protein
reviewed from the literature. content compared with forage with a
Nutrition of the Meat Goat 187

Fig. 6.6. Hand-crafted mineral-protein blocks for small ruminants (Kawas et al., 2010).

relatively high protein content. Sudana The effectiveness of supplementation pro-


and Leng (1986) reported that lambs grammes is affected by the ability to reduce
supplemented with a molasses/urea intake variation by individual animals
block consumed 26% more wheat straw and to meet target supplementation con-
compared with a non-supplemented sumption. If grazing ruminants consume
diet. Block intake was approximately less than the target amount of supplement,
90 g/day. then the formulated nutrient intake is not
Protein-energy blocks. These blocks received, whereas, if consumption is more
contain minerals, but they contain more than the target amount, supplementation
energy and less protein (20-25% CP) costs are increased and there can be poten-
than a mineral-protein block. Intake of tial negative impacts on forage intake and
this block should be greater (-0.4-0.5% digestibility (Bowman and Sowell, 1997).
of body weight). Intake can vary Two common ways of restricting supple-
depending on various factors. This sup- ment intake (self-limiting or self-regulation)
plement is recommended for the dry include the addition of salt and/or offering
season, when availability and quality of supplements as a block. The type of supple-
forages limit energy intake by goats ment is important to minimize wastage and
(Kawas, 2008). to maximize its impact on productivity
(Bowman and Sowell, 1997). On-farm manu-
factured multi-nutrient supplements can be
offered as mash or blocks (Ben Salem and
6.9.5 Reducing intake variation Nefzaoui, 2003; Ben Salem and Smith, 2008;
Kawas, 2008).
Supplements should be designed to reduce Adequate block intake is important so
the variation in intake between indivi- that expected results with supplementation
dual animals (Bowman and Sowell, 1997), are obtained. If block intake is less than
especially those that contain high grain expected, utilization of low-quality forages
content (Caton and Dhuyvetter, 1997). will not be maximized and performance
188 J.R. Kawas et al.

(growth, reproduction and milk produc- Blocks have the advantage of self-
tion) will be lower than expected (Bowman limiting supplement intake, which is
and Sowell, 1997; Ben Salem and Nefzaoui, especially important when non-nutritive
2003). Block intake is generally greater additives such as monensin or PEG are sup-
with small ruminants, on a body weight plemented. The advantages of incorporating
basis, in comparison with beef cattle. PEG in lick blocks have been discussed
Initially, block intake may be low, (Ben Salem and Nefzaoui, 2003; Makkar,
until animals become accustomed to it 2003). Under extensive range conditions,
(Birbe et al., 2006). supplementing goats with PEG can be
Factors that affect block intake include labour intensive and complicated to imple-
hardness, season of the year (wet or dry) ment (Villalba and Provenza, 2002; Ben
and the availability and quality of forages. Salem and Nefzaoui, 2003). Range blocks
Temperature and relative humidity affect that contain PEG may have the advantage of
block hardness. Other factors that have an self-regulation of PEG intake, which may
influence on hardness and/or intake are the aid in reducing the cost of PEG treatment
technique used for manufacturing, the tem- (Villalba and Provenza, 2002).
perature and relative humidity, the type
and level of reactant used for compaction,
the particle size of ingredients, ingredient 6.9.6 Preventing urea toxicity
characteristics (i.e. protein, fat or fibre con-
tent), the level of compaction, the time and
type of storage, flavour and odour. If the Urea can be toxic if consumption is exces-
block is too soft, intake may be greater than sive.Urea in feeds and supplements
desired. In contrast, if it is too hard, intake should be used with some precautions
is less than required. A soil penetrometer (Ben Salem and Nefzaoui, 2003; Ben Salem
may be used to measure block hardness and Smith, 2008; Kawas, 2008), including
(Birbe et al., 2006). the following:
A harder block will restrict its intake, Adding salt in mash supplements or
especially during the dry season, so blocks imparting enough hardness to blocks to
should be left to harden before being sup- restrict intake.
plemented (Ben Salem and Nefzaoui, 2003). Allowing for adaptation of rumen
Zhu et al. (1991) observed that, as the hard- microorganisms for utilization of urea
ness index of blocks increased, supplement by gradually increasing the amount of
intake decreased linearly, with a concomi- supplement offered.
tant increase in the CV from 29% for soft Preventing the supplement from getting
blocks to 58% for hard blocks. Kendall et al. wet as urea is very soluble and toxic.
(1983) also observed a greater individual Including an energy source such as
intake CV of molasses/urea block supple- molasses or grain so that nitrogen from
ments offered to sheep, with an individual the urea is better utilized by the rumen
CV of 29% for soft blocks and 50% for hard bacteria.
blocks. Introducing blocks gradually to adapt for
During the dry or winter seasons, for- rumen utilization of urea, and limiting
ages have lower quality and, consequently, the amount or the time blocks are offered.
block intake generally increases. In con-
trast, with good-quality forages, block
intake may be low or negligible. During
the wet season, supplements may not 6.10 Effect of Nutrition
improve fibre digestion as green forages on Reproduction
available during this season are relatively
high in nitrogen and low in fibre (Ben The nutritional status of the goat herd
Salem and Nefzaoui, 2003). is the most important factor influencing
Nutrition of the Meat Goat 189

reproduction (Webb et a/., 2004). Several has been reviewed recently (Lu, 2011).
reviews have discussed various aspects of Rapid fetal growth associated with the
nutrition on fertility in ruminants (Hurley physical fill of forage limits feed intake dur-
and Doane, 1989; Beam and Butler, 1999; ing late pregnancy and therefore presents a
Butler, 2000; Armstrong et al., 2003; Lucy, challenge for nutritional balance in goats
2003; Webb et al., 2004). Nutrition can eas- under high-forage organic production sys-
ily be controlled by the producer by either tems. Understanding regulation of feed
increasing or reducing nutrient consump- intake and fibre digestion and utilization
tion (Webb et al., 2004). can lead to nutritional balance, minimizing
Nutritional status has been correlated metabolic disorders associated with preg-
with embryo survival and is a major fac- nancy, parturition and lactation.
tor controlling efficiency in assisted The body condition of does strongly
reproduction technologies. Nutrition has affects the time at which puberty starts,
an effect on ovarian activity by acting at the conception rate at first oestrus in
various levels within the hypothalamus- young does, the length of the post-partum
pituitary-ovarian axis. This can occur interval and the health and vigour of
without significant variation in circulating newborn kids. Body condition or changes
gonadotropin concentrations but appears to in body condition before and during the
be influenced by changes in other circulat- breeding season affect reproductive per-
ing concentrations of metabolic hormones, formance in terms of services per concep-
including insulin, insulin-like growth fac- tion, lambing and kidding intervals, and
tor 1 (IGF-1), growth hormone and leptin. the percentages of open does. Does should
Nutrition can also affect the expression of be in good body condition at kidding and
mRNA encoding components of the ovarian should maintain a good body condition
IGF system to regulate the sensitivity/ during the breeding season. Increasing the
response of follicles towards gonadotropins. level of energy offered to does should con-
The detailed physiological mechanisms tinue throughout the breeding season and
through which nutrition exerts many of for approximately 30-40 days after remov-
these effects remain to be determined ing the bucks, for adequate implantation
(Webb et al., 2004). of the fetuses in the uterus (Luginbuhl
Undernutrition may cause abortion as a et al., 2009).
response to low blood glucose concentra- Flushing is a reproductive manage-
tion, which can be almost totally prevented ment tool in which a supplement is offered
by adequate nutrition, especially by to does prior to breeding to increase body
supplementing with energy (Wentzel, 1982; weight, ovulation rate and litter size. Body
Morand-Fehr, 1987). Increasing levels of condition is used to determine whether
whole sorghum grain (0, 0.6, 1.2 and 1.8%) flushing will be of benefit to breeding does.
were offered as an energy supplement to Does in extremely good body condition
pre-pubertal female Moxoto does graz- (body-condition score = 7) will tend not to
ing native vegetation in north-east Brazil respond to flushing, whereas does that are
(Kawas et al., 1992). First oestrus was in relatively poor condition (body-condi-
recorded significantly earlier (75-78 days) tion score = 4) as a result of poor feed
for the supplemented groups (0.6-1.8% of quality and supply, being highly parasit-
body weight) than for the unsupplemented ized and with late kidding of twins or trip-
control group (104 days). Fertility, prolifi- lets will respond favourably to flushing by
cacy, fecundity and gestation length were improving their body condition. Flushing
greater for does offered whole sorghum can be accomplished by moving breeding
grain compared with does that were not does to a lush, nutritious pasture or offer-
supplemented. ing a high-energy supplement 3-4 weeks
Nutritional management for reproduc- prior to the introduction of the bucks
ing goats under organic production systems (Luginbuhl et al., 2009).
190 J.R. Kawas et al.

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7 Growth, Development and Growth
Manipulation in Goats

E.C. Webb', N.H. Casey' and L. Simela2


1Department of Animal and Wildlife Sciences, University of Pretoria, South Africa;
2New Emerging Red Meat Producers Organization, Lynnwood, South Africa

7.1 Abstract The skeletal size of goats is rather vari-


able due to the effects of natural selection
A thorough understanding of growth and and adaptation of the various breeds or
development in goats and the factors that types of goat to different ecological regions
affect these processes is important, in the world. Goats are subdivided into three
because it affects the efficiency of produc- categories based on frame size, namely,
tion and it has a direct bearing on product dwarf breeds, small breeds and large breeds.
quality. Although the use of growth pro- Embryological development includes
motants or molecules that change the effi- organogenesis, skeletal growth and develop-
ciency of growth are not generally ment, myogenesis and adipose tissue syn-
employed in goats, other more natural thesis and deposition. The growth and
pathways exist to manipulate growth and development of fatty tissue in goats occur at
development. These approaches do not a lower rate and to a lower extent compared
detract from product quality and provide with sheep. Accumulation of abdominal fat
the opportunity to produce meat, milk, occurs at an earlier stage compared with
fibre, leather and related products that subcutaneous fat in all genders. Growth is a
meet the demands of consumers for more chronological process and its inevitable
environmentally friendly and natural pro- consequence is an enlargement in size and
duction systems. ageing. Ageing is associated with an
Growth and development in goats increasing inability to sustain the functional
occur in a similar way compared with other integrity of cells, organs and systems.
land-living mammals, and these processes Animal growth is the consequence of
are directly dependent on influences in the complex interactions between the genetic
external and internal environment. potential of the animal and several hor-
There is great significance in the way in mones, the nutrient supply and the environ-
which the growth and developmental pro- ment. This complexity is beneficial in terms
cesses have evolved in goats to ensure the of manipulating growth and development
propagation of this unique species. There because it provides the possibility for many
are obvious advantages in ensuring a mini- different ways of manipulating growth. The
mum size at birth in terms of survival value, most significant means of manipulating
while the size of the birth canal limits growth and development in goats include
excessive size at birth. genetic selection, castration and intensive
© CAB International 2012. Goat Meat Production and Quality
196 (eds 0. Mahgoub, I.T. Kadim and E.G. Webb)
Growth in Goats 197

fattening. Selection pressure on different coat colours that can be associated with
production characteristics has resulted in human population groups or tribes. Selection
the development of different types of goat for milk as opposed to carcass characteristics
for different purposes. gave the lean, wedge-shaped doe as opposed
The effects of nutrition on the growth to the square, stocky-shaped meat goat such
and development of goats are well docu- as the Boer goat. A discussion on the growth
mented. These effects are sometimes and development of goats needs to take this
described as 'production system' effects and range into account, although, despite the
include 'intensive' feeding and condition- variety of breeds, as they are of the same spe-
ing, or 'extensive' grazing. Certain goat cies, the inherent traits expressed in their
genotypes respond better to feeding or feed growth and development remain similar
supplementation, and this ability differs
mainly between the dairy and meat types of
goat. Conditioning of goats has a marked 7.3 Growth and Development in Goats
effect on body composition. Consumer pref-
erences for goat carcasses differ among A thorough understanding of growth and
countries and this makes it difficult to development in goats and the factors that
implement universally acceptable grading affect these processes is important, because
or classification systems, as well as stan- it affects the efficiency of production and it
dard carcass cuts. In addition, the variation
has a direct bearing on product quality. The
in subcutaneous fat thickness between goats
rate and efficiency of growth and the subse-
of different ages, sex and types is extremely
limited, which makes it difficult to use fat
quent effects on product quality can be
managed in livestock, and this is a deliber-
thickness for purposes of carcass classifica-
ate, active process that reaches from con-
tion or grading.
ception to consumption (Casey and Webb,
2010). Although the use of growth promo-
7.2 Introduction tants or molecules that change the efficiency
of growth is not generally employed in
goats, other more natural pathways exist to
Domesticated goats are of the class Mamma-
manipulate growth and development. These
ha, order Artiodactyla, family Bovidae, sub-
family Caprina, genus Capra and species
approaches do not detract from product
quality and provide the opportunity to pro-
hircus. This genetic lineage has equipped duce meat, milk, fibre, leather and related
goats with interesting morphological and products that meet the demands of consum-
physiological attributes that make them
ers for more environmentally friendly and
adaptable to virtually all climatic zones. The
natural production systems.
morphology of goats ranges from small
breeds characteristic of the tropical regions
to large breeds found in the Himalayan
regions. Their coat ranges from short-haired, 7.3.1 Principles of growth and
which is more suitable for hot and humid development
regions, to long-haired, suitable for colder
regions. The Angora goat, which originates Growth and development in goats occur in a
from the mountainous regions of Central similar way compared with other land-
Asia, has long, fine, silvery-white hair, which living mammals. Growth genes determine
makes it suitable for both hot and cold growth (size) and development (conforma-
regions but not humid regions. Human inter- tion), but the extent to which these genes
vention has had its influence on both the are expressed is determined principally by
morphology and the physiology of goats. single and interactive multiple factors of the
Morphological characteristics became external and internal environments.
embedded through selection for specific Growth can be illustrated graphically
traits and identities. This yielded the range of by means of a sigmoidal or S-shaped curve
198 E.C. Webb et al.

(Fig. 7.1), which represents the continuous determinant variables. An example of an


changes in body conformation and compo- actual growth model could be:
sition. These changes include gradual
Post-weaning live mass gain
increases in bone, muscle and fat in that
= weaning mass x age
order (Webb and Casey, 2005). An alto-
x feed intake x season
metric relationship exists between different
tissues in the body, which means that the x (any contributing factor that
growth of tissues occurs in a specific order. can be measured)
It is therefore possible to estimate the weight
of a tissue if the weight of an associated
tissue is known. 7.3.2 Rate of growth and development
Growth can be described by means of a
mathematical polynomial function of a suit- An increase in cell numbers (hyperplasia)
able degree. The quantitative aspects of occurs rapidly after fertilization. While
growth are best described by means of hyperplasia continues, significant confor-
changes in size, mass, height or length, mational changes occur that result in the for-
while qualitative changes are described by mation of the morula, blastula and gastrula
means of changes in conformation, such as stages typically observed during embryolog-
secondary sexual development. Goats ical development in mammals. During these
express distinct sexual dimorphism. early stages of embryological development,
A distinction can be made between rapid growth and development of tissues
potential and actual growth. Potential and organs occur, which is known as
growth refers to the expected growth based organogenesis. This is followed by the
on production records (of lineage, i.e. development of specialized systems to pro-
parents, and siblings) and entered into a vide structural support, facilitate digestion,
predictive mathematical model. Actual absorption and utilization of feedstuffs in a
growth is what is being attained or has been structured way, facilitate locomotion and
attained, and the measured parameters can ultimately ensure the propagation of the
be entered into a descriptive mathematical species through carefully adapted neural
model. The measurement of actual growth and reproductive systems and processes.
can include factors that influence growth. Most structural development in animals
The data of a number of these models can occurs before birth. In fact, if development is
then be combined to develop a predictive plotted against time, the general trend is
model that accommodates a number of reflected as a negative logarithmic curve. In

100

75
Live mass gain
Live mass
50
(kg) Muscle accretion

25
Fat
Bone

4 5 6 7 8 9
Age (years)

Fig. 7.1. Graphical representation of growth in Boer goats, illustrating the typical sigmoidal growth
response over time. Average birth mass is 3.5 kg, and kids are weaned at about 29 kg and slaughtered at
43 kg live mass.
Growth in Goats 199

contrast, if growth is expressed in quantita- implantation of the zygote on the


tive terms (mass, height, length, width, vol- endometrium (mucosal lining of the uterus)
ume) on the y-axis versus time on the x-axis, and placentation (attachment of the embryo
as outlined in Fig. 7.1, the general trend is to the uterus). The skeletal system grows
reflected as a sigmoidal curve. and develops rapidly to support the grow-
In terms of quantitative growth charac- ing cell mass. Skeletal growth continues
teristics, goats experience accelerated until well after puberty, when the rate of
growth (weight gain) shortly after birth, fol- growth in length of long bones starts to
lowed by a self-accelerating phase more or decrease, while the diameter of bones con-
less until weaning. This latter phase repre- tinues to increase until maturity. Castration
sents the phase during which goats tend to prolongs skeletal growth, particularly
gain most weight (or change in dimensions) growth of long bones, while an increase in
relative to time compared with any other bone diameter is retarded compared with
phase in the growth process. their intact male counterparts. Castration
has long been the sought-after procedure to
manipulate growth and restrict develop-
7.3.3 Growth, development and survival ment of masculine traits in male goats.
The skeletal size of goats is rather vari-
Growth and development of goats has able due to the effects of natural selection
evolved over time. For example, kids are and adaptation of the various breeds or
relatively small at birth but they grow and types of goat to different ecological regions
in the world (Webb, 2007). Goats are subdi-
develop quickly to ensure the survival of
this unique species under extensive condi- vided into three categories based on frame
tions. The average birth mass of goats varies size, namely, dwarf breeds, small breeds
between 2.5 and 3.5 kg, while the average and large breeds. Goats with a small frame
litter size varies between 1.0 and 1.7. Twins size vary between 15 and 30 kg at about
15 months of age, while large-framed breeds
tend to have a lower birth mass. There are
obvious advantages in ensuring a minimum may weigh up to 55 kg live weight at a
size at birth in terms of survival value, similar age. Dwarf goats are small and sel-
dom weigh more than 25 kg at 15-24 months
while the size of the birth canal limits
of age.
excessive size within the breed (Webb and
Casey, 2010). Does usually kid-down easily
and are not prone to dystocia, although care
should be taken - as with all livestock - not 7.4.2 Growth and development of muscle
to use large, heavy males, especially of a
large breed, for breeding with young or
small females. The temptation remains for Although muscle fibre characteristics and
producers to attempt to improve the growth muscle biochemistry differ between spe-
and carcass yield by breeding females of cies, the growth and development of muscle
small local breeds with exotic large breeds. tissue occur in a similar way to that in other
The risk is the loss of the kid at birth and livestock species. Muscle precursor cells
permanent damage to the doe. originate from the mesodermal progenitor
cells during early embryonic development.
The dorsolateral and ventrolateral edges of
the dermomyotome portion of the somite
7.4 Tissue Growth and Development proliferate and form multinucleated myo-
fibrils, which are also known as primary
7.4.1 Growth and development of the fibres or slow fibres, while secondary myo-
skeletal system blasts form secondary fibres or fast fibres
(Kokta et al., 2004). During the post-natal
The brain and spinal cord are the first ana- stage, muscle development is characterized
tomical developments that occur after by the proliferation of satellite cells present
200 E.C. Webb et al.

between the sarcolemma and basal lamina Myogenesis per se is influenced by


of myofibrils (Fig. 7.2). insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1 and IGF-2),
Although the origin of satellite cells insulin-like growth factor-binding protein
during post-natal development is uncertain, (IGFBP) and myostatin. IGF and IGFBP
it appears that intrinsic growth factors are promote muscle cell proliferation and
secreted more or less from puberty onwards, differentiation, while myostatin inhibits
which stimulates myogenic cells to re-enter muscle hyperplasia and thus the number
the cell cycle and form precursor cells that of myofibrils. An autocrine effect has been
differentiate and fuse with myofibrils and proposed in muscle cell proliferation
form myotubes (Fig. 7.3). It has been shown because IGF-1 and the number of IGF-1
that these processes are particularly evident receptors increase during cellular prolifer-
after exercise or injury. ation and differentiation, and IGF-2 is also

Fig. 7.2. Histological section through the longissimus dorsi muscle of a Boer goat, illustrating
longitudinal striations and sarcomere lengths as viewed under a visual image analyser
(100x magnification). The lines indicate the distance between five sarcomeres (from Simela, 2005).

Fig. 7.3. Histological section through the longissimus dorsi muscle of a Boer goat illustrating myofibrillar
fragments as viewed under a visual image analyser at a magnification of 40x (from Simela, 2005).
Growth in Goats 201

involved. Of the six isoforms of IGFBPs differences are also noted between sexes
that are known, it appears that IGFBP2, -4, and in different anatomical locations with
-5 and -6 are expressed in skeletal muscle ageing. Subcutaneous and intermuscular fat
tissue. accumulation is limited in males, while
An important contribution to our more accumulation occurs in females and
current knowledge of the characteristics of castrates, but fat also accumulates with age-
muscle tissue in goats is associated with the ing as in other species. Accumulation of
sensitivity of goats to pre-slaughter stress, abdominal fat occurs at an earlier stage
which significantly affects the conversion of compared with subcutaneous fat in all gen-
muscle to meat (Webb et al., 2005). Goats are ders. Louveau and Gondret (2004) showed
prone to peri-mortem stress, as evidenced that the accumulation of fat is due to both
by the high ultimate pH (pad) values of proliferation and differentiation of adipose
carcasses (Simela et al., 2004). Muscle gly- precursor cells in the stromal-vascular frac-
cogen concentrations in goat carcasses tend tion of adipose tissue, and subsequent
to be low (about 33 pmol /g), which results hypertrophy of mature adipocytes. Tri-
in low muscle glucose concentrations and acylglycerols represent the main lipid frac-
inadequate conversion of glucose to lactic tion in adipose tissue of animals, and
acid under anaerobic conditions. The latter fluctuations in this fraction of the adipose
process is crucial for the normal decrease in depots are due to hydrolysis of lipoproteins
muscle pH observed post mortem in most and lipoprotein lipase, uptake of free fatty
bovine and ovine species. This condition is acids, de novo synthesis of fatty acids from
partially due to the relatively high propor- carbon precursors (lipogenesis) and hydrol-
tion of red muscle fibres in goat muscles ysis of triacylglycerols (lipolysis) (Webb
(Fig. 7.4). and Casey, 2005; Webb and O'Neill, 2008).

7.4.3 Growth and development of fat 7.4.4 Effects of ageing on growth and
development
The growth and development of fatty tissue
in goats occur at a lower rate and to a lower Growth is a chronological process and its
extent compared with sheep, although inevitable consequence is an increase in

Fig. 7.4. Histological section indicating muscle fibre types in the m. longissimus thoracis of the Boer
goat (10x magnification). Dark areas are red muscle fibres, grey areas are intermediate fibres and white
areas are white muscle fibres (from Simela, 2005).
202 E.C. Webb et al.

size and ageing. Ageing is associated with banned by the European Union in the 1980s,
an increasing inability to sustain the so virtually no research was done on the
functional integrity of cells, organs and possibilities and effects of these molecules
systems (Webb and Casey, 2005). This is in goats. Even the new-generation products
confirmed by the observations of Chen such as 13-agonists and recombinant GH
(2004) that ageing is associated with a derivatives have not been researched in
noticeable decrease in certain pituitary goats to any extent.
hormones, namely growth hormone (GH), The most significant means of manipu-
prolactin, thyrotropin, luteinizing hormone lating growth and development in goats
and follicle-stimulating hormone. In con- includes genetic selection, castration and
trast, low concentrations of IGF-1 appear to intensive fattening. The latter has been
increase the lifespan of certain organisms employed by farmers for decades to pro-
(Tatar et al., 2003). Neuropeptide Y (NPY) duce big and strong castrates that yield
also plays an important role in the regula- sought-after carcasses with acceptable meat-
tion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone quality attributes. The differences between
(GnRH) secretion in the hypothalamus. genders and the effects of age, pre-slaughter
According to Chen (2004), ageing is associ- conditioning and reducing the effects of
ated with an increase in NPY, which stress have also been listed as ways of
appears to be a compensatory mechanism to improving growth and carcass characteris-
counteract the age-related downregulation tics in goats.
of the GnRH receptor mRNA. One way in
which age-related changes in tissues can be
retarded somewhat is by the restriction of
metabolizable energy intake. Restricting 7.5.1 Effect of genetics and selection on
dietary energy intake increased the lifespan growth and development
of rats by downregulating the expression of
about 19 genes (Chen, 2004), but the effect Genetics certainly plays a major role in any
of short-term restriction appears to be more production programme for goat meat. One
significant compared with long-term restric- of the first objectives should be to select a
tion in most tissues. This may explain why breed that can adapt to the climatic and
indigenous rural goats appear to have a topographic environment, or that is suitable
greater longevity than intensively managed for a particular production system (Casey
dairy-type goats. and Webb, 2010). If the emphasis is on meat
production, then the breed must exhibit
characteristics that are typical of a meat-
producing animal. As most goats are kept
7.5 Factors that Influence Growth and on extensive rangelands, it is vital that the
Development breed is robust, highly fertile and resistant
or tolerant to endemic diseases.
Animal growth is the consequence of com- Selection pressure on different produc-
plex interactions between the genetic poten- tion characteristics has resulted in the
tial of the animal and several hormones, the development of different types of goat for
nutrient supply and the environment. This different purposes. The varieties of goat
complexity is beneficial in terms of manipu- genotypes that are available worldwide
lating growth and development because it attest to the impact and significance of
provides the possibility for many different genetic selection. Genetic selection has sig-
ways of manipulating growth (Webb and nificant effects on the growth and develop-
Casey, 2005). The emphasis of most live- ment of goats; for example, selection for
stock production systems is to improve feed growth and carcass characteristics in the
conversion efficiency and thus maximize Boer goat has resulted in a masculine,
profit (Casey and Webb, 2010). Unfortu- robust and fast-growing goat with excellent
nately, hormonal growth promoters were meat-quality characteristics. This breed has
Growth in Goats 203

excellent body length and depth and is gen- and fat content and dressing percentage. It
erally large-framed with exceptional confor- is interesting to note that the dressing per-
mation. In contrast, selection for mothering centage remains virtually unchanged from
ability and milk yield has resulted in the 0-tooth to 8-tooth stages, which is explained
development of milk goats with finer fea- by the fact that most fat accumulates in the
tures, smaller dimensions and relatively viscera (omentum). The viscera are removed
poor body conformation compared with during the slaughter process and do not
Boer goats (Fig. 7.5). The differences contribute to carcass mass. Carcass fat con-
between meat and dairy goats are significant tent varies between 6% for 0-tooth goats up
and indicate that selection has a major effect to about 16% for mature (8-tooth) goats.
on growth and development. Recording of Gender also influences growth and
pre- and post-weaning growth under range- development in goats. Bucks exhibit the
land conditions and performance testing fastest growth rates and yield the leanest
have shown its merit in terms of improving carcasses compared with does or castrates
dairy and meat-quality traits in goats (Casey (Table 7.2). No significant differences in
and Webb, 2010). dressing percentages are observed between
bucks, does and castrates, despite signifi-
cant differences in carcass mass, carcass
7.5.2 Effect of age and sex on growth and dimensions and fat content.
development of goats

The effects of age and sex on growth and 7.5.3 Nutritional manipulation of growth
development have been clearly documented in goats
in a number of species, including goats of
different breeds and types. The most signifi- The effects of nutrition on animal growth
cant effects of age on growth and develop- and development are well documented,
ment are generally associated with and similar studies confirm the signifi-
increasing live mass with obvious changes cance of feeding in goats of different
in body composition and conformation breeds, genders and ages (Casey, 1982;
(Webb et al., 2005). Table 7.1 shows the Simela, 2000; Webb et al., 2005). These
significant changes in body composition effects are sometimes described as 'pro-
and conformation in indigenous goats with duction system' effects, which include
increasing age, resulting in increases in car- `intensive' feeding and conditioning or
cass mass, body dimensions, carcass lean `extensive' grazing. Crude fibre appears to
(a) (b)

Fig. 7.5. (a) Boer goat. These are masculine, robust and fast-growing goats with excellent meat-quality
characteristics. (b) Saanen milk goat with finer features, smaller dimensions and relatively poor body
conformation but good mothering ability and high milk yield.
204 E.C. Webb et al.

Table 7.1. Effect of age on live animal and carcass characteristics of South African indigenous goats
(means ± SD) (from Simela, 2005).

Age class

Characteristic 0 teeth 2 teeth 4-6 teeth 8 teeth P value

Slaughter weight (kg) 27.8a ± 3.81 33.1b ± 5.66 36.6c ± 6.39 42.7d ± 3.92 <0.0001
Cold carcass weight (kg) 11.8a ± 11.43 13.7b ± 3.18 15.2bc ± 3.10b 16.9c ± 2.88 <0.0001
Dressing percentage 42.1 ± 5.99 41.0 ± 3.36 41.4 ± 2.90 39.0 ± 4.34 0.0868
Chest girth (cm) 71.1a ± 3.44 75.5b ± 4.74 79.c ± 6.89 84.1d ± 2.39 <0.0001
Carcass length (cm) 66.3a ± 3.73 68.6b ± 4.22 70.1b ± 3.07 75.1c ± 3.22 <0.0001
Buttock circumference (cm) 48.6a ± 3.36 51.2b ± 3.76 54.2c ± 5.36 56.0c ± 3.10 0.0001
M. longissimus thoracis 11.1 ± 3.94 11.1 ± 3.35 12.5 ± 2.30 12.9 ± 3.07 0.3345
area (cm2)
Omentum fat (g) 553a ± 382 554a ±423 711a ± 229 1 197b ± 716 <0.0001
Kidney knob and channel 402ab ± 302 357a ± 275 533 ± 161b 700c ± 445 <0.0001
fat (g)

so, Standard deviation.


Means within a row with different letters (a, b, c, d) differ significantly (P < 0.05).

Table 7.2. Effect of sex on live animal and carcass characteristics of South African indigenous goats
(means ± SD) (from Simela, 2005).

Sex

Characteristic Castrates Females Intact males P value

Slaughter weight (kg) 36.03b ± 6.47 31.41a ± 5.87 37.66b ± 7.17 <0.0001
Cold carcass weight (kg) 14.86b ± 3.55 12.86a ± 2.84 15.49b ± 3.88 0.0021
Dressing percentage 40.79 ± 3.66 40.99 ± 4.46 40.88 ± 5.50 0.9772
Chest girth (cm) 78.20b ± 5.99 74.75a ± 5.21 79.52b ± 6.82 0.0032
Carcass length (cm) 69.80a ± 3.77 67.48a ± 4.11 72.66b ± 4.51 <0.0001
Buttock circumference (cm) 52.83 ± 4.51 51.59 ± 4.32 53.00 ± 4.58 0.4793
M. longissimus thoracis area (cm2) 12.24 ± 3.05 11.07 ± 3.19 12.39 ± 4.57 0.2118
Omentum fat (g) 845 ± 376 739 ± 619 678 ± 438 0.2859
Kidney knob and channel fat (g) 547 ± 249 493 ± 368 455 ± 298 0.3458

so, Standard deviation.


Means within a row with different letters (a, b) differ significantly (P < 0.05).

be a critical aspect in the normal growth improves growth and development, while
and development of the digestive system the extent and duration of nutrient deficien-
(pre-gastric compartments like the rumen, cies, as well as the physiological status of
reticulum and omasum, as well as the goats, influence growth retardation and the
small intestine). Similar effects of dietary subsequent ability to regain or even com-
fibre were demonstrated on the intestinal pensate for previous losses.
development of monogastric species such Certain goat genotypes respond better
as guinea pigs (Patten et al., 2004). to feeding or feed supplementation, and this
Other factors that influence growth and ability differs mainly between the dairy-
development of goats are litter size, age of and meat-type goats. Similar differences are
the dam, uterine environment and external evident in dairy and beef cattle. Beef cattle
environment. It is well known that supple- are generally classified as 'accretion type',
mentation of macro- and micronutrients while dairy cattle are classified as 'secretion
Growth in Goats 205

type' (Bellman et al., 2004). A similar differ- Conditioning of goats has a marked
ence appears to exist in goats, which pro- effect on body composition. The increase in
vides an interesting basis for the comparison carcass fat content in pre-slaughter condi-
of nutrient partitioning and hormonal regu- tioned goats from 10 to -19% is clearly indi-
lation (Webb and Casey, 2005). The findings cated in Table 7.3, while moderate decreases
generally suggest that GH is positively cor- in the proportion of lean and bone are dem-
related with and IGF-1 negatively correlated onstrated. Conditioning of goats has the
with genetic merit for milk yield, while potential to significantly improve the eating
both these hormones are positively corre- quality of goat meat without the adverse
lated with growth rate. The implication is effects of unfavourable odours or flavour,
that dairy-type goats probably use fat as an which typically develop with ageing, par-
easily available energy store, while goats ticularly in male goats. In contrast to ageing
selected for growth and carcass characteris- and differences between genders, condition-
tics use protein as a long-lasting energy ing improves the dressing percentage of goat
store. carcasses (Fig. 7.6).

50

45

40

35
Non-conditioned Conditioned
Pre-slaughter conditioning

4.0

3.5

3.0

0 2.5
C)

2.0

1.5

1.0
Non-conditioned Conditioned
Pre-slaughter conditioning

Fig. 7.6. Effect of pre-slaughter conditioning on the dressing percentage of South African indigenous
goat carcasses. Differences (a and b) are indicated for bucks ( &), does (N) and castrates () (from
Simela, 2005).
206 E.C. Webb et al.

Table 7.3. Effect of pre-slaughter conditioning on proportions of tissues ( %) in joints of the right carcass
halves of South African indigenous goats (means ± SD) (from Simela, 2005).

Pre-slaughter conditioning

Characteristic Non-conditioned Pre-slaughter conditioned P value

Lean 65.52 ± 2.88 59.88 ± 4.26 <0.0001


Bone 23.46 ± 3.08 19.44 ± 1.74 <0.0001
Intermuscular fat 6.76 ± 3.11 13.72 ± 3.77 <0.0001
Subcutaneous fat 3.42 ± 1.74 6.00 ± 1.96 <0.0001
Total carcass fat 10.18 ± 4.33 19.72 ± 4.74 <0.0001

so, Standard deviation.

7.6 Classification or Grading of Goat normal variations due to age, sex, body
Carcasses weight and growth rate (Owen et al., 1978;
Kirton, 1988). Carcass fat occurs predomi-
Consumer preferences for goat carcass differ nantly in the visceral depots rather than the
among countries and this makes it difficult typical subcutaneous depots (Devendra and
to implement universally acceptable grad- Owen, 1983; Kirton, 1988), and this explains
ing or classification systems, as well as why goat carcasses are generally regarded as
standard carcass cuts. Countries also differ lean. As indicated earlier in this chapter,
in terms of their preferences for specific car- goat carcasses contain about 60% dissectible
cass cuts; for example, the cuts associated lean and 5-16% dissectible fat. Accumula-
with the loin region or dorsal trunk and the tion of fat in the subcutaneous fat depot is
hind limb are the most sought-after cuts in limited, even with ageing and conditioning
western countries (Casey et al., 2003). Cuts (Webb et al., 2005). In addition, the varia-
from the hind limb are generally regarded as tion in subcutaneous fat thickness between
high-value cuts due to the low fat and high goats of different ages, sex and types is
lean content (Casey, 1982; Simela, 2005). extremely limited, which makes it difficult
Although cuts from the dorsal trunk also to use fat thickness for purposes of carcass
have a low fat content, they are perceived to classification or grading.
be bony.
In most countries, goat carcasses are
graded or classified based on a system very 7.7 Conclusions
similar to that employed for sheep carcasses.
This creates problems in terms of fat code or Growth and development in goats influence
fat scores, as goat carcasses are generally the efficiency of production with subse-
very lean, even in conditioned goats. Guide- quent effects on product quality. The use of
lines for goat carcass evaluation have been growth promotants or molecules that change
developed (Colomer-Rocher et al., 1987), the efficiency of growth are not popular in
but there are still problems with conforma- goat production, but other more natural
tion scoring in goats. pathways exist to manipulate growth and
Many of the current problems relating development that do not detract from prod-
to goat carcass grading are based on the uct quality and meet consumer demands for
unique fat accumulation in goats (Webb more environmentally friendly and natural
et al., 2005). Fat accumulation in goats production systems. There is great signifi-
occurs approximately when they have cance in the way in which the growth and
reached their mature body mass (Owen developmental processes have evolved in
et al., 1978, 1983). However, body fat con- goats to ensure the propagation of this
tent tends to be rather variable, despite the unique species. The skeletal size of goats is
Growth in Goats 207

rather variable due to the effects of natural between the genetic potential of the animal
selection and adaptation of the various and several hormones, the nutrient supply
breeds or types of goat to different ecological and the environment. This complexity is
regions in the world. Goats are subdivided beneficial in terms of manipulating growth
into three categories based on frame size; and development because it provides the
namely, dwarf breeds, small breeds and possibility for many different ways of
large breeds. Fatty tissue accumulates in manipulating growth. The most significant
goats at a lower rate and to a lesser extent means of manipulating growth and develop-
compared with sheep Animal growth is ment in goats include genetic selection,
the consequence of complex interactions castration and intensive fattening.

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Simela, L. (2000) Demand and supply of chevon in urban markets of Zimbabwe. In: Improvement of Market
Orientated Small Ruminant Production Systems and Sustainable Land Use in Semi-arid Regions of
Southern Africa. Project TS3*-CT94-0312, Final Technical Report, pp. 72-85.
Simela, L. (2005) Meat quality characteristics of indigenous goats in Southern Africa. PhD thesis,
Department of Animal and Wildlife Sciences, University of Pretoria, South Africa.
Simela, L., Webb, E.G. and Frylinck, L. (2004) Post-mortem metabolic status, pH and temperature of
chevon from indigenous South African goats slaughtered under commercial conditions. South African
Journal of Animal Science 24 (Suppl. 1), 204-207.
Tatar, M., Bartke, A. and Antebi, A. (2003) The endocrine regulation of ageing by insulin-like signals.
Science 299,1346-1351.
208 E.C. Webb et al.

Webb, E.G. (2007) Food safety and quality: goat meat. In: CABI Animal Health and Production Compendium.
CAB International, Wallingford, UK.
Webb, E.G. and Casey, N.H. (2005) Achievements of research in the field of growth and development. In:
WAAP Book of the Year 2005. World Association for Animal Production, Wageningen Academic
Publishers, pp. 85-90.
Webb, E.G. and Casey, N.H. (2010) Physiological limits to growth and the related effects on meat quality.
Livestock Science 130,33-40.
Webb, E.G. and O'Neill, H.A. (2008) The animal fat paradox and meat quality. Meat Science 80,28-36.
Webb, E.G., Casey, N.H. and Simela, L. (2005) Goat meat quality. Small Ruminant Research 60,153-166.
8 The Role of Objective and Subjective
Evaluation in the Production and Marketing
of Goats for Meat

B.A. McGregor
Institute for Technology, Research & Innovation, Deakin University, Victoria, Australia

8.1 Abstract associated with mortality risk and the


reproductive performance of goats. The
Objective and subjective evaluations of number of permanent incisors in the lower
goats for meat production are related to jaw of goats is a method of estimating the
important determinants of production and age of goats but is biased by differences in
profitability. The most important attributes live weights of goats. The value and role of
in assessment of goats for market are: live ultrasound scanning of goat carcasses is
weight, body-condition score and age. As summarized. For the marketing of kid meat,
goats grow, their carcass and body organs no permanent incisors should have erupted.
increase in weight in proportion to the Other useful practices for the successful
empty body weight. For farmers and field marketing of goat meat are discussed
workers, the linear regression approach for including: knowing market specifications
estimating carcass weight by measuring live and chemical withholding periods; animal
weight is the most suitable as it accounts for health; prevention of bruising; identifica-
88-97% of the variation in carcass, offal tion of goats; size of consignments; timeli-
and boneless meat weight. Live-weight ness; and provision of paperwork. A
scales or heart girth tapes should be used, checklist is provided. The use of subjective
and the risks and errors associated with and objective assessment techniques in
these methods are summarized. The pro- evaluating goats for meat production will
portion of a live goat that is the carcass, provide the best results. Where only subjec-
known as dressing percentage, increases tive assessment techniques are available,
from 35 to -50% as goats grow. The useful- they will provide satisfactory performance
ness and errors associated with dressing provided the skills have been learned and
percentage in field estimation are discussed. are applied.
A valuable subjective method for estimating
the nutritional status of goats is the use of
body-condition scoring, as it accounts for 8.2 Introduction
60-67% of the variation in live-weight
change, carcass weight and fat reserves of Objective and subjective evaluations of
goats. A method for body-condition scoring goats for meat production have important
and a similar fat scoring system are roles to play in developing and developed
explained. Body-condition score is also economies. These methods of assessment
© CAB International 2012. Goat Meat Production and Quality
(eds 0. Mahgoub, I.T. Kadim and E.G. Webb) 209
210 B.A. McGregor

are related to important determinants of 8.2.3 Preparing goats for meat marketing
meat production and enterprise profitabil-
ity. In many countries, low-cost subjective In undertaking the assessment of live weight,
evaluation methods are the only methods body-condition score and age of goats for
available. The application of subjective meat marketing, there are other attributes of
evaluation methods in developing countries goats and practices of farmers that are
is a valuable tool that can greatly help goat required for successful marketing. The last
farmers improve the health and survival, section of this chapter discusses ten impor-
reproduction and meat production of their tant issues that farmers should be aware of
goats. for the successful marketing of goat meat.

8.2.1 Purpose of evaluation in meat


8.3 Live-weight Measurement
production and marketing
or Estimation
There are several important reasons to
The most precise estimate of carcass produc-
assess live goats during production and
before they are sold for meat including tion and offal yields from goats is made
(McGregor, 2007a):
using empty body weight (ingesta-free live
weight) (McGregor, 1985). However, farmers
To select goats that closely match the and field workers are unable to accurately
specifications of a buyer. determine empty body weight, and use
To decide whether the goats need addi- either 24 h fasted live weight or live weight,
tional feeding to maintain growth rate. with a subsequent loss of accuracy in predic-
tion. Thus, for most goat farmers, the live
To decide whether the goats need addi-
tional shelter or management inputs weight of their animals is the most important
during pregnancy and adverse climatic aspect of a goat that determines meat yield.
conditions.
To determine animal health treatments,
such as the size of doses for drugs, e.g. 8.3.1 The use of live weight in predicting
anthelmintics. carcass and organ yield
To estimate carcass attributes of goats
before sale for meat. As goats grow, their carcass and other body
To avoid being penalized for failing to organs increase in weight (Fig. 8.1). Fat
meet buyer specifications. reserves also increase as goats grow. These
To evaluate goats for selection and observations have been confirmed in numer-
breeding. ous studies on a wide range of goat breeds as
well as in all other farm animals (Tulloh,
1963; Gall, 1983; McGregor, 1985; Warming-
8.2.2 Methods of live animal assessment ton and Kirton, 1990).
The relative growth coefficient (RGC) of
The three most important methods of body components relative to the fasted body
assessing goats for market are: can be estimated using the allometric
growth equation:
Live-weight measurement or estimation.
Body-condition scoring. log y = log a + blog x
Estimation of the age of goats.
where x is the fasted live weight at slaugh-
The use of ultrasound scanning of live ter, y is the fresh organ weight, b represents
goat carcasses is discussed later in the chap- the RGC of the organ relative to the fasted
ter. Other important descriptors of goats body and a is a constant.
include sex and breed, which will not be Allometric growth equations are usu-
discussed further in this chapter. ally more precise and account for more of
Production and Marketing of Meat Goats 211

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Live weight (kg)

Fig. 8.1. The relationships of carcass fat (A) , omental fat (o) and perirenal fat () with the live weight of
castrated male Angora goats (from McGregor, 1992).

the variation of dependent variables than 8.3.2 Prediction of saleable meat on goats
linear-equation approaches. Allometric
growth equations indicate that, during Live weight and carcass weight
growth of goats from birth to maturity, fat
reserves and the carcass develop at a slightly Studies with goats indicate that, as goats
faster rate than the entire body, while bone grow, carcass weight increases by 0.43-
develops more slowly than the entire body 0.54 kg for every 1 kg increase in live weight.
(Wilson, 1958; Owen et al., 1977; McGregor, Table 8.2 provides examples for different
1982, 1992). For example, with Saanen and goat breeds grazed on pasture in a similar
Angora goats given similar grazing and way in the same temperate environment
slaughter management, the relative growth and slaughtered using the same standard-
of carcass and various fat deposits was >1 ized procedures (Aus-Meat, 2001).
while carcass protein was not >1 (Table 8.1). Using live weight to predict carcass
For Saanen goats, the perirenal and omental weight accounted for 88-97% of the varia-
fat depots grew 2.6 times faster than the tion in the studies illustrated in Table 8.2.
fasted body weight. The residual standard deviation in these
This chapter will focus on studies that studies ranged from about 0.5 to 1.6 kg. The
used the linear-regression approach for esti- precision of prediction can be improved
mating carcass weight as this approach is further when the subjectively assessed
more suitable for application with farmers body-condition score is used with live
(McGregor, 1985; Warmington and Kirton, weight in prediction equations. Body-
1990). With linear regressions, the farmer condition scoring is discussed in the fol-
estimates the carcass weight as follows: lowing section.
Carcass weight (kg)
Nutrition does affect carcass develop-
= m x live weight (kg) + c
ment and carcass yields. Table 8.2 illus-
trates that the regression coefficients were
where m is the regression coefficient or lower for goats subjected to periods of main-
slope and c is the regression constant tenance of live weight or of low live weight
(which is often negative). gain when the proportion of the live animal
212 B.A. McGregor

Table 8.1. The relative growth coefficient (RGC) of body components of grazing goats relative to fasted
body weight for Saanen castrate goats (McGregor, 1982) and Angora castrate goats (McGregor, 1992).

Saanen Angora

Component RGC 100 x r2 RGC 100 x r2

Carcassa 1.098 99 1.015 96


Carcass fats 2.155 86 1.039 88
Carcass protein 0.930 98 1.003 96
Perirenal fat 2.665 83 1.068 72
Omental fat 2.620 86 1.074 76

aExcluding perirenal fat.

Table 8.2. Regression constants (± sEM) and correlation coefficients for linear relationships between
carcass weight (kg) and live weight (kg) for Australian goats of different breeds, ages and sexes.

Regression
Breed (age, years) Sex coefficient Constant RSD 100 x r2 Authority

Angora (0.4) M 0.488 ± 0.018 -1.3 0.45 90 McGregor (1996)


Angora (0.5-4) C 0.523 ± 0.021 -2.3 1.00 96 McGregor (1996)
Cashmere (0.3) M 0.450 ± 0.031 -0.9 0.46 88 McGregor et al. (1988)
Cashmere (0.6) M 0.515 ± 0.025 -1.7 0.94 88 McGregor et al. (1988)
Cashmere (2.5-4.5) C 0.434 ± 0.014 -0.8 1.64 90 McGregor (1990)
Saanen (0.3-3) C 0.504 ± 0.025 -1.4 97 McGregor (1982)

SEM, Standard error of the mean.


C, Castrated males; M, mixed-sex kids; RSD, residual standard deviation.
Data in bold relate to animals slaughtered after periods of nutrition that resulted in zero or low live weight gain.

that was carcass was less than for goats sub- scriptions of a standardized carcass have
ject to periods of good nutrition. been developed and mandated by industry
in goat-meat-exporting countries such as
Dressing percentage Australia (Colomer-Rocher et al., 1987; Aus-
Meat, 2001). Issues include the removal of
As goats gain live weight, the proportion of pelvic channel fat and the position of re-
the body that is the carcass increases. This moval of the head, feet and tail.
proportion, called the dressing percentage, 2. Unfortunately, dressing percentage can
is determined as: (carcass weight x 100)/ vary substantially depending on the man-
live weight. Dressing percentage is used as a agement of the animal and its sex, whether
rule of thumb for estimating carcass weight. it has been fasted, diet (which affects gut
For example, for goats at 10 kg live weight, fill) and the amount of fleece. As many goat
the carcass may represent 35% of live keepers and research workers obviously fail
weight, but, at 50 kg live weight, the carcass to recognize these influences, the most im-
may represent 48% of live weight. Higher portant influences are summarized in Ta-
dressing percentage values are sometimes ble 8.3.
obtained. Dressing percentage values can
suffer from two major deficiencies: To enable goat farmers, market agents
and researchers to accurately estimate the
1. Standardized methods of determining expected yields and therefore market value
dressing percentage are often not used and of carcasses from live goats, it is important
so published reports can be misleading. De- that, in each environment, with a given
Production and Marketing of Meat Goats 213

Table 8.3. Factors influencing the apparent dressing percentage of goats (adapted from McGregor,
1985).

Dressing percentage change Factor

Increased dressing percentage Milk fed kids: have little rumen development and gut fill
Concentrate feeding: reduces gut fill, increases fat deposits
Fasting: reduces gut fill before weighing
Age: older animals tend to be heavier
Live weight: heavier animals usually have more muscle and fat
Reduction in dressing percentage Weaning: increases gut fill and reduces fat reserves
Hay and straw feeding: increases gut fill and live weight
Lactation: usually reduces fat reserves
Mating: for bucks, results in reduced appetite and weight loss
Dry pastures: usually results in loss of live weight and fat reserves
Heavy fleece: results in overestimates of true live weight
Large horns and testicles: in bucks, these will reduce the relative
carcass weight

breed and management practice, dressing hot carcass weight, boneless meat yield
percentage be determined over a range of increased by 307 or 670 g, respectively
live weights. (Fig. 8.2).

Boneless meat yield from carcasses

For many manufactured goat meat prod- 8.3.3 Live-weight measurement


ucts, such as mince required for sausages, or estimation
goat meat is removed from the bones before
processing. The yield of this boneless meat Where possible, accurate livestock scales
is a lower proportion of the live animal are recommended for weighing goats.
compared with the carcass yield, as the Where this is not possible, particularly in
bone and some fat is discarded during the the small-scale farming sector, the use of a
trimming process. There is a lack of knowl- heart girth tape or small scales for smaller
edge about the actual boneless meat yield animals are useful. However, these methods
from entire goats. can have large errors. If small-scale farmers
Research on boneless meat yield from must estimate the body weight of their goats
Angora goats in Texas (Smith et al., 1972; without any aids, then inaccuracies in deci-
Eggen et al., 1973) indicated that culled sion making and husbandry will be the
2-6-year-old does of mean live weight of consequence.
30.7 kg produced 12.8 kg carcasses that
yielded 57% meat. With 9-14 kg Angora Livestock scales
goat carcasses, the edible portion of meat
rose from 56 to 63% as the degree of Live weight is best determined by weighing
muscling and live weight increased. With goats on scales designed for sheep and
heavy-weight 2.5-4.5-year-old Australian goats. Crates with specially fitted gates are
cashmere goats of 44-79 kg live weight, car- best for this purpose. Modern electronic
cass production was 20.5-32.6 kg with a scales that have weigh bars can be used pro-
boneless meat yield of 64.2%. With lighter- vided a suitable platform or crate is made to
weight 14 kg carcasses, the boneless meat restrain the animals. Electronic scales are
yield declined to 61.1% (McGregor, 1990). more expensive and need power either from
Linear regression coefficients indicated a mains supply or from a car battery. There
that, for every 1 kg increase in live weight or are important issues to carefully manage to
214 B.A. McGregor

22 22
-5.)- 20 -8-320
18
Tal 16 16
14 E14
12 X12
0 10 c10
0
03 8 03 8
6 6
30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 10 15 20 25 5
Live weight (kg) Carcass weight (kg)

Fig. 8.2. Relationship between the live weight and the hot carcass weight of castrated male goats and
the amount of boneless meat (McGregor, 1990).

ensure accurate operation of livestock Using girth tape measurements to estimate


scales (Table 8.4). live weight has accounted for about 90% of
the variation in live weight.
Heart girth tapes Care should be exercised in extrapolat-
ing from the data used to calibrate heart girth
Heart girth tapes are calibrated to the live tapes to animals outside the ranges of those
weight of a particular breed of goat. As there measured. As noted in numerous studies,
are differences in the physical frame size the correlation between heart girth and live
and time to maturity among breeds of goats weight in adults is lower than for growing
(McGregor, 1985; Warmington and Kirton, goats and for females in advanced pregnancy
1990), heart girth tapes need to be calibrated (Mohammed and Amin, 1997) and is lower
for the breed and sex of animals to be evalu- when goats are losing live weight than when
ated and for pregnant and non-pregnant they are growing (Nsoso et al., 2003).
does (Pomroy et al., 1987; Mohammed and The use of the upper 95% confidence
Amin, 1997; Slippers et al., 2000; Nsoso limit when using the girth measurements
et al., 2003; Mekasha et al., 2008). This cali-
has been recommended when determining
bration needs to be done with the aid of dose rates for animal health use (Pomroy
those with livestock scales and the ability to et al., 1987). In practice, the upper 95% con-
complete linear regression analyses. In fidence limit required the addition of 11 kg
some countries, commercial or industry- to estimates of Saanen doe live weight and
sponsored heart girth tapes are available 6 kg for estimates of Angora and cashmere/
(e.g. USA, Australia). feral doe live weight (Pomroy et al., 1987).
The correct method for using a heart The addition for the upper 95% confidence
girth tape is as follows: limit potentially overestimates the live
1. Use a non-elastic calibrated tape. weight of small goats such as those <20 kg.
2. Have the goat standing squarely on all As a consequence the use of girth measure-
four legs. ments is not recommended for the estima-
3. Measure the heart girth around the tion of body weight when using mineralized
chest, directly behind the forelegs and drenches or other drugs of narrow or uncer-
across the back. tain safety limits (Pomroy et al., 1987).
4. Draw the tape in firmly, especially for
fleece bearing goats, and read the value. Errors in live-weight measurement
Examples of the relationship between There are three common errors related
girth measurements and live weight for to live-weight measurement: (i) inaccurate
some breeds of goats are shown in Table 8.5. operation of measuring equipment (discussed
Production and Marketing of Meat Goats 215

Table 8.4. Risk factors that must be managed to operate livestock scales accurately.

Risk factor Operation guideline

Scales not calibrated accurately Prior to, during and at the end of each operation, use check weights
to ensure accurate operation. Recalibrate if necessary
Scales on uneven ground Use scales only on level ground or a level floor
Scales do not move freely Keep scales from touching hard objects during operation, e.g. away
from fences, walls, sides of yards and handling equipment. Check
scales frequently during operation. If possible, fix scales to level
surface using bolts.
During use, keep area underneath scales clean by removing any
stones, sticks or other material from near the scales
Scales not tared properly Ensure scales are tared to zero before use
Check scale tare regularly during use, especially if scales are
bumped, knocked or pushed by rough animals
Animal not weighed properly Ensure all four feet are on the weighing platform
Ensure no other goat has its foot on the weighing platform

Table 8.5. Examples of regression constants (± sEM) and correlation coefficient for relationships
between heart girth measurement (cm) and live weight (kg) for different breeds and sexes of goats from
published sources.

Breed Comment Regression Constant 100 x r2 Reference

Saanen Doe 1.42 -74.8 88 Pomroy et al. (1987)


Angora Doe 0.96 -42.9 88 Pomroy et al. (1987)
Sahel (Borno Kids, multiple 0.50 -13.6 98 Mohammed and Amin (1997)
White) birth
Nguni Doe 1.08 -47.7 94 Slippers et al. (2000)
Nguni Buck 0.99 -43.0 88 Slippers et al. (2000)
Tswana Wet season 0.50 -11.2 85 Nsoso et al. (2003)
Tswana Dry season 2.97 -181 74 Nsoso et al. (2003)

earlier for scales and tapes); (ii) fasting goats; for example, animals are taken
times; and (iii) variations in the time of day straight from pasture and weighed without
that weighing takes place. any fasting, or animals are taken from pas-
Fasting refers to the amount of time ture and left in livestock yards for 4 h.
that animals are deprived of food and water. Whichever procedure is chosen, it should
The importance of fasting becomes appar- be used routinely.
ent when it is realized that, for a grazing It is also important that, if comparisons
goat with a live weight of 32 kg, the gut are being made over time, the time of day
contents (stomachs and intestines) may when weighing takes place is standardized.
comprise nearly 25% of the live weight This is important as animals usually have a
(McGregor, 1982, 1992). If goats are grazing, resting and drinking routine. Goats
removed from feed and water for 24 h, it is can drink several litres of water in one ses-
normal that they commonly lose 1-2 kg of sion, so their live weight can increase by
live weight or more in hot environments. It 2 kg or more. It is therefore important to
is important to standardize the method to choose a standard routine when weighing
be used for measuring the live weight of goats. Choose a time, preferably in the cool
216 B.A. McGregor

of the morning, and keep to this time of day and the use of body-condition scoring to
for any future weighing of the goats. assist in selling goats for meat.

8.4 Body-condition Scoring 8.4.1 Body-condition scoring of short ribs

Body-condition scoring is a subjective Body-condition scoring is the easiest method


method to assess the relative nutritional sta- for farmers, meat buyers and researchers to
tus of animals. Body-condition scoring in use as it allows an easy 'hands-on' estimation
goats has been shown to be related to goat of standing goats. Body-condition scores give
live weight, milk production, carcass pro- a direct assessment of the amount of tissue
duction, carcass fatness, reproductive present over one of the prime carcass sites.
performance and mortality. All of these pro- Scientific studies have shown body-
duction parameters are of commercial condition scoring to be reliable in predict-
importance in goat meat production. Body- ing carcass weight when used with the live
condition scoring is therefore an essential weight of goats. While goats may have less
practical skill for farmers, extension agents, subcutaneous fat than sheep, it is easier to
meat buyers and researchers in both devel- gain a more reliable estimate of the body
oping and developed economies. condition and carcass yield of goats using
Body-condition scoring has been used body-condition scores than it is with
on sheep in Australia since at least the sheep.
1940s and was first explained by McClymont
and Lambourne (1958) and Jefferies (1961). How to undertake body-condition scoring
Body-condition scoring has been applied
with goats since at least 1982 (McGregor, 1. The animal must be standing on all feet
2010a). Body-condition scoring can be and 'relaxed', not tensed up or pushed into
used to: a corner. It is not possible to score if an ani-
Monitor the live-weight change of goats mal is crouching under or jumping over
when no objective method is available. other animals.
Monitor the nutritional state of goats: a 2. Use the 'balls' of the fingers and thumb
decline in body-condition score is a rather than the tips.
good indication of a decline in nutri- 3. Feel the body along the backbone, just
tion. behind the last long rib in the loin area. Feel
Assist in the selection of goats prior to for the prominence of the spine, its sharp-
slaughter. ness and the amount of flesh on each side of
Assess the risk of goats to mortality in the spine (Table 8.6).
adverse weather (McGregor and Butler, 4. Now span the loin with the hand with
2008). fingers and thumb extended. Feel the ends
of the spinal processes and press the fingers
There are three methods of body-condi- gently under the ends to assess the amount
tion scoring: (i) body-condition scoring of of flesh present (Table 8.6).
the short ribs; (ii) fat scoring the long ribs; 5. Finally, feel the eye muscle by feeling
and (iii) palpating the sternum. Palpating the thickness and coverage of flesh be-
the sternum is the preferred method for use tween the backbone and the spinal pro-
with dairy goats (Aumont et al., 1994; cesses. Use the open flat palm of the hand
Morand-Fehr, 2005) and is not covered and gently push against the eye muscle
here. Details of this method are summarized to feel its shape. Is it rounded, flat or
by Smith and Sherman (2009). depressed?
This section discusses the methods of 6. For animals with a dense fleece, the
body-condition scoring, the relationships of fleece should be parted to feel the skin more
body-condition scores to carcass attributes easily.
Table 8.6. What body-condition scores feel like and the cross-section appearance of the tissue reserves in the loin area of the short ribs on the carcass of a
live goat (Jefferies, 1961; McGregor, 1983, 2005; Mitchell, 1983).

What can be felt at each site


Body-condition What the score means for Carcass cross-section in the
score meat production loin area of the short ribs Backbone Spinal processes Eye muscle

1 Very lean. Prominent and sharp. Sharp ends. Fingers Very thin and feels hollow.
Poor meat yield. Should easily pass under
be fed more. ends.
Further weight loss may
result in death.
2 Lean. Prominent but smooth. Smooth and rounded. Some tissue present. Feels
Moderate meat yield for Fingers pass under flat.
adults. ends.
Too low for prime kids.
3 Medium. Smooth and round Smooth. Need Full coverage to end of spinal
Ideal for prime kids. over the top but still pressure to feel processes. Feels rounded.
May be too fat for adult elevated. ends.
goats where a slightly
lower score is often
preferred.
4 Only detected with Cannot be felt. Feels well rounded.
FIN
Fat.
Too much feed has been pressure.
used.
Fat has to be cut off meat
when processed.

ND
218 B.A. McGregor

Figure 8.3 shows a farmer condition providing an eight-step range, i.e. 1, 1.5, 2,
scoring a goat in a livestock crate used for 2.5, and so on. Research has been published
weighing. The goat is standing still on all its where two scores were assigned between
feet, not crouching or lying down. The each of the main categories providing a
farmer's hand is spanning the backbone 13-step range (McGregor, 1990, 1992, 2005,
while he feels the short spinal processes 2010a), for example ...1.7, 2.3, 2.7, 3, 3.3...
and the coverage of flesh using the balls of The difference between these systems is not
his fingers and thumb. important. However, Australian experience
indicates that the very high body-condition
Reliability of body-condition scores score of 5 for very fat sheep is not relevant
to goats. This view is supported by the
The reliability of body-condition scoring lower level of subcutaneous back fat depos-
improves with practice. It is recommended its of goats compared with sheep (McGregor,
that scoring should be practised whenever 2005).
goats are handled, yarded or fed. Body- Within a year, a goat may experience
condition scoring should be used at live- an increase and a decrease in its body-con-
stock shows and meat markets. dition score depending on nutrition and
The original systems for body-condition live-weight change (McGregor, 2010a).
scoring of sheep used six levels of body con- Within a mob of goats, it is usual to observe
dition (0-5; McClymont and Lambourne, a range in body-condition scores (McGregor,
1958; Jefferies, 1961), although level 0, indi- 2005).
cating severe emaciation at the point of
death following extended drought or dis-
ease, was not commonly used. Thus, most Body-condition score, live weight
descriptions of the body-condition scoring and carcass attributes
system since this time have referred to only
five levels of body condition, 1-5. Skilled BODY-CONDITION SCORE, NUTRITIONAL TREATMENT
assessors can assign body-condition scores AND LIVE-WEIGHT CHANGE Changes in live
that are intermediate between the main weight associated with differences in
scores. Many Australian farmers assign nutrition are reflected in changes in body-
one score between each main category condition score (McGregor, 1988, 2010a).

Fig. 8.3. A farmer weighing and body-condition scoring his goats.


Production and Marketing of Meat Goats 219

Table 8.7 illustrates the typical response gain at a rate of approximately 6.5 kg per 1
of body-condition score to long-term nutri- unit score.
tional treatments that result in substantial For grazing Angora goats, the change in
changes in live weight. The data come from live weight associated with a 1 unit change
housed goats fed the same forage diet at dif- score in body condition is approximately
ferent levels of energy provision (McGregor, 7.0 kg (McGregor, 1992) to 8.4 kg (McGregor,
1988). Those goats fed to lose weight (be- 2010a). The impacts of seasonal nutritional
low maintenance of live weight, 0.8 M) lost conditions and long-term stocking rate on
4.9 kg and their body-condition score de- the body-condition score of Angora goats
clined by 1 unit. The goats that gained live are illustrated in Fig. 8.4. In small East Afri-
weight increased their body-condition score can goats in Zimbabwe a change in condi-
in proportion to the amount of live weight tion score of 1 represented an average

Table 8.7. Live weight and body-condition score and their changes with time for individually housed
goats fed forage diets at different levels of energy provision over a 5-month period (from McGregor,
1988).

Live weight (kg) Body-condition score

Nutrition treatments 30/11/84 22/04/85 Change 30/11/84 22/04/85 Change

0.8 M 28.4 23.5 -4.9 2 1 -1.0


M 28.4 27.9 -0.5 2 2 0
1.25 M 28.2 30.6 +2.4 2 2.3 +0.3
1.5 M 28.5 33.3 +4.8 2 2.7 +0.7
Ad libitum 28.4 36.4 +8.0 2 3.3 +1.3

aEnergy nutrition treatments are relative to the maintenance of live weight (M).

3.5

A
3.0

3 6 co
_ta 2.5 a
-53

30
/ 0
0
2.0 27
25 0
0)

1.5 r8
20

1.0
15

10 0.5
M J J ASOND J FMAM J J AS
1982 1983

Fig. 8.4. Relationship between the body-condition score (A, ) and the fleece-free live weight (A, M) of
Angora goats grazed on annual temperate pastures from May 1982 to September 1983 at stocking rates
of 7.5 animals/ha (A, A) and 12.5 animals/ha (, M) (modified from McGregor, 2010a).
220 B.A. McGregor

change of 12% in live weight (Honhold the tissue depth of the carcass at the grid ref-
et al., 1989). The association between body- erence (GR) site. The GR site is on the second
condition score and live weight of goats can last long rib (12th rib) at a site 110 mm from
be quite high with regression correlation the midline (ridge of the spine) (Fig. 8.5).
coefficients as high as 0.93 (McGregor, The tissue depth at the GR site includes
2010a). muscle and fat. The GR site is regarded as a
good reference point as it provides a reli-
able indication of the meat and fat content
BODY-CONDITION SCORE AND CARCASS ATTRIBUTES
of the carcass and is easy to measure. Exam-
Body-condition score of goats, when used ples of the relationship between GR tissue
in linear regressions, has been shown to depth and other goat carcass attributes are
account for 44-67% of the variation in a available (McGregor, 1990, 1992, 1996). Fat
range of carcass attributes (Table 8.8). This scores and fat classes range from 1 to 5 and
indicates that, as a subjective method for as-
for goats are explained in Table 8.9. The fat
sessing carcass attributes, body-condition class descriptions for sheep carcasses have
scoring can be a useful and practical aid for different tissue depths at the GR site com-
farmers without livestock scales. pared with those used for goat carcasses.

How to fat score


8.4.2 Fat scoring the long ribs
Fat scoring uses the sense of touch to esti-
Fat scoring is used in livestock market reports
mate the fat class into which an animal will
in Australia as a method of estimating fat be assigned for sale and is carried out as fol-
lows:
classes for sheep and for describing animals
for sale. This system has been applied to 1. The animal must be standing on all feet
specification of goat carcasses (Aus-Meat, and 'relaxed', not tensed up or pushed into
2001). Fat classes of carcasses are determined a corner. The side of the animal must
objectively in the meat works by measuring be accessible. It is not possible to score

Short rib
spinal
processes

Fig. 8.5. The position of the GR site on the 12th long rib and the short ribs.
Production and Marketing of Meat Goats 221

Table 8.8. Regression constants (± sEM) and correlation coefficients for linear relationships between
carcass attributes (kg) and total body fat (kg) and body-condition score for Angora goats (modified from
McGregor, 1992).

Attribute Regression coefficient Constant RSD 100 x r2

Carcass weight 4.13 ± 0.85 7.6 2.26 62


Carcass fat 1.56 ± 0.29 0.26 0.76 67
Total body fat 2.73 ± 0.51 -0.26 1.36 66
Subcutaneous back fat 1.18 ± 0.34 -0.83 0.91 44
Carcass protein 0.58 ± 0.14 1.62 0.37 55
Fat-free carcass weight 2.57 ± 0.62 7.30 1.65 53

SEM, Standard error of the mean; RSD, residual standard deviation.

Table 8.9. Relationship between goat fat classes Table 8.10. What fat scores feel like on a live
and tissue depth at the GR site (from Aus-Meat, goat.
2001).
Fat score What is felt at the GR site
Tissue depth at
Fat class Description GR site 1 Fingers 'fall' between ribs
No tissue can be felt over ribs
1 Very lean Up to 3 mm 2 Fingers fit between ribs
2 Lean 4-6 mm Slight amount of tissue over ribs
3 Moderately lean 7-9 mm 3 Fingers sit on ribs
4 Moderately fat 10-12 mm Some tissue over ribs
5 Fat Over 12 mm 4 Ribs can be felt
Lots of tissue present
GR, Grid reference site at the 12th rib.
5 Ribs only felt with pressure
Tissue very prominent and may be fluid

GR, Grid reference site at the 12th rib.

properly if an animal is crouching or jump- 8.4.3 Other uses of body-condition


ing over other animals. scoring in goat meat production
2. Use the 'balls' of the fingers rather than
the tips. Body-condition scoring has been shown to
3. Feel the body over the 12th long rib have important associations with other
where the GR measurement would be taken. management issues of vital importance in
Feel for the prominence of the rib and the goat meat production. In particular, body-
amount of tissue over the ribs (Table 8.10). condition scores are associated with the risk
4. The easier it is to feel the rib, the lower of mortality in adverse climatic conditions
the fat score (Table 8.10). and from pregnancy toxaemia, and with
5. For animals with a dense fleece, the reproductive performance.
fleece should be parted to feel the skin more
easily. Mortality risk for goats

No objective data relating the use of Mortality in flocks of Angora goats grazing
fat scores to either goat meat production pastures and subjected to adverse climatic
or animal management issues have been risks was most related to the body-
found. condition score reached during the
222 B.A. McGregor

preceding 2 months (McGregor and Butler, the eruption of permanent first incisors in
2008). For flocks of Angora goats, there was small farm ruminants is used to signify a
no mortality at a body-condition score change in meat quality by altering the clas-
and mortality increased sharply at a mean sification of lamb and kid carcasses. Thus,
body-condition score <2.0. For individual in many developed meat markets, it is
Angora goats, mortality increased as body- essential to know the age of goats at sale.
condition score declined, and stocking rate For goats that are provided with ear
and grazing combinations were additive in tags in their year of birth, it is easy to deter-
effect on mortality. Grazing with sheep mine their age. The systematic use of
increased the mortality of Angora goats at coloured ear tags, where the colour of the
higher stocking rates. Live weight loss was tags is different for each year of birth, allows
not related to mortality rates of goats once easy identification of the age of goats. Goats
body-condition score had been accounted of different birth years with different
for. It was concluded that body-condition coloured ear tags can be easily separated by
score and stocking rate were highly signifi- drafting in a race. However, if ear tags are
cant determinants of welfare risk in Angora not used, then the subjective assessment of
goats. Analysis of individual goat mortality the dentition of goats can be used to esti-
rate indicated that these results were appli- mate the age of animals.
cable in many situations. Consequently, Goats have two successive dentitions,
farmers and animal welfare assessors can deciduous dentition (n = 20) and perma-
confidently use body-condition scores to nent dentition (n = 32). Upper incisors are
determine welfare risk in goats (McGregor absent and are replaced by a very thick con-
and Butler, 2008). nective tissue pad (palate). Permanent first
Morand-Fehr et al. (1992) noted that incisors are easily distinguishable from the
the risk of pregnancy toxaemia to dairy deciduous first incisors due to their rela-
goats was related more to a decline in tively large size. The number of incisor and
body-condition score rather than to body- molar teeth that have erupted (broken
condition score per se. through the gum surface) in the lower jaw of
a goat is used to describe the age of a goat.
Reproductive performance Within a mob of goats of similar age, there
will be a range in age for when individuals
Body-condition scores of <2.5 have been show the eruption of permanent incisors
implicated with increased abortions and (Table 8.11).
reduced kidding rates in Mexican native
goats grazed under extensive conditions
(Mellado et al., 2004). Compared with all
other does, the thinnest goats (body-
condition score <1.5) were nine times more Table 8.11. Estimation of age by dentition.
likely to abort. Body-condition score was
not identified as a risk factor with regard to Dentition (number of teeth Age
pregnancy in these goats. erupted) (months)

No permanent incisors 0-15


First pair of permanent 3-5
8.5 Estimating the Age of Goats mandibular molars
Using Dentition First pair of permanent 13-21
incisors
The dentition of goats has commercial Second pair of permanent 18-24
importance, particularly the age at eruption incisors
of the first pair of permanent incisors, as Third pair of permanent 22-32
incisors
this affects the commercial value for meat
Fourth pair of permanent 27 or more
production and the sale of animals for incisors (full mouth)
breeding purposes. For meat production,
Production and Marketing of Meat Goats 223

There are few scientific reports of though there could be a range in ages within
eruption patterns of permanent incisors in such descriptions.
goats (Wilson and Durkin, 1984; Matika
et al., 1992; Kwantes, 1994; McGregor and
Butler, 2011), but text books (Gall, 1981;
Pugh, 2002; Radostits et al., 2007; Smith 8.6 Ultrasound Scanning of Live
and Sherman, 2009) provide tables of Goats
eruption ages for goats. Photographs and
X-rays of the lower jaw of different-aged Real-time ultrasound scanning (ultrasono-
goats are available to show the develop- graphy) is a non-invasive technique used in
ment of incisors and molars (Hoist and animal production to detect pregnancy sta-
Denny, 1980). tus and live animal body and carcass attri-
McGregor and Butler (2011) have butes. Ultrasound scanning can be used as a
shown that the time to reach similar devel- method of indirect measurement of the eye
opment stages for first permanent incisor muscle depth (Longissimus dorsi measured
eruption was about 3 months longer for the at the C site, 45 mm from the midline at the
lightest yearling goats compared with the 12/13th rib), subcutaneous back fat depth
heaviest yearling goats. Furthermore, where and sternum fat deposits in goats using the
the eruption of permanent first incisors is same techniques that are used with sheep
used to estimate the age of goats, allowance and pigs (Wood and Fisher, 1990; Stanford
needs to be made in estimates of the age of et al., 1995; Hopkins et al., 2007; Teixeira
lighter goats compared with heavier goats et al., 2008). There has been much more
within the same cohort, as each 1 kg intensive evaluation of the use of ultrasound
decrease in live weight was associated with scanning of the carcass attributes of sheep
an increase in about 6 days in the time to than of goats. However, the relevance and
reach each stage of permanent first incisor specific transfer of research findings with
development, such as the loss of first decid- sheep to goat carcasses needs to be cau-
uous incisors or the eruption of permanent tioned by the knowledge that fat distribution
first incisors. Thus, it should not be assumed within goats differs significantly from that of
that all lighter goats within a cohort are sheep (Gall, 1981; McGregor, 1985) and
younger just because their permanent first goats have been subject to far less genetic
incisors have not reached the same stage of selection for carcass traits than sheep.
development observed in heavier goats. Unfortunately, the costs of both equip-
Within this research flock, the differences ment and hire of consultants to conduct
in live weight of goats explained 3 months ultrasound scanning are likely to result in
in the variation in eruption of permanent these techniques being applicable only in
first incisors, which is about half of the larger commercial breeding flocks, during
reported variation in age at eruption shown genetic selection programmes for carcass
in Table 8.11. attributes and where carcass attributes are
A practical application in goat meat important in the classification of carcasses
marketing of the use of dentition is to at meat works.
describe goats as kids when they have no Eye muscle area has been shown to be
evidence of eruption of permanent incisors positively related to hot carcass yield in
(Aus-Meat, 2001), even though these goats Jamunapari goats (Amin et al., 2000).
may be up to 15 months of age. For very Teixeira et al. (2008) reported that the best
young kids, the eruption of the first man- correlation for muscle depth in Spanish
dibular molar could be used for ageing Celtiberica adult goats was found for ultra-
(Hoist and Denny, 1980). It is very common sound measurements taken between the
for goats to be described in livestock sales as third and fourth lumbar vertebrae. These
two-tooth, four-tooth or full mouth for estimates accounted for 70% of the varia-
example, meaning that they are, respec- tion in muscle depth. The lumbar vertebrae
tively, 1 year old, 2 years old or adult, even sites are the same as those used for
224 B.A. McGregor

body-condition scoring. The practical ques- body-condition score and sire (McGregor,
tion is, therefore, to what extent does expen- 2010b). For total muscle prediction,
sive ultrasound measurement provide better Teixeira et al. (2008) reported that using
estimates of carcass yield, carcass composi- ultrasound measurement at the lumbar site
tion and muscle attributes of goats than the only increased the precision of muscle pre-
easily applied technique of on-farm body- diction by 8% (to a total of 90% of variance
condition scoring? The on-farm measure- accounted for) compared with using body
ments of live weight and body-condition weight alone. Thus, the available evidence
score used together accounted for 58% of suggests that, with goats, the use of body
the total variation in eye muscle depth of weight and body-condition scoring are
Angora goats or 87% of that accounted for adequate and cost-effective methods for
by the best model, which required carcass goat meat producers to use to estimate
weight (McGregor, 2010b). It appears that meat yield and carcass attributes, and that
ultrasound measurement of muscle depth the additional expense of using ultrasound
does not account for all the variation in this measurements currently provides little
attribute and that goat meat producers can extra benefit.
achieve very similar results using other
methods.
In centralized breeding schemes in 8.7 Preparing Goats for Meat
Australia where ultrasound scanning has Marketing
been used on farm to measure eye muscle
depth in meat sheep (Hopkins et al., 2007; Commercial marketing of goats for meat
Lamb Plan, 2008), improvements have been involves identifying the market, correct
obtained in growth and carcass weight, and husbandry and nutritional management,
a significant medium-term return on invest- proper assessment of goats suitable for mar-
ment has been obtained (Hoist, 1999). keting and the correct preparation of goats
While a centralized breeding scheme for prior to dispatch to the market. This section
goats has been available in Australia for summarizes the correct preparation of meat
some years (Kid Plan, 2008), few breeders goats prior to dispatch to the identified mar-
have invested in applying ultrasound mea- ket (McGregor, 2007b).
surements to evaluate their bucks. How- Commercial market requirements can
ever, it has been shown that there are vary with seasons and between years so it is
significant differences between the progeny important that farmers intending to sell
of Angora bucks in eye muscle depth and goats for meat contact potential buyers,
subcutaneous back fat at 14 months of age agents or marketing networks in advance to
with a range of 1.3 and 2 8 mm, respec- ensure that they clearly understand the cur-
tively, between sire groups of progeny rent market requirements.
(Ferguson and McGregor, 2005). For Boer When goats are being prepared for
bucks, the range from the 1st percentile to market, the farmer must time his/her work
the 100th percentile of measurements indi- carefully to ensure that the buyer will
cates differences of 3 mm in eye muscle accept delivery of the goats on time and
depth and 2 2 mm in subcutaneous back fat according to specification. During the
depth (Kid Plan, 2008). months prior to delivery, husbandry opera-
However, the evidence that it is cost- tions must be carefully planned to enable
effective to use ultrasound measurements goats to arrive at the correct specifications
must be questioned given the findings of and appearance.
two recent reports. Using ultrasound mea- Ideally, goats delivered for slaughter
surements of subcutaneous lumbar fat will:
depth and eye muscle depth to predict
commercial carcass yield of Angora goats Meet the specification;
added only an extra 2.4% to the 89.1% of Be outside any chemical withholding
variance accounted for by live weight, period;
Production and Marketing of Meat Goats 225

Be healthy; control internal parasites and chemicals to


Be clean and dry; control lice. Each chemical treatment has an
Have short fleeces; associated specified withholding period
Have no bruises; (Anon., 2009). Withholding periods are
Have clear identification; designed to ensure a reasonable time period
Be delivered in the agreed sized load; between chemical treatment and slaughter,
Be ready on time; and so that any chemical residues that may exist
Be accompanied by the appropriate in the food are below the relevant maximum
paper work. residue limit Maximum residue limits apply
to all food products sold in many countries
Each of these points is discussed further and are legally binding. The withholding
below. period is printed on chemical and drug labels.
Farmers selling goats destined for
export need to be aware of any export
8.7.1 Meeting the specification slaughter interval (ESI) that may apply. For
example, in Australia, the ESI reflects the
It is critical only to sell goats that closely differences between Australian and over-
match the specifications of the buyer. Usu- seas maximum residue limits (Anon., 2009).
ally, buyers will specify the age, live weight The ESI may be longer than a chemical
or carcass weight and condition score of the withholding period in order to satisfy lower
goats they wish to buy. The assessment pro- overseas maximum residue limits.
cedures required for the marketing of goats It is the responsibility of farmers to
have been discussed earlier in this chapter. ensure that withholding periods and ESIs
All goats that are being considered for are honoured. Products without goats on
sale should be inspected. Any goat that does the label should not be used on goats for
not match the specifications should be export meat production unless there is a
rejected to avoid penalties for failing to permit for use issued by the National Regis-
meet the specifications. The main penalty tration Authority.
will be not being paid for goats that are out-
side the specification. If the inspection of
goats occurs well before marketing, a farmer
can decide whether the goats that are cur- 8.7.3 Animal health
rently unsuitable will benefit from addi-
tional feeding before sale. Live weight Only healthy goats should be sent to market.
should be measured directly. The body con- It may be a breach of any Code of Welfare
dition should be monitored. Goats that do and Code of Transport that may apply to
not have the correct body-condition score goats to send sick or injured animals to mar-
should not be sold. The age of sale goats ket. Animals with broken limbs, broken
should be determined from farm records or horns or other physical injuries should be
from dentition (teeth development). removed from any mob of goats being sold
and carefully treated. Such codes of practice
apply for example in Australia (Anon.,
2001, 2002).
8.7.2 Chemical withholding periods Kids that are sold for meat should be
weaned from their mothers just prior to
In most developed markets, farmers must transport. This means that farmers must be
maintain and carefully check farm records to well organized so as not to delay the trans-
ensure that goats being sold will be outside port carrier. Kids do not have a large gut that
the withholding periods for any chemical can stay full of food. Prolonged periods of
treatment that they may have received. It is food deprivation will result in dark and dry
common for goats to be treated with veteri- carcasses that will be unsuitable for the
nary drugs such as vaccines, drenches to high-value kid-meat markets.
226 B.A. McGregor

8.7.4 Clean and dry animals A 3-week period will allow any cuts and
bruising to heal. A short fleece will enable
Goats contaminated with mud, weed seeds, goats to be transported more efficiently.
dags or scours should be cleaned up. Wet Angora goats should be sold no later than
and dry dags must be removed from the 10 weeks after shearing.
breech, tail and legs. A short fleece will also reduce any con-
Where practical, goats should be loaded tamination and make slaughter more effi-
cient. Goats destined for the `skin-on'
when they are dry. If it is raining and the
yards are muddy, keep the stock under carcass trade must have short fleeces, as it
cover and if possible arrange to load the is difficult to remove long fleece during
stock out of a shed. processing.
Goats should have access to water up
until the time of shedding or yarding. Feed
and water should be withheld for 12 h prior
to transport of adult goats. This will result 8.7.6 Absence of bruises
in cleaner and safer transport and make
unloading easier. Bruising and dog bites result in downgrad-
There is no advantage in having goats ing, severe trimming or condemning of goat
ready earlier than needed, as prolonged carcasses in the meat works. Bruising costs
deprivation of feed and water results in a farmers and marketing agents hundreds of
loss of body and carcass tissue weight. thousands of dollars each year. Any bruis-
Load goats only into a clean transport ing caused by physical blows or pulling of
vehicle. Do not put straw or hay on to the the fleece will show on the carcass, possibly
floor of the vehicle. Such material will blow leading to trimming and downgrading.
about and become lodged in the fleece of To minimize bruising, goats should be
the goats. handled quietly and carefully. Do not use
If goats ready for sale have to be held electric prodders. Ensure that there are no
for some time, place them in large holding projections in handling facilities such as
yards or paddocks with ample feed, shade yards and races. Keep handling to a mini-
and water. Avoid using overhead hay racks mum. Do not frighten the goats with dogs,
as goats can become covered with seeds and loud noises or noisy machines. If dogs are
litter. used, they should be muzzled. Do not pull
Animals suffering from scouring fleeces or the skin. Rough handling causes
should be removed from any consignment. bruising.
Scouring animals foul themselves and When transporting, keep the pens
other animals in the consignment and lead small and not overcrowded. Goats tend to
to higher rates of carcass contamination pack down and small pens avoid large pile-
that will reduce the shelf life of goat meat ups and suffocation of goats at the bottom.
products. Put goats into groups of similar sex and
Animals given a chemical treatment to size. The transport vehicle should drive
stop scouring or reduce internal parasitism and stop carefully. The vehicle should stop
cannot be sold until the withholding period occasionally and the driver should check to
has expired. ensure that the goats are comfortable. In
Australia, transport drivers should be
familiar with the Code of Practice for Wel-
fare of Farm Animals during Transport. In
8.7.5 Short fleeces Australia, livestock transport drivers are
expected to have a quality assurance sys-
Goats are best sold with short fleeces, ide- tem in place such as Truck Care (2009).
ally less than 3 cm long. Fleece-bearing Truck Care has been developed for livestock
Angora and cashmere goats should be shorn transporters by the Australian Livestock
preferably 3 weeks prior to slaughter. Transporters Association. The programme
Production and Marketing of Meat Goats 227

is aimed at raising awareness and introduc- 8.7.9 Timeliness


ing a quality management system that can
be audited by customers or by an externally Goats should be ready for loading when the
qualified auditor and integrated with cus- livestock transport arrives. Transport driv-
tomers' or road transport quality assurance ers do not appreciate long delays while they
programmes. The Australian Livestock wait for farmers to move animals. Usually,
Transporters Association developed Truck- transport drivers have complex timetables
Care in response to the need to improve to meet, in both collecting and delivering
animal welfare, the occupational health animals to a range of locations. Be consider-
and safety of its members and to reduce ate of the driver and the next farmers by
biosecurity risks in the livestock indus- having all animals nearby at the agreed
tries. time.

8.7.7 Clear identification 8.7.10 Paper work

Clear identification of each goat being sold Livestock transporters do not want to wait
supports the farmer being paid for his/her while farmers search for or fill in any neces-
product. Discuss the identification of goats sary forms. Prepare all forms the night
with the agent before goats are dispatched before a consignment is to be loaded. Be
for market. Identification can be with ear organized and keep a supply of the correct
tags, ear notches, leg tags, raddle or a forms. If no one will be present when the
coloured mark on the head or horns of the transport arrives, arrange for a safe and dry
goats. Do not mark the body or fleece with place for the paper work to await collection
coloured marks as this will downgrade the by the driver.
value of the skin.
In some countries, microchip ear tags
are being used, which ensures national
recognition for identified livestock. One 8.7.11 Timetable for selling
benefit of microchip-identified livestock is
that they cannot be lost in the system. Table 8.12 gives the outline of routine activ-
If a farmer is disposing of several grades ities to be completed before the dispatch of
of goats at the same time, make sure differ- goats for slaughter. This table can be used as
ent grades are marked with different identi- a checklist by ticking each activity when
fiers such as different colours. It is also completed.
essential that the agent knows what all the
identifiers mean.
8.7 Conclusions

8.7.8 Agreed load size The marketing of goats that meet the speci-
fications of the meat buyers is essential for
It is very important for farmers to deliver goat meat farmers. Goat meat farmers are
the number and type of goats that were strongly advised to improve their skills in
agreed to be sold. Agents organize their pur- live-weight assessment and body-condition
chases to match deliveries along the meat scoring. For meat production from goats:
supply chain. Carcasses cannot be stored for Live weight is the best single indicator
extended lengths of time and will deterio- of the carcass weight and boneless meat
rate. Delivering too many or too few goats or yield.
not delivering on time causes disruption to Farmers aiming to market goats should
orderly marketing arrangements. weigh and inspect their goats regularly.
228 B.A. McGregor

Table 8.12. A suggested list of routine activities to be completed before the sale of goats for meat. The
table can be used as checklist by ticking each activity when completed.

Time before sale Activity

6 months Research suitable markets


Contact agents to determine market specifications
5 months Implement correct nutrition and husbandry practices
Record chemical usage
6 weeks Ensure compliance with any withholding periods
Organize shearing or crutching if needed
4-5 weeks Contact agent to reconfirm marketing arrangements
Inspect and evaluate (weigh and condition score) all potential goats
for suitability for market
Adjust nutrition as needed
3 weeks Shearing and crutching must be completed
2-7 days Inspect and evaluate each animal (weight and condition score,
health) for compliance with market specification. Reject animals not
meeting specification
Move to paddocks near yards
0-1 day Draft suitable animals into the agreed size sale lines
Identify different sale lots
Adult goats given 12 h fast
0-1 day Fill in all required paper work and forms
If wet, put goats into clean undercover shedding
Day of transport Wean kids before transport arrives
Driver signs and takes copy of required forms
After marketing Make contact with agent or marketing group to obtain feedback
on sale

Farmers should use body-condition Farmers should ensure that they pre-
scoring to monitor nutritional manage- pare their goats to meet market specifi-
ment and commercial suitability of cations and other marketing, transport
goats prior to slaughter. and regulatory requirements.

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9 Tissue Distribution in the Goat
Carcass

0. Mahgoub', I.T. Kadim' and E.C.Webb2


1Department of Animal & Veterinary Sciences, College of Agricultural & Marine
Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, Sultanate of Oman; 2Department of Animal
and Wildlife Sciences, University of Pretoria, South Africa

9.1 Abstract 9.2 Introduction

This chapter discusses the distribution of The importance of goats as meat-producing


the major tissues (muscle, bone and fat) animals is increasing worldwide. However,
in the goat carcass. Tissue distribution is their meat-production characteristics are
extremely important in determining car- not well studied, unlike the other red meat-
cass quality, value and marketability. Car- producing animals, such as beef cattle and
cass tissue distribution is influenced by sheep. Goats vary in size according to breed/
stage of maturity, sex, breed and nutrition. types, ranging from small tropical breeds to
It changes with age but is principally a large European dairy goats. The specialized
function of body weight or, more pre- meat-producing Boer goat is the largest,
cisely, empty body weight (EBW). Mature reaching up to 100 kg body weight
body weight is affected by breed or type, (Warmington and Kirton, 1990). The goat is
sex and nutrition, so it follows that these a much leaner animal than other meat-pro-
factors indirectly affect carcass tissue dis- ducing animals, especially sheep (Gaili
tribution. The most variable animal body et al., 1972; Owen and Norman, 1977;
tissue is fat. Bone and muscle proportions Kirton, 1982; Gallo et al., 1996; Sen et al.,
are less variable. Tissues are deposited at 2004). The proportions and location of fat,
different rates in various sites of the body muscle and bone in the carcasses of meat
resulting in carcass cuts that contain dif- animals are important because they affect
ferent proportions of lean, bone and fat. carcass quality. The effects of breed, body
Male goats have more lean, especially in weight and sex on carcass composition and
the front quarter, whereas female carcasses tissue distribution are important. For
contain more lean in the hind quarters. instance, smaller goats have a higher pro-
Goats are leaner than sheep with more fat portion of muscle but a lower proportion of
distributed in the body cavity and less bone in the carcass than larger goats
subcutaneous fat. About 50% of the car- (Mahgoub and Lu, 1998). Similar reports in
cass bone is found in the axial skeleton, sheep have indicated that the Dorset Horn, a
with the remaining proportion being smaller meat-type sheep, had higher pro-
divided almost equally between the fore- portions of muscle in the carcass than a
and hindlimbs. larger sheep, the Merino (Butterfield, 1988).
© CAB International 2012. Goat Meat Production and Quality
(eds 0. Mahgoub, I.T. Kadim and E.G. Webb) 231
232 0. Mahgoub et al.

Sex is an important factor in muscle and fat the carcass remains unchanged, unlike the
distribution in the carcass (Mahgoub et al., other components, fat and bone. Being the
2004, 2005). This chapter aims to review most edible tissue, muscle distribution in
information on carcass tissue distribution the carcass is important as it affects the
and the factors affecting it in goats, with value of commercial cuts. There is a lack of
emphasis on economic implications. information on individual muscle distribu-
tion in goats. Some reports on the subject
include those of Mahgoub (1997), Mahgoub
9.3 Carcass Tissue Distribution and Lodge (1996) and Mahgoub et al. (2005)
in Omani goats. Goat meat is usually sold in
The major tissues in the animal carcass are bulk in most parts of the world. However,
muscle, fat and bone. Muscle and to some for the modern supermarket marketing sys-
extent fat are edible. Changes in the propor- tems, carcass cutting needs to be addressed.
tions of one tissue in the carcass influence
those of other components. Carcass tissue
distribution is affected by several factors 9.4.1 Muscle distribution in goat carcass
including stage of maturity, nutrition, body
size, breed and sex. The body composition
of goats changes markedly during growth, Several researchers have studied tissue dis-
with muscle and fat increasing and bone tribution in goat carcasses using dissection
decreasing with progress of maturity. Al lo- of individual carcass cuts as an indicator of
metric growth analysis has indicated that fat
tissue distribution (Cameron et al., 2001).
grows much faster than lean during post- Muscle content varied according to its loca-
natal life (Warmington and Kirton, 1990; tion in the carcass. For instance, the highest
Mahgoub et al., 2005). This results in signi-
muscle content (70%) was in the long leg,
ficant effects on meat production from the whereas the lowest (58.3%) was in the flank
goat. Lean:bone, edible tissue:bone and
of chevon goats (Dhanda et al., 2003). Stud-
fat:lean ratios increase as chronological age ies on muscle distribution in goats also used
and body weight increase. For instance, muscle grouping, similar to that used for
Zimerman et al. (2008) found that the sheep by Butterfield (1988). A summary of
muscle:bone ratio increased from 2.13 to 2.65
the findings of Mahgoub et al. (2005) on
and the muscle:total body fat ratio decreased muscle distribution in Omani Jebel Akhdar
from 6.20 to 3.84 in Argentinean Criollo
goats is given in Tables 9.2-9.4. Muscle
goats between 3 and 5-7 months of age.
group (MG) 1 (proximal hindlimb) com-
The proportions of tissues varied in the prised the highest proportions of the weight
carcass as a result of several factors, espe- of one side of the carcass (25.7-28.7%).
cially carcass weight (Warmington and Together with MG3 (surrounding the spinal
column) and MG5 (proximal forelimb), they
Kirton, 1990; Table 9.1). For instance, lean
varied between 51.5 and 71.5%; fat ranged comprised about 53-56% of the total mus-
between 4.2 and 33.7% and bone ranged cle weight of the carcass side (Table 9.2).
between 12.0 and 28.6% with increasing
These muscle groups are known as expen-
carcass weight. Body weight, the major sive muscle groups (EMGs) because they
determinant of carcass tissue distribution, represent the high-priced carcass cuts
(Butterfield, 1988). Between 35 and 39% of
is influenced by age, breed, sex and level of
nutrition. the total side muscle weight was found in
the forequarter of the carcass, which
includes muscle groups of the proximal
forelimb (MG5), muscles connecting the
9.4 Goat Carcass Muscle thorax to forelimb (MG7), muscles connect-
ing the neck to forelimb (MG8) and intrinsic
Muscle growth is isometric in relation to muscles of the neck and shoulder (MG9).
carcass size and therefore its proportion in Another major group of muscles is the
Table 9.1. Dissectible carcass tissues in goats of various sexes and breeds (from Warmington and Kirton,1990).

Carcass
Breed Sexa weight (kg) Lean (%) Fat (%) Bone (%) Lean:bone ratio Reference

West African Dwarf W 8 64.1 10.1 20.3 3.16 Amegee (1996); Vidyadaran et al. (1984)
F 8 71.5 4.2 20.9 3.42
Chernequiera M 9 60.0 9.3 28.5 2.11 Fonesca (1987)
Raiana Serpentima M 10 59.1 9.1 28.1 2.10 Fonesca (1987)
Australian feral M 5 63.3 5.8 28.6 2.21 Ash and Norton (1987)
F 5 64.0 10.0 22.7 2.82
M 11 64.1 13.2 19.3 3.32
F 11 59.5 22.6 15.8 3.70
Alpine M 8 67.3 5.1 24.4 2.76 Fehr et al. (1976)
10 67.8 6.3 22.8 2.97
11 67.2 6.9 22.9 2.93
13 68.6 7.1 21.9 3.13
Boer M 4 70.0 9.2 20.8 3.37 Casey and Naude (cited in Casey, 1987)
12 68.1 17.8 13.8 4.93
17 64.5 21.8 12.6 5.12
22 63.3 24.1 12.0 5.28
Saanen M 5 60.9 9.9 25.6 2.38 F Colomer-Rocher and A.H. Kirton (personal
communication, 1988)
20 60.1 14.0 21.5 2.80
50 59.7 17.6 19.2 3.11
F 10 61.8 10.6 24.7 2.50
20 55.1 22.0 17.4 3.17
30 514 33.7 14.1 3.65

aM, Male; F, female; W, wether.


ND

Table 9.2. Least square means (± sEM) of weights of muscle groups (MGs) of the left side of the carcass (as % of total side muscle weight) in buck, wether and
doe Omani Jebel Akhdar goats slaughtered at 11, 18 or 28 kg body weight (from Mahgoub et al., 2005).

Buck Wether Doe Effecta

Muscle group 11 kg 18 kg 28 kg 11 kg 18 kg 28 kg 11 kg 18 kg 28 kg SEM Sex SLWT Sex x SLWT

Proximal hindlimb (MG1) 26.60 26.39 26.76 25.68 27.62 28.14 28.14 27.67 28.72 0.59
Distal hindlimb (MG2) 5.98 5.58 5.16 6.01 5.63 5.69 5.96 5.40 5.03 0.12
Surrounding spinal column 14.69 15.30 14.39 13.64 14.30 14.68 14.49 14.47 15.48 0.32
(MG3)
Abdominal wall (MG4) 10.65 11.13 12.12 11.16 10.95 10.78 11.06 12.22 11.54 0.42
Proximal forelimb (MG5) 13.51 12.76 12.28 13.84 13.09 12.36 13.17 12.14 11.84 0.25
Distal forelimb (MG6) 4.18 3.50 3.26 3.96 3.82 3.45 3.66 3.44 3.08 0.09
Connecting thorax to forelimb 8.16 8.80 9.09 8.39 8.70 9.14 7.94 8.85 9.07 0.23
(MG7)
Connecting neck to forelimb 4.58 4.82 5.23 4.83 4.51 4.96 4.44 4.45 4.77 0.17
(MG8)
Intrinsic neck and thorax (MG9) 10.70 11.13 11.26 12.17 11.05 10.37 10.18 10.55 9.59 0.34
Expensive muscle groupb 54.80 54.45 53.43 53.16 55.02 55.26 55.70 54.38 56.04 0.75
Forequarterc 36.46 36.97 37.23 38.68 36.86 36.30 35.24 35.44 34.73 0.55

SEM, Standard error of the mean.


aEffects of sex and slaughter weight (SLWT) are different: ", P < 0.05; ", P < 0.01; P < 0.001.
'Expensive muscle group = MG1, MG3 and MG5.
'Forequarter = MG5, MG7, MG8 and MG9.
Table 9.3. Least square means (± sEM) of weights of some individual muscles of the left half of the carcass (as % of side total muscle) in Omani Jebel Akhdar
bucks, wethers and does slaughtered at 11, 18 or 28 kg body weight (Mahgoub et al., 2005).

Buck Wether Doe Effectsa

Muscle group 11 kg 18 kg 28 kg 11 kg 18 kg 28 kg 11 kg 18 kg 28 kg SEM Sex SLWT Sex x SLWT

Muscle group 1
M. biceps femoris 4.58 7.76 5.15 4.18 4.96 5.37 4.70 5.19 5.55 0.18
M. gluteus medius 2.49 2.55 2.69 2.29 2.57 2.89 2.52 2.80 3.09 0.12
M. semitendinosus 1.49 1.74 1.59 1.54 1.70 1.74 1.66 1.68 1.70 0.07
M. semimembranosus 4.13 3.90 4.08 3.75 4.06 4.12 4.17 4.21 4.59 0.15
Muscle group 2
M. gastrocnemius et. Soleus 3.13 3.10 2.73 3.06 3.01 3.00 3.11 2.82 2.76 0.07
Mm. extensors 1.18 1.09 1.07 1.17 1.23 1.16 1.18 1.09 1.02 0.07
Mm. flexors 1.67 1.40 1.36 1.78 1.39 1.53 1.66 1.49 1.25 0.09
Muscle group 3
M. psoas major 1.54 1.50 1.52 1.31 1.49 1.68 1.57 1.62 1.63 0.07
M. longissimus thoracis et. lumborum 7.76 8.39 8.05 6.80 7.74 8.45 7.80 8.13 9.42 0.33
M. spinalis et spinalis 1.56 1.54 1.37 1.63 1.45 1.30 1.33 1.21 1.24 0.09
Muscle group 4
M. obliquus externus abdominis 1.85 2.19 2.42 2.21 1.99 2.02 1.95 2.22 2.37 0.11
M. rectus abdominis 2.52 2.55 2.70 2.86 2.72 2.83 2.65 2.24 2.86 0.12
Muscle group 5
M. infraspinatus 2.33 2.41 2.24 2.51 2.48 2.29 2.33 2.04 2.05 0.08
M. triceps brachii (caput longum) 2.69 2.47 2.49 2.75 2.52 2.49 2.70 2.48 2.47 0.08
M. supraspinatus 2.79 2.51 2.41 2.71 2.67 2.39 2.69 2.52 2.52 0.08
Muscle group 6
Mm. extensors 1.06 0.93 0.93 1.15 1.07 0.93 1.04 1.08 0.83 0.04
Mm. flexors 1.81 1.51 1.34 1.71 1.65 1.49 1.51 1.38 1.29 0.06
Continued
ND

01
Table 9.3. Continued.

Muscle group 7
M. serratus ventralis thoracis 2.84 3.05 3.05 3.12 2.93 3.03 2.95 3.06 3.04 0.07
M. pectoralis superficialis 2.31 2.58 2.71 2.32 2.55 2.80 2.24 2.68 2.80 0.09
Muscle group 8
M. rhomboidious 0.80 0.76 0.77 0.79 0.74 0.67 0.67 0.66 0.68 0.04
M. serratus ventralis cervicis 1.57 1.61 1.41 1.58 1.49 1.43 1.49 1.39 1.43 0.05
M. brachiocephalicus 1.07 1.25 1.59 1.30 1.09 1.57 1.13 1.21 1.42 0.10
Muscle group 9
M. intercostalis (externi et interni) 3.12 2.94 3.21 3.37 3.32 3.12 2.99 3.32 3.02 0.16
M. splenius 0.31 0.40 0.59 0.34 0.33 0.35 0.27 0.29 0.31 0.02
M. longissimus capitis et atlantis 0.54 0.66 0.70 0.63 0.58 0.53 0.44 0.44 0.41 0.04
M. complexus 1.37 1.33 1.35 1.55 1.29 1.03 1.17 1.13 1.18 0.06

SEM, Standard error of the mean.


aEffects of sex and slaughter weight (SLWT) are different: ", P < 0.05; ", P < 0.01 ; "', P< 0.001.
Carcass Tissue Distribution 237

Table 9.4. Growth coefficients (± sEM) of muscle groups relative to empty body weight in Omani Jebel
Akhdar bucks, wethers and does slaughtered over a body weight range of 11-28 kg (from Mahgoub
et al., 2005).

Muscle group Pooled data Buck Wether Doe

Proximal hindlimb (MG1) 1.05a,b ± 0.02 1.01b ± 0.02 1.09a* ± 0.03 1.02b ± 0.02
Distal hindlimb (MG2) 0.89b- ± 0.02 0.86b*** ± 0.03 0.96a ± 0.03 0.84b*** ± 0.02
Surrounding spinal column 1.06a*a ± 0.02 0.97b ± 0.02 1.09a* ± 0.03 1.08a** ± 0.02
(MG3)
Abdominal wall (MG4) 1.03a,b ± 0.03 1.11a* ± 0.04 0.95b ± 0.05 1.05a,b ± 0.05
Proximal forelimb (MG5) 0.90*** ± 0.01 0.92** ± 0.02 0.90** ± 0.02 0.89*** ± 0.03
Distal forelimb (MG6) 0.84a,b- ± 0.02 0.78b*** ± 0.04 0.88a*** ± 0.02 0.85a,b- ± 0.03
Connecting thorax to 1.09* ± 0.02 1.11* ± 0.04 1.06 ± 0.03 1.13- ± 0.03
forelimb (MG7)
Connecting neck to 1.05a,b ± 0.03 1.11a ± 0.05 1.02b ± 0.03 1.06a,b ± 0.05
forelimb (MG8)
Intrinsic neck and thorax 0.92b,c* ± 0.03 1.03a ± 0.03 0.85c*** ± 0.03 0.94b ± 0.05
(MG9)
Expensive muscle groups 1.01a,b ± 0.01 0.98b ± 0.01 1.04a ± 0.02 1.00a,b ± 0.01
Forequarterb 0.97b ± 0.01 1.02a ± 0.02 0.93c* ± 0.02 0.98a,b ± 0.02

SEM, Standard error of the mean.


Coefficients on the same line denoted by the same or no letter (a, b, c) do not differ (P> 0.05).
Growth coefficient values that differ significantly from 1.0 are indicated: ", P < 0.05; ", P < 0.01; "', P < 0.001.
'Expensive muscle group = MG1, MG3 and MG5.
bForequarter = MG5, MG7, MG8 and MG9.

muscles surrounding the spinal column 28 kg body weight indicates some differ-
(MG3), which comprise about 14-16% of ences in proportions of some muscle groups,
one side of the carcass and include the as well as some individual muscles, between
largest muscle of the body, the m. longissi- the two species. Proportions of MG3 were
mus thoracis et lumborum. This muscle lower whereas those of MG4 and MG5 were
contributes the highest proportion of any higher in goats than in sheep. Likewise, the
individual muscle in the side (7-9%) fol- proportions of individual muscles within
lowed by the m. biceps femoris (4-6%) and these groups followed this trend. Propor-
m. semimembranosus (4%), both in MG1. tion of individual muscles of the neck was
More than half (48/88) of the individual higher in Omani goats than sheep (m. sple-
muscles dissected from the carcass side nius, m. longissimus capitis et atlantis).
contribute <1.0% each of the muscles in one However, these differences were small in
side of the carcass. absolute terms. Therefore, differences in
Warmington and Kirton (1990) stated carcass conformation between sheep and
that, although goats contain a higher pro- goats are more likely to be caused by differ-
portion of total muscle, the distribution in ences in levels of fatness, especially in sub-
high-priced muscle groups is less favour- cutaneous fat, which is reported to be less
able than in sheep. However, the high pro- well developed in goats than in sheep
portion of high-priced cuts in the carcass (Naude and Hofmeyr, 1981).
(-53-56%) in the Jebel Akhdar goats indi- Muscle distribution is affected by the dif-
cates a good potential for meat production ferential rate of growth in individual muscles
from goats compared with sheep. This was and muscle groups on the carcass (Table 9.4).
higher than the 51% for this group of mus- Muscle groups situated in the hindquarters
cles in sheep (Butterfield, 1988). and those in distal limbs grew at a slower rate
Comparison of Jebel Akhdar goats with and decreased as a proportion of total muscle
Omani sheep (Mahgoub and Lodge, 1994) at weight, indicating that they are early maturing
238 0. Mahgoub et al.

(Butterfield, 1988; Mahgoub and Lodge, 1994; various cuts of different breeds of goats,
Mahgoub et al., 2005). although in some cases differences were
small. For instance, Cameron et al. (2001)
Effect of body weight on muscle distribution reported that the percentage of lean was
lowest in the shoulder of Boer x Angora
There are significant effects of slaughter goats, whereas that of bone was greatest in
weight on the proportions of muscle groups the leg of Spanish goats, while the rack con-
in the carcass. Muscles of MG2, MG5 and tained the lowest fat. Tshabalala et al.
MG6 generally decreased with increasing (2003) reported that the improved Boer goat
slaughter weight, whereas those of MG7 and had higher lean in the neck, forelimb and
MG8 increased (Table 9.2). Individual mus- ventral trunk and slightly higher amounts
cles of these groups followed a similar trend in the hind leg but lower lean in the dorsal
of growth pattern to that of the muscle trunk than unimproved indigenous goats.
group itself (Table 9.3). Mahgoub and Lu (1998) compared carcass
Work with Omani goats (Mahgoub and tissue distribution in Omani goats of differ-
Lodge, 1996; Mahgoub, 1997; Mahgoub ent sizes. The small-sized Dhofari goat had
et al., 2005) indicated that the degree of higher proportions of muscles in the proxi-
maturity influences muscle distribution in mal hindlimb, around the spinal column
the carcass, resulting in differences in pro- and in the abdominal wall but lower pro-
portions of individual and groups of mus- portions in the proximal forelimb, distal
cles. Similar results were reported in forelimb, connecting the forelimb to thorax,
temperate (Butterfield, 1988) and tropical in the intrinsic muscles of neck and thorax
(Mahgoub and Lodge, 1994) sheep. Sheep and in the total forequarter than the larger
studies (Hogg et al., 1992) indicated that the Batina goats. These findings indicate that
magnitude of the differences in lean tissue the smaller Dhofari goat may be more suit-
distribution was small in absolute terms. able for meat production than larger breeds
When goats are slaughtered at an early age such as the Batina. The difference in muscle
and lower body weight, the proportions of proportion between the Dhofari and Batina
high-priced cuts are lower in the carcass. breeds was 3-4% at 18 kg body weight. This
For instance, Santos et al. (2007) reported difference may be large enough to produce
that high-priced cuts contributed -44% in commercial implications in favour of the
suckling goats slaughtered at 8-11 kg body smaller breed, slaughtered between 11 and
weight. These figures are lower than the 18 kg body weight, especially if combined
53-56% reported for the same group of with the 2-3% lower proportion of carcass
muscles in Omani goats (Table 9.2). Increas- bone, the higher dressing percentage and
ing the slaughter weight from 11 to 18 kg the faster growth rate relative to body size
decreased the proportions of the muscles in (Mahgoub and Lu, 1998). The differences
the proximal and distal hindlimb, proximal between goats of different body sizes in car-
forelimb, distal forelimb and the EMGs in cass muscle distribution are in agreement
the proximal hindlimb, around the spinal with findings in sheep. Butterfield (1988)
column and in the proximal forelimb reported differences between large Merino
(Mahgoub and Lu, 1998). However, increas- and small Dorset sheep breeds in carcass
ing goat body weight increased the propor- muscle distribution.
tions of the muscles in the abdominal wall,
connecting the thorax to the forelimb, in the Effect of sex on muscle distribution
intrinsic muscles of the neck and in the
thorax and forequarter. Sex influences muscle distribution in goat
carcasses. Males have a higher lean content
Effect of breed type on muscle distribution in their carcasses, associated with more
developed shoulder and neck, than does
Several authors observed a difference in (Mahgoub and Lodge, 1996; Mahgoub, 1997;
distribution of individual carcass tissue in Mahgoub et al., 2005). Males are reported to
Carcass Tissue Distribution 239

have heavier necks and forequarters whereas pooled from animals of all sexes, growth
females have heavier hindquarters than rates of muscle groups relative to total side
males (Colomer-Rocher et al., 1992; El Moula muscle weight were higher for MG1, MG3,
et al., 1999). The male neck cut has more MG4, MG7 and MG8 than those for MG2,
muscle than that of the female (Gallo et al., MG5, MG6, MG9, EMGs and the forequarter
1996). This is similar to reports in sheep (Table 9.4). When data were analysed sepa-
(Butterfield, 1988). An important economic rately, bucks generally had lower values for
implication is that male goats would have growth rates of muscle groups that are situ-
heavier meat cuts at the front of the carcass, ated towards the hindquarters (MG1, MG3
whereas females have heavier cuts towards and EMGs) but higher values for those
the rear of the carcass (Kirton, 1970). Castra- towards the anterior of the body (MG8, MG9
tion, which had been practised in goats for a and forequarter). These results indicated
long time, may have a significant effect on that differences in muscle distribution in
muscle distribution. Hutchison (1964) found goats due to sex are not very large and are
that castration resulted in higher proportions unlikely to have a commercial impact on
of loin and hindquarters in the carcass of meat production from these goats if they
crossbred Boer goats in Tanzania. were slaughtered over a low body weight
Expressed as a percentage of total side range. This suggests that entire male goats,
muscle weight, male goats, especially intact which have always been subject to preju-
ones, had lower proportions of muscle in dice because of the male goat odour, may be
the proximal and distal hindlimbs (MG1 used for meat production equally with other
and MG2) but higher proportions of muscle sexes to utilize their higher potential for
in the groups of the proximal and distal growth, especially if slaughtered at low
forelimbs, intrinsic muscles of the neck and weights before attaining sexual maturity.
shoulder and forequarter than castrates and On the other hand, some reports have indi-
does (Table 9.3). Does also have higher cated that differences in the proportions of
proportions of muscles in the proximal muscle groups due to the effects of sex or
hindlimb and EMGs. The effects of sex on slaughter weight may reach up to 3%
individual muscles follows a similar trend (Mahgoub et al., 2005). The female goats
as for the muscle groups (Table 9.4). Sex had 1.5% higher proportions of EMGs but
differences in the neck and shoulder regions 2% lower proportions of forequarter in the
are caused by more development of some carcass muscle than males. These differ-
intrinsic muscles in bucks than in does. ences are important, especially at higher
These included m. rhomboidious, m. sple- carcass weights.
nius, m. longissimus capitis et atlantis
and m. complexus. These muscles were
reported to be affected by male sex hor-
mones (Butterfield, 1988). Jebel Akhdar 9.5 Goat Carcass Fat
bucks had better development of these mus-
cles at 28 kg body weight, a weight that 9.5.1 Growth and partitioning of fat
probably coincides with the onset of puberty
in male kids, than at 11 kg body weight It is well established that fat is the most
(Mahgoub et al., 2005). Mahgoub and Lu variable tissue in the carcass. The propor-
(1998) also reported that male goats gener- tions and locations of fat in the body are
ally had lower proportions of muscle in the important in meat animals. Differences in
proximal hindlimb and abdominal wall but the contents and properties of subcutaneous
higher proportions in the proximal forelimb, and intramuscular fat between and within
distal forelimb, intrinsic muscles of the neck breeds are important factors, resulting
and thorax and the forequarter than females in differences in meat quality in goats
of small- and large-sized goat breeds. (Tshabalala et al., 2003). Fat is a late-
Sex affects the rate of growth of indi- growing body tissue and therefore propor-
vidual muscles and muscle groups. For data tions in the carcass greatly change with
240 0. Mahgoub et al.

progress of growth. For instance, the pro- The greatest part of the body fat in goats
portion of fat in the West African dwarf goat is deposited in the abdomen (40%), fol-
increased from 3.5% at birth to 15.5% at lowed by subcutaneous fat (30%), intermus-
10 kg but decreased slightly in goats cular fat (23%) and mesenteric fat (6%)
approaching maturity (Wilson, 1960). (Wilson, 1960). Internal fat such as omental
Body fat depots were deposited at a and mesenteric fat develops faster in goats
higher rate in the carcass of the Omani Jebel (McGregor, 1982; Thonney et al., 1987).
Akhdar goats relative to the EBW (Mahgoub Kidney knob and channel and omental fat is
et al., 2005). Consequently, their propor- deposited at a higher rate in relation to total
tions in the body were higher at 28 kg than carcass fat than subcutaneous and inter-
at 11 and 18 kg body weight. This increasing muscular fat (Teixeira et al., 1995). Within
fat deposition rate with age is in line with the goat carcass, the sites in which subcuta-
findings in other Omani goats (Mahgoub neous fat is deposited last are the breast and
and Lodge, 1996; Mahgoub, 1997) and chump, whereas intermuscular fat is depos-
sheep (Mahgoub and Lodge, 1994). ited late in the breast and loin (Teixeira
Fat is deposited at a different rate in et al., 1995).
various parts of the goat body. In general, Tropical goats appeared to have lower
carcass fat such as subcutaneous fat devel- proportions of subcutaneous fat and subse-
ops at a slower rate in goats compared with quently higher proportions of intermuscu-
non-carcass fat. Carcasses of 30% fat may lar fat than those of sheep at the same body
contain only 2-3.5 mm fat cover over the m. weight (Mahgoub and Lodge, 1994, 1996;
longissimus dorsi (Warmington and Kirton, Mahgoub, 1997; Mahgoub et al., 2005).
1990). The ascending order of fat deposi- There are similar reports in temperate
tion in goats was: subcutaneous, intermus- goats (Naude and Hofmeyr, 1981). This
cular, mesenteric, kidney knob and channel low subcutaneous fat in goats indicates a
and omental fat (Teixeira et al., 1995). negative effect on the storage properties of
Within the carcass, intermuscular fat was goat carcasses (Hogg et al., 1992). Kirton
later developing than subcutaneous fat (1970) reported a 5.3 and 6.1% cold stor-
(Teixeira et al., 1995). Therefore, propor- age loss in male and female feral goats,
tions of intermuscular fat will increase with respectively, which was higher than the
increasing body weight. The proportions 4.5% for New Zealand lamb. He related
of intermuscular fat were higher at 25 kg this to the low fat cover and low fat carcass
than at 6 kg slaughter weight (Marichal content.
et al., 2003). Colomer-Rocher et al. (1992), In Omani Jebel Akhdar goats (Table 9.5),
Teixeira et al. (1995), Mahgoub and Lu the weight of total body fat as a proportion
(1998) and Santos et al. (2007) reported that of EBW in goats ranged between the lowest
the intermuscular fat depot in goats was value of 7.6% in bucks at 11 kg body weight
higher than the subcutaneous fat in goats of to the highest value of 23.5% in does at
similar weight and the same sex. Sumar- 28 kg body weight. Total non-carcass fat
mono et al. (2001) reported that intermus- generally had lower proportions in the EBW
cular fat was approximately fourfold higher and total body fat than total carcass fat.
than the level of subcutaneous fat. This is Among body fat depots, intermuscular fat
reflected in carcass distribution, as the loincontributed the highest proportions in EBW
region in feral goats, for instance, was and TBF followed by subcutaneous, omen-
devoid of subcutaneous fat (Kirton, 1970). tal, kidney, mesenteric, scrotal/udder, pel-
Subcutaneous fat proportions were differ- vic and channel fats, respectively. For data
ent in various carcass anatomical sites. pooled from all sexes, total non-carcass fat
Tshabalala et al. (2003) reported values of and total carcass fat were deposited at a rate
0.88, 3.19, 4.39, 3.84 and 1.76% subcutane- higher than EBW and total body fat. Gener-
ous fat in the neck, forelimb, ventral trunk, ally, proportions of carcass and non-carcass
dorsal trunk and hind leg of Boer goats, fats in EBW of all sexes increased with
respectively. increasing body wieght (Table 9.5). For
Table 9.5. Least square means (± sEM) of percentages of carcass and non-carcass fat depots in the empty body weight and total body fat in Omani Jebel
Akhdar buck, wether and doe goats slaughtered at 11, 28 and 28 kg BW (Mahgoub et al., 2005).

Buck Wether Doe Effectsa

Fat depot 11 kg 18 kg 28 kg 11 kg 18 kg 28 kg 11 kg 18 kg 28 kg SEM Sex SLWT Sex x SLWT

In empty body weight (%)


Omental 0.77 1.48 2.68 1.13 2.15 2.39 1.57 2.46 4.47 0.26
Mesenteric 1.31 1.36 1.80 1.28 1.56 2.21 1.43 1.56 2.51 0.12
Scrotal/udder 0.41 0.61 0.79 0.39 0.75 0.78 0.56 0.80 1.01 0.08
Kidney 0.83 1.00 1.50 0.99 1.29 1.56 1.13 1.36 2.83 0.20
Channel 0.06 0.10 0.14 0.07 0.10 0.10 0.11 0.20 0.23 0.03
Pelvic 0.22 0.28 0.30 0.24 0.26 0.30 0.28 0.25 0.36 0.05
Total non-carcass fat 3.61 4.82 7.20 4.10 6.11 7.32 5.82 6.63 11.41 0.56
Subcutaneous 1.32 2.49 3.22 1.81 3.32 4.29 1.48 3.79 5.53 0.41
Intermuscular 2.71 3.54 5.21 4.14 4.70 5.53 3.07 4.61 6.57 0.34
Total carcass fat 4.03 6.03 8.43 5.98 8.01 9.82 4.55 8.40 12.09 0.76
Total body fat 7.64 10.85 15.63 10.62 14.12 17.27 11.11 15.03 23.50 1.18
In total body fat ( %)
Omental 9.97 13.71 16.84 11.95 15.26 13.85 16.82 16.25 19.16 1.23
Mesenteric 19.26 12.90 11.52 12.73 11.14 12.83 14.39 10.38 10.73 1.36
Scrotal/udder 5.26 5.62 5.13 4.63 5.33 4.57 5.05 5.30 4.29 0.35
Kidney 10.81 9.24 9.44 10.73 9.28 8.83 12.66 9.12 11.98 0.78
Channel 0.80 0.92 0.94 0.71 0.69 0.46 1.03 1.34 1.00 0.25
Pelvic 3.10 2.58 1.91 2.69 1.84 1.74 2.61 1.38 1.54 0.25
Total non-carcass fat 48.94 45.00 45.79 43.44 43.55 42.27 52.27 44.07 48.68 1.85
Subcutaneous 15.44 22.42 20.68 15.56 23.09 25.15 17.00 24.57 23.36 1.80
Intermuscular 35.62 32.60 33.53 41.00 33.36 32.58 30.43 31.06 27.95 2.02
Total carcass fat 51.05 55.02 54.21 56.56 56.45 57.73 47.43 55.93 51.32 1.85

SEM, Standard error of the mean.


aEffects of sex and slaughter weight (SLWT) are different: ", P < 0.05; ", P < 0.01; "', P < 0.001.
ND
242 0. Mahgoub et al.

individual fat depots, the highest rate of Castration, which is widely practised
deposition was exhibited by omental, sub- in goats to reduce the goat male odour,
cutaneous and kidney depots followed by affects fat deposition and distribution in the
intermuscular fat, and the lowest by pelvic carcass. Castrated male Boer goats had twice
and mesenteric fat (Table 9.6). the amount of intermuscular and subcuta-
neous fat as entire male goats (Sumarmono
et al., 2001). Castrated males had higher
total fat, carcass fat, internal fat and kidney
9.5.2 Effect of sex fat and less lean than intact males (Ruvuna
et al., 1992).
Generally, female goats have higher fat con- Carcass and non-carcass fat in Jebel
tent in their bodies than males and the pro- Akhdar, Batina and Dhofari Omani goats
portions of fat increase as body weight was deposited at a faster rate in does and to
increases (Mahgoub and Lu, 1998). These a lesser extent in castrates with increasing
findings are consistent with findings in tem- EBW than in the intact males (Mahgoub and
perate goats (Morand-Fehr, 1981; Warming- Lodge, 1996; Mahgoub, 1997; Mahgoub
ton and Kirton, 1990; Colomer-Rocher et al., et al., 2005). Similar findings were reported
1992), sheep (Butterfield, 1988) and cattle in Omani sheep (Mahgoub and Lodge, 1994)
(Berg and Butterfield, 1976). and temperate sheep (Butterfield, 1988).

Table 9.6. Growth coefficients (± sEM) of fat depots relative to empty body weight in buck, wether
and doe Omani Jebel Akhdar goats slaughtered over a body weight range of 11-28 kg (adapted from
Mahgoub et al., 2005).

Fat depot Pooled data Buck Wether Doe

Relative to empty body weight


Omental 2.28 ± 0.15 2.42 ± 0.23 2.07* ± 0.20 2.28 ± 0.19
Mesenteric 1.53* ± 0.08 1.34 ± 0.14 1.56- ± 0.09 1.68* ± 0.14
Scrotal/udder 1.95- ± 0.14 1.81b ± 0.19 2.22a- ± 0.29 1.61a,b- ±0.19
Kidney 1.91* ± 0.14 1.73b ± 0.21 1.76-a ± 0.21 2.21a,b ± 0.23
Channel 1.80 ± 0.23 1.95 ± 0.47 1.39* ± 0.26 1.90 ± 0.34
Pelvic 1.36- ± 0.12 1.35b ± 0.17 1.31a- ± 0.12 1.40a,b- ± 0.34
Total non-carcass fat 1.84 ± 0.10 1.77b ± 0.15 1.79a*** ± 0.13 1.82a,b ± 0.13
Subcutaneous 2.46** ± 0.20 2.24 ± 0.32 2.29** ± 0.28 2.80** ± 0.37
Intermuscular 1.68* ± 0.10 1.78b ± 0.18 1.37a- ± 0.08 1.87a- ± 0.12
Total carcass fat 1.94- ± 0.12 1.91b ± 0.21 1.66a- ± 0.14 2.16a,b- ± 0.16
Total body fat 1.84- ± 0.11 1.84b ± 0.17 1.66a- ± 0.14 1.88a,b- ± 0.10
Relative to total body fat
Omental 1.23- ± 0.04 1.30b- ± 0.05 1.16a ± 0.09 1.08a,b ± 0.06
Mesenteric 0.78*** ± 0.04 0.69 - ± 0.07 0.92 ± 0.10 0.85 ± 0.06
Scrotal/udder 0.94 ± 0.04 0.98b ± 0.05 1.06a ± 0.08 0.86a,b ± 0.09
Kidney 0.99 ± 0.04 0.95 ± 0.06 0.90 ± 0.09 1.01 ± 0.08
Channel 1.01 ± 0.12 1.06b ± 0.22 0.74a ± 0.15 0.98a,b ± 0.22
Pelvic 0.69 - ± 0.07 0.74*** ± 0.06 0.69** ± 0.08 0.77 ± 0.20
Total non-carcass fat 0.98 ± 0.02 0.95b ± 0.04 0.98a ± 0.04 0.97a,b ± 0.04
Subcutaneous 1.28** ± 0.05 1.26 * ±0.09 1.45*** ± 0.09 1.17 ± 0.07
Intermuscular 0.90** ± 0.03 0.96b ± 0.04 0.82a* ± 0.04 0.93a,b ± 0.06
Total carcass fat 0.63*** ± 0.07 1.05 ± 0.03 1.02 ± 0.03 1.03 ± 0.04

SEM, Standard error of the mean.


Coefficients on the same line denoted by the same or no letter (a, b) do not differ significantly (P> 0.05).
Growth coefficient values that differ significantly from 1.0 are indicated: ", P < 0.05; ", P < 0.01; P < 0.001.
Carcass Tissue Distribution 243

This suggests that intact male goats should Batina goats to avoid the need for trim-
be more suited for meat production in spite ming of excess carcass fat. The higher pro-
of the male goat odour, although this is not portion of total body fat in Dhofari goats
well founded (Kirton, 1970; Gaili et al., compared with Batina goats appears to be
1972). attributed more to the higher total and
Does have higher proportions of fat in individual non-carcass fats (omental, kid-
their EBW than bucks and wethers, espe- ney, etc.). This should add to the suitabil-
cially at higher body weight (Table 9.5). ity of the small-sized Dhofari goat for meat
Mahgoub and Lu (1998) reported that production, as the non-carcass fat is read-
females generally had higher proportions of ily separable at the time of slaughter.
carcass and non-carcass fats than males. The proportions of fat vary among
These effects were significant for omental, breeds along the goat carcass. Tshabalala
mesenteric, scrotal or udder, total non- et al. (2003) reported that Boer goats had
carcass, total body, kidney, intermuscular higher subcutaneous fat in the forelimb,
and total carcass fat in Omani goats. ventral trunk and hind leg than indigenous
goats.

9.5.3 Effect of body size and breed on fat


distribution 9.6 Goat Carcass Bone

Body weight affects the proportions of fat in 9.6.1 Bone growth and development
the goat body in absolute terms and relative
to body weight. For instance, proportions of Bone is an important body and carcass com-
omental, total non-carcass, total body, kid- ponent. During the animal's life, it gives
ney, intermuscular, total carcass, scrotal or stature and support for the animal, protects
udder and subcutaneous fat depots were internal organs, provides movement in
higher at 18 kg than at 11 kg body weight in coordination with skeletal muscles and
Omani goats (Mahgoub and Lu, 1998). serves as a reservoir for minerals and trace
Goats vary in size to a large extent. elements. However, not being edible, bone
There are significant differences in carcass is often overlooked, yet its proportion affects
and non-carcass fat distribution in goats of that of muscle and fat. Bone and muscle
various sizes. For instance, as a proportion growth are strongly related (Mahgoub,
of EBW, small goats (Dhofari) had higher 1988), and the muscle:bone ratio is regarded
proportions of omental, kidney, total non- as an important attribute for carcass evalua-
carcass, intermuscular and total body fat tion. Bone is an early-maturing carcass com-
than large (Batina) goats (Mahgoub and Lu, ponent so it grows at a slower rate during
1998). Dhofari goats had higher total body post-natal life, consequently decreasing
fat and total non-carcass fat than Batina with increasing body weight (Mahgoub,
goats. The differences were more pro- 1997; Marichal et al., 2003; Limea et al.,
nounced in females than in males and at 2009).
higher than at lower body weights. This Significant changes occur in the skele-
indicates an earlier maturity for the ton during pre-natal and post-natal life from
smaller goat breeds such as the Dhofari, birth to maturity. These changes are attrib-
which means that they enter the 'fattening uted to the differential rates of growth of
stage' at lower weights than the larger different parts and tissue of the body
goats. This phenomenon has economic (Hammond, 1932; Mahgoub, 1988). This
implications for meat production. Early has led to a general concept of skeletal
maturing breeds such as the Dhofari goats growth and development in meat animals
should be slaughtered at a lower body such as the axial craniocaudal gradient of
weight than larger breeds such as the increasing growth (Hammond, 1932).
244 0. Mahgoub et al.

9.6.2 Proportions of bone in goat carcass and 17.2% in mature small-strain Merino
rams (Butterfield, 1988).
The percentage of bone in the carcass Tshabalala et al. (2003) reported values
decreases whereas that of fat increases with of 19.23, 21.85, 14.1, 26.7 and 20.16%
increasing body weight. Bone proportions bone in the neck, forelimb, ventral trunk,
in the goat carcass range between 12 and dorsal trunk and hind leg of Boer goats,
28% depending on the factors influencing it respectively.
such as breed and sex (Table 9.1). Bone con-
tributed about 13% of EBW of Batina goats Effect of breed and size on bone distribution
(Mahgoub and Lodge, 1996). Oman et al.
(1999) reported a high bone proportion of Breed effects are more manifest when com-
37%, whereas Sen et al. (2004) reported a paring dairy- versus meat-goat breeds or
value as low as 17.6%. There are even lower improved versus non-improved breeds. For
proportions of bone in the carcass reported instance, goats with Boer blood have higher
for West African dwarf goats of 9.6% at a proportions of bone in their carcasses, and
body weight of 20 kg (Attah et al., 2006); Boer goats had lower carcass bone propor-
however, this value appears to be doubtful tions (20.6 versus 24.6%) than indigenous
as the total addition of carcass tissue did not South African goat breeds (Webb et al.,
add up to 100%. 2005). Oman et al. (1999) found a signifi-
Goats generally have higher levels of cant difference in proportion of bone in the
bone in the carcass than sheep (Gaili, 1976). carcass between Boer x Spanish crosses and
These differences in conformation are Spanish goats, with those raised on range
attributed to the ability of goats to browse; having higher proportions of bone in the
hence, their necks and shoulders are more side than those raised in feedlots (36.9 and
developed and adapted to browsing than 36.5 versus 26.5 and 27.6%, respectively).
those of sheep. Although Mahgoub and Cameron et al. (2001) also found that
Lodge (1998) found no difference in the carcass bone, fat and lean weight were
proportions of bone in the carcass, sheep significantly or numerically greater for
had a higher proportion of axial skeleton Boer crossbreeds than for Spanish goats.
but lower proportion of forelimb in carcass The percentage of bone was higher for
bone than goats. Boer x Spanish than for Spanish and
The distribution of bone in the carcass Boer x Angora wethers, ranging between 26
is an important trait, especially when car- and 29% of carcass weight. Pralomakran
casses are sold in the form of wholesale or et al. (1995) found that Thai native goats
retail cuts. It is affected by breed and sex. had lower bone content in their carcasses
Generally, the axial skeleton of the carcass than Anglo-Nubian cross male goats.
side comprises -50% of the total side bone Tshabalala et al. (2003) reported that Boer
weight of which 30% is in the vertebral goats had lower bone content in the neck,
column. The fore- and hindlimb constitute forelimb, ventral trunk and hind leg but
about 22% each of the total side bone higher bone content in the dorsal trunk
(Mahgoub and Lodge, 1996; Mahgoub, than indigenous goats.
1997) (Table 9.7). The largest single bone Lower proportions of carcass bone are
was the femur, which contributed about mainly due to higher proportions of carcass
10% of the half carcass weight. However, fat. In tropical, non-improved breeds, there
goats appear to have higher proportions of was a wide variation in bone proportions in
bone in the limbs and lower proportions in the carcass. Attah et al. (2006) reported a
the axial skeleton than sheep. At 28 kg wide variation between West African dwarf
body weight, bucks had 51, 23 and 22.3% goats and Red Sokoto goats in Nigeria. Red
side carcass in the axial skeleton, forelimb Sokoto goat carcasses contained higher
and hindlimbs, respectively, compared weights and proportions of bone than the
with 55, 21 and 24% in Omani rams West African dwarf goats. However, within
(Mahgoub and Lodge, 1994) and 65.4, 17.4 indigenous breeds, there were no effects
Table 9.7. Least square means (± sEM) of weights of some individual bones of the left half carcass (as % of total half carcass bone weight) in Omani Jebel
Akhdar goats slaughtered at 11, 18 and 28 kg body weight (from Mahgoub et al., 2005).

Buck Wether Doe Effectsa

Bone or bone group 11 kg 18 kg 28 kg 11 kg 18 kg 28 kg 11 kg 18 kg 28 kg SEM Sex SLWT Sex x SLWT

Cervical vertebrae 11.10 11.76 11.81 13.23 11.80 12.95 10.10 10.68 10.08 0.70
Thoracic vertebrae 12.20 11.09 10.27 11.36 11.55 10.10 11.37 10.78 9.60 0.56
Lumbar vertebrae 8.04 8.83 7.47 8.00 7.8 7.58 9.82 9.01 8.80 0.46
Sacral vertebrae 2.87 2.46 2.64 2.36 2.61 2.81 3.62 2.84 3.08 0.29
Total vertebral column 34.13 34.14 32.18 34.94 33.84 33.44 34.91 33.01 31.56 1.07
Ribs 5.98 5.89 6.63 6.31 6.83 6.92 5.59 7.09 6.65 0.37
1st rib 0.86 0.78 0.96 0.72 0.86 0.83 0.71 0.83 0.86 0.04
6th rib 0.83 0.84 0.98 0.82 0.96 1.09 0.80 1.06 1.07 0.04
12th rib 0.28 0.30 0.36 0.31 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.34 0.32 0.02
Total ribs 7.95 7.80 8.93 8.16 8.93 9.13 7.39 9.32 8.91 0.40
Pelvis 6.57 6.77 7.03 6.32 6.59 6.95 6.40 6.35 6.93 0.25
Sternum 2.30 2.97 2.81 2.84 2.54 2.94 2.40 2.39 3.22 0.33
Total axial skeleton 51.05 51.68 50.95 52.26 51.90 52.46 51.09 51.07 50.61 1.00
Scapula 4.74 5.51 5.26 4.47 4.66 4.86 4.68 5.03 5.36 0.22
Humerus 8.88 9.00 9.32 8.96 8.98 8.7 9.08 9.11 9.15 0.22
Radio-ulna 6.98 6.59 6.74 6.85 6.73 6.44 6.76 6.56 6.61 0.18
Carpus 1.68 1.50 1.61 1.53 1.57 1.50 1.56 1.50 1.53 0.10
Total forelimb 22.28 22.60 22.93 21.78 21.94 21.58 22.09 22.20 22.66 0.54
Femur 10.42 10.21 10.36 10.39 10.41 10.28 10.61 10.51 10.07 0.26
Tibia 8.34 8.16 8.29 8.03 8.49 8.46 8.53 8.47 8.48 0.21
Patella 0.60 0.59 0.69 0.61 0.64 0.65 0.65 0.67 0.70 0.04
Tarsus 3.46 3.21 3.00 3.28 3.13 2.91 3.37 3.31 3.59 0.25
Total hindlimb 22.83 22.17 22.34 22.31 22.67 22.30 23.16 22.96 22.84 0.51

SEM, Standard error of the mean.


aEffects of sex and slaughter weight (SLWT) that are significantly different are indicated: ", P < 0.05; ", P < 0.01; "', P < 0.001.

ND
246 0. Mahgoub et al.

(Santos et al., 2007) on young goats (Serrana Most parts of the skeleton generally
and Bravia and crosses). grow at a growth coefficients rate of <1.0,
Mahgoub and Lu (1998) found no major with males (intact and castrated) demon-
differences between small-sized (Dhofari) strating higher growth coefficients than
and large-sized goats (Batina) in individual females (Table 9.8). The proportions of tho-
bone distribution except for the forelimb racic vertebrae decreased, whereas those of
where the Dhofari goat had a higher propor- ribs, pelvis and scapula increased with
tion of bone than the Batina goats. Butter- increasing body weight.
field (1988) stated that large sheep breeds
do not need to have higher proportions of Bone distributions in carcass cuts
bone in the limbs to be able to carry the
extra weight. Bone proportions in carcass cuts vary
The proportions of total ribs, pelvis greatly in published reports on goats. How-
and scapula increased whereas that of the ever, these reports should be evaluated
radio-ulna decreased between 11 and 18 kg carefully, as methods of carcass cutting vary
body weight in Omani goats (Mahgoub and to a great extent. Generally, bone contents
Lu, 1998). Smaller Dhofari goats had higher in individual carcass cuts are similar to that
proportions of the forelimb and radio-ulna of the whole carcass (20-30%). However,
but lower proportions of the humerus and some carcass cuts have higher proportions
femur than large Batina goats. of bone, especially the rack (25-40%). This
is due to the high proportions of the tho-
Effect of sex on bone distribution racic vertebrae and ribs, with the m. longis-
simus dorsi being the major muscle. El
Although bone proportions in the carcass Moula et al. (1999) reported the lowest pro-
are reported to be affected by body weight, portion of bone in the loin (10.6%). Goats
breed and nutrition, reports on the effects are more browsers than grazers, especially
of sex are scarse. Bone growth is affected by in the arid and semi-arid regions of the
sex hormones (Mahgoub, 1988). Therefore, world, which requires an erect and extended
sexual dimorphism is evident in goats, with neck posture with bipedal stance (Bhatta
males being much larger and more muscu- et al., 2001). This may have contributed to
lar than females. differences between goats and other animal
Castration affects bone growth and species such as sheep in bone proportions
dimensions due to the lack of male sex in this region.
hormones. Intact males have higher pro- There are some reports of sex effects on
portions of bone in the carcass compared bone proportions in various cuts. El Moula
with females. El Moula et al. (1999) et al. (1999) reported 10.6 versus 18.6%
reported that male Sudan Desert goats had bone in the loin and 16.1 versus 19.8% in
slightly higher proportions of bone (25.3%) the breast cuts of male and female Sudan
than females (23.2%), but the difference Desert goats, respectively. Generally, male
was not significant. There was also no goat carcasses had heavier bone in cuts such
effect of sex on the proportions of bone in as single short forequarter, best end of neck
Serrana or Bravia goats or their crosses and neck, while females had heavier bone
with bone proportions being 20.7 and in the leg and chump, loin and breast cuts
21.2% for females and males, respectively (El Moula et al., 1999). Males usually have
(Santos et al., 2007). However, some better developed forequarters and neck
reports have indicated that bone propor- due to the effects of male sex hormones
tions are significantly lower in females (Colomer-Rocher et al., 1992). Gallo et al.
than males due to higher fat proportions (1996) reported that males had higher pro-
(Pena et al., 2007). Male goats had lower portions of bone in the shoulder (21.6 ver-
proportions of pelvis bone but higher pro- sus 19.8%) and thorax (18.6 versus 15.3%)
portions of the humerus than females but lower neck bone (22.2 versus 27.4%)
(Mahgoub and Lu, 1998). than female Criollo Chilean goats.
Carcass Tissue Distribution 247

Table 9.8. Growth coefficients (± sEM) of carcass and non-carcass fat depots relative to EBW in buck,
wether and doe Omani Jebel Akhdar goats slaughtered over a body weight range of 11-28 kg (adapted
from Mahgoub et al., 2005).

Skeletal part Pooled data Buck Wether Doe

Cervical vertebrae 0.63 ± 0.11 0.67 ± 0.27 0.77* ± 0.14 0.59 ± 0.10
Thoracic vertebrae 0.53* ± 0.08 0.54 ± 0.14 0.66** ± 0.10 0.45* ± 0.13
Lumbar vertebrae 0.64*** ± 0.07 0.69b ± 0.19 0.77a*** ± 0.06 0.46a,b- ± 0.11
Sacral vertebrae 0.65* ± 0.19 0.33b ± 0.79 1.05a*** ± 0.12 0.40a,b ± 0.14
Total vertebral column 0.60 ± 0.07 0.61 ± 0.18 0.76* ± 0.07 0.49 ± 0.07
Ribs 0.78** ± 0.08 0.78b ± 0.09 0.91a*** ± 0.06 0.72a, b " "" ± 0.18
1st rib 0.85 ± 0.07 0.72b ± 0.08 1.02a*** ± 0.07 0.80a,b ± 0.11
6th rib 1.00** ± 0.05 0.89 ± 0.10 1.13*** ± 0.09 0.97** ± 0.05
12th rib 0.82* ± 0.07 1.11b ±0.19 0.72a*** ± 0.10 0.77a*** ± 0.08
Total ribs 0.82** ± 0.07 0.80b ± 0.07 0.94a*** ± 0.05 0.77a,b- ± 0.14
Pelvis 0.80*** ± 0.07 0.80b ± 0.11 0.97a*** ± 0.07 0.69a,b- ± 0.09
Sternum 0.24 ± 0.53 1.42 ± 1.17 0.69* ± 0.69 0.62 ± 0.94
Total axial skeleton 0.67* ± 0.07 0.69 ± 0.17 0.82** ± 0.05 0.56* ± 0.08
Scapula 0.83* ± 0.07 0.83b ± 0.25 0.90a*** ± 0.09 0.76a,b ± 0.03
Humerus 0.69 ± 0.04 0.77 ± 0.08 0.79* ± 0.05 0.59 ± 0.02
Radio-ulna 0.63** ± 0.28 0.61b ± 0.09 0.75a*** ± 0.05 0.57a,b- ± 0.03
Carpus 0.65 ± 0.08 0.54b ± 0.14 0.81a*** ± 0.11 0.57a,b ± 0.11
Total forelimb 0.70** ± 0.05 0.72 ± 0.12 0.80*** ± 0.05 0.62** ± 0.02
Femur 0.72** ± 0.04 0.70b ± 0.07 0.89a*** ± 0.03 0.60a,b- ± 0.04
Tibia 0.72*** ± 0.04 0.70b ± 0.07 0.89a*** ± 0.03 0.60a,b- ± 0.04
Patella 0.80 ± 0.06 0.83 ± 0.09 0.88* ± 0.10 0.73 ± 0.11
Tarsus 0.63* ± 0.07 0.42 ± 0.22 0.70** ± 0.08 0.67* ± 0.08
Total hindlimb 0.70*** ± 0.04 0.67b ± 0.08 0.83a*** ± 0.04 0.61a,b- ± 0.03
SEM, Standard error of the mean.
Coefficients on the same line denoted by the same or no letter (a, b) do not differ (P> 0.05).
Growth coefficient values that differ significantly from 1.0 are indicated: ", P < 0.05; ", P < 0.01; "', P < 0.001.

9.7 Conclusions increases at a rate higher than the carcass,


whereas muscle grows at a similar rate and
The published literature indicates differ- bone at a lower rate. Differences in bone and
ences in carcass tissue distribution influ- soft tissue distribution in the carcass affect
enced by body weight, breed and sex. Fat is carcass conformation, composition and the
the most variable tissue in the carcass and marketability of meat.

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10 Influences of Diets on Fatty Acid
Composition of Edible Tissues
of Meat Goat

J.H. Lee and G. Kannan


Georgia Small Ruminant Research and Extension Center, Fort Valley State
University, Georgia, USA

10.1 Abstract groups. Additional research is needed to


investigate ways to further increase these
Goat meat (chevon) is attractive to health- nutritionally interesting PUFAs.
conscious consumers because of its lower
fat content compared with other traditional
red meats. The fatty acid compositions of 10.2 Introduction
edible tissues of meat goats are influenced
by intrinsic and extrinsic factors such as Consumption of red meat has been criti-
breed, gender, slaughter weight, age, and cized because of its high content of satu-
quality and quantity of feed. Dietary regime rated fatty acids (SFAs), produced by
is the major factor that can alter the fatty hydrogenation of dietary unsaturated fatty
acid composition of chevon. Goats deposit acids (USFAs) in the rumen (Jenkins,
more internal fat and less intramuscular fat 1994; Simopoulos, 1994; Vanerveen, 1996).
compared with other ruminants. As meat Myristic (C14:0) and palmitic (C16:0) acids
goats are fed with forages, additional are hypercholesteraemic and associated
protein and energy are required to main- with increased incidences of arteriosclero-
tain goat performances. Goats fed pastures sis and coronary heart diseases (Noakes
have higher concentrations of linoleic et al., 1996). Because of the concerns of the
(C18:2w -6), linolenic (C18:3w -3) and con- medical community and health-conscious
jugated linoleic acids (C18:2; CLAs) than consumers, it is necessary to increase unsat-
those fed concentrates. It is suggested that urated fat concentration in meat from
nutritional characteristics of chevon from a ruminants and to develop low-fat meat
human health perspective can be improved commodities, particularly in developed
through pasture feeding. However, this countries. Efforts to increase the concentra-
trend is not found in goats fed different pas- tion of unsaturated fat in ruminant meat
tures unless pastures have different fatty and milk has had limited success as rumi-
acid profiles. Because of the ruminal biohy- nal microorganisms biohydrogenate unsatu-
drogenation, it is hard to increase the con- rated fat during digestion (Gulati et al.,
centrations of polyunsaturated fatty acids 1997; Scollan et al., 2001). Because chevon
(PUFAs) in edible tissues of goats supple- has a lower fat content and higher USFA
mented within the same major fatty acid concentration compared with beef, lamb
© CAB International 2012. Goat Meat Production and Quality
250 (eds 0. Mahgoub, I.T. Kadim and E.G. Webb)
Fatty Acids of Meat Goat 251

and pork, it is an excellent source for the with the Australian feral goats, the fatty
production of low-fat meat products (James acid content of longissimus thoracis muscle
and Berry, 1997; McMillin and Brock, from the Boer goats contained higher
2005). Data on the fatty acid composition of (P < 0.05) USFAs, MUFAs and PUFAs,
chevon lipids have been limited because of which are considered to be desirable fatty
its relatively low commercial importance acids. The effects of sex and body weight on
(Wood et al., 2003; Dubeuf et al., 2004). fatty acid composition of chevon were
Many factors influence red meat qual- investigated by other researchers (Johnson
ity, and these can be classified into genetic et al., 1995; Mahgoub et al., 2002). Mahgoub
or environmental (Priolo et al., 2001). The et al. (2002) fed Omani Jebel Akhdar bucks,
fatty acid composition of muscle and adi- wethers and doe kids with the same pel-
pose tissues can be influenced by breed of leted feed (16% crude protein) plus Rhode
the animal, age, sex, quality and quantity of grass hay from weaning to slaughter and
feed consumed, and body weight (Melton, found that sex had significant effects on the
1990; Banskalieva et al., 2000). Banskalieva fatty acid profiles of muscle tissues. Males
et al. (2000) reviewed the available litera- had higher (P < 0.05) levels of pentadeca-
ture on fatty acid composition of muscle noic (C15:0), linoleic (C18:2w -6) and linole-
and fat depots of goats, mainly on genetic nic (C18:3w -3) acids but lower (P < 0.05)
factors, including species, whereas the levels of C16:0, margaric (C17:0) and stearic
influence of diets on fatty acid profiles of (C18:0) acids than females. Johnson et al.
chevon was not completed. In the present (1995) also reported sex differences in fatty
review, research on the effects of diets such acid composition of chevon. Cooked leg
as pasture and concentrate on fatty acid slices from male carcasses had higher
composition of chevon is emphasized. (P < 0.05) levels of palmitoleic (C16:1a)-7)
acid and greater (P < 0.05) ratios of
PUFAs:SFAs than wethers and female goats.
The SFA (C14:0, C15:0 and C16:0) contents
10.3 Effect of Breed, Sex, Slaughter were higher (P < 0.05) in intact than in
Weight and Age castrated kids (Banskalieva et al., 2000).
Mahgoub et al. (2002) observed a sig-
Banskalieva et al. (2000) reported consider- nificant effect of slaughter weight on fat
able differences among goat breeds in the depots of goats. The concentration of deca-
contents of SFAs, monounsaturated fatty noic (C10:0), lauric (C12:0) and C14:0 acids
acids (MUFAs) and PUFAs, as well as of the kidney fat decreased (P < 0.05) with
individual fatty acids. However, the com- increasing slaughter weight. There was a
parison was focused on dairy goats such as trend of the C16 chain fatty acids decreasing
Alpine and Nubian goats in their review. and the C18 chain fatty acids increasing in
Werdi-Pratiwi et al. (2006) conducted an kidney fat with body weight. The SFAs in
experiment to determine the effects of kidney fat decreased (P < 0.05), whereas
breed, slaughter weight and castration on USFAs increased (P < 0.05) with increasing
fatty acid profiles in longissimus thoracis body weight. Similarly, Dhanda et al. (1999)
muscles from Boer and Australian feral also reported that the concentration of
goats. These two meat-goat breeds were USFAs increased (P < 0.05) with increasing
raised under identical feeding regimes. The age in goats.
authors observed that the fatty acid compo-
sition of the longissimus thoracis muscles
was significantly affected (P < 0.05) by
slaughter weight, but only certain fatty 10.4 Effect of Diet
acids were affected (P < 0.05) by breed and
castration. The proportions of fatty acids Compared with monogastric animals, the
changed with slaughter weight, which is fatty acid composition of tissues from
closely related to changes in age. Compared ruminants is generally less influenced by
252 J.H. Lee and G. Kannan

feeding sources because dietary lipids are 0.19%) compared with goats on a control
hydrolysed to glycerol and fatty acid in the diet (barley plus soybean meal). Further-
rumen (Jenkins, 1994). The dietary PUFAs more, cactus-fed goats showed a higher
are largely hydrogenated to SFAs and trans- (P <0.05) proportion of PUFAs (4.54 versus
fatty acids by the ruminal microbes. In 2.73) and a higher PUFA:SFA ratio than
ruminants, with a lipid intake containing goats in the control group. The results indi-
66% PUFAs from plant sources, only 4.4% cated that cactus, as green forage, produces
PUFAs were found in duodenal lipid high-quality goat meat in terms of nutrition-
contents (Ward et al., 1964). Furthermore, ally important fatty acids.
adding USFAs to lipid supplements for Sericea lespedeza (previously recog-
ruminants may cause digestive disturbances nised as Lespedeza cuneata) has been
because of their antimicrobial effects and recognized as a quality forage because of
inhibition of ruminal fermentation (Jenkins, its high concentration of crude protein
1993). Consequently, hydrogenation of (Puchala et al., 2005). However, the forage
dietary fatty acid and the low fat content quality of Sericea lespedeza is generally
(2-6%) of ruminant diets are the reasons considered to be limited by the relatively
why the fats in ruminant tissues are highly high concentration of condensed tannins.
saturated (Jenkins, 1994). Extensive studies Lee et al. (2008a) fed intact male goats
have been conducted on the supple- (Kiko x Spanish) with either 75% Sericea
mentation of the ruminant diet with a lespedeza or Bermuda grass (Cynodon
variety of fat sources, including saturated dactylon) hay and 25% concentrate
and unsaturated fats, oils and oilseeds, and (Table 10.1). Twenty-two fatty acids were
lipids protected and unprotected from isolated and identified in total lipids of
ruminal biohydrogenation (Grummer, 1991; intramuscular fat of longissimus muscle
Banskalieva et al., 2000; Wood et al., 2003). from goats fed the experimental diets
In addition, different dietary regimes can (Table 10.2), which consisted of 11 SFAs
also modify the muscle lipid composition of (C10:0; C12:0; C14:0; C15:0; C16:0, iso;
ruminants (Banskalieva et al., 2000; Wood C16:0; C17:0; C18:0; C20:0; C21:0 and
et al., 2003). C22:0), seven MUFAs (C14:1a)-5; C16:1
Feed cost makes up 50-70% of the total trans; C16:1a)-7; C17:1; C18:1 trans;
expenditure in livestock production C18:1a)-9 and C20:1a)-9) and four PUFAs
(Wilkinson and Stark, 1987). Meat goats are (C18:2w -6; C18:2 CLA; C18:3w -3 and
fed forages to meet most of their nutrient C20:4w -6) fatty acids. Three major fatty
requirements to increase economic returns acids, C16:0, C18:0 and oleic (C18:1a)-9)
to the producers; however, pasture-based acids, made up 83.6% of the total lipids in
production systems have a limitation the longissimus muscle of the goats
because of the effect of seasonal variation in (Table 10.2). No significant differences
nutrient contents. This often means that were found in the concentrations of total
pasture alone does not always provide ade- SFAs (46.9 or 48.7%), MUFAs (47.3 or
quate nutrition for fast-growing animals 46.8%) and PUFAs (6.0 or 5.0%) in the
(Wilkinson and Stark, 1987). Because of longissimus muscle lipids from goats fed
this, additional protein and energy (lipid) the Sericea lespedeza or Bermuda grass
are offered to maintain acceptable goat per- diet. However, the goats from the Bermuda
formance. grass group had higher (P < 0.05) levels of
According to Atti et al. (2006), in arid C17:0 and trans-7-hexadecenoic (C16:1
and semi-arid regions, spineless cactus trans) acids in longissimus muscle com-
(Opunita ficus indica f. intermis) is readily pared with those from the Sericea lespe-
available and considered as green forage. deza group. No significant differences were
Atti et al. (2006) reported that intra- observed in any of the longissimus muscle
muscular fat from meat goats on a cactus- PUFAs. Similar results were observed by
supplemented diet contained more C18: 2w -6 Priolo et al. (2005), who reported that the
(4.03 versus 2.34%) and CLAs (0.32 versus longissimus muscle fatty acid profile of
Fatty Acids of Meat Goat 253

Table 10.1. Chemical composition of Sericea lespedeza (SL), Bermuda grass


(BG) hay and concentrate (CON)a (from Lee et al., 2008a).

Ingredient

Item SL BG CON

Chemical composition (%)


Dry matter 91.2 88.3 93.6
Crude protein 10.2 9.3 18.0
Ether extract 1.4 1.2 7.1
Ash 3.6 4.4 6.5
Acid detergent fibre 34.4 26.4 4.0
Neutral detergent fibre 45.1 63.3 29.0
Fatty acid ( %)
C8:0 0.22 - -
C12:0 0.30 0.43 0.08
C13:0 0.43 - -
C13:1a)-9 2.41 1.49 0.27
C14:0 0.51 1.54 0.49
C14:1a)-5 6.56 2.77 0.11
C15:0 - 0.58 0.11
C16:0 27.16 27.67 21.32
C16:1a)-7 1.14 1.15 5.09
C17:0 0.41 1.36 0.16
C18:0 5.85 11.60 4.86
C18:1a)-9 6.23 12.82 33.70
C18:2w -6 17.25 13.58 25.08
C18:3w -3 15.91 11.02 3.69
C20:0 1.47 1.84 0.30
C20:1a)-9 0.25 0.26 0.04
C20:5w -3 0.63 0.53 0.09
C22:0 2.01 1.88 0.10
C22:5w -3 1.27 1.47 0.16

lambs fed sulla (condensed tannins) was microorganisms that are responsible for
not different from that of lambs fed the ruminal biohydrogenation (Molan et al.,
same diet, supplemented with polyethyl- 2001). The CLA isomers and all the trans-
ene glycol. Lambs fed sulla only had lower vaccenic acids originated in the rumen
(P < 0.05) concentrations of C16:1a)-7 but during biohydrogenation, while CLA is also
higher (P < 0.05) amounts of C18:3w -3 in synthesized in tissues by the action of A -9
the longissimus muscle lipids compared desaturase on trans-vaccenic acid (Bauman
with lambs fed polyethylene glycol supple- et al., 2000). However, this trend of increas-
ment (Priolo et al., 2005). However, com- ing trans-vaccenic acid and CLA isomers in
pared with lambs fed carob pulp (45% as the longissimus muscle from goats fed the
fed basis), lambs supplemented with poly- lower amount of condensed tannins was
ethylene glycol had higher (P < 0.05) not noticed by Lee et al. (2008a). A possible
concentrations of trans-vaccenic (C18:1 explanation for this is that the diet based on
trans-11) and isomer of cis-9 trans-11 of Sericea lespedeza (highly condensed tan-
linoleic acid (CLA) in the longissimus nins) could have negatively impacted the
muscle lipids (Vasty et al., 2007). These microorganisms responsible for ruminal
results support the suggestion that tan- biohydrogenation. It is also possible that a
nins have a strong negative effect on the reduction in ruminal biohydrogenation
254 J.H. Lee and G. Kannan

Table 10.2. Fatty acid composition (weight % of fatty acid methyl esters) of
longissimus muscle (intramuscular fat) from goats fed either Sericea lespedeza
(SL) or Bermuda grass (BG) hay supplemented with concentrate (adapted from
Lee et al., 2008a).

Diet

Fatty acid (%) SL BG SEM

C10:0 0.10 0.10 0.027


C12:0 0.10 0.18 0.026
C14:0 1.68 1.80 0.143
C14:1a)-5 0.13 0.20 0.024
C15:0 0.43 0.50 0.047
C16:0 iso 0.94 0.82 0.123
C16:0 22.27 22.19 0.628
C16:1 trans 0.72b 0.85a 0.023
C16:1a)-7 1.76 1.68 0.142
C17:0 1.44b 1.64a 0.042
C17:1 1.28 1.31 0.136
C18:0 19.22 20.69 0.945
C18:1 trans 1.27 1.33 0.117
C18:1a)-9 41.64 40.76 0.787
C18:2a)-6 4.38 3.40 0.509
C18:2, CLA 0.18 0.18 0.009
C18:3a)-3 0.26 0.20 0.069
C20:0 0.13 0.10 0.034
C20:1a)-9 0.48 0.34 0.067
C21:0 0.44 0.60 0.161
C22:0 0.12 0.12 0.019
C20:4w-6 1.18 1.21 0.220

SEM, Standard error of the mean; CLA, conjugated linoleic acid.


Within a row, least squares means that do not have a common letter differ (P < 0.05).

induced by the Sericea lespedeza might not diet was not enough to bypass the biohydro-
have been enough to increase the C18:3w -3 genation of rumen as reported by Andrews
in the longissimus muscle as in the other and Lewis (1970).
studies (Priolo et al., 2005; Vasta et al., Lee et al. (2008b) investigated the effect
2007). of lucerne hay and concentrate on the fatty
Cashew nut oil, which is rich in acid composition of edible tissues of meat
C18:1a)-9 (75% of total fatty acids), has been goats. Crossbred (Boer x Spanish) intact
used in the animal diet to improve the per- male goats were fed lucerne (Medicago
formance of goats in Brazil. Santos-Filho sativa) hay alone (H); an 18% crude protein
et al. (2005) investigated the effects of concentrate diet (C), consisting predomi-
cashew on the fatty acid composition of nantly of lucerne meal and yellow maize; or
longissimus dorsi muscle from crossbred a combined diet, consisting of the hay diet
goats. No significant difference was found for the first 45 days, followed by the
in the concentration of C18:1a)-9 in longis- concentrate diet (HC) (Table 10.3). The
simus dorsi muscles from goats fed cashew major fatty acids in the longissimus dorsi
nut (13%) plus maize (55.7%) or maize only muscle lipids from H-, C- and HC-fed goats
(63.3%). One reason for this result was that were C16:0, C18:0 and C18:1a)-9, which
the amount of C18:1 from the supplemented accounted for 73.1, 75.3 and 71.4% of total
Fatty Acids of Meat Goat 255

Table 10.3. Ingredients and chemical composition of hay and


concentrate diets (adapted from Lee et al., 2008b).

Diet

Item Hay Concentrate

Ingredient (%)
Lucerne hay 100 -
Lucerne meal - 50.2
Yellow maize - 35.0
Soybean meal (44%) - 8.8
TM salt (red salt) - 0.50
Vitamin premix - 0.50
Poultry fat - 5.00
Chemical composition ( %)
Dry matter 91.7 93.6
Crude protein 17.3 18.0
Ether extract 2.4 7.1
Ash 5.9 6.5
Acid detergent fibre 34.0 4.0
Neutral detergent fibre 45.0 29.0
Fatty acid methyl ester ( %)
C12:0 0.27 0.07
C13:0 0.23 -
C13:1w-9 2.70 0.27
C14:0 0.79 0.49
C14:1w-5 0.14 0.11
C15:0 0.48 0.11
C16:0 20.97 21.32
C16:1w-7 1.67 5.09
C17:0 0.47 0.16
C18:0 3.94 4.86
C18:1w-9 10.00 33.70
C18:2w-6 19.90 25.08
C18:3w-3 21.66 3.69
C20:0 1.16 0.30
C20:1w-9 1.05 0.04
C20:5w-3 0.45 0.09
C22:0 1.15 0.10
C22:5w-3 0.84 0.16

fatty acids, respectively (Table 10.4). In fat (42.8 versus 48.0%) than those from
general, meat from pasture-fed animals H-fed goats. Rhee et al. (2000) also found
contains a similar proportion of SFAs, a that intramuscular fat from crossbred
lower concentration of MUFAs and a higher (Boer x Spanish) goats grazed on pasture
percentage of PUFAs than that from con- (grasses, browses and forb) without any
centrate-fed animals (Webb et al., 2005; grain supplementation was more saturated
Marino et al., 2006). In the study by Lee than that from goats fed a grain diet (sor-
et al. (2008b), the longissimus dorsi muscle ghum grain and cottonseed hulls). Further-
lipid from goats fed the C diet contained a more, compared with goats fed the grain
lower (P < 0.05) concentration of saturated diet, goats grazed on pasture had increased
fat (36.4 versus 41.0%) and a higher (P < 0.05) proportions of C18:2w -6, C18:
(P< 0.05) concentration of monounsaturated 3w -3 and eicosatrienoic (C20:3w-6) acids
256 J.H. Lee and G. Kannan

Table 10.4. Fatty acid composition ( %) of intramuscular fat of


goats fed three different diets (adapted from Lee et al., 2008b).

Dieta

Fatty acid C HC SEM

C10:0 0.17 0.17 0.15 0.04


C12:0 0.17 0.14 0.14 0.03
C13:1(0-9 0.09 0.06 0.06 0.01
C14:0 2.16 2.00 1.77 0.15
C14:1(0-5 0.52 0.29 0.42 0.11
C15:0 0.70a 0.47b 0.51b 0.06
C16:0 21.87 21.40 20.60 0.68
C16:1(0-7 3.38 3.69 3.24 0.27
C17:0 1.75a 1.35b 1.69a 0.10
C18:0 12.49 10.01 11.69 1.33
C18:1(0-9 38.73b 43.85a 39.12b 1.45
C18:2(0-6 6.93 7.92 7.07 0.61
C18:3(0-3 0.46a 0.12b 0.19b 0.15
C20:0 0.07 0.05 0.08 0.02
C20:1(0-9 0.12 0.11 0.16 0.05
C20:4(0-6 4.65 3.46 4.19 1.16
C20:5(0-3 0.45 0.38 0.59 0.14
C22:0 1.57 0.83 1.90 0.62
C22:5(0-3 0.37 0.37 0.63 0.26

SEM, Standard error of the mean.


Within a row, least squares means that do not have a common letter (a, b)
differ (P < 0.05).
aH, Hay for 45 days; C, concentrate for 45 days; HC, hay for 45 days plus
concentrate for 45 days.

but decreased (P < 0.05) contents of (P < 0.05) than that of goats fed either the H
C18:1a)-9 in intramuscular fat. Lee et al. or HC diet. No significant difference was
(2008b) also reported that among the SFAs, detected in the C18:1a)-9 concentration of
goats fed the H diet had higher (P < 0.05) the longissimus dorsi muscle lipid from
percentages of C15:0 and C17:0 in longissi- goats fed the H or HC diet. Goats fed the H
mus dorsi muscle lipids than those fed the diet had higher (P < 0.05) levels of C18:3w -3
C or HC diet (Table 10.4). However, no sig- in longissimus dorsi muscle lipids than
nificant difference was found in C17:0 goats fed either the C or HC diet; however,
between goats fed the H and HC diets. SFAs there were no differences in the concentra-
such as C12:0, C14:0 and C16:0 raise the tions of C18:3w -3 in the longissimus dorsi
low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol muscle lipids between the goats fed the C
concentrations in blood, increasing the risk and HC diets. Current recommendations
of cardiovascular diseases (Noakes et al., are that the PUFA:SFA ratio should be
1996). These three LDL-cholesterol-increas- around 0.45 (Webb et al., 2005). The
ing fatty acids made up 24.2, 23.5 and PUFA:SFA ratios noticed by Lee et al.
22.8% of total fatty acids in the longissimus (2008b) shown in Table 10.4 were lower
dorsi from goats fed the H, C and HC diets, than the recommended ratio. Duckett et al.
respectively (Table 10.4). Of the MUFAs, (1993) reported a higher PUFA:SFA ratio
the mean concentration of C18:1a)-9 of the (0.26) for beef from grass-finished steers
longissimus dorsi muscle lipids of goats than for meat from concentrate-finished
that consumed the C diet was higher animals (0.07).
Fatty Acids of Meat Goat 257

Pasture-fed goats had higher propor- gender, slaughter weight and age) on fatty
tions of C18:2w -6 and CLA (Rhee et al., acid composition of muscle and adipose tis-
2000; Atti et al., 2006) or C18:3w -3 (Rhee sues in goats. However, relatively few stud-
et al., 2000; Lee et al., 2008b) than ies investigated the influence of dietary
concentrate-fed goats. These results con- regime on fatty acid profiles of edible tis-
firm previous reports that finishing rumi- sues of meat goats. Meat goats are fed most
nants on pasture enhanced the PUFA profile of their required nutrients from forages to
of intramuscular fat, including CLA and w -3 increase the profit to producers; however,
fatty acids. Results from these studies (Rhee pasture-based production systems have a
et al., 2000; Atti et al., 2006; Lee et al., limitation because of the effect of seasonal
2008b) suggest that fatty acid composition variation on the nutrient contents. There-
of goat meat can be improved from a human fore, additional protein and energy are
health perspective through pasture feeding. offered to maintain the performance of goats
However, the tendency of increasing USFAs at acceptable levels. In general, pasture-fed
and CLA isomers in chevon was not found goats have higher proportions of linoleic
in goats fed different grass hays (Lee et al., acid, a-linolenic acid and CLAs than con-
2008a). Furthermore, this trend also applied centrate-fed goats. From a human dietary
to goats fed different concentrate diets health viewpoint, it is suggested that the
(Santos-Filho et al., 2005). These differ- fatty acid composition of goat meat can be
ences are consequences of fatty acid compo- improved through pasture feeding. How-
sition of feed sources, C18:3w -3 being the ever, the tendency of increasing unsatu-
major fatty acid in plant materials, C18:2w -6 rated fatty acid and CLA isomers in meat
the major fatty acid in grains and C18:1a)-9 was not noticed in goats fed different pas-
the major fatty acid in nuts (Weiss, 1983). ture diets. Differences are the consequences
However, when these USFA sources are fed of the fatty acid compositions of feed
to ruminants, they undergo hydrogenation sources. In addition, a relatively low pro-
and degradation in the rumen (Jenkins, portion of dietary unsaturated fatty acid is
1994). Consequently, a relatively low pro- deposited in muscle tissues of meat goats
portion of dietary USFAs is deposited in because of ruminal biohydrogenation of
muscle tissues of ruminants. Because of the dietary unsaturated fatty acids. However,
ruminal biohydrogenation, it is hard to feeding rumen-protective dietary polyun-
increase the concentrations of PUFAs in saturated fat to ruminants could drastically
edible tissue of goats supplemented with increase these beneficial fatty acids in edi-
the same major fatty acid groups. ble tissue. Several studies have been con-
ducted to increase nutritionally important
PUFAs in ruminant meats such as beef and
10.5 Conclusion lamb by feeding rumen-protective dietary
supplements. However, these supplements
Many studies have been conducted to eval- have not yet been tested extensively in meat
uate the effects of intrinsic factors (breed, goats.

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11 Mineral Composition of Goat Meat

N.H.I. Osmani and 0. Mahgoub2


1 Open University of Sudan, Obeid Khatim Street, Arkaweet, Khartoum, Sudan;
2Department of Animal & Veterinary Sciences, College of Agricultural & Marine
Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, Sultanate of Oman

11.1 Abstract 11.2 Introduction

In this chapter, the literature on the min- The animal body is made of organic and
eral content of goat meat is reviewed. Goat inorganic materials. Inorganic materials or
meat is a rich source of various minerals. minerals are required by all living organ-
Chemical ash, which comprises -3.5% of isms to ensure their normal functioning.
total body weight, represents the inorganic The animal body is not equipped to synthe-
material and is composed mainly of min- size minerals as it is with many other
erals. The ash content of goat meat is influ- organic nutrients. Therefore, minerals need
enced by several factors including breed, to be supplied in animal feeds. Chemical
age, sex, litter size and cooking method. ash, which comprises -3.5% of total body
There are about 90 natural elements in the weight, represents the inorganic material
body, of which only about 40 are essential. and is composed mainly of minerals
Some of the elements, the trace elements, (Keeton and Eddy, 2004). There are about
are present in the animal body in small 90 natural elements in the body (Chesworth,
proportions (50 mg/kg of dry matter). Oth- 1992), of which only about 40 are essential
ers, which are found in larger quantities, (McDonald et al., 2002). The term 'essen-
are known as macroelements and comprise tial mineral elements' refers to minerals
the major elements of ash. The most com- that have a metabolic role in mammalian
mon macroelements in the body include tissue. Some of the elements, the trace ele-
calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium ments or microminerals, are present in the
and magnesium. The major trace elements animal body at low concentrations [50 mg/
are iron, copper, zinc, selenium and man- kg dry matter (DM)]. Others, which are
ganese, plus several others (cobalt, cad- found in larger quantities, are known as
mium, lead, nickel and vanadium). Factors macrominerals or macroelements and com-
that affect the mineral concentration in prise the major elements of ash. Research
animal tissues include species, type of tis- has shown that there is a highly complex
sue, muscles, sex, age, breed, diet and interrelationship between the various min-
cooking method. There are significant cor- eral elements in the body. This affects the
relations between various minerals in goat nutritional requirements of humans and
meat. animals.
© CAB International 2012. Goat Meat Production and Quality
260 (eds 0. Mahgoub, I.T. Kadim and E.G. Webb)
Minerals in Goat Meat 261

Minerals are an integral part of vari- of the diet and type of tissue. Within species
ous organs and tissues of the animal body. and breed types, the concentration of min-
These tissues contain a variety of ele- erals in muscles is affected by their position
ments such as calcium, magnesium, potas- in the body and their function (Mioe et al.,
sium, sodium, silicon, phosphorus, 2000).
chromium, manganese, iron, nickel, cop- Mineral and trace element concentra-
per, zinc, cobalt, cadmium, lead, vana- tions in animal muscles can affect meat
dium and molybdenum. Macrominerals quality. For instance, Satter lee et al. (1977)
include calcium, magnesium, sodium and reported that the ratio of iron:zinc in beef
potassium as the principal cations and was highly correlated with muscle tender-
phosphorus, chlorine and sulfur as the ness. A low concentration of zinc in skeletal
principal anions. The microminerals muscles prevents collagen cross-linking,
include cobalt, copper, iodine, iron, man- which in turn influences muscle tenderness
ganese, molybdenum, selenium and zinc (Seideman et al., 1984).
(Campbell et a/., 2003). Microminerals of Goat meat, similar to other red meats, is
significant nutritional importance in meat a rich source of minerals. The muscles of
and meat products are iron, zinc and mag- the goat contain a variety of minerals and
nesium, and these are found in quantities trace elements including calcium, magne-
of milligrams per 100 g DM, while sele- sium, potassium, sodium, silicon, phospho-
nium is found in microgram quantities rus, chromium, manganese, iron, nickel,
per 100 g DM (McDonald et al., 2002; copper, zinc, cobalt, cadmium, lead, vana-
Keeton and Eddy, 2004; Leth and Ertbjerg, dium and molybdenum, but the proportions
2004). of these elements vary greatly. The minerals
The mineral content in meat is mea- that are most abundant in goat meat are
sured using standard methods of analysis potassium, phosphorus and magnesium
such as the atomic spectrometric techniques (Sheridan et al., 2003), which is similar to
of atomic absorption spectrometry and the situation in lamb meat (Hoffman et al.,
inductively coupled plasma atomic emis- 2003).
sion or mass spectrometry. The first step in This chapter reviews the nutritive role
analysis is ashing in a furnace overnight at and contents of the mineral component of
450°C after drying in an oven, or digestion goat meat and the factors affecting them.
of samples by wet digestion, which is most
commonly used. Microwave digestion,
which is faster, is carried out using nitric
acid and hydrogen peroxide as oxidants in 11.3 Ash Content in Goat Meat
sealed containers of an inert material (Leth
and Ertbjerg, 2004). As meat is burned, most elements in the
Humans obtain their body mineral organic material (carbon, nitrogen, hydro-
requirements from plant and animal gen and oxygen) will be lost in the form of
sources. Meat, a major component of the carbon dioxide, water and dioxides of
human diet, is a rich source of both macro- nitrogen (Keeton and Eddy, 2004). The
and microelements that are essential for remaining part comprises the minerals. It is
human health. Minerals are also found in usually analysed by burning in a muffle fur-
various concentrations in other animal nace at high temperatures and is expressed
body organs including the liver, kidney, as percentage ash. Therefore, ash is an esti-
brain, heart and spleen (Wan Zahari and mate of the total mineral content in the
Abdul Wahid, 1985). Minerals of animal body that is in the form of oxides, sulfates,
origin are more readily available for humans phosphates, nitrates, chlorides and other
than those of non-animal origin (plants) halides (Chesworth, 1992). The ash in lean
(Mioe et al., 2000). The mineral content in meat is an estimate of total mineral content
meat is affected by many factors such as ani- that makes up the cellular constituents
mal species, breed, climate, mineral content (myoglobin, haemoglobin and enzymes)
262 Osman and 0. Mahgoub

or together with bone (bone fragments, 11.3.1 Factors affecting ash contents in
mechanically separated tissue and advanced goat meat
meat recovery systems) in the whole minced
carcass. Breed
The ash content reported for fresh
goat meat ranges between 0.8 and 1.7% There is a large body of literature on ash
(Table 11.1). The factors that cause the content in goat meat, but the values reported
wide variation of ash content found in vary widely, indicating a clear effect of
goat meat include breed (Beserra et al., breed. Goats of the Moxoto Brazilian breed
2004), sex and castration (Madruga et al., had a significantly higher ash content of
1999), dietary supplementation (Solaiman 1.2 ± 0.02% (mean ± sEM) at 4-6 months and
et al., 2006) and treatment of the meat, 2.7 ± 0.23% at 8-10 months of age than
including the cooking method (Dzudie et crosses of (Moxoto x Pardo Alpina) x Anglo-
al., 2000). The ash content in cooked goat Nubian castrated male goats with 1.1 ± 0.01
meat is at the higher end of the range of and 2.3 ± 0.12%, respectively (Beserra
fresh meat values (Johnson et al., 1995). et al., 2004). Similar values of 1.05 ± 0.04
Reports on ash content in goats using whole and 1.00 ± 0.07% were reported by Madruga
minced carcasses suggest a higher ash con- et al. (1999) in castrated male `Mestico'
tent (Hogg et al., 1989). On a DM basis, goat goats (breeds of 'Creole' x Anglo-Nubian,
carcasses contain a lower fat and ash con- Saanen or British Alpine crossbred) at 175
tent but higher protein content than sheep and 220 days, respectively. Proportions of
(Mahgoub and Lu, 2004). 1.06 and 1.09% in groups of young and old

Table 11.1. Ash content in the meat of goats of various breeds, sexes and ages reported by
various authors.

Ash content (%) Breed Comment Reference

Uncooked meat
1.06-1.09 Unspecified breed Turgut (1984)
0.8 Spanish goat Chevon chops from 1-year-old James and Berry (1997)
1.00-1.05 Mestigo Wethers (175 and 220 days) Madruga et al. (1999)
1.01-1.06 Saanen, Boer, Feral Capretto and chevon, males Dhanda et al. (2003)
and Angora crosses and wethers
0.9 French goat Paleari et al. (2003)
1.2-2.7 Moxot6 (Brazil) Age 4-10 months Beserra et al., 2004
1.13 White improved Niedziolka et al. (2005)
1.05 Lowland Polish Niedziolka et al. (2005)
1.32-1.62 Boer x Spanish Intact males, age 4 months Lee et al. (2008)
1.2-1.63 Pakistani mixed Age <7 months to >11 months Arain et al. (2010)
Cooked meat
1.4 Florida native or F1 Intact male cooked meat Johnson et al. (1995)
crosses of Florida
natives with Nubian
or Spanish goats
1.3 Castrate Johnson et al. (1995)
1.2 Female Johnson et al. (1995)
0.97-1.07 Angora Longissimus muscle Schonfeldt (1989)
1.00-1.08 Boer Longissimus muscle Schonfeldt (1989)
5.3 Feral yearling bucks Whole minced half carcass Hogg et al. (1989)
5.2 Saanen males Whole minced half carcass Hogg et al. (1989)
5.4 Saanen females Whole minced half carcass Hogg et al. (1989)
Minerals in Goat Meat 263

Beserra et al. (2004), using different goat


goats, respectively, were reported by Turgut
(1984) with an unspecified breed, which breed crosses, reported values of 1.2 ± 0.02
were comparable to those in other types of and 1.1 ± 0.01% at 4-6 months of age. The
meat-producing animals in the same report, ash content was higher (2.7 ± 0.23 and
including cattle (1.05 and 1.06%), sheep 2.3 ± 0.12%) in animals of 8-10 months of
(1.08 and 1.05%) and water buffalo (1.12 age. Although the differences were not sig-
and 1.07%). Compared with lambs of a sim- nificant, there was a consistent trend similar
ilar age (150 days), the ash content in meat to that of a previous report of Beserra et al.
from kids of White Improved goat breeds (2000). In contrast, Turgut (1984) reported
was 1.13%, and was 1.05% in meat from a values of 1.06 and 1.09% in two groups of
lowland Polish breed (Niedziolka et al., goats of different ages. The ash content
2005). A higher percentage of 1.32-1.62% of Pakistani goat meat (<7 months to
(± 0.15%) was reported in weaned, 4-month- >11 months) increased linearly with age
old, intact Boer x Spanish male goats by (Arain et al., 2010).
Lee et al. (2008). A lower percentage of
0.9 ± 0.1%, however, was reported in Sex
French goat meat (Paleari et al., 2003),
which was also lower than other species in The effects of sex, i.e. male, female or cas-
the same study, including deer (1.3 ± 0.04%),
trated male, on ash content in meat have
boar (1.1 ± 0.05%), horse (1.3 ± 0.09%) and been contradictory. Meat from intact males
cattle (1.3 ± 0.21%). A very low content of at 175 and 220 days had a lower ash content
(0.92 ± 0.10 and 0.81 ± 0.08%, respectively)
0.8% in raw chevon chops from 1-year-old
Spanish goats was reported by James and than castrated male goats (1.05 ± 0.04 and
1.00 ± 0.07%, respectively) (Madruga et al.,
Berry (1997). The ash content in whole
minced half carcasses of feral yearling 1999). At higher ages of 265 and 310 days,
bucks and male and female Saanen goats the ash content showed the opposite trend
was 5.3, 5.2 and 5.4%, respectively (Hogg et and was higher in castrates than in intact
a/., 1989). These values were higher than males (0.79 ± 0.22 and 0.92 ± 0.06% versus
the range reported for goat meat because the 0.96 ± 0.08 and 0.98 ± 0.08%, respectively)
(Madruga et al., 1999). The ash content of
minced whole half carcass includes bones.
leg meat in male Saanen goats was
There were no breed effects on the ash con-
tents of whole carcasses of Omani Batina 1.1 ± 0.1%, which was higher than in meat
and Dhofari goat breeds (Mahgoub et al., from females (0.9 ± 0.1%), although the dif-
2005).
ference was not significant (Hogg et al.,
1989). The ash percentage in cooked meat
from male goats was also slightly higher but
Age not significantly different between castrated
Reports on the effect of age on ash content and male and female goats (1.4, 1.3 and
1.2 g/100 g DM, respectively) (Johnson et al.,
are inconsistent. With increasing age and
body weight, water, crude protein and ash 1995). However, sex did not significantly
concentrations were shown to decrease, affect the ash content of fat-free half car-
whereas that of fat increased in carcasses casses in 4-month-old kids (4.4 and 4.6% in
of both Omani goats and sheep (Mahgoub males and females, respectively) (Ash and
Norton, 1987).
and Lu, 2004). A value of 0.99% ash in the
meat of goats at 175 days decreased to 0.9% Litter size
at 220 days (7 months) and further to 0.88%
at 265 days (8.5 months) but increased There are some reports indicating that litter
again to 0.97% at 310 days (10 months) size may also affect the ash content of goat
(Madruga et al., 1999). Differences between meat. Meat from twin kids contained a sig-
age groups per se, however, were not sig- nificantly higher percentage of ash
nificant, although there was a significant (5.29 ± 0.03%) than meat from a single-born
age x sex interaction (Madruga et al., 1999). kid (5.13 ± 0.03%) (Todaro et al., 2006).
264 Osman and 0. Mahgoub

This may be attributed to the fact that single ash content in the 9th to 11th ribs tended to
kids are usually fatter than twins. increase linearly from 0.73 to 0.81 and 0.80%,
respectively (Solaiman et al., 2006). Dietary
Cooking supplementation with 15 or 25% neem cake
significantly increased the ash content from
Cooking per se and the cooking method used
1.10 ± 0.06 to 1.60 ± 0.11 and 1.40 ± 0.13%,
significantly affect the ash content in goat respectively (Kesava et al., 2003).
meat. A significant effect of cooking was
reported in loin sections of grassland African
dwarf goats. Roast chops had the highest ash 11.4 Mineral Content of the Goat
content of 6.76 ± 0.35%, followed by broiled Body
chops at 5.18 ± 0.35%, while the lowest con-
tent was from water-bathed chops at
As with other red-meat animals, goat meat is
4.15 ± 0.31% (Dzudie et al., 2000). Wet
a valuable source of minerals, especially in
cooking such as boiling caused more water
regions of the world where the goat is a major
loss and consequently a higher mineral loss
meat animal such as Asia and Africa. Goat
than dry cooking methods such as roasting.
Comparing microwave cooking with broil-
meat contains different levels of various
macro- and microelements with different
ing, James and Berry (1997) found no signifi-
concentrations in body organs such as liver,
cant difference between cooking with a kidney, brain, muscle, spleen and heart.
microwave at different powers and broiling.
McDonald et al. (2002) and Keeton and
Microwaving at 100% power (1.1% ash) or
Eddy (2004) have reported the essential ele-
60% power (1.0% ash) produced a slightly
higher mineral content than broiling (0.09%
ments and their approximate concentra-
tions in the whole body of farm animals and
ash). However, all values were significantly
higher than the ash content (0.8% ash) in
in muscles (Table 11.2). These included
raw meat. Differences in ash content from
different methods of cooking are inversely Table 11.2. Nutritionally important minerals and
proportional to the loss of moisture con- their approximate concentration in the whole body
tents, except in water bathing, where miner- and muscle of farm animals.
als can be lost in the surrounding water.
Whole animal Muscle (mg/g
Type of diet Major minerals (g/kg DM)a DM)b

Reports on effects of diet on goat meat min- Calcium 15 3-6


eral content are conflicting. There was no Phosphorus 10 167-216
effect of energy level in the diet on mineral Potassium 2 250-400
content in Boer goats (Sheridan et al., 2003). Sodium 1.6 55-94
However, Mahgoub and Lu (2004) reported Chlorine 1.1 0.65
Sulfur 1.6 2.5
a trend of increasing carcass fat content and
Magnesium 0.4 22-29
decreasing protein and ash content with
increasing levels of metabolizable energy in Whole animal Muscle (mg/g
the diet causing increasing body weight in Trace elements (mg/kg DM)a DM)b
Omani goats and sheep.
The ash content in longissimus muscles Iron 20-80 1-3
of 4-month-old intact Boer x Spanish male Zinc 10-50 1-5
goats was not affected by feeding kids either Copper 1-5 0.5-0.13
hay, concentrate, or hay plus concentrate for Molybdenum 1-4
45 days (Lee et al., 2008). However, inclusion Selenium 1-2
Iodine 0.3-0.6
of certain minerals in the diet may influence
Manganese 0.2-0.5
mineral levels in the body. For instance, Cobalt 0.02-0.1
with an increase in the dietary copper
supplementation to 100 and 200 mg/day, the aMcDonald et a/. (2002); bKeeton and Eddy (2004).
Minerals in Goat Meat 265

seven macroelements and eight microele- Macrominerals are more abundant than
ments. The macromineral contents ranged microminerals in goat meat. Sheridan et al.
from 0.4 g/kg DM for magnesium to 15 g/kg (2003) reported that the elements that con-
DM for calcium. The highest concentrations tribute the largest proportions in goat meat
of macroelements in muscles were potas- are calcium, phosphorus, potassium and
sium (250-400 mg/g DM) and phosphorus sodium (946, 653, 142 and 57 mg/100 g DM,
(167-216 mg/g DM). The microelements respectively). Mahgoub (unpublished data)
with the highest concentrations in the found that the most abundant minerals in
whole animal body and muscle were iron goat meat are potassium, phosphorus,
and zinc, and the lowest was cobalt. sodium, magnesium and calcium (757, 530,
Table 11.3 gives the mean mineral con- 108, 49 and 13 mg/100 g DM). It should be
centrations in muscle and selected organs of noted that reports from various studies vary
goats in a study carried out by Wan Zahari greatly in values of minerals and trace ele-
and Abdul Wahid (1985). The mineral con- ments. This may be attributed to a number of
tents on a DM basis were highest in the liver, factors including sample collection, method
followed by muscle, brain, heart, spleen and of extraction and method of analysis, or to
kidney. Organs varied in their concentra- how results are expressed (e.g. wet weight or
tions of individual minerals. For instance, DM basis). For instance, muscle samples may
the brain had a high concentration of many include fat or connective tissue. There are
minerals including calcium, phosphorus, several methods employed for extraction of
potassium, sodium and manganese. The minerals from meat samples using acids such
liver contained high levels of phosphorus, as nitric acid. However, microwave extrac-
magnesium, zinc and extremely high levels tion is the most effective. Atomic absorption
of copper. The spleen had the highest con- is utilized more than inductive coupled
tent of iron, which was many times higher plasma atomic emission spectrophotometry
than that of other organs. The kidneys had as it is more readily available in laboratories.
higher levels of most minerals, especially
sodium. This renders the muscle and edible
organs of the goat an excellent source of min- 11.4.1 Macrominerals in goat meat
erals for humans, especially in underprivi-
leged parts of the world where most of the Calcium
goat body is consumed. However, it should
also be noted that extremely high concentra- Calcium contributes significantly to the
tions of certain elements such as heavy met- hardness of bones and teeth. It is also impor-
als (lead, mercury and cadmium) in meat are tant for bone development, neuromuscular
regarded as a potential human health hazard. activity, secretory functions, buffers, certain

Table 11.3. Mean mineral concentrations (mg/100 g dry matter) in muscle and selected
organs of crossbred goats (from Wan Zahari and Abdul Wahid, 1985).

Mineral Muscle Liver Kidney Heart Spleen Brain

Calcium 11 10.06 13.58 7.7 11.47 46.99


Phosphorus 155.5 253.9 168.1 111.71 214.03 245.64
Magnesium 19.7 15.08 10.19 9.63 15.28 12.82
Potassium 350 188.55 122.26 100.15 194.9 277.68
Sodium 64.48 58.18 148.68 38.52 59.38 136.92
Copper 0.30 8.28 0.52 0.53 0.41 0.40
Zinc 3.51 2.99 2.61 1.41 2.19 1.40
Iron 4.37 7.82 9.78 4.40 34.79 3.07
Manganese 0.087 0.66 0.19 0.098 0.159 0.122
Dry matter ( %) 21.90 25.14 16.98 19.26 19.11 21.36
266 Osman and 0. Mahgoub

coenzymes and nutrients for the nursed and Abdul Wahid (1985) (Table 11.3).
young (Casey, 1992), and has an essential Slightly higher values were found in
role in blood clotting (Chesworth, 1992; Omani (12.72 mg/100 g DM) and Somali
McDonald et a/., 2002). It is directly (14.83 mg/100 g DM) goat meat (Table 11.4).
involved in contraction of muscles and con- Oke et al. (2007) reported values of 0.98-
tributes to muscle fibre contraction post- 23 g/100 g DM in goats ranging between 24
mortem (Keeton and Eddy, 2004). Calcium and 52 weeks of age. Much higher values
deficiency in young growing animals causes (880-945 mg/100 g DM) were reported by
rickets, symptoms of which include Sheridan et al. (2003) in Boer goats of vari-
deformed bones, enlargement of the joints, ous levels of dietary energy. Madruga et al.
lameness and stiffness. In adults, calcium (2006) reported levels of 134-213 mg/kg
deficiency produces osteomalacia, in which DM in goats raised under various manage-
the calcium in the bone is withdrawn and ment systems.
not replaced, so that the bones become weak Several factors have been reported to
and easily broken (McDonald et al, 2002). affect calcium levels in goat meat including
Calcium content varies in organs and tis- sex and age (Madruga et a/., 1999), cooking
sues of goats, and was found to be highest in and processing (Johnson et a/., 1995), breed
the brain (46.99 mg/100 g DM) followed by and system of management (Madruga et al.,
kidney (13.58 mg/100 g DM), spleen 2006). Goat meat contains more calcium
(11.47 mg/100 g DM) and liver (10.06 mg/100 g than chicken (Addrizzo, 2010) and sheep
DM) and lowest in the heart (7.7 mg/100 g meat (Sheridan et al., 2003).
DM) in crossbred goats (Table 11.3). Calcium
in the liver and kidney of Alpine and Saanen Phosphorus
goats was 20.4 and 16.7 mg/100 g DM (Mioe
et al., 1998). Phosphorus is a major component in bone
The calcium values reported for goat and is closely associated with calcium. It is
lean meat are quite variable. A value of essential for bone formation, enzymes and
11 mg/100 g DM was found by Wan Zahari energy metabolism (Casey, 1992). It occurs

Table 11.4. Mineral and trace element content (mg/100 g dry matter) of Omani and
Somali goats (0. Mahgoub, unpublished data).

Element Omani goat Somali goat PSEM Significance

Calcium 12.72 14.83 1.100 NS


Magnesium 49.19 59.02 1.763 <0.0001
Potassium 756.61 941.07 25.76 <0.0001
Sodium 108.26 126.88 6.393 <0.0001
Silicon 0.21 0.03 0.020 <0.0001
Phosphorus 529.96 650.36 18.18 <0.0001
Chromium 0.01 0.11 0.007 <0.0001
Manganese 0.02 0.13 0.009 <0.0001
Iron 3.435 4.30 0.201 00.004
Nickel 0.016 0.08 0.019 00.014
Copper 0.151 0.349 0.020 <0.0001
Zinc 6.461 6.518 0.321 <0.0001
Cobalt 0.041 0.08 0.004 <0.0001
Cadmium 0.004 0.001 0.001 0.049
Lead 0.014 0.06 0.010 0.001
Vanadium 0.003 0.02 0.002 <0.0001
Molybdenum 0.130 0.16 0.007 0.003

PSEM, Pooled standard error of the mean; NS, Not significant.


Minerals in Goat Meat 267

in phosphoproteins, nucleic acids and phos- of 757-941 mg/100 g DM (Table 11.4),


pholipids. It has a vital role in the formation whereas Sheridan et al. (2003) reported a
of sugar phosphates and adenosine di- and value of 130.9-141.6 mg/100 g DM.
triphosphates (McDonald et al., 2002).
The content of phosphorus in farm Sodium
animal bodies is about 10 g/kg DM and Sodium is the major cation of blood plasma
167-216 mg/kg DM in muscle (Table 11.2).
and other extracellular fluids of the body. It
In goat body tissues, the highest level is essential for acid/base balance and
is found in the liver, followed by brain, osmotic regulation of body fluids (McDonald
spleen, kidney and muscle (Table 11.3). et al., 2002). It is also involved in contrac-
Muscle is rich in phosphorus. Wan Zahari tion of muscle (Keeton and Eddy, 2004).
and Abdul Wahid (1985) reported a value of
The sodium level in farm animal bodies
155.5 mg/100 g DM, with a value of is -1.6 g/kg DM (Table 11.2). Goat body
175.78 mg/100 g DM in intact males organs and tissues contain various levels of
(Table 11.3). Oke et al. (2007) reported val-
sodium, with the kidney having the highest
ues of 52-197 mg/100 g DM in goats ranging
levels followed by brain, muscle, spleen,
between 24 and 52 weeks of age. Sheridan et
liver and heart (Table 11.3).
a/. (2003) reported higher levels of phospho-
rus (632-654 mg/100 g DM). Mahgoub Keeton and Eddy (2004) reported a
value of 55-94 mg/g DM in muscle (Table
(unpublished results) found similar levels in
11.2). Goat muscles were found to contain
Omani and Somali goats (Table 11.4).
64.48 mg/100 g DM (Table 11.3). Oke et al.
No significant effects of age or sex (2007) reported values of 60-115 mg/100 g
on phosphorus content were found by DM in goats of 24-52 weeks of age. Sheridan
Madruga et al. (1999). Goat meat contains
et al. (2003) reported a value of 49.8-
less phosphorus than beef (Johnson et al.,
56.7 mg/100 g DM. Mahgoub (Table 11.4)
1995). The system of rearing of goats affects
the phosphorus contents of goat (Madruga
found much higher values for sodium in
et al., 2006).
Omani and Somali goat meat (108 and
127 mg/100 g DM). Cooked goat meat has a
much higher sodium content than beef
Potassium (Johnson et al., 1995; Addrizzo, 2010).
Potassium is directly involved in contraction Magnesium
of muscles, together with calcium and
sodium (Keeton and Eddy, 2004). It is an Magnesium is directly involved in live mus-
important component in osmotic regulation cle contraction and contributes to muscle
of the body fluids and in the base balance in fibre contraction post-mortem (Keeton and
the animal (McDonald et al., 2002). Farm ani- Eddy, 2004). While 70% of magnesium is
mal bodies contain about 2 g/kg DM (Table found in hard tissue, the rest is found in soft
12.2). Keeton and Eddy (2004) reported tissues and body fluids (Chesworth, 1992;
potassium levels of 250-400 mg/g DM in McDonald et al., 2002). Magnesium is nec-
meat (Table 11.2). Oke et al. (2007) reported essary for many essential biochemical reac-
values of 151-306 mg/100 g DM in goat bod- tions. It is the commonest enzyme activator
ies ranging between 24 and 52 weeks of age. and is important for activating transferases,
Goat body organs and tissues contain decarboxylases and acyl transferases
variable levels of potassium with the mus- (McDonald et al., 2002).
cle having the highest levels followed by The bodies of farm animals contain
brain, spleen, liver, kidney and heart (Table magnesium at a level of -0.4 g/kg DM
11.3). However, values in muscle vary. Wan (Table 11.2). Keeton and Eddy (2004)
Zahari and Abdul Wahid (1985) found that reported a magnesium value of 22-29 mg/g
goat meat contained potassium levels of DM in muscle. Goat body organs and tissues
350 mg/100 g DM (Table 11.3) and Mahgoub contain various levels of magnesium, with
(unpublished results) reported a high value the muscle having the highest levels
268 N.H.I. Osman and 0. Mahgoub

followed by spleen, liver, brain, kidney and values of 1.2-1.8 mg/100 g DM. Mahgoub
heart (Table 11.3). (unpublished results) recorded values of 3.4
Oke et al. (2007) reported values of and 4.3 mg/100 g DM in Omani and Somali
7-10 g/100 g DM in goats of 24-52 weeks of goats, respectively (Table 11.4). Park (1988)
age. Sheridan et al. (2003) reported magne- reported an iron range of 27-33.7 pg /g
sium values of 32-35 mg/100 g DM. Mah- wet weight in the muscles of Alpine and
goub (unpublished results), who used Nubian goats. These differences are due
microwave extraction, recorded higher to the effects of age, sex and breed. For
magnesium values of 49-59 mg/100 g instance, Madruga et al. (1999) reported
DM (Table 11.4). In other tissues, the high- that goat meat contains iron levels of
est levels of magnesium were in the 1.75-3.65 mg/100 g DM in goats of various
spleen (15.28 mg/100 g DM) and liver sexes and ages. A value of 4.37 mg/100 g
(15.08 mg/100 g DM), followed by brain DM was reported by Wan Zahari and
(12.82 mg/100 g DM), kidney (10.19 mg/100 Abdul Wahid (1985) (Table 11.3).
g DM) and heart (9.63 mg/100) (Table 11.3). Iron content was not affected by sex in
Cooked goat meat contained magne- the latter report, which was similar to the
sium at 29.2 mg/100 g DM (Johnson et al., results reported by Johnson et al. (1995) in
1995), which was higher than beef at cooked meat. It was, however, affected by
22.4 mg/100 g DM. Cooked goat meat con- age x castration interaction in a study by
tains more magnesium than chicken meat Madruga et al. (1999). In the latter report,
(Addrizzo, 2010). meat iron content was affected linearly by
age (175-310 days).
Johnson et al. (1995) reported that iron
11.4.2 Microelements content in goat meat was similar to that of
cooked beef meat (2.6 mg/100 g DM).
Iron Cooked goat meat contains twice the level
of iron of chicken meat (Addrizzo, 2010).
Iron is directly involved in the use of oxy-
gen in cells with its transport in blood Copper
(Chesworth, 1992). More than 90% of iron
in the body is combined with proteins, the Copper is necessary for the uptake and
most important of which is haemoglobin, transport of iron, the formation of collagen,
which contains 3.4 mg/kg DM (McDonald body growth (Hart et al., 1928; Harris, 1983),
et al., 2002). Meat is a very good source of haemoglobin formation and the prevention
iron. There are two types of iron in meat, of a wide range of clinical and pathological
haem and non-haem. About 50-60% of the disorders in all types of farm animals
iron in meat is haem. Haem iron in meat is (Underwood and Suttle, 2001).
in haemoglobin and myoglobin and has a The bodies of farm animals contain
high bioavailability (Mulvihill, 2004). Meat 1-5 g/kg DM (Table 11.2). Keeton and Eddy
promotes the absorption of iron in itself and (2004) reported that meat contained 0.5-
from other food consumed with meat at the 0.13 mg/g DM Cu (Table 11.2). Wan Zahari
same meal (Mulvihill, 2004). and Abdul Wahid (1985) reported that the
The bodies of farm animals contain highest level of copper in goat tissues was
iron at about 20-80 g/kg DM (Table 11.2). in liver (8.28 mg/100 g DM), followed by
Keeton and Eddy (2004) found that goat heart and kidney (0.53 and 0.52 mg/100 g
muscle contained 1-3 mg/kg DM (Table DM, respectively) and speen and brain
11.2). Goat body organs and tissues contain (0.41 and 0.40 mg/100 g DM, respectively),
various levels of iron, with spleen having with muscles having the lowest values
the highest levels followed by kidney, liver, (0.30 mg/100 g DM) (Table 11.3). Values of
heart, muscle and brain (Table 11.3). 0.151 and 0.349 mg/100 g DM were reported
Reports on iron muscle content in goats for Omani and Somali goats, respectively
vary greatly. Sheridan et al. (2003) reported (Table 11.4). Sheridan et al. (2003) reported
Minerals in Goat Meat 269

a level of 0.14-0.20 mg/100 g DM in 1998). Zinc is a constituent of many impor-


Boer goat meat. Fresh goat meat contained tant enzymes and accumulates in bone
copper at 2.3-2.8 pg /g wet weight (Park, (Chesworth, 1992). It also functions as an
1988). antioxidant and can stabilize membranes
High levels of copper in the animal (Shankar and Prasad, 1998). Zinc plays an
body may be regarded as contamination of important role in effective utilization of
meat and meat products. For instance, vitamin A (Chesworth, 1992) and is essen-
Swaileh et al. (2009) reported a range of tial for the functioning of a substantial num-
1.03-217.9 pg /g DM in the liver, kidney and ber of enzyme systems (Miller, 1969).
muscle of cattle, sheep, goat and poultry in The animal body contains zinc at a
the Israeli West Bank, with the highest con- level of 10-50 g/kg DM (Table 11.2). Keeton
centrations in the kidney and liver and low- and Eddy (2004) found that goat muscles
est concentration in the muscles. contained zinc at 1-5 mg/g DM. The highest
Cooked goat meat contains higher levels of zinc (3.51 mg/100 g DM) were
levels of copper than beef with significant found in the muscle, followed by liver
sex effects, with castrates having the highest (2.99 mg/100 g DM), kidney (2.61 mg/100 g
values (Johnson et al., 1995). The system of DM) and spleen (2.19 mg/100 g DM), and
rearing of goats affects their copper contents. the lowest were in the heart and brain (1.41
Madruga et al. (2006) reported a level of and 1.40 mg/100 g DM, respectively) (Table
0.68 mg/100 g DM in field-raised goats com- 11.3). Comparable values (Table 11.4) were
pared with 0.93 mg/100 g DM in goats raised reported for Omani and Somali goats (6.461
under confinement. Cooked goat meat con- and 6.518 mg/100 g DM, respectively).
tains much more copper than chicken meat Fresh goat meat contains zinc at an average
(Addrizzo, 2010). of 40 pg /g wet weight (Park, 1988).
Levels of zinc in cooked goat meat
Zinc (4.3 mg/100 g DM) were comparable to
those in beef (5.0 mg/100 g DM) but there
Zinc is known to play a central role in the were no sex effects on levels of zinc
immune system, and zinc-deficient persons in broiled goat meat (Table 11.5). Cooked
experience increased susceptibility to a goat meat contains more than twice the
variety of pathogens (Shankar and Prasad, concentration of zinc than chicken meat

Table 11.5. Comparison of nutrient analysis of chicken, beef and sheep meat.

Goat Chicken Beef Sheep


Mineral (mg/100 g DM)a (mg/100 g DM)a (ppm)b (mg/100 g DM)c

Calcium 25.3 12.8 168-229 4.6-6.5


Iron 2.2 1.1 127-150 1.4-1.9
Sodium 77.1 69.7 0.24-0.36 16.2-19.8
Zinc 4.3 1.7 127-323 2.8-3.6
Magnesium 23.7 20.0 703-906 18.0-22.0
Potassium 308.3 189.6 1.27-1.54 130.1-160.5
Phosphorus 57.8 154.7 0.68-0.78 125.7-139.9
Copper 1.7 0.06 5-22 0.09-0.14
Manganese 0.85-1.46

DM, Dry matter.


aNutrient profile information taken from USDA (1989) and Johnson et a/. (1995) including
castrates, intact males and females was dissected into separable components of bone and soft
tissue.
bAmmerman et a/. (1974); bl-loffman et a/. (2003).
270 N.H.I. Osman and 0. Mahgoub

(Addrizzo, 2010). The muscles of cattle con- 0.06 mg/100 g DM and vanadium at 0.003
tained 126 ppm of zinc (Miller, 1969). and 0.02 mg/100 g DM, respectively (Table
11.4). Goat meat also contained iodine at
Selenium 41-43 mg/100 g DM and lead at 0.013-
0.016 mg/100 g DM (Sheridan et al., 2003).
Selenium is involved in the function of
immune cells (McKenzie et a]., 1998). It is
an essential constituent of a number of 11.5 Factors Affecting Mineral
enzymes, some of which have antioxidant Concentration in Goat Tissues
functions (Burk, 2002). Its role is closely
related to its function as a cofactor for a
number of biochemical systems that destroy 11.5.1 Species differences
peroxides, potentially toxic compounds
(Chesworth, 1992). The concentration of The mineral content of goat meat is more
selenium in the bodies of farm animals was comparable to other red meats than to white
estimated at 1-2 mg/kg DM (Table 11.2). ones. Table 11.5 shows a comparison of
There are not many available reports on meat from goat, chicken, beef and sheep.
selenium content in goat meat. However, The red meats had higher levels of most
lamb meat contained levels of 0.05- minerals except phosphorus. Goat meat is a
0.12 mg/100 g DM with significant sire and particularly good source of iron and calcium.
ewe breed effects (Hoffman et a]., 2003). Goat meat appeared to have higher levels of
calcium compared with other species. John-
Manganese son et a/. (1995) also reported higher cal-
cium contents in goat meat (28.1 mg/g DM)
The average farm animal body contains than in beef (8.0 mg/g DM). Cooked goat
manganese at a concentration of 0.2-0.5 mg/ meat was found to contain more calcium
kg DM (Table 11.2). Goat tissue was found than chicken meat (Addrizzo, 2010).
to contain 0.66 mg/100 g DM in the liver, Sheridan et al. (2003) carried out a
0.19 mg/100 g DM in the kidney, 0.159 study comparing the mineral content of
in the spleen, 0.122 mg/100 g DM in the goats and sheep raised on two levels of
brain, 0.098 mg/100 g DM in the heart dietary energy (Table 11.6) and found that
and 0.087 mg/100 g DM in the muscles goat carcasses had higher calcium, potas-
(Table 11.3). Values of 0.02 and 0.13 mg/100 g sium, magnesium, sodium, phosphorus
DM were reported for Omani and Somali and copper contents than sheep carcasses
goats (Table 11.4). Fresh goat meat con- (Sheridan et a]., 2003). Johnson et al. (1995)
tained manganese at 0.28-0.48 Rig wet reported that goat meat had a lower phos-
weight (Park, 1988) and Egyptian goat mus- phorus content (103 mg/85 g cooked meat)
cles contained 0.6 mg/kg DM wet weight than beef (173 mg/85 g cooked meat).
(Abou-Arab, 2001).

Other elements 11.5.2 Tissue type


Farm animal bodies contain many other
elements at various levels including Liver usually has higher concentrations of
molybdenum (1-4 g/kg DM), iodine (0.3- minerals and trace elements. Park (1988)
0.6 g/kg DM) and cobalt (0.02-0.1 mg/kg reported that liver contained 2.4, 11.0, 41.5
DM) (Table 11.2). Omani and Somali goat and 1.3 times higher levels of iron, manga-
muscles contained chromium at 0.01 and nese, copper and iron/zinc than muscles,
0.11 mg/100 g DM, molybdenum at 0.13 respectively. This is because the liver stores
and 0.16 mg/100 g DM, cobalt at 0.041 and most of these elements. Macro- and micro-
0.08 mg/100 g DM, nickel at 0.016 minerals are also found in the brain, heart,
and 0.08 mg/100 g DM, cadmium 0.004 kidney, spleen and muscle. Most of these
and 0.001 mg/100 g DM, lead at 0.014 and tissues are consumed as well as the muscle
Minerals in Goat Meat 271

Table 11.6 Mineral composition (mg/100 g DM) of the 8th to 10th rib cuts of Boer goat kids and Mutton
Merino lambs (16 per treatment) receiving a low- or a high-energy feedlot diet (least squares mean ± sEM)
(from Sheridan et al., 2003).

Treatment

BGLE BGHE MMLE MMHE

Mineral Mean SEM Mean SEM Mean SEM Mean SEM

Calcium 880.84ab 59.362 946.55a 61.309 672.88c 65.857 723.96bc 59.362


Iodine 41.68ac 2.048 43.38a 2.115 36.56bc 2.272 33.45b 2.048
Potassium 141.57a 6.476 130.88a 6.689 95.46b 7.185 86.16b 6.476
Magnesium 32.51a 1.594 35.36a 1.646 24.90b 1.594 24.32b 1.768
Sodium 56.73a 3.415 49.83ac 3.527 42.39bc 3.788 38.12b 3.415
Phosphorus 631.97a 37.685 653.69a 38.920 485.39b 41.807 510.38b 37.685
Copper 0.20a 0.027 0.14ab 0.032 0.11b 0.030 0.13ab 0.027
Iron 1.19a 0.142 1.78b 0.147 1.19a 0.158 1.01a 0.142
Lead 0.013 0.0032 0.016 0.0029 0.014 0.0027 0.016 0.0039

SEM, Standard error of the mean; BGLE, low-energy diet given to Boer goats; BGHE, high-energy diet given to Boer
goats; MMLE, low-energy diet given to Mutton Merino lambs; MMHE, high-energy diet given to Mutton Merino lambs.
Means in the same row with different letters (a, b, c) differ significantly (P< 0.05).

in goat-meat-eating countries in Asia and than those in the semimembranosus muscle


Africa. Therefore, these organs form a use- (Doornenbal and Murray, 1981).
ful source of minerals for the population.

11.5.4 Sex
11.5.3 Individual muscles
Park (1988) observed that differences in
There are some variations in reports on mineral content in goat tissues between
mineral and trace element concentrations in sexes were less pronounced than between
goat tissues. The mineral concentration in tissues, except for manganese, where
muscles is related to physiological function, females had higher manganese levels than
with red muscle tissue being richer in males. Similar observations have been
essential minerals than white muscles reported in other species. Doornenbal and
(Wagner et al., 1976). Differences in concen- Murray (1981) also observed that sex effects
trations of minerals in various carcass mus- were less pronounced for mineral content
cles were reported by MioC et al. (2000). in cattle.
However, Park (1988) reported no differ- The findings of Madruga et al. (1999)
ences in trace element concentrations in the indicated an effect of age and sex on cal-
biceps femoris and longissimus dorsi mus- cium levels in meat. Calcium concentration
cles in Alpine and Nubian goats. Reports was highest in castrates at 175 days age
from other species indicate differences in (8.07 ± 1.24 mg/100 g wet weight) and low-
mineral content between carcass muscles. est in intact males at 310 days of age
For instance, Marchello et al. (1985) (3.01 ± 0.71 mg/100 g wet weight). The
reported a one- to twofold difference in effect of both age and castration was signifi-
mineral content in pork, with shoulder cant, with no effect of an age x sex inter-
muscles containing higher levels of iron action. In cooked meat, calcium values were
and zinc than leg or loin muscles. The cop- 126.4,136.2 and 128.3 mg/100 g DM in
per, iron, zinc and magnesium contents in female, castrate and male broiled meat,
beef longissimus dorsi muscle were higher respectively (Johnson et al., 1995).
272 Osman and 0. Mahgoub

11.5.5 Age iron and copper in the back and shoulder


muscles. Park (1988) observed no differ-
Madruga et a/. (1999) reported that calcium ences between breeds in iron, manganese
content decreased while iron content and zinc content, regardless of sex, but
increased with age in goat meat of males. there was an effect of breed on copper. Sim-
There were no differences in mineral con- ilar observations have been reported in
tent between Boer goats slaughtered at 28 or other species. For example, Doornenbal and
56 days of age (Sheridan et al., 2003). How- Murray (1981) also observed that breed
ever, in other meat-producing species, age effects were less pronounced for mineral
effects have been reported. For example, the content in cattle. However, Hoffman et al.
age of cows affected the levels of iron, zinc, (2003) reported an effect of breed on min-
magnesium and sodium in muscles (Doorn- eral composition in lambs. They found sig-
enbal and Murray, 1981). nificant differences between six breed
crosses in iron, potassium, magnesium and
phosphorus content, with the dam effect
11.5.6 Breed
being more significant than the sire effect.

Reports on the effects of breed on mineral


content in goats vary. This is apparently 11.5.7 Diet
because of differences in the analytical meth-
ods used and muscles studied. Mahgoub There are few data on the effects of diet on
(unpublished data) found significant differ- macro- and micromineral content of goat
ences between native Oman and Somali tissues. However, results from other meat-
goats in magnesium, potassium, sodium, producing animals may shed some light on
silicon, phosphorus, chromium, manga- this issue. Feeding high dietary iron
nese, iron, nickel, copper, zinc, cobalt, cad- increased iron concentrations in the liver,
mium, lead, vanadium and molybdenum spleen, kidney and heart, whereas copper
contents in the psoas major and minor mus- and zinc concentrations of the liver were
cles (Table 11.4). In contrast, Mioe et al. decreased. Dietary iron treatments did not
(2000) found no breed effect on macromin- appear to affect the magnesium or manga-
erals in goat meat (Table 11.7). However, nese content of the liver, spleen, kidney,
they found significant breed effects on zinc, heart and muscle (Standish et al., 1969).

Table 11.7 Macrominerals and trace element content (mg/100 g) in Saanen and Alpine goats
(Mioe et al., 2000).

Saanen Alpine

Leg Back Shoulder Leg Back Shoulder

Mineral Mean SEM Mean SEM Mean SEM Mean SEM Mean SEM Mean SEM

Calcium 15.8 0.67 15.5 0.56 15.3 0.80 16.6 0.49 15.6 0.74 16.3 0.70
Phosphorus 68.6 1.32 65.8 0.97 64.4 3.87 62.2 1.79 31.9 1.68 60.6 1.79
Potassium 132.6 2.65 128.5 2.3 129.5 2.74 135.0 3.4 133.1 2.26 133.2 3.52
Magnesium 19.1 0.43 19.1 0.44 18.6 0.35 19.0 0.33 19.2 0.63 19.3 0.50
Sodium 78.9 2.73 77.9 2.64 78.3 3.12 75.0 1.89 72.2 1.40 72.8 2.67
Zinc 2.8 0.22 2.5 0.09 4.0 0.17 2.7 0.13 2.9 0.17 3.0 0.08
Iron 0.21 0.014 0.21 0.011 0.18 0.014 0.21 0.007 0.19 0.005 0.23 0.010
Manganese 0.06 0.002 0.06 0.004 0.06 0.002 0.06 0.004 0.06 0.003 0.07 0.005
Copper 0.37 0.068 0.31 0.046 0.31 0.033 0.17 0.001 0.23 0.019 0.15 0.017
Minerals in Goat Meat 273

Feeding 1600 ppm iron as either ferrous sul- amounting to more than eightfold higher
fate or ferric citrate resulted in increased values in intact males and more than five-
iron in the kidney, liver and spleen. Levels fold higher values than castrates of compa-
of copper, zinc, magnesium and manganese rable ages. Cooked goat meat contained
in tissues were not influenced by the treat- 28.1 mg calcium/g DM (Johnson et al.,
ment. In general, increasing the dietary sul- 1995). The effect of cooking on calcium
fate concentration resulted in tissue mineral content is difficult to explain as the differ-
concentrations similar to those for the basal ence in cooking loss was similar (31.1 and
diet, indicating that the effects of the dietary 30.5%), and ash content in intact male meat
sulfate were due primarily to iron (Standish was about 1.44 times than that reported by
and Ammerman, 1971). Dietary iron influ- Madruga et al. (1999) (Table 11.8).
enced tissue mineral content in cattle
(Standish et al., 1969) and sheep (Standish
and Ammerman, 1971). 11.6 Correlation Between Minerals
in Goat Meat

11.5.8 Cooking Significant correlations were found between


minerals in goat meat and these correlations
Cooking and processing affect the mineral were more pronounced for macro- than for
content of goat meat, including that of cal- microminerals (Mioe et al., 2000). These
cium. Higher values of calcium were reported included significant positive correlations
in broiled Florida native or F1 crosses of between the major macrominerals calcium,
Florida native x Nubian or Spanish goat meat phosphorus, potassium and magnesium in
at 6-10 months by Johnson et al. (1995) the thigh muscle of Alpine goats (Mioe
(Table 11.8). Calcium values of broiler meat et al., 2000). Park (1990) also reported posi-
were much higher than values reported tive correlations between phosphorus and
for uncooked meat (Madruga et al., 1999), potassium.

Table 11.8. Effect of sex on mineral analysis of 100 g composite of broiled and moisture content of
cooked and uncooked goat meat and comparison of 85 g cooked goat and beef meat (adapted from
Johnson et al., 1995).

Broiled goat meat (100 g) Cooked meat (85 g)

Component Female Castrate Male SEM Goat Beef

Mineral (mg)
Calcium 30.6 32.7 37.9 6.22 28.1 (33.1) 8.0 (9.4)
Magnesium 29.6 28.8 29.8 1.5 24.8 (29.2) 19.0 (22.4)
Potassium 394.4 348.9 372.7 15.00 315.0 (370.6) 266.0 (312.9)
Phosphorus 126.4 136.2 128.3 7.87 103.0 (121.2) 173.0 (204.5)
Sodium 113.0 115.4 106.2 5.62 92.3 (108.6) 52.0 (61.2)
Copper 0.1 2.3 0.7 0.75 1.0 (1.2) 0.1 (0.11)
Iron 2.6 2.4 2.4 0.13 2.2 (2.6) 2.2 (2.6)
Manganese 0.04 0.04 0.00 0.00 0.04 (0.05) 0.01 (0.01)
Zinc 5.3 4.7 4.9 1.28 4.4 (5.2) 5.0 (5.9)
Moisture (g)
Uncooked 68.5 68.4 70.3 0.76
Cooked 57.4 59.5 59.3 0.61
Cooked ash (g) 1.2 1.3 1.4 0.08
Cooked loss (%) 33.5 30.5 31.1 0.80

SEM, Standard error of the mean.


274 Osman and 0. Mahgoub

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12 Linear Body Measurements and
Carcass Characteristics of Goats

I.T. Kadim and 0. Mahgoub


Department of Animal & Veterinary Sciences, College of Agricultural and Marine
Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University, Sultanate of Oman

12.1 Abstract weight under inexpensive management


systems. The dressing percentage of goats
This chapter discusses the carcass charac- varies from 38.5 to 52.3% depending on
teristics of goats, with emphasis on live sex, body condition and breed. The dress-
body weight and linear carcass measure- ing percentage is lower for male than
ments. Goats are a good potential source of female goats, with this difference increas-
meat as they yield good carcass weights ing with age. Goat carcasses are leaner than
under inexpensive management systems. other meat animal carcasses because the fat
The economic importance of goat carcasses tends to be concentrated around the vis-
in the world can be attributed to a demand cera. The latter anatomical feature makes
for goat meat, which is believed to make up goats more adaptable to the environmental
80% of the total meat consumed in Asia extremes of the tropics.
and Africa. Age, breed, live weight and
diet influence goat live body and carcass
measurements. Linear measurements 12.2 Introduction
reflect the length of the body dimensions of
the live animal to describe the changing Goats are one of the most widely domesti-
body shape in order to predict both animal cated animals, as evidenced by their wide
live weight and composition. Goat carcass distribution and utilization due to their
characteristics can also be evaluated by high adaptability to a broad range of envi-
assessing the conformation and distribu- ronments. They are also able to utilize mar-
tion of muscle and fat in the carcass. Goat ginal land to produce high-quality protein
carcass weight is one of the most variable products. Goat meat is the primary source
parameters, with the variation apparently of protein in many parts of the world, espe-
due to condition, sex, breed and age at cially Asia and Africa. The importance of
slaughter. Goat carcasses are thin and shal- goats is associated with the increasing
low but become thicker and more compact number of goats globally (Morand-Fehr
as carcass weight increases. Carcass weightet al., 2004), despite major changes in
is the best predictor of the meat content agriculture due to industrial merges, glo-
because of the lean nature of the carcass. balization and technological advances in
The economic value of a goat carcass developed countries (McMillin and Brock,
depends on its yield of reasonable carcass 2005). There is also a worldwide tendency
© CAB International 2012. Goat Meat Production and Quality
(eds 0. Mahgoub, I.T. Kadim and E.G. Webb) 277
278 1. 7= Kadim and 0. Mahgoub

towards a rapid increase in the demand for the lengths of the bones of the animal. Over-
goat meat (Gipson, 1998; Stankov et al., all, when taken sequentially over a period of
2002). Goat meat has an enormous market time, they indicate the way in which the ani-
potential, as it could become an ideal mal body is changing shape, and have been
choice for health-conscious consumers used as predictors of both animal live weight
because it has a lower fat content than and carcass composition. Examples of mea-
other types of red meat. This is an impor- surements that may be taken are given in Fig.
tant factor in reducing the risk of cardio- 12.1 and Table 12.1. The five basic live body
vascular diseases (van Niekerk and Casey, measurements in Table 12.1 are considered
1988; Park et al., 1991; Colomer-Rocher adequate to describe the goat's body
et al., 1992; Giese, 1992; Stankov et al., composition, allowing comparisons to be
2002). Goat meat is also a good source of made of the stage of growth reached by dif-
desirable fatty acids, as goats deposit rela- ferent parts of the body in the live animal.
tively higher amounts of polyunsaturated The purpose of taking these live body
fatty acids than other ruminants (Banska- measurements is to provide a comparative
lieva et al., 2000; Mahgoub et al., 2002).
Carcass quality, an important aspect in the
marketing of meat, is not well defined.
Elucidation of the available reports on goat
carcass quality is complicated by the fact
that there are so many goat breeds kept
under such widely different conditions
that comparisons of results are not always
meaningful. Information on live body para-
meters and carcass characteristics from dif-
ferent breeds of goats can be evaluated
properly. However, unfortunately much of
the data cannot be used directly to evaluate
carcass yields.
This chapter attempts to highlight the
characteristics of goat carcasses with spe-
cial emphasis on live and linear carcass
measurements, dressing percentage and
meat composition.

12.3 External Live Linear Body


Measurements

Animal live linear body measurements are


recognized as preferable objective measure-
ments and have been used as a predictor of
goat body composition (Kadim et al., 2006).
Live body dimensions can be measured with
a caliper and flexible tapes. An accurate
description of the body growth dimensions
is important for a better understanding of the
relationship between growth stage and body Fig. 12.1. Diagram indicating where measurements
size (Lawrence and Fowler, 1997; Kamalza- are taken on the live goat. 1, Wither height; 2, body
deh et al., 1998; Kadim et al., 2006). Most of length; 3, rump height; 4, rump width. See Table
the linear measurements primarily reflect 12.1 for details.
Linear Measurements of Goat Carcass 279

Table 12.1. Definitions of live and carcass linear body weight. However, if the animal retained
measurements shown in Fig. 12.1 (from Kadim, a constant shape and varied in size only,
1988). then, as long as the basic geometry of the goat
Measurement Definition
was understood, dimensions or tissue vol-
umes could be predicted from other dimen-
Body length Distance between the sions or tissue volumes. Fisher (1975b)
sciatic tuber (pinbone) pointed out that, in addition to the range of
and the most distal point variable sizes in animal bodies, there are also
of the major tuberosity of ranges in tissue shapes and proportions.
the humerus
Rump height Highest point over the hip
A series of live linear body measure-
bone
ments on three breeds of Omani goats (Jebel
Rump width Widest horizontal width Akhdar, Batina and Dhofari) was carried out
across the hips region by Kadim et al. (2006). These measurements
Wither height Highest point over the comprised body length, rump height, rump
scapulae vertically to the width, wither height and wither width (Fig.
ground 12.2). The measurements were taken at
Wither width Widest horizontal width weaning and then at 4-week intervals until
across the shoulder 48 weeks of age. They found that the Jebel
region Akhdar breed had significantly greater
linear body dimensions than the Batina and
Dhofari breeds. This is in line with the
breed effects on carcass linear measure-
description of the various groups of goats ments of the same three breeds of Omani
studied, rather than to provide a basis for goats reported by Kadim et al. (2004). The
predicting body weight or composition from differences between the three breeds were
such measurements, as many studies have more pronounced in length and height mea-
aimed to do in the past (Kadim et al., 2006). surements than in bone width measure-
Fisher (1975a) pointed out that there are ments, as bone length is more closely
three sources of error in taking body mea- associated with early development than
surements: (i) correct identification; (ii) loca- width.
tion of the end reference points in linear The length of rump, loin and chine;
measurements; and (iii) anatomical distor- chest and shoulder widths; chest depth;
tion produced by the animal changing either height at withers and at hip; barrel circum-
position or posture. Errors involved in actu- ference; and heart girth were recorded on
ally taking the measurement at any one posi- kids, yearlings and adults of Angora, Span-
tion will be minimal for caliper measurements ish, dairy and Boer x Spanish cross goats
but greater for measurements using flexible (Pinkerton and McMillin, 2000). Boer-cross
tape over surfaces, particularly if they are kids had longer rump, loin and chine mea-
concave. The accuracy of body measure- surements and wider and deeper chest
ments depends on the size of skeletal units dimensions, as well as larger heart girth
and the development of both soft tissues and and barrel circumference measurements,
the skeleton or the development of soft tis- than kid goats of the other breeds. Spanish
sues only (Lawrence and Fowler, 1997). The yearling goats had slightly greater dimen-
order of decreasing accuracy is from skeletal sions at each location, including height at
measurements to skeletal plus flesh mea- withers and height at hip, than Boer-cross
surements to soft tissue measurements. In yearlings, which could indicate differences
goats, the prediction of soft tissue deposition in maturation patterns between the two
and distribution within regions of the live breeds. Angora goats had smaller dimen-
body measurements is inadequate. Goat live sions at each age compared with the other
body dimensions vary in both shape and breeds. Yearling goats of each breed gener-
size. Therefore, live body measurements ally had greater dimensions at each loca-
cannot be used as accurate predictors of tion than kid goats of the same breed, and
280 L T. Kadim and 0. Mahgoub

560
510
540 Batina Batina
Dhofati 490 Dhofari
520 oJebel Akhdar E oJebel Akhdar
E 470
500
450
in 480 C)
2 430
e) 460 E- 410
c-ci' 440 390
420 370
400 350
10 14 18 22 26 30 34 38 42 46 10 14 18 22 26 30 34 38 42 46
Age (weeks) Age (weeks)
170 510
Batina Batina
160 Dhofari 490 Dhofari
oJebel Akhdar oJebel Akhdar
150 E 470
:E. 450
140
-g) 430
g130
8 410
120 _c
cc E 390
110 370
100 11 11 350
10 4 18 22 26 30 34 38 42 46 10 14 18 22 26 30 34 38 42 46
Age (weeks) Age (weeks

Batina
160 Dhofari
oJebel Akhdar
150 -
E
140 -
-15
130 -
'6
120 -

110 -

100 n-
10 14 18 22 26 30 34 38 42 46
Age week)

Fig. 12.2. Body length, rump height, rump width, wither height and wither width measurements of three
local Omani goat breeds, showing increases with increasing age (Kadim et al., 2006).

adult goats correspondingly had greater breeds were significant due to heterotic
dimensions than the yearling goats. This effects (Mourad and Anous, 1998). The
indicates an obvious age effect. The live Anglo-Nubian breed was crossed with
animal traits were generally highly corre- smaller indigenous goats to take advantage
lated with one another, indicating that ani- of body conformation in the exotic breed
mals that are larger in one measurement are (Wilson et al., 1980; Hussain et al. 1983).
usually larger in others (Pinkerton and
McMillin, 2000). Breed differences in body
measurements of the Bornu White, Red
Sokoto, Small East African, Sudanese Des- 12.4 Carcass Weight
ert and West African Dwarf breeds of goat
indigenous to the African continent have In practice, goats are sold on a weight basis.
been reported (Quartermain, 1991). The Therefore, the relationship between the
width and shape of the Alpine and Rove carcass weight and the live weight of the
Linear Measurements of Goat Carcass 281

goat is very important. The economic value because the live weight was much heavier
of goat carcass characteristics depends on (Pinkerton and McMillin, 2000).
its yield of meat, as well as the cutting and Carcasses of mature male goats were
processing quality of the meat. Goats are a significantly heavier than female carcasses
good potential source of meat as they yield due to the heavier bone and forequarters of
reasonable carcass weights under inexpen- males (Simela et al., 1999). The effects of
sive management systems. Goat carcass concentrate supplementation on carcass
weight is one of the most variables parame- quality of Small East African goats were
ters, with the variation apparently due to assessed by Safari et al. (2009), who found
condition, sex, breed and age at slaughter. that hot and cold carcass weights of goats
Carcass weight was found to be the best pre- that received 100 and 66% ad libitum con-
dictor of the meat content because of the centrates were 3 kg heavier than those that
lean component of carcasses (Hendrick, did not receive concentrate.
1983; Simela et al., 1999). This justifies the
suggestion that carcass weight should be
included in all goat carcass classification
schemes (Prasad and Kirton, 1992). Gener- 12.5 Carcass Linear Measurements
ally, goat carcass weight ranges between 10
and 32 kg and increases with increasing Objective techniques are used to predict
body weight. The average carcass weight carcass quality according to the anticipated
was 10.1 kg in Indian breeds, but much proportions of muscle, bone and fatty tis-
higher at 31.2 kg in South African goats sues. Most carcass linear techniques have
(Ueckermann, 1969). The average Omani aimed to describe carcass quality in the
goat carcass weight was 11.7-12.1 kg context of the measurable length of bone
(Kadim et al., 2004). The main problem in on the basis that this defines body confor-
recording carcass weight in goats is that of mation and may be an important predictor
standardizing the time after slaughter at of carcass components. Some schemes
which the weight is recorded Immediately have used back-fat thickness as a compo-
after slaughter, the carcass is hot. The sub- nent for grading carcasses, while others
sequent cooling and shrinking, which takes have used a combination of subjective and
place for about 24 h in a chiller room, results objective techniques for carcass compari-
in variable losses in carcass weight of son predictions.
up to 2%. Pinkerton and McMillin (2000) The weight and conformation of the
reported a highly significant simple correla- goat carcass and its body composition are
tion between hot and cold carcass weights important to farmers and consumers. Car-
in goats (r = 0.96). Boer-cross kid goats cass conformation is a product of the rates
raised for meat had heavier hot carcasses of deposition of the various carcass compo-
than dairy breeds of Angora or Spanish kid nents. However, techniques used in research
goats. Spanish x Boer cross yearling goats work vary widely. Therefore, uniform, fast,
had heavier hot carcass weights than Angora repeatable and precise techniques are
and dairy yearling goats (Pinkerton and needed for practical evaluation of carcasses
McMillin, 2000). The adult dairy goats had in the field and to assess carcass quality.
heavier hot carcasses than Angora and Carcass linear measurements can be used
Spanish adult goats because their weight for carcass quality evaluation. A series of
was much higher. external linear measurements were sug-
The effects of goat breed, sex and nutri- gested by Moxham and Brown lie (1976)
tion within breed on carcass weight and including carcass length, leg length, gigot
dressing percentage have been investigated width, maximum shoulder width, depth
(Kadim et al., 2004; Mahgoub et al., 2005; from scapula to sternum and width behind
Safari et al., 2009). The adult dairy goats the shoulders (Palsson, 1939). The measure-
had higher (P < 0.05) hot carcass weights ments that are used most commonly
than Angora and Spanish adult goats for sheep are summarized in Table 12.2.
282 1. T. Kadim and 0. Mahgoub

Differences in carcass dimensions should groups (Safari et al., 2009) could be attrib-
be taken into consideration if this form of uted to the unique fattening pattern of goats,
carcass grading is to be adopted for goats, as as they deposit most of their fat around vis-
they affect carcass conformation. Carcass cera and less in the carcass (Babiker et al.,
evaluation was carried out on 145 goats by 1990; Webb et al., 2005). However, increas-
Owen et al. (1977) to provide background ing levels of carcass conformation with con-
data on various body and carcass character- centrate allowance suggest that goats respond
istics. Although most of the linear measure- to improved nutrition by accretion of more
ments reflected the steady growth in goats muscle protein (Sheridan et al., 2003).
with increasing age, certain parts of the Simela et al. (1999) reported that carcass
goats did not show any increased growth in length, chest depth, thigh circumference and
the older age groups (Owen et al., 1977). eye muscle area significantly increased with
The head and fore limbs are early maturing age of male goats, while fat depth over the
relative to the rest of the body, according to eye muscle did not vary with age.
the theory of centripetal or heterogenic There were no significant differences in
growth (Palsson, 1955). carcass dimensions between different sexes
Carcass quality characteristics can be of mature goats except for the eye muscle
evaluated by assessing the conformation of area, which was significantly greater in
the carcass and the amount and distribution male than in female goats (Simela et al.,
of muscle and fat in a carcass. Goat carcasses 1999). Omani Batina, Dofari and Jebel Akh-
are thin and shallow and not compact as in dar goats were slaughtered at similar ages
other meat-producing animals. However, (Kadim et al., 2006). Several carcass mea-
goat carcasses become thicker and more surements were recorded and the results are
compact as carcass weight increases. Safari presented in Table 12.3. The carcass and
et al. (2009) found that concentrate-supple- the leg lengths of the Jebel Akhdar goat were
mented Small East African goats displayed longer by 50 and 27 mm, respectively, than
higher values for carcass length, chest depth the Dhofari goats. The longer carcass of
and leg length than those of non-supple- Jebel Akhdar goats compared with the other
mented goats. The minimal difference in two breeds can be related to the larger size
carcass fatness between concentrate- of the breed. The depth from scapula to ster-
supplemented and non-supplemented num was significantly greater by 19 and

Table 12.2. Definitions of the carcass linear measurements shown in Fig. 12.3.

Measurement Definition

Carcass length From the point where the gambrel is inserted through the Achilles
tendon to a point just anterior to the point of the humerus
(Moxham and Brownlie, 1976)
Leg length From the distal end of the tarsals to the centre of the tuberosity of
the tibia, which is visible on the ventral aspect of the hanging
carcasses (Palsson, 1939)
Gigot width (G) Maximum width of the gigots, with the carcass suspended from a
gambrel; the measurement is taken at right angles to the length
of the carcass at a line level with the femoral trochanter (Palsson,
1939)
Maximum shoulder width Maximum width of the shoulder, measured at the level of the
scapula from one lateral surface to the other (Palsson, 1939)
Depth from scapula to sternum Maximum depth of the chest taken behind the shoulders at a line
cutting the posterior angles of the scapula and at right angles to
the length of the carcass (Palsson, 1939)
Width behind shoulders Minimum width behind the scapulae (Palsson, 1939)
Linear Measurements of Goat Carcass 283

(a)

Leg
length
(T)

Gigot width
(G)

Body
length
(LB)

Width behind
shoulder
(WTH)

Maximum
shoulder
width
(WF)d

Fig. 12.3. (a) Diagram indicating where measurements are taken on a hanging carcass (see Table 12.2
for details). (b) Side view of a carcass showing the general position of wholesale cuts.

27 mm for the Jebel Akhdar carcass than the muscle area differed significantly between
Batina and Dhofari carcasses, respectively. breeds, with the Jebel Akhdar goats having a
The shorter carcass of the Dhofari goat significantly larger area by 24 mm2 than the
was accompanied by a significantly wider Batina breed (Table 12.3). The longissimus
gigot (10 mm more than the Batina goat). muscle area for the three Omani goats
Differences between breeds in carcass ranged from 106 to 130 mm2 These values
dimensions should be taken into consider- are comparable to the value of 112 mm2 for
ation if carcass grading is adopted for Omani Dhofari goats reported by El Hag and El
goats as well as other goats as they affect Shargi (1996) but was much higher than the
carcass conformation. The longissimus 68 and 72 mm2 reported for other breeds by
284 L T. Kadim and 0. Mahgoub

Table 12.3. Slaughter weight, empty body weight, carcass weight, dressing percentage
and carcass linear dimensions for three breeds of Omani goats (Kadim et al., 2004).

Breed

Parameter Batina Dhofari Jebel Akhdar

Body weight (kg) 29.3 29.9 33.1


Empty body weight (kg) 21.9 22.1 24.6
Hot carcass (kg) 11.9 12.7 13.4
Carcass (kg) 11.7 12.5 13.1
Dressing percentages 39.8 41.8 39.5
Dressing percentageb 53.4 56.6 53.3
Carcass length (mm) 1046 1025 1075
Leg length (mm) 269 253 280
Th (mm)c 267 259 286
Gigot width (G) (mm) 163 173 169
WTH (mm)d 198 217 201
WF (mm)e 132 137 139
Longissimus depth (mm) 56 57 60
Longissimus width (mm) 25 28 30
Longissimus area (mm) 106 119 130

aBased on full live body weight.


bBased on empty body weight.
eTh, Depth from scapula to sternum.
dVVTH, Width behind shoulder.
aWF, Maximum shoulder width.

Potchoiba et al. (1990) and Dhanda et al. The bigger and blockier bodies of the Boer
goats are also indicative of a relatively
(1999a), respectively. These differences can
be attributed to differences in the live improved breed.
weight of the goats used in the different
studies. There were no significant breed dif-
ferences for longissimus dorsi muscle depth
and width. Boer x Spanish goats had car- 12.6 Dressing Percentage
casses with higher conformation scores and
a larger leg circumference than carcasses The dressing percentage is a measure of
from Spanish goats, but lean, bone and fat carcass weight relative to live weight of the
proportions were similar in the carcass and goat. It depends on the state of maturity,
wholesale cuts within diet groups (Oman breed, sex and alimentary tract contents.
et al., 1999). The latter factor will vary depending on
Castrated indigenous male goats are the period of fasting and the amount of
heavier and larger in most linear measure- feed consumed before slaughter. Dressing
ments than goats in general and are generally percentage, expressed in terms of empty
larger in spite of a similar overall shape. This body weight (EBW), usually rises as the
agrees with reports on sheep (Hammond, animal increases in age and body weight
1932, 1960). Hammond reported that Boer by around 2-5% (Norman, 1991). Dividing
goats were heavier and larger in all respects the hot or cold carcass weight including
than indigenous goats, except in the distal kidney by live body weight will yield
parts of the fore- and hindlegs and in shoul- dressing percentage values in the 39-52%
der height. Shorter fore cannons have been range in goats. The interactions among the
linked with earlier maturity and breed individual factors affecting dressing per-
improvement in sheep (Palsson, 1939, 1955). centage are great, making it difficult to
Linear Measurements of Goat Carcass 285

accurately predict carcass yield or quality Differences among breeds in dressing


by visual examination of the live goat. percenatge have been widely investigated
In the goat, the dressing percentage (Nagpal et al., 1995; Dhanda et al., 1999a,b;
was found to vary from 38.5 to 52.3% Kadim et al., 2004; Oman et al., 1999;
(Owen, 1975; Kadim et al., 2004; Safari Mushi, 2004; Mahgoub et al., 2005). Dress-
et al., 2009) depending on sex, body condi- ing percentage based on full and empty
tion and breed. As with most livestock spe- live body weights were in the range of
cies, the age and sex of the goat influence 39.5-41.8% and 53.3-56.6%, respectively,
carcass and dressing percentage. The dress- and dressing percentage significantly var-
ing percentage is lower for male than female ied between three Omani breeds. Dhofari
goats, with this difference increasing with goat had a significantly higher dressing
age (Mahgoub et al., 2005). percentage. Jebel Akhdar goats had higher
Average dressing percentages across age cold and hot carcass weights than Batina
groups were 48-54% for Spanish x Boer goats (Mahgoub et al., 2005). This result is
cross goats and 43-49% for Angora and dairy in agreement with Kadim et al. (2004), who
goats in the study of Pinkerton and McMillin showed significant differences among the
(2000). Dressing percentage (based on EBW) same breeds of goat. The dressing percent-
of goats ranged between 53 and 57%, with age of Jebel Akhdar goats was higher than
the Dhofari goats having a significantly those reported for most tropical breeds (52
higher value than the other two breeds and 53%) such as Batina (on a fasted
(Kadim et al., 2004). It is rather difficult to weight basis) at the same weight of 18 kg
compare values of dressing percentages from (Mahgoub and Lodge, 1996). Dhanda et al.
different studies because different methods (1999a) reported significant differences
of slaughter are applied (e.g. kidney, kidney between various goat breeds for dressing
fat, head). Values varied between 44 and percentage based on full body weight.
55% (Gaili et al. 1972; Owen, 1975; Fehr et They attributed these differences to varia-
a/., 1976; Pinkerton and McMillin, 2000; tions in the weight of the digestive tract
Kadim et al., 2004). contents. A digestive tract content of 9.8-
Sex class also influences carcass weight 13.9% is comparable to 11-13% (of fasted
and dressing percentage. There are, how- slaughter weight) for Batina goats (Mahgoub
ever, some reports where the differences in and Lodge, 1996) but lower than the value
dressing percentage of male and female of 17.8% found for some tropical breeds
goats were 53.5 and 55.3%, respectively, (Devendra and Burns, 1983). Variations for
within differences being non-significant dressing percentage based on full body
(Mahgoub et al., 2005). Intact male goats weight are generally less than for dressing
and wethers had a lower dressing percent- percentage based on EBW. A dressing per-
age than female goats, but the difference centage (based on EBW) of goats ranging
was not significant (Mahgoub et al., 2005). from 53.3 to 56.6% is in agreement with
Gut fill was greater in entire males than the reports of Potchoiba et al. (1990), El
castrated males with little difference in Hag and El Shargi (1996), Mahgoub and
dressing percentage (53.5 and 52.9%, Lodge (1996) and Marinova et al. (2001).
respectively) when dressing percentage Breed differences in dressing percentage or
was calculated on an EBW basis (Mahgoub lack of them are influenced by the degree
et al., 2005). Mahgoub (1997) reported of full gut at slaughter. The dressing per-
similar results and attributed the small centage was higher in young intact males
difference in dressing percentage between of Spanish breeds compared with Angora
males and females to the higher percent- breeds (Nagpal et al., 1995).
age of subcutaneous fat in the female car- The dressing percentage of goats is
casses. Furthermore, the heavier bone of influenced by nutritional status and diet,
the head and lower extremities of the male and was found to increase from 40.4-43.0%
also has an adverse effect on the dressing in unfattened goats to 54.1% in fattened
percentage. goats (Gaili et al., 1972). Animals kept on
286 /. T. Kadim and 0. Mahgoub

high nutritional plane diets produced cavity. Total non-carcass fat accounted for
higher dressing percentages (Gaili et al., 42-52% of the total body fat in the goat
1972). The energy density of diets fed to (Mahgoub et al., 2005) with more intermus-
goats can influence carcass characteristics cular fat (28-41%) than subcutaneous fat
across various slaughter weights (Uecker- (15-25%). The apparent ability of goats to
mann, 1969). Dressing percentage rises with store fat internally around the viscera is a
increasing slaughter weight and length of demonstration of their adaptability to the
feeding period. The feed conversion ratio environmental extremes of the tropics, as
(kilograms of feed required for a kilogram of indigenous African wildlife has similar
weight gain) decreases as heavier carcasses characteristics.
are produced. An all-roughage ration As with most livestock species, carcass
required more time on feed and required weight, breed, sex and nutritional systems
more kilograms of hay per kilogram of of the goat influence carcass components.
weight gain than rations containing Goat carcass weight has a remarkable influ-
concentrates. The responses to ratios of ence on carcass components, which is
60:40 and 40:60 roughage:concentrate were reflected in the goat meat markets. Increased
rather similar. The relative costs of hay carcass weight resulted in increased carcass
and concentrates and the reduced time on fat percentage in both sexes (Mahgoub et al.,
feed at the higher concentrate level will 2005; Table 12.4). Similar conclusions were
determine the economic choice among reported by Dhanda et al. (2003a). Other
roughage:concentrate ratios. Difference in studies reported that increased carcass
feeding regimes between studies is a possi- weight increased the proportions of lean to
ble factor for the observed discrepancies. fat and bone (Ruvuna et al., 1992). In con-
Shahjalal et al. (1992) reported increased trast, Simela et al. (1999) found that carcass
carcass weight and dressing percentage of lean and bone weights increased with age of
British Angora goats with increasing levels male goats but fat content and proportions
of high-energy concentrate diets. Safari of the tissues did not vary with age. The
et al. (2009) stated that dressing percentage lack of variation in subcutaneous and inter-
increased with levels of concentrate supple- muscular fat measurements in goats with
mentation in a curvilinear fashion. age is due to the inherent low priority for fat
Yayneshet et al. (2008) studied the effect of deposition in the carcass depot (Simela
different levels of Acacia etbaica and et al., 1999). In addition, development of
Dichrostachys cinera fruits on the dressing this issue is limited by the anti-lipogenic
percentage of Abergelle goats. The data effect of androgens in males and the off-
range diet, which does not enhance fat
indicated that dressing percentage increased
with an increased level of either type of deposition (Casey and van Niekerk, 1985).
fruit supplement, the highest (51.8%) being Sex also influenced goat carcass com-
achieved at the 1.5% D. cinera level. position, with fat tissue being the most
affected (Mahgoub et al., 2004, 2005). Intact
males at 28 kg live weight had a higher lean
12.7 Carcass Components to fat to bone ratio (64:16:16) than females
(62:21:13) (Mahgoub et al., 2005). Similar
Goat carcasses are considerably leaner than conclusions were reported by Ruvuna et al.
other livestock carcasses, chiefly because (1992). These data substantiated the find-
the fat tends to be concentrated around the ings of Ruvuna et al. (1992) that castrated
viscera and is separated as offal at slaughter males had lower levels of carcass fat than
(Owen et al., 1978). Goat carcasses usually females. Carcasses from intact males had
have patch coverage of fat (less than higher contents of muscle and lower con-
2-3 mm) and consequently they have a high tents of fat than carcasses from females
lean content. Mahgoub et al. (2004) showed (Colomer-Rocher et al., 1992), whereas car-
that, as a proportion of total fat, goats depos- casses of castrated male kid goats had higher
ited relatively high levels of fat in the body percentages of lean and lower amounts of
Linear Measurements of Goat Carcass 287

Table 12.4. Carcass weight and body components of Jebel Akhdar goats (from Mahgoub et al., 2005).

Buck Wether Doe

Item 11 kg 18 kg 28 kg 11 kg 18 kg 28 kg 11 kg 18 kg 28 kg

Cold carcass wt. (kg) 4.7 7.9 13.6 4.2 7.9 13.2 5.1 4.8 13.9
Carcass muscle (%) 62.7 63.2 64.0 60.1 61.0 62.5 63.3 62.4 61.5
Carcass bone ( %) 23.6 20.2 15.6 21.5 18.7 16.0 19.5 15.8 13.1
Carcass fat (%) 8.5 11.9 16.1 13.1 16.0 17.7 11.1 16.6 21.3
Muscle:bone ratio 2.7 3.2 4.1 2.6 3.3 3.9 3.3 4.0 4.7
Muscle:fat ratio 7.4 5.6 4.1 4.8 3.8 3.6 5.8 3.8 3.0

carcass fat than carcasses from female kid in percentages of the carcass cuts with geno-
goats (Hogg et al., 1992; Mahgoub et al., type, percentages of muscle in the shoulder
2005). Those findings were similar to earlier and leg were higher from goats with feral
reports on goats. Wilson (1960) reported genotypes (Dhanda et al., 2003b). Johnson
that female East African Dwarf kid goats (2000) found that 14-20 kg capretto car-
had higher fat levels and less bone in the casses from Boer x cashmere and cashmere
carcass than male goats, with differences male goats had more subcutaneous and
increasing with age. Johnson et al. (1995) intermuscular fat than from Boer x feral
also reported that carcasses of female kid male kid goats. These results were generally
goats had less bone and more fat than those reinforced by the findings of Hussain et al.
of males, which in turn had less bone and (1983), where, in 11 genotypes, goats with
less fat than carcasses of castrated males. some feral breeding had higher percentages
Mahgoub et al. (2004, 2005) reported that of muscle and lower percentages of fat in
weight at slaughter influences composition, carcasses than goats from established breed
with wethers having more total carcass fat genotypes. Imported feral goat carcasses
than intact males or females at an 11 kg from Australia had a superior conformation
slaughter weight, whereas females had with the same amount of external fat, higher
more total body and carcass fat than weth- percentages of total primal cuts and lower
ers, which had more fat than intact males, at percentages of total boneless meat than did
18 and 28 kg slaughter weights. Goats at a carcasses from goats raised on pasture (Nuti
lighter carcass weight of 16 kg were used in et al., 2003).
the study of Hogg et al. (1992), whereas a Goats on a high plane of nutrition had
range of carcass weights from 2 to 52 kg of heavier carcass weights with higher levels
37 male and female Saanen goats was of fat than did goats on a lower plane of
reported in the study by Colomer-Rocher nutrition (Wilson, 1960; Haddad, 2005).
et al. (1992). This may explain some of the Feedlot finishing of Boer x Spanish and
differences in results. Litter size did not Spanish goats with 80% concentrate diets
affect body composition in goats (Todaro ad libitum resulted in increased carcass fat
et al., 2004). thickness and increased fat percentage in
Muscling was not found to be different primal cuts compared with goats raised on
in goats of five different genotypes rangeland with no supplemental feeding
(Boer x Angora, Boer x Saanen, feral x feral, (Table 12.5; Oman et al., 1999).
Saanen x Angora and Saanen x feral) at the Boer-cross kid goats received some
same live weight (Dhanda et al., 1999a,b). In grain and had slightly higher levels of
other studies, however, fat thickness at the external fat than the Boer-cross yearling
12th to 13th rib was different among male goats that were raised only on pasture. It
goats of these genotypes (Dhanda et a/., was anticipated that external fat would
2003a). Although there were no differences increase in goats of older ages as a normal
288 /. T. Kadim and 0. Mahgoub

Table 12.5. Selected characteristics of carcasses from Boer x Spanish and Spanish goats from feedlot
or range regimens (from Oman et al., 1999).

Boer x Spanish Spanish

Item Feedlot Range Feedlot Range

Hot carcass weight (kg) 21.7 10.0 19.2 8.8


Dressing percentage 56.9 48.8 57.4 47.5
Adjusted fat thickness (cm) 0.16 0.04 0.11 0.04
Leg circumference (cm) 54.9 44.0 52.0 42.6
Carcass tissue
Lean (%) 57.8 55.9 57.6 55.3
Bone (%) 26.5 36.89 27.6 36.5
Fat (%) 15.7 7.3 13.4 8.2

indication of increased animal maturity. before marbling is deposited inside the


The external fat score was correlated with muscle.
estimated kidney and pelvic fat (0.60) and
actual kidney and pelvic fat (0.56). Read-
ers should be aware that growing/ageing 12.8 Conclusions
goats deposit fat first (and in the greatest
quantity) in the kidney/pelvic region and Goats can produce good-quality meat from
secondly over the rib cage. Only rarely few resources, which may be important
does a goat get enough extra feed to lay with the increased global demand for meat.
down fat along the top of its back, similar Age, breed and nutrition can influence goat
to marbling (the intramuscular deposition body weight and carcass quality character-
of fat). Other red-meat species are specifi- istics. Goat carcass characteristics can be
cally fattened in feedlots to have excessive evaluated by assessing the carcass compo-
external fat that is deposited somewhat nents, which can be used to predict meat
uniformly along the back and over the ribs content.

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13 Nutritive Value and Quality
Characteristics of Goat Meat

I.T. Kadim and 0. Mahgoub


Department of Animal & Veterinary Sciences, College of Agricultural and Marine
Science, Sultan Qaboos University Muscat, Sultanate of Oman

13.1 Abstract as goats deposit relatively higher amounts


of polyunsaturated fatty acids than other
Goat is one of the most common domesti- ruminants. Goat meat thus provides high-
cated animals, both in its distribution and quality nutrients but there are important
its utilization, due to its adaptation to a palatability parameters. Pre- and post-mor-
wide range of environments. There has been tem factors should be considered carefully
a worldwide tendency towards a rapid to improve goat meat quality. New technol-
increase in the demand for goat meat, indi- ogies can be used to improve goat meat
cating an enormous market potential. Car- quality by electrical stimulation, ageing and
cass quality characteristics of goats have chilling.
received some attention, but products from
goats, an important aspect in the marketing
of goat meat, are not well defined. Goat meat 13.2 Introduction
quality parameters are extremely important
for consumers to select meat. They are also Goat meat is one of the most widely con-
important to upgrade meat quality through sumed meats in the world (Stankov et al.,
processing procedures, thus extending the 2002). The increasing economic importance
shelf-life and distribution of products more of goat production in the world can be
effectively. Goat carcasses are considerably attributed to the increase in demand for its
leaner than other livestock carcasses meat. This is because goats are widely dis-
because their fat tends to be concentrated tributed and well adapted to various envi-
around the viscera and is discarded as offal ronmental conditions and scarce feed
during post-slaughter processing. The eco- resources. They are also able to utilize mar-
nomic value of a carcass and its meat- ginal land to produce high-quality animal
quality characteristics depend on meat protein products. Goat meat has an immense
yield, as well as carcass cutting and pro- market potential, as it could become an
cessing. Goat meat has been recommended excellent choice for health-conscious con-
as an ideal meat for health-conscious peo- sumers because of its low fat content com-
ple due to its low fat content. Goat meat is pared with other red meat and chicken
also a good source of desirable fatty acids, (Colomer-Rocher et al., 1992; Pratiwi et al.,
© CAB International 2012. Goat Meat Production and Quality
292 (eds 0. Mahgoub, I.T. Kadim and E.G. Webb)
The Nutritive Value of Goat Meat 293

2007). Generally, goat carcasses contain other muscles, is complex due to its multi-
between 10 and 19% more lean and between functions such as contraction, composition
47 and 54% less fat than cattle and sheep. and protection (Hocquette et al., 1998).
Besides being low in fat and cholesterol, Muscle metabolism plays a significant role
goat meat is an excellent source of protein, in the transformation of muscles to meat
B vitamins, iron and zinc. Goat meat is also (Cortright et al., 1997; Geay et al., 2001). As
a good source of desirable fatty acids (FAs), quality has been recognized as one of the
as goats deposit relatively higher amounts most important economic challenges for
of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) than meat producers around the world, goat mus-
other ruminants (Banskalieva et al., 2000; cle characteristics are important because of
Mahgoub et al., 2002; Pratiwi et al., 2007). their relationship with palatability. Animal
This is an important factor in reducing the physiology also generally plays an impor-
risk of cardiovascular diseases (van Niekerk tant role in controlling the changes that
and Casey, 1988; Park et al., 1991; Giese, occur in the post-mortem conversion of
1992; Stankov et al., 2002). muscle to meat, thereby affecting meat sup-
The conventional approach for study- ply for human consumption (Cortright et al.,
ing the quality characteristics of goat meat 1997; Hwang et a/., 2004a). The rate and
starts with an understanding of the struc- extent of goat muscle post-mortem metabo-
ture and physiology of living muscle. Goat lism are dependent on the availability of
skeletal muscle is made up of thousands of glycogen at slaughter (Janz et al., 2001), the
cylindrical muscle fibres, often running all temperature of the carcass (Newbold, 1996)
the way from origin to insertion. The fibres and other post-mortem factors. Initially,
are bound together by connective tissue during rigor mortis, muscles become stiff
through which run blood vessels and nerves and hard, but they gain some softness after
(Fig. 13.1). Goat muscle biology, like that of hanging and conditioning (ageing).

Sarcoplasmic reticulum

Z line

I band

M line

Actin filament (I band)

Z line Myosin filament (A band)

Fig. 13.1. Microstructure of animal muscle.


294 I. T Kadim and 0. Mahgoub

This chapter aims to summarize recent occur in the concentrations of glycolytic


research to enable an understanding of the substrates and products. The concentration
nutritive value and meat-quality characteris- of ATP does not decrease immediately post-
tics of goat meat. The first part of the chapter mortem but instead remains at physiological
covers the relationships between muscle levels for a short period before declining as
ante-mortem changes and meat-quality a result of the regeneration of ATP from cre-
traits. Next, the development of rigor mortis ative phosphate during anaerobic glycolysis
and the relationships between post-rigor When the ATP is
(Honikel et al., 1983).
changes and meat-quality traits are exhausted, the thick and thin filaments
addressed. The third part describes the rela- remain locked to one another, causing the
tionships between chilling, freezing and age- stiff nature of muscle in rigor. The character-
ing processes and quality traits of goat meat. istics of rigor mortis are elevated via loss of
Lastly, the relationship between muscle fibre extensibility, muscle shortening (Honikel
types and goat meat quality is discussed. et al., 1983), tension development (Nuss and
Wolfe, 1981), resistance to strain (Lepetit
et al., 1998) and the combination of muscle
tension and shortening (Olsson et al., 1994).
13.3 Muscle Structure, Physiology Throughout the rigor mortis process,
and Biochemistry the production of H+ leads to a more acidic
environment leading to a decrease in meat
Each goat skeletal muscle cell is a filamen- pH. Fast-glycolysing muscles yield lower
tous, multinucleated structure composed of pH scores compared with slow-glycolysing
up to 1000 fibres known as myofibrils. A muscle (Rosenvold and Andersen, 2003).
proper understanding of muscle structure The stress caused to goats before slaughter
architecture is essential for understanding causes a depletion of muscle glycogen and
the relationship of this contractile unit to therefore limits post-mortem glycolysis,
muscle growth and development and ulti- resulting in high ultimate muscle pH (War-
mately meat-quality characteristics. The riss et al., 1989). The rate of muscle bio-
pivotal event in contraction of muscle is the chemical reactions is influenced by meat
precise assembly of the sarcomere, a highly temperature and ultimate pH. Muscle tem-
ordered and complex array of numerous perature and declining pH interactions
proteins. This section will discuss the major during the onset of rigor influence meat
components in the muscle structure with an quality via effects on protein denaturation
emphasis on those components expected to and myofibrillar shrinkage (Rosenvold and
contribute significantly to meat quality. Andersen, 2003). The calpain enzyme sys-
Figure 13.1 shows a muscle fibre, the tem may have an influence on myofibril-
basic cellular unit of living muscle struc- related palatability and proteolytic activity,
ture. The arrangement of myofibrils and and its function is affected as a result of the
myofilaments creates the meat texture interactions between temperature and pH
(Swat land, 1984). The sarcosomes regulate of muscle (Rees et al., 2002; Hwang et al.,
calcium concentration to control the muscle 2003). Muscle temperature at a pH above
contractions. Following the death of the ani- 6.0 has an important influence on meat
mal, biochemical components necessary for quality, with an increase in 10°C resulting
anaerobic metabolism in muscles are still in a doubling of reaction rate. The tempera-
functional and, consequently, glycolysis ture of the carcass at slaughter is 38-40°C.
proceeds until the glycogen is depleted and After processing, the carcass is usually
metabolism ceases. The adenosine triphos- placed in a chiller at 3-4°C. Carcass subcu-
phate (ATP) necessary for muscle contrac- taneous fat will act as an insulator and can
tion and for the formation of actin-myosin significantly slow the rate of post-mortem
crossbridges becomes completely depleted temperature decline in the carcass. How-
and rigor mortis becomes established. Dur- ever, in goats, the subcutaneous fat is usu-
ing the pre-rigor process, several changes ally thin; therefore, the rate of post-mortem
The Nutritive Value of Goat Meat 295

temperature decline is fast causing a slower affected by breed and plane of nutrition
decline in the rate of glycolysis. It is impor- (Warren et al., 2008; Mushi et al., 2009b).
tant to note that, within a given goat car- An increase in non-carcass fat with increas-
cass, various muscles will display different ing levels of concentrate supplementation
cooling rates based on their location within is chiefly due to the increase in energy
the carcass. intake (Mushi et a/., 2009b). Animals bred
for milk production deposit more fat inter-
nally around the viscera, while those bred
13.4 Meat Composition for meat production deposit more in the
carcass fat depots (Negussie et al., 2003).
In many countries, fat is an unpopular con- Animals fattened on pasture generally have
stituent of meat for consumption, being less body fat than those fed concentrates
considered unhealthy to the consumer. (Mushi et al., 2009b). Fat in the carcass has
However, fat and FAs, whether in adipose beneficial roles with respect to reducing
tissue or muscle, contribute significantly to dehydration and cold shortening during
various aspects of meat quality and are the cooling process (Louvandini et al.,
essential for the nutritional value of meat. 2006). Goat meat has a fat content 50-65%
Goat meat varies in composition due to lower than beef but a similar protein con-
breed, age, sex, nutrition, conformation and tent. It has between 42 and 59% less fat
site on the carcass. Water content differs than lamb, and is about the same to 25%
only slightly among species, while differ- lower than veal (James et al., 1990). Goat
ences in fat content are more marked (Mah- intramuscular fat ranges between 1.19 and
goub et al., 2004). Goat meat contains 77% 2.34% (Mahgoub et al., 2004; Banon et al.,
moisture (Dhanda et al., 2003; Mahgoub 2006). A greater intermuscular fat content
et al., 2004). This level is higher than that in occurs in heavier carcasses and in older
the meat of other farm animals (Table 13.1). animals, decreasing the relative content of
Goat meat is also a good source of protein, other nutrients. In Boer goat castrates, sub-
containing about 17.6-18.1% (Mahgoub cutaneous fat and intermuscular fat
et al., 2004), comparable to the meat of other increased over a 10.4 kg growth range at
species (Table 13.1). exponential rates of 1.68 and 1.64 against
Fat serves as an energy store, providing empty body mass, respectively (Casey and
a survival buffer against periodic food scar- Naude, 1984). Goats preferentially deposit
city such as during periods of drought fat internally as omental fat (Mushi et al.
(Negussie et al., 2003). Research findings 2009b). Genotype has been recognized to
show that the onset of fattening and the dis- have an effect on the chemical composition
tribution of fat in domestic animals are of goat meat (Dhanda et al., 2003), and dif-

Table 13.1. Comparison of the composition of goat meat with meat from other species.

Species Moisture (%) Protein ( %) Fat ( %) Ash ( %) Muscle Reference

Camel 71.0 21.4 4.4 1.1 Longissimus Kadim et al. (2006)


Beef 71.5 21.5 5.5 0.9 Longissimus Mills et al. (1992)
Sheep 68.9 21.0 8.5 1.2 Longissimus Sen et al. (2004)
Goat 76.5 20.8 1.6 0.87 Longissimus Marinova et al. (2001)
Pig - 19.7 4.8 5.7 Longissimus Rosenvold et al. (2001)
Broiler 75.5 22.4 1.5 0.6 Pectoralis Castellini et al. (2002)
major
Duck 76.8 21.0 1.68 1.0 Pectoralis Baeza et al. (2002)
major
296 1. T Kadim and 0. Mahgoub

Table 13.2. Comparison of cooked goat meat with other meats.

85 g Saturated
Cooked (roasted) Calories (g) Fat (g) fat (mg) Protein (g) Iron (g)

Goata 122 2.58 0.79 23 3.2


Beef b 245 16.00 6.80 23 2.9
Porkb 310 24.00 8.70 21 2.7
Lambb 235 16.00 7.30 22 1.4
Chickenb 120 3.50 1.10 21 1.5

aUSDA (1986); bGebhardt and Thomas (2002).

Table 13.3. Mean composition of cooked muscle of lamb and Angora and Boer goats
(Schonfeldt et al., 1993).

Longissimus muscle Semimembranosus muscle

Component ( %) Lamb Angora Boer Lamb Angora Boer

Moisture 64.6 64.7 65.4 63.9 64.2 64.4


Protein 26.6 26.8 27.2 29.4 29.2 29.1
Fat 7.1 7.0 6.2 4.7 4.7 4.4
Ash 1.06 1.07 1.08 0.99 0.97 1.00
Dry matter 35.3 35.3 34.4 36.0 35.8 35.8

ferent feeding regimes also contribute. 13.5 Nutritive Value of Goat Meat
Meat from Omani goats contained signifi-
cantly more chemical fat and slightly less The nutritive value of meat is becoming
protein than Somali goats (Mahgoub et al., increasingly important for human health. It
2004). Although meat with less fat might be is not enough to determine the nutrient value
preferred by consumers for health reasons, of meat through chemical composition and
less carcass fat might also affect meat-keep- bioavailability studies. Subsequently, it is
ing and quality attributes. not possible to apply such information as a
Cooked goat meat is also a good source norm for human nutrition without consider-
of high-quality protein (Table 13.2), as well ing the role of meat as a supplementary
as being a rich source of iron. Its low-calorienutrient source in most human diets. Human
content is comparable to that of chicken, eating preferences, which are affected by pal-
mainly attributed to its low fat content atability, flavour, taste and texture, tend to
(Table 13.2). dictate dietary composition. In view of the
Decreasing moisture and fat content of lack of a complete dietary analysis, goat meat
meat during cooking results in an increase will be discussed from the basis of chemical
in the protein fraction, which also increases composition. Generally, meat protein has a
the amino acid content (Webb, 1991; Schon- digestibility coefficient of 0.97, giving
feldt et al., 1993). Both subcutaneous and ingested meat a heat combustion of 17.87 kJ
intermuscular fat will affect this increase in (Gopalan et al., 1971). The average biological
the protein fraction. Different muscles on value (a measure of the proportion of
the carcass differ in chemical compositions, absorbed protein that becomes incorporated
especially in terms of fat, as has been shown into the proteins of the body) of goat meat
for cooked Angora and Boer goat meat and reported by Mitra and Mitra (1945) was
lamb (Table 13.3) 60.4% compared with 68.6% for beef.
The Nutritive Value of Goat Meat 297

The nutritive value of meat lies in the phan. Pellett and Young (1990) noted that,
extent to which the protein - and specifi- by expressing amino acids in mg of meat,
cally the indispensable amino acid - the supply of amino acids is determined
requirements of humans are satisfied. The largely by the amount of protein in a par-
general composition of adult mammalian ticular cut of meat. Meat is an important
muscle is 75% water, 19% protein, 2.5% source of lysine, as 100 g of lean meat would
lipid, 1.2% carbohydrate, 0.65% minerals provide 30-50% of the total protein needs
and <0.1% vitamins (Lawrie, 1985). The of an adult and 60-100% of the estimated
composition of muscle varies among mus- lysine needs.
cles as a result of their greater or lesser On a lean-meat basis (muscle tissue),
amounts of connective tissue and intramus- the amino acid composition variation
cular fat. As proteins accumulate and mus- between species is small. However, on a
cle hypertrophy occurs, the water:protein whole-meat basis (bone, fat and connective
ratio changes. For instance, castrated Boer tissue), the amount of amino acids can be
goat kids at 9.1% total body fat had a considerably different. Cuts of meat within
water:protein ratio in the buttock of 4.28 species differ in composition according to
(Casey, 1982). the degree of fatness, age and sex.
In general, the wealth of documentable
evidence indicates that goat meat, regard-
less of age, breed or region, is a high-quality
protein source along with a healthy fat level 13.5.2 Fat and fatty acids composition
(high unsaturated fat:saturated fat ratio)
with a minimal cholesterol intake risk. In The nutritive value of goat meat is becoming
addition, chevon contains comparatively increasingly important for human health,
higher values of iron, potassium and thia- particularly because of its leanness. The
mine associated with a low sodium level total lipid content of muscle (intramuscular
(Eastridge and Johnson, 1990). All essential fat) influences the tenderness and juiciness
amino acids are present and a low calorie of cooked meat, although the strength of the
per serving value is available. Consequently, correlation varies considerably between
goat meat should be designated as a natu- studies. Some studies have shown an impor-
rally occurring healthy meat. tant role for intramuscular fat, while others
showed only a weak relationship with sen-
sory traits. Goat meat obtained with green
forages has less fat than that produced with
13.5.1 Amino acid composition concentrates and conserved forages (Atti
et al., 2006). There has been more emphasis
The amino acid profile is very important in on muscle composition because of its greater
terms of meat composition, especially that significance as a food and an increasing
of the indispensable amino acids. The aversion to visible fat at retail. Muscle also
amino acid profile of goat muscle shows a contains higher concentrations of the long-
close resemblance to that of beef, pork and chain w-6 FAs, the importance of which in
lamb (Table 13.4). Goat meat is a rich source human nutrition has been recognized
of amino acids. Srinivasan and Moorjani recently. Separation and identification pro-
(1974) reported that goat meat contains cedures for low levels of unsaturated fatty
higher levels of arginine, leucine and iso- acids (USFAs) in muscle have also greatly
leucine than mutton. Boer goat meat had improved in recent years.
significantly higher concentrations of 11 of Saturated fatty acids (SFAs) are
the 18 measured amino acids than mutton regarded as harmful to human health in
(Sheridan et al., 2003; Table 13.4). The contrast to PUFAs, which play a favourable
usual limiting amino acids in different diets role in the prevention of some human artery
in various areas of the world are lysine, total diseases (Mercier et al., 2004). Although
sulfur amino acids, threonine and trypto- meat from monogastric animals contains
298 1. T Kadim and 0. Mahgoub

Table 13.4. Amino acid composition of muscle proteins of goat, beef, pork and lamb.

Amino acid Goata Muttona Goatb Beefb Porkb Lambb

Aspartic acid 2.03 1.89 88 89 85


Threonine 0.91 0.83 48 40 51 49
Serine 0.58 0.51 38 40 39
Glutamic acid 3.16 2.91 144 145 144
Pro line 0.74 0.54 54 46 48
Glycine 1.68 1.67 71 61 67
Alamine 1.28 1.14 64 63 63
Valine 1.19 1.04 54 57 50 52
Methionine 0.49 0.44 27 23 25 23
Cystine 0.30 0.30 14 13 13
Isoleucine 1.03 0.92 51 51 49 48
Leucine 1.75 1.59 84 84 75 74
Tyrosine 0.63 0.56 32 30 32
Phenylalanine 0.91 0.83 35 40 41 39
Histidine 0.63 0.55 21 29 32 27
Lysine 1.76 1.61 74 84 78 76
Arginine 1.44 1.38 75 66 64 69
Tryptophan 0.22 0.31 15 11 13 13

aSheridan et a/. (2003) (g/100 g); bSrinivasan and Moorjani (1974) (mg/g).

high levels of USFAs relative to ruminants, Goat meat is not only lower in total fat
its meat is susceptible to oxidation (Les- and cholesterol but is also lower in SFAs
kanich et al., 1997). Microorganisms in the compared with other meats. FAs vary in
rumen hydrogenate fat and increase the length according to the number of carbon
degree of saturated fat (Wood et al., 1999). atoms that comprise their backbone, and may
Meat FA composition is influenced by mus- be saturated or unsaturated. SFAs are more
cle type and its oxidation (Wood and Enser, solid at room temperature and contain no
1997; Geay et al., 2001). PUFAs are suscep- double bonds between carbon atoms. USFAs
tible to rancidity because they contain dou- may contain one (monosaturated) or several
ble bonds. Meat with high concentrations of (polyunsaturated) double bonds between the
PUFAs can develop a rancid flavour faster carbon atoms and are generally liquid at
than meat with fewer PUFAs. The interac- room temperature. It should be noted that the
tion of oxygen with PUFAs is a non-enzy- proportions of SFAs, monounsaturated FAs
matic process. Vacuum packaging of meat (MUFAs) and PUFAs in animal tissues vary
products therefore provides a longer shelf depending on the species (Table 13.5). In
life by excluding oxygen from the packag- monogastric species such as pigs and chick-
ing. The FA composition of muscle affects ens, they may be influenced by diet.
its oxidative stability during processing and The overall fat content of the animal
retail display, the PUFAs in phospholipids and its muscle has an important impact on
being liable to oxidative breakdown at this the overall FA composition because of the
stage. A standard test for lipid oxidative sta- different FA compositions of neutral lipids
bility in foods is the thiobarbituric acid and phospholipids. Phospholipids are
reactive substances (TBARS) test of Tarlad- essential components of cell membranes,
gis et al. (1960), which measures the oxida- and the amount of phospholipids remains
tion product malondialdehyde. Values fairly constant or increases slightly as the
above 5 are considered critical, as they indi- animal increases in fatness. In goats, the
cate a level of lipid oxidation products that lower 18:1cis-9 and higher 18:2w -6 content
produces a rancid odour and taste, which of phospholipids has a major influence on
can easily be detected by consumers. total muscle FA composition.
The Nutritive Value of Goat Meat 299

Table 13.5. Fatty acid content of muscle foods (from Hultin,1985).

Species Saturated ( %) Monounsaturated ( %) Polyunsaturated (%)

Beef 55.5 52.0 3.0


Pork 44.0 56.5 10.5
Mutton 55.0 41.5 4.0
Poultry 30.5 45 18.5
Fish 30.0 33.0 37.0
Goats 51.3 43.5 5.09

Several factors can influence the FA (1988), the FA and protein values are usu-
composition of meat. Nutrition can affect the ally constant with an intramuscular fat level
FA composition of muscle by improving the of 0.94-1.4% in the Indian subcontinent
nutritional balance in ruminants to increase breeds compared with Alpine, Toggenburg
the level of PUFAs (Wood and Enser, 1997). and Nubian Saanen goats (2.01%). Deven-
It has been reported by Banskalieva et al. dra (1988) also noted that USFAs predomi-
(2000), Mahgoub et al. (2002) and Pratiwi nate in goat meat, up to 70%, similar to the
et al. (2007) that the FA composition of goat values in the USDA Handbook (1986) with
fat depots tends to change with age. Pratiwi a value of 69%, which is higher than the
et al. (2007) found more SFAs in the longis- 50% reported by Eastridge and Johnson
simus dorsi muscles taken from younger (1990). Lauric (2%), myristic (2.6%) and
goats compared with those from older goats. palmitic (27.6%) acids are SFAs of the
This may be explained by the fact that young hypercholesterolaemic group found in goat
goats are suckling milk from their mother meat that elevate plasma cholesterol levels.
and the composition of FAs in their muscles The non-hypercholesterolaemic group of
is dependent on the composition of FAs in FAs consists of one SFA, stearic acid (C18:0,
the consumed milk fat. Milk is rich in SFAs, 14-16.6%) and the USFAs oleic (C18:1,
which make up to 66% of total FAs (Deven- 30.1-37%), linoleic (C18:2, 13.4%) and lin-
dra, 1980; Zygoyiannis et al., 1992). As the olenic (C18:3 0.4%) acids.
rumen of young goats is not well developed, The profile of the long-chain FAs of goat
their diet would be influenced by the com- meat show oleic acid (C18:1) to be the most
position of FAs that exists in the milk con- abundant, with levels of palmitic (C16:0)
sumed (Chilliard, 1993). In ruminants, the and stearic acid (C18:0) being relatively high
FAs in concentrate feedstuffs such as grains (Casey and van Niekerk, 1985; Kuhne et al.,
and oilseeds is degraded into MUFAs and 1986; Casey et al, 1988). Although nutri-
SFAs in the rumen by microbial biohydroge- tional influences on the FA profile of rumi-
nation, and only 10% will be incorporated nants are less than with monogastric
into tissue lipids (Wood et al., 2008). Muscle animals, they can cause subtle changes in
contains a significant proportion of long- goats (Casey and van Niekerk, 1985). The
chain (C20-C22) PUFAs, which are formed high variance of each FA in goat kids can be
from 18:2w-6 and 18:3w-3 by the action of 45 ascribed to the monogastric characteristic of
and 46 desaturase and elongase enzymes. suckling animals, which makes them sensi-
Important products are arachidonic acid tive to nutritional influences. In adult Boer
(20:4w-6) and eicosapentaenoic acid goat castrates, stearic acid and oleic acid in
(20:5w-3), which have various metabolic subcutaneous and kidney fat responded to
end products including eicosanoic acid. five different energy levels (7.5, 8.4, 9.3, 10.3
The percentage of saturated fat in goat and 11.2 MJ metabolizable energy/kg dry
meat is 40% less than chicken (without matter) fed for 90 days: stearic acid decreased
skin), being far below beef, pork and lamb by 41% and oleic acid increased by 21%
by 850, 1100 and 900%, respectively (Casey and van Niekerk, 1985). Similarly,
(USDA, 1989). According to Devendra feeding eight types of pasture for 84 days
300 1. 7= Kadim and 0. Mahgoub

influenced the levels of myristic, heptadeca- saturated than subcutaneous fats, as is illus-
noic, linoleic and stearic acids of subcutane- trated in the differences between FAs of the
ous fat of mutton (Casey et a/., 1988). In subcutaneous and kidney depots. Fat from
goats, oleic acid made up the greatest pro- the triceps brachii, biceps femoris and
portion (43%) of the subcutaneous fat, fol- obliquus internus abdominis muscles of
lowed by palmitic acid (24%) and stearic goats contained 57% C18:1 and 25% C16:0
acid (15%). Clearly, a range occurs in the FA (Ha et al., 1986).
profile of goat meat; for example, levels of The FA profile of Jebel Akhdar Omani
stearic acid range from 12 to 26% and oleic goats determined by Mahgoub et a/. (2002) is
acid from 21 to 46%. presented in Table 13.6. The muscle tissue
Goat meat has a low w -6 and w -9 poly- of the Jebel Akhdar goats contained an aver-
unsaturated fat content (Gimenenz et al., age of 51.3 and 48.7% of SFAs and USFAs,
1985), which may have health-related nutri- respectively (Table 13.6). These figures are
tional implications for humans, particularly in line with those reported elsewhere for
for the immune system (Wan et al., 1989). goat meat. Potchoiba et al. (1990) reported a
The levels of C18:2w -6, C20:1a)-9 and value of 50.6 and 49.4%, respectively, with
C20:4w -6 in goat subcutaneous fat in goats Alpine kids. Johnson et a/. (1995) reported a
fed four different diets were 3.12, 0.89 and slightly higher ratio of USFAs to SFAs, but
1.18%, respectively. Visceral fats are more these results were from broiled rather than

Table 13.6. Mean (± sEM) fatty acid composition of muscle, subcutaneous and kidney fat tissue of
Omani goats of pooled sexes and weights (from Mahgoub et al., 2002).

Muscle Subcutaneous fat Kidney fat

Group Mean SEM Mean SEM Mean SEM

C10 0.19b 0.02 0.41a 0.04 0.53a 0.04


C12 0.36b 0.05 0.84a 0.08 0.77a 0.10
C14 4.31c 0.36 9.22a 0.58 7.66b 0.48
C15 1.04b 0.19 2.01a 0.12 1.72a 0.12
C15:1 0.87a 0.03 0.33b 0.07 0.15c 0.04
C16 24.74a 0.69 20.69b 0.80 26.16a 0.51
C16:1(07 6.88b 0.73 9.65a 0.50 3.67c 0.31
C17 1.91c 0.13 5.28a 0.51 3.59b 0.32
C18 18.72b 0.67 16.06c 0.80 28.82a 1.09
C18:1(09 36.51a 1.21 27.40b 1.15 23.06 1.10
C18:2(06 4.08b 0.66 6.70a 0.47 3.05b 0.22
C:18:3(03 0.17c 0.03 0.35a 0.06 0.30a 0.17
C19 0 0 0.73a 0.06 0.27b 0.04
C20 0 0 0.40a 0.02 0.20b 0.04
C20:2(06 0.03 0.02 0 0 0.02 0.01
C20:3(03 0.16 0.07 0 0 0 0
C20:4(06 0.82a 0.14 0.19b 0.02 0.04c 0.01
SFAs 51.27c 1.22 55.37b 0.82 69.72a 0.93
MUFAs 43.47a 1.08 37.38b 1.02 26.88c 1.13
PUFAs 5.09a 0.67 6.90a 0.48 3.10b 0.22
U FAs 48.73a 1.22 44.63b 0.82 30.28c 0.93
UFA:SFA ratio 1.00a 0.06 0.82b 0.03 0.44c 0.02

SFAs, Saturated fatty acids; MUFAs, monounsaturated fatty acids; PUFAs, polyunsaturated fatty acids; UFAs,
unsaturated fatty acids.
Means on the same row within sex or body weight without or with the same letter (a, b, c) do not significantly
differ (P> 0.05).
The Nutritive Value of Goat Meat 301

raw meat. Generally, ruminants have a meat from Boer goats on a high-energy diet
higher saturated:unsaturated ratio compared contained lower levels of cholesterol than
with monogastric animals (Wood, 1984). that from mutton on a high-energy diet (66.8
This is because USFAs in the diet are hydro- versus 99.3 mg/100 g).
genated in the rumen to saturated fats to be Santos-Filho et al. (2005) reported a
absorbed in a more saturated form, in con- value of 54.4 mg/100 g for cholesterol in
trast to monogastric animals in which goat meat, with castration of male goats
USFAs are absorbed directly from the intes- increasing the cholesterol levels. Similar
tine into the bloodstream. MUFAs in Jebel effects of castration in goats were reported
Akhdar goats were present at an average of by Madruga et al. (2001). Cholesterol levels
43.5%, which is very close to that reported in goat meat were significantly affected by
for other goat breeds (45% by Johnson et al., breed and age, with levels increasing dra-
1995) and for lamb (46.2%) and beef (47.1%) matically with slaughter age (Madruga
(Seman and McKenzie-Parnell, 1989). et al., 1999; Beserra et al., 2004).

13.5.3 Cholesterol 13.5.4 Macro- and microelements

The cholesterol content of goat meat is asso- Goat meat is an excellent source of minerals
ciated with its fat content, which means required for normal growth and good health.
that fattier meat contains more cholesterol The macro- and micromineral contents
than leaner meat. Pratiwi et al. (2007) of goat meat are reviewed in detail in
reported that total cholesterol concentration Chapter 11 of this book. Calcium is an impor-
in goat muscle decreased as carcass weight tant element in the body required for bone
increased. Brown et al. (1990) and Huskey development, neuromuscular activity, secre-
et al. (1993) reported that the amount of tory functions, buffers, certain coenzymes
intramuscular fat is not always related to and nutrients for the nursed young. Although
the cholesterol content of the muscles. an essential dietary component, lean meat
Some variation in cholesterol content has a low calcium content that is insufficient
between different goat muscles was also to provide the recommended daily allow-
reported. The differences may be due to ance (RDA). Lean goat meat was found to
variation in anatomical sites and physiolog- contain 11-12 mg calcium/100 g (McCance
ical functions and the development of mus- and Widdowson, 1960). Mechanically
cle types, which may reflect the rate of deboned meat tends to have a higher cal-
cholesterol synthesis among different mus- cium content, in the range of 0.05-0.75%
cles (Lawrie, 1985; Wheeler et al., 1987; (Kolbye and Nelson, 1977). Phosphorus is
Chizzolini et al., 1999; Pratiwi et al., 2007). essential for bone formation, enzymes and
The cholesterol content of chevon is energy metabolism. The RDA for phospho-
controversially similar to that of beef, lamb, rus, based on the need to provide a dietary
pork and chicken and much lower than calcium:phosphorus ratio of 1, is 800 mg.
some dairy and poultry products and some Protein foods are good sources of phosphorus,
seafoods. Other studies have indicated goat with goat muscle containing 157 mg/100 g
meat cholesterol levels of 76 mg/100 g com- (Wan Zahari and Wahid, 1985). Goat liver
pared with 70 mg/100 g for beef, fish and (259 mg/100 g) and brain (246 mg/100 g) had
lamb and 60 mg/100 g for pork and chicken about 100 mg more phosphorus than mus-
(Pond and Maner, 1984; Potchoiba et al., cle. Fresh goat meat is also a good source of
1990). Cholesterol levels of uncooked beef potassium (359 mg/100 g), contributing to
meat range from 36-46 to 78.2 mg/100 g total potassium intake (Wan Zahari and
(Terrell et al., compared with
1969) Wahid, 1985). Goat muscle contains
58-70 mg/100 g for chevon (Park et al., 55-77 mg of sodium per 100 mg (Wan Zahari
1991). Sheridan et al. (2003) reported that and Wahid, 1985). The magnesium level in
302 I.T. Kadim and 0. Mahgoub

goat muscle is 19.7 mg/100 g. Of the organs, 13.5.5 Vitamins


the spleen had the highest content
(15.28 mg/100 g) followed by the liver Goat meat is a good source of several vita-
(15.08 mg/100 g) and brain (12.82 mg/100 g). mins such as thiamine (0.11 mg/100 g),
Trace minerals such as copper, manganese riboflavin (0.49 mg/100 g), niacin
and zinc in goat meat have a high bioavail- (3.75 mg/100 g), folate (5 pg /100 g) and vita-
ability as meat does not contain inhibitors. A min B12 (1.13 pg /100 g) (Collins, 2008).
100 g portion of goat muscle would provide Each 170 g of goat meat contains 61%,
0.28-0.35 mg copper, 0.059-0.145 mg man- which is 33% of the daily recommended
ganese and 2.79-4.21 mg zinc (Wan Zahari intake of riboflavin and vitamin B12, respec-
and Wahid, 1985). Minerals in meat are not tively. According to Abdon et al. (1980),
affected by normal cooking procedures, but thiamine, riboflavin and niacin levels in
salting and curing can increase sodium lev- lean goat meat are comparable with those in
els dramatically. Red meat muscle has a high lean beef, lamb and veal (Table 13.7). Gopa-
myoglobin content and provides a high level lan et al. (1971) reported 4.5 mg total folic
of bioavailable iron (Worthington-Roberts acid and 2.8 mg vitamin B12 per 100 g of
and Monsen, 1990), the haem iron being goat meat.
5-10% more available than non-haem iron Goat meat contains several vitamins
and this appears to enhance the absorption (Table 13.8). However, as for other meats, it
of non-haem iron from other foods. A value is devoid of ascorbic acid but is rich in thia-
of 2.1 mg iron/100 g was reported by Abdon mine, riboflavin and folate (Johnson et al.,
et al. (1980) for lean goat meat. 1995).

Table 13.7. Thiamine, riboflavin and niacin content of goat, lean beef, veal and lamb.

Species Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin

Goata 0.1 0.56 3.6


Beefb 0.082 0.218 3.6
Lambc 0.088 0.234 5.33
Veald 0.06 0.3 7.6

aAbdon et al. (1980); bUSDA, 1986; cOno et al. (1984); dOno et al. (1986)

Table 13.8. Comparison of nutrient analysis of an 85 g cooked portion of carcass composite meat from
goat, beef and chicken (from Johnson et al., 1995).

Nutrient Goat Beef Chicken

Ascorbic acid (mg) 0 0 0


Thiamine (mg) 0.20 0.07 0.05
Riboflavin (mg) 0.23 0.18 0.14
Niacin (mg) 2.96 3.10 7.2
Pantothenic acid (mg) 0.32 0.30 0.88
Vitamin B6 (mg) 0.18 0.28 0.34
Folate (pg) 3.78 6.0 4.3
Vitamin B12 (pg) 0.90 2.1 0.26
Vitamin A (IU) 22.0 0 137
The Nutritive Value of Goat Meat 303

13.6 Meat-quality Characteristics individual muscles, sex or pre-mortem stress.


The ultimate goat muscle pH was 5.69 for
Meat-quality characteristics have an influ-longissimus dorsi, 5.93 for biceps femoris,
ence on meat consumption where the mere 5.96 for semitendinosus and 5.73 for semi-
availability of meat is not a factor. Meat- membranosus muscles (Kadim et al., 2004).
quality parameters become more important Such differences might be explained by the
when meat is selected and the customer has fact that individual muscles differ in their
a free choice between meat types. Quality proportions of red and white muscle fibre
parameters are also important for process- types and therefore also differ in patterns of
ing procedures to upgrade poor-quality energy metabolism, both ante- and post-mor-
meat, extending shelf life or stabilization, tem (Swatland, 1982). Variations among goat
and allowing the product to be distributed muscles in ultimate pH values were also
and merchandised more effectively. Meat reported by Gonzalez et al. (1983) and Mari-
quality is a combination of the attributes of nova et al. (2001). Goat muscle pH values
flavour, juiciness, texture, tenderness and were relatively higher compared with other
appearance that contribute to the edibility meat animals (Atti et al., 2006; Pratiwi et al.,
or desirability of the products. The con- 2007; Mushi et a/., 2009a), which generally
sumer relates to quality in terms of the ten- implies a lower meat quality (Lawrie, 1985).
derness, juiciness and flavour of the cooked A high ultimate pH generally reflects deple-
products. Tenderness, muscle pH, water- tion of muscle glycogen due to stress or other
holding capacity and the MFI will be con- factors (Kadim et al., 2006, 2010). Exhausting
sidered in this section. Skeletal muscle of pre-mortem stress yields dark, firm and dry
goat meat not only provides nutrients but meat with a high ultimate pH (pH >6.0). Post-
also contains the most important palatabil- mortem biochemical changes are associated
ity parameters. with the loss of water-holding capacity as the
pH reaches the isoelectric point of the muscle
proteins, the onset of rigor mortis, and the
release and activation of proteolytic enzymes,
13.6.1 Muscle pH notably cathepsins, responsible for the ripen-
ing of goat meat. Muscles from Omani goats
Glycogen contained within goat muscle at had significantly (P < 0.01) higher ultimate
slaughter is metabolized through an anaero- pH value than those of Somali goats (Mah-
bic process leading to the formation of lactic goub et al., 2004). This may be attributed to
acid and consequently to a lowering of the the stressful conditions that deplete muscle
pH. Meat from goat will usually achieve glycogen reserves before slaughter, resulting
ultimate pH values of around 5.5-5.6 but in low residual levels of glucose and conse-
high ultimate pH values (6.0 or above) may quently increasing the ultimate pH of meat.
be found if muscle glycogen stores have In Oman, the majority of local animals are
been depleted prior to slaughter. delivered daily to the central slaughterhouse
The ultimate pH of muscle is regarded as from within a radius of a few hundred kilo-
one of the important parameters affecting metres in open trucks. This exposes them to a
meat-quality characteristics. Muscle from variety of physical and psychological stimuli,
goat has s high myoglobin content, contains many of which are novel and some of which
both type I and type II muscle fibre types and are aversive. The pH values from heavier
undergoes the same post-mortem biochemi- goats were usually higher than those from
cal changes as other meat animals (Heffron lighter goats (Pratiwi et al., 2007).
and Dreyer, 1975; Lawrie, 1985; Kadim et al.,
2010). The decline in muscle pH follows a
pattern typical of red meat carcasses, stabiliz- 13.6.2 Water-holding capacity
ing at around pH 5.5 (Owen et al., 1978; Breu-
kink and Casey, 1989). Variations in the Water retention of meat is caused primarily
ultimate pH of goat muscles may be due to by immobilization of tissue water within
304 1.7: Kadim and 0. Mahgoub

the myofibrillar system. Applying pressure Consumers believe that tenderness is a


can cause a shift of water from the intercel- driver of eating satisfaction; however, sev-
lular to the extracellular space and then on eral studies have indicated that goat meat is
to the meat surface as a result of structural inherently less tender than that of sheep
alterations at the level of the sarcomeres or (Schonfeldt et al., 1993; Roeder et al., 1999).
of the myofilaments structure. Water-hold- The difference has been attributed to the
ing capacity values vary according to goat muscles of goat having a higher collagen
breed and site of muscle on the carcass. content with lower collagen solubility and
Kadim et al. (2004) found that expressed less intramuscular fat than sheep (Heinze
juice from three Omani goat breeds ranged et al., 1986). Schonfeldt et al. (1993) and
from 33.3 to 41.0%, with some differences Sen et al. (2004) found lamb and mutton to
between the three breeds and across four be tenderer, with less fibrous tissue residue
muscles (longissimus dorsi, semimembra- than Angora and Boer goat meat. Roeder
nosus, semitendinosus and biceps femoris). et al. (1999) showed that meat from Boer-
A similar range of expressed juice for other cross goats is less tender than meat from
breeds of goat was reported by Gonzalez other breeds. The attributed toughness of
et al. (1983). Sen et al. (2004) reported goat meat has been ascribed to slaughtering
higher values of 57% for water-holding of mature animals, in which the collagen in
capacity in Indian goats. Lower values of the connective tissue has a decreased ability
24.3% at 90 days of age and 24.0% at to gelatinize under the influence of heat and
180 days of age were reported in Polish moisture. However, goat muscle fibres are
goats (Pieniak-Lendzion et al., 2008). thicker and the fibre bundles larger than
those of sheep, giving goat meat a character-
istic coarser grain (Gaili and Ali, 1985).
Such changes could also be due to species
13.6.3 Shear force values difference in carcass fat. Intramuscular fat
content may also contribute to the observed
Scientists and consumers both recognize differences in tenderness.
that tenderness is one of the most important The meat of kids, or capretto, is a ten-
sensory attributes of all types of meat. The der delicacy. However, Smith et al. (1978)
meat industry in many industrial countries reported that goats of 3-4 months of age
has responded to consumer desire for better produced meat that was less tender than
tenderness using a variety of techniques those of 6 months. They attributed these dif-
including ageing, electrical stimulation, ferences to the rapid chilling of small, lean
and mechanical, chemical and enzymatic carcasses, which are potentially susceptible
tenderization of muscle. Physiologists, to reduced proteolysis and cold-induced
muscle-cell biologists, biochemists and pro- sarcomere shortening. The shear force of
teomists continue to investigate the muscle goat meat tends to be greater for heavier
cell to learn more about tenderness indices. than for lighter carcasses (Pratiwi et al.,
The measurement of meat tenderness is 2007). Webb et al. (2005) suggested that goat
extremely difficult because meat is not a sim- meat does not readily attain a highly accept-
ple one-component system. It is the result of able degree of tenderness. In contrast,
two structural components, muscle fibres Dhanda et al. (1999) found no difference in
and connective tissue, and is further compli- the sensory panel tenderness scores between
cated by the presence of fat interspersed meat from very young and older goats.
within these structural elements. A variety of Locker and Hagyard (1963) demonstrated a
instruments have been developed to mea- relationship between chilling temperature
sure tenderness of meat, usually based on and sarcomere shortening, and reported
a shearing, penetrating, biting, stretching, that muscle shortening was minimal when
breaking or compressing action. The War- the muscle entered rigor at approximately
ner-Bratzelr shear device has been widely 15°C, and, as muscle temperature at the
used for the evaluation of meat tenderness. onset of rigor decreased, greater sarcomere
The Nutritive Value of Goat Meat 305

shortening occurred. Goat breeds may also breaking the myofibrils into shorter seg-
differ in meat quality. Meat from Angora ments in comparison with the non-stimu-
goats is tenderer than meat of Boer goats. lated group. However, King et al. (2004)
This could be due to lower collagen content found that electrical stimulation did not
and better collagen solubility. Evaluation of affect the MFI at 1, 3 or 14 days of ageing of
collagen alone, however, would be insuffi- goat meat. According to Kadim et al. (2010),
cient for conclusions on differences in ten- the MFI can contribute up to 50% of the
derness. Other factors may be involved, variation in goat meat tenderness. A similar
especially muscle fibre size, the type of conclusion was reported by Olson and Par-
matrix formed by collagen and the state of rish (1977) for beef meat. Transportation of
muscle contraction. goat at a high ambient temperature (42°C)
significantly decreases the MFI by 5.5%.
13.6.4 Myofibril lar fragmentation index

The structural changes occurring in meat 13.6.5 Meat colour


after slaughter are generally caused by inter-
actions of myofibrillar proteins in the mus- Meat colour measurements involve two
cle (Nagaraj et al., 2006). Degradation of the basic methods: visual appraisal and instru-
structural protein and integrity alterations mental analysis. Both methods inherently
of meat can be evaluated using myofibrillar involve an assessment of the concentration
fragmentation index (MFI) determination. and chemical form of myoglobin, the mor-
Viewing myofibrillar length changes under phology of the muscle structure and the
a microscope or determining turbidity ability of the muscle to absorb or scatter
changes can be used as an indicator of post- incident light.
mortem proteolysis in various meat species Meat colour is one of the most impor-
(Lametsch et al., 2007), which accounts for tant sensory characteristics according to
differences in the rate of post-mortem ten- which consumers make judgements about
derization of meat (King et al., 2004; Naga- meat quality. It is influenced by the pigment
raj et al., 2005, Kadim et al., 2010). The MFI content, the chemical form of the pigment,
is also used as an indicator of the weaken- meat pH and the meat structure (Lindahl
ing of key cytoskeletal proteins, particularly et al., 2001). Some residual blood may also
titin and nebulin (Taylor et al., 1995). There be present in meat, but it is generally mini-
is a proportionate increase in MFI as the mal and is of little practical important con-
post-mortem ageing of meat advances (King cern in considerations of meat colour. The
et al., 2004). The magnitude of MFI values degree of meat pigmentation is directly
varies among goat breeds. Kadim et al. related to the chemical structure of myoglo-
(2010) found an average value of 77 for the bin. In general, myoglobin concentration
MFI in Omani goats, which is much higher within a given muscle will differ according
than the value of 30 observed by King et al. to the species or age and is dependent on
(2004) in capretto meat. muscle fibre type proportion (Lawrie, 1985).
The metabolism of goat meat can be Muscle comprised predominantly of red
hastened by increasing the MFI through fibre type contains more myoglobin than
ageing or stimulation processes (Kadim muscles with a high white fibre type con-
et al., 2010). The effect of low-voltage elec- tent. Dark goat meat may be due to metmyo-
trical stimulation on the MFI of goat meat globin, the oxidized form of myoglobin, and
was studied by Kadim et al. (2010). They will be viewed as old and undesirable for
found that stimulation improved tender- consumption (Pratiwi et al., 2007).
ness through alteration of the MFI of longis- The haem group contains a centrally
simus dorsi myofibrillar protein in goat. located iron atom that has six coordination
The high MFI in stimulated Omani goat car- sites available for chemical bonds. Four of
casses appeared to be caused by readily these sites bond the iron atom within the
306 1. 7= Kadim and 0. Mahgoub

haem structure, while the fifth bond links which explained the differences between
the iron atom to the amino acid chain. The the values at days 1 and 6 of ageing.
sixth site bonds the iron atom to the haem
chemical group that determines the meat
colour. Proportions of deoxymyoglobin, oxy- 13.7 Post-mortem Treatment and
myoglobin and metmyoglobin in the meat Meat Quality
depend on oxygen availability and deter-
mine the colour of fresh meat (Leeward,
1992; Lindahl et al., 2001). According to Lee-
Although the exact point of conversion of
muscle to meat is not easy to determine, the
ward (1992), oxygen availability depends on
the oxygen partial pressure, penetration and metabolic activity of the skeletal muscle
consumption rate of the muscle (Leeward, will not stop when the functional role of
1992). The penetration depth of light
muscle is lost and rigor has been estab-
decreases as an effect of light scattering due lished. Many biochemical reactions have
to an increased amount of myofibrillar water significant implications for the quality char-
and meat pH (Feldhusen, 1994). The meat acteristics of goat meat. This section will
colour depends on the rate of pH decline, the
discuss refrigeration, freezing, ageing, cold
ultimate pH and the extent of protein dena- shortening and electrical stimulation regard-
turation (Bendall and Swatland, 1988; Feld- ing the quality characteristics of goat meat.
husen, 1994). During post-mortem glycolysis,
the muscle proteins become denatured,
resulting in increased light scattering and 13.7.1 Refrigeration and freezing
less light penetration (Bendall and Swatland,
1988; Feldhusen, 1994), increased lightness Refrigeration is lowering the temperature of
of the meat (Joo et al., 1999), decreased pen- the carcass to slow down the rate of glycoly-
etration depth of light and changes in the sis of muscle. Controlling airflow inside
selective light absorption through chromo- chillers is important for efficiency and
phores such as myoglobin and haemoglobin homogeneity of carcass chilling (Mirade
(Feldhusen, 1994). and Picgirard, 2001). Blast chilling of goat
Meat colour is affected by several fac- meat, which has a thin layer of subcutane-
tors such as breed, type of muscle, meat pH ous fat, may induce toughening and there-
and ageing. Breed differences in the light- fore compromise meat quality. According to
ness (L*), redness (a *) and yellowness (b*) Sheridan et al. (1998), at 35°C, almost 80%
colour values (Hunter scale) of the biceps of the enzyme activity was lost during rigor
femoris, semitendinosus and longissimus development, while about 20% of the activ-
dorsi muscles were reported (Kadim et al., ity was lost when the meat was exposed to
2004). The longissimus dorsi muscle from 15°C. Rapid chilling of carcasses (-20°C)
Jebel Akhdar goats had significantly higher was reported to produce meat as tender as
L* (P < 0.05), while Batina goats had signifi- those chilled at 4°C and reduced evapora-
cantly lower L* (P < 0.05) in the semimem- tive weight losses by 0.5-1% (McGeehin
branosus muscle than other breeds. Ageing et al., 2002). Therefore, blast chilling may
of muscles for 6 days produced a significant be used in conjunction with electrical stim-
effect on meat colour compared with meat ulation to accelerate the onset of rigor mor-
aged for 1 day for the longissimus dorsi, tis in order to avoid the development of
semimembranosus, semitendinosus and cold shortening. In contrast, freezing is a
biceps femoris muscles in goats (Kadim common practice in preserving meat quality
et al., 2004). Kannan et al. (2001) reported for an extended time and offers several
that the average value of a* of chevon cuts advantages. These indicate insignificant
was high at day 0 and low at day 8. The alterations in product dimensions and min-
length of post-mortem glycolysis can modify imum deterioration in meat colour, flavour
the perceived colour independently of meat and texture. The disadvantages of frozen
metmyoglobin formation (Leeward, 1985), storage include freezer burn, dehydration,
The Nutritive Value of Goat Meat 307

rancidity, drip loss and product bleaching. The rate of freezing and subsequent
Many meat products go directly from the thaw drip loss may reduce the nutrient con-
freezer to cooking. As the cooked appear- tent of goat meat. Drip losses of cuts of
ance of frozen cuts does not differ from Angora and Boer goat longissimus muscles
fresh cuts (Obuz and Dikeman, 2003), the frozen at -20°C and thawed at 10°C for 24 h
consumer is not able to differentiate were 3.68 and 3.19%, respectively. Drip
between the two. The shelf-life extension losses of the semimembranosus muscles of
and the purchasing and inventory flexibility Angora and Boer goats were about 3.5 times
offered by frozen meat items are valuable greater at 14.41 and 15.51%, respectively
assets in the food service industry. (Schonfeldt et al., 1993).
Freezing of meat has been widely Freezing causes physical and chemical
researched to enable lowering of the changes in meat that lead to deterioration in
amount of drip loss on thawing. Drip loss is the quality of the meat through ice crystal
one of the main problems in frozen meat formation (Honikel et al., 1986). The func-
(Kropf and Bowers, 1992). Drip loss from tionality of meat is adversely affected by
thawing meat includes proteins, vitamins long-term frozen storage, and most of the
and other nutrients, in addition to mois- vitamins are lost in the dripping water
ture, and results in decreased cooked yields (Miller et al., 1980). Protein denaturation at
and juiciness. The loss of fluid generally low temperatures leads to loss of water.
reduces the eating quality, binding ability Slow freezing causes the water to separate
and weight of the meat. The volume of drip from the tissue into pools that form large
produced on thawing has been related to crystals, which may result in greater struc-
the rate of freezing, size and location of ice tural damage associated with larger inter-
crystals in frozen meat. The loss of mois- cellular ice crystals (Farouk et al., 2004).
ture in frozen-thawed meat may reach up Rapid freezing is more suitable for goat car-
to 85% of the water in muscle tissue. This casses due to the small carcass size, small
water is located intracellularly in the myo- muscle thickness and low level of subcuta-
fibrils, whereas the remaining 15% is neous fat. Rapid freezing results in very lit-
located in the extracellular space (Hamm, tle water separation, resulting in the
1975). The main body of water is held by formation of small crystals. The drip loss in
capillary action (Offer and Trinick, 1983) fast-frozen meat is less than from slow-fro-
and a small amount (4-5%) is restricted in zen meat. Fluctuations in temperature that
motion because of the proximity of protein occur during storage cause recrystallization
molecules (Hamm, 1975). When the muscle phenomena that may explain the deteriora-
is frozen, water associated with protein is tion in meat quality during frozen storage
replaced with protein (Fennema, 1982), (Bevilacqua and Zaritzky, 1982). The solu-
which leads to a decrease in water-holding bility of myofibrillar proteins is lower in
capacity after thawing (Wagner and Anon, slowly frozen meat compared with fast fro-
1985). The most critical temperature in zen meat (Farouk et al., 2004).
thawing meat is between -10 and -2°C;
therefore, meat must pass through this
range rapidly (Calve lo, 1981). In rapid
chilling of meat, calcium is released into 13.7.2 Cold shortening
the sarcosome, which causes remarkable
muscle contraction in the presence of ATP. Cold shortening is a phenomenon that
The temperature difference between the occurs in pre-rigor muscle and results in
inside and outside of chilled muscles deter- tough meat. 'Shortening' refers to the short
mines the cooling rate of the meat. This sarcomere length of highly contracted mus-
value decreases towards the centre of the cle with protein denaturation and water
muscle. This is important in a practical loss (Devine et al., 1999). Rapid chilling
sense in carcasses from animals with less may have a detrimental effect through cold
fat coverage, such as goats. shortening, which may result in a drastic
308 1. 7= Kadim and 0. Mahgoub

decrease in tenderness (Marsh et al., 1974). Ca2+ ions are released after some depletion
The degree of overlap between myosin and of ATP from muscle has taken place, only a
actin filaments contributes primarily to minor amount of shortening will occur.
meat toughening (Tornberg, 1996). Changes This suggests that depletion of ATP to mini-
in the angles of criss-cross connective tissue mum levels by increasing the rate of post-
lattice and crimp length are responsible in mortem glycolysis to exhaust the glycogen
part for the relationship between sarcomere while the carcass temperature is still high
length and meat tenderness (Renerre et al., will minimize cold shortening. Electrical
1999). However, the toughness of cold- stimulation increases the rate of post-mor-
shortened muscle is largely affected by an tem glycolysis, reducing the time for the
endogenous enzymatic tenderization mech- onset of rigor mortis.
anism rather than shortened sarcomere Electrical stimulation involves passing
length (Hwang et a/., 2004b). There may be an electric current through the freshly
a possibility of a more direct cold-shorten- slaughtered goat carcass in a series of short
ing/toughening relationship in lean goat impulses, each causing the muscles to con-
carcasses exposed to rapid chilling early tract violently; however, in between
post-mortem. This would be more likely for impulses, the muscles return to their nor-
lean carcasses with localized subcutaneous mal relaxed state. Goat carcasses have a
fat deposition (Koch et al., 1995). The effect poor insulating subcutaneous fat cover.
of shortening sarcomeres on shear force is This makes them susceptible to muscle
significantly detrimental when proteolysis toughening through the effects of cold
is relatively slow. shortening during the chilling process. This
If the meat is frozen prior to rigor onset can be countered by application of a low-
and subsequently thawed, it will dramati- voltage electric current to the lean carcasses
cally shorten and become extremely tough. immediately after slaughter to accelerate
This phenomenon is referred to as 'thaw post-mortem glycolysis (Kadim et al., 2010).
shortening'. The process of pre-rigor freez- Electrical stimulation increases the rate of
ing can damage the sarcoplasmic reticulum post-mortem glycolysis, depleting the ATP
and destroy its ability to regulate calcium energy source for muscle contraction due to
concentrations within the myofibre. Both an anaerobic state (Hwang et al., 2003). The
calpains and myosin ATPase require free variability in overall ATP post-mortem is
Ca2+ ions in the cytoplasm for their activi- primarily responsible for the variability in
ties (Celio et al., 1996). It has been shown post-mortem pH fall in muscle. The time
that calcium-reserving organelles lose their that it takes for muscle pH values to decline
function at abnormal cellular temperature to 6.0 is a reflection of the onset of earlier
(Cornforth et al., 1980). During thawing, all rigor. With the acceleration of post-mortem
components necessary for muscle contrac- glycolysis, a rapid build-up of lactic acid
tion are still present but control of the reac- occurs and, in some cases, the pH of electri-
tions is lost. As a result, anaerobic cally stimulated goat muscle can reach a pH
metabolism proceeds at a very rapid rate of 6.0 in 2-3 h instead of the 10-14 h that
and is concomitant with severe contraction. may be required for non-stimulated muscles
(Gadiyaram et al., 2008; Kadim et al., 2010).
A reduction in the time required for mus-
cles to reach a pH of 6.0 is of practical
13.7.3 Electrical stimulation importance as it determines the period of
delay necessary before the muscle tempera-
Ca2+ ions and ATP content are the major ture can be dropped below 10°C if cold
factors that govern the degree of muscle shortening is to be avoided (Chrystall et al.,
contraction. The post-mortem release of 1984). The residual contractile properties of
Ca2+ ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum muscle are reduced, rigor mortis is advanced
at high ATP levels in muscle results in a sig- and the enzymes associated with the condi-
nificant level of shortening. However, if tioning of meat are accelerated.
The Nutritive Value of Goat Meat 309

The proposed mechanism of electrical non-stimulated carcasses (Kadim et al.,


stimulation is the prevention of cold short- 2010). The increased muscle brightness of
ening by acceleration of rigor mortis onset the stimulated carcasses suggested that the
while internal muscle temperature remains early post-mortem conditions of these
outside the cold-shortening risk zone muscles favoured protein denaturation
(Swat land, 1981). Additionally, electrical (Warriss and Brown, 1987). High muscle
stimulation causes muscular contraction temperatures combined with low muscle
sufficient to cause physical disruption of pH values in early post-mortem are associ-
tissue (Ho et al., 1996; Kadim et al., 2009, ated with increased protein denaturation.
2010). Acceleration of proteolysis could be This was supported by significant differ-
classified as a secondary effect mediated ences in pH drop.
through time/temperature/pH interaction, Muscles from stimulated goat car-
affecting enzyme stability and activity casses have a significantly lower shear
(Hwang et al., 2003). According to Breu- force value compared with non-stimulated
kink and Casey (1989) and Kadim et al. carcasses (Savell et al., 1977; King et al.
(2010), low-voltage electrical stimulation is 2004; Gadiyaram et al., 2008; Kadim et al.,
most effective when cold shortening is an 2010;). The main mechanism through
actual risk due to the low chilling tempera- which stimulation improves tenderness is
tures applied in the early post-mortem its effects on physical alteration and/or
period and/or when lean goat carcasses acceleration of energy turnover during and
result in rapid heat dissipation. In this after the stimulation (Luo et al., 2008).
respect, it has been demonstrated that elec- Physical disruption lowers the resistance
trical stimulation can improve goat meat- to mechanical shearing force and therefore
quality characteristics (Kadim et al., 2010). increases tenderness (Hopkins and Thomp-
However, improvements in meat quality son, 2002). According to Kadim et al.
would not result from electrical stimula- (2010) and Savell et al. (1977), stimulated
tion unless it markedly accelerated post- goat carcasses had significantly longer
mortem glycolysis. Changes in glycolysis sarcomere lengths than non-stimulated
resulting from electrical stimulation should muscles.
be followed by measuring the rate of pH Electrical stimulation negatively
decline, after stimulation and post-mortem affected the myofibrillar expressed juice of
of muscles, to a pH of 6.0. Figure 13.2 the goat muscle (Kadim et al., 2010), being
shows that the rate of pH fall in goat car- higher for stimulated than for non-
casses was significantly affected by electri- stimulated muscle samples. Similarly, den
cal stimulation (Kadim et al., 2010). At Hertog-Meischke et al. (1997) found that
40 min post-mortem, the average pH filter-expressed juice was significantly
decline values in stimulated goats were higher for stimulated bovine muscles than
0.20-0.28 units below the non-stimulated for non-stimulated ones. In contrast, Whit-
group (King et al., 2004; Gadiyaram et al., ing et al. (1981) found that electrical stimu-
2008; Kadim et al., 2010). After a relatively lation had no effect on the water-holding
fast fall within the first 4 h, the mean pH capacity of lamb longissimus dorsi muscle.
values of goat muscles underwent a slow The difference between the stimulated and
decline until the ultimate pH at 24 h post- non-stimulated muscle samples may be the
mortem (Gadiyaram et al., 2008; Kadim result of shrinkage of the myofibrils due to
et al., 2010). the pH fall post-mortem, attachment of
Goat meat retailers benefit from the cross-bridges between thick and thin fila-
use of electrically stimulated carcasses ments at the onset of rigor, and denaturation
because of the improved appearance of myosin (Offer and Knight, 1988). Dena-
of retail cuts. Meat from electrically sti- turation of myosin takes place when a car-
mulated goat carcasses had a brighter cass experiences a low pH at high
colour, less surface discoloration and a temperature. Moreover, expressed juice is
more desirable overall appearance than affected by the integrity of the muscle cell
310 1. T Kadim and 0. Mahgoub

6.8

6.7

6.6

6.5

6.4

6.3

6.2

6.1

5.9

5.8

5.7

5.6
0 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Time (h)

Fig. 13.2. Mean changes in pH within the longissimus dorsi muscle of two breeds of goats electrically
stimulated (---) or non-stimulated (-) (Kadim et al., 2010).

membranes and the rate of fluid migration is necessary as meat is usually unacceptably
within the muscle (den Hertog-Meischke tough immediately following rigor onset.
et al., 1997). The time required for the ageing process
varies depending on the type of meat.
Although high-temperature conditioning of
meat promotes bacterial growth, the ageing
13.7.4 Ageing process may be accelerated by keeping car-
casses above 15°C (Pearson and Dutson,
Tenderness is the predominant quality 1985). This type of conditioning can be
determinant and probably the most impor- applied in the pre- or post-rigor state and is
tant organoleptic characteristic of meat. effective for improving meat quality. It has
Historically, meat has been aged to improve been suggested that, during the ageing
its quality characteristics by storage at a cer- process, tenderization occurs as a result of
tain temperature for a period of time. Ageing protein degradation. The ageing processes
The Nutritive Value of Goat Meat 311

originate within the myofibre and are membranosus had the highest (Kadim et al.,
responsible for degradation of cellular con- 2004). These variations might be due to
stituents. differences in connective tissue content or
Analysis of muscle proteins along with sarcomere length.
meat-quality traits during ageing is crucial As ageing time increases, tenderness
in understanding the biological basis of will improve as a result of complex changes
changes in meat quality. The proteolytic in muscle metabolism, which are depen-
enzymes in meat that have been studied the dent on animal breed, metabolic status,
most are the cathepsins and calpains. rearing system and prior slaughter stress.
Ageing was shown to have significant During ageing, the structure of the myofi-
effects on Hunter L* (lightness) values, brillar and other associated proteins under-
shear force values and expressed juice of goes some modifications, and collagen is
goat meat (Kadim et al., 2004). The most rel- weakened, although to a lesser extent
evant consequence of ageing is an improve- (Christensen et al., 2004). The proteolytic
ment in meat tenderness (Janz et al., 2001; enzymes in meat play a significant role in
Ruiz de Huidobro et al., 2003; Kadim et al., improving meat quality by the degradation
2004). Table 13.9 shows that ageing of goat of actin and/or actin-relevant peptides dur-
muscles for 1 day resulted in significantly ing ageing (Hwang et al., 2004b). Enzymes
higher shear force values than in those aged require specific conditions such as tempera-
for 6 days (Kadim et al., 2004). The shear ture and pH for optimal activity, and, if
force values for the three Omani goat breeds these can be determined and maximized in
Batina, Dhofari and Jebel Akhdar were meat, improvements in meat tenderness can
reduced by 15-31, 17-28 and 17-29%, be achieved. Cathepsins within lysosomes
respectively, between 1 and 6 days of age- operate at a pH of <5.2 to produce better
ing for four muscles. The longissimus dorsi meat quality by degrading myofibrillar pro-
muscle had the highest reduction (31%) teins. Calpains are proteases that require
while the semitendinosus muscle had the Ca2+ ions and a pH of <5.6 for activity. The
lowest reduction (16%), and the shear force amount of calcium available in normal mus-
values of the other two were reduced by cle cells is a major contributor to meat ten-
27% for the biceps femoris and 25% for derization. The pH value required for
the semimembranosus muscles. Generally, optimal enzyme functioning is substantially
longissimus dorsi muscles from goats had higher than the pH 5.6 of normal meat;
the lowest shear force values, while semi- therefore, maximal activity of calpains is

Table 13.9. Means (± SD) for a range of quality characteristics for the longissimus dorsi muscle of three
Omani goats breeds at 1 or 6 days ageing (from Kadim et al., 2004).

Breed

Batina Dhofari Jebel Akhdar

Parameters 1 day 6 days 1 day 6 days 1 day 6 days

Ultimate pH 5.75 ± 0.1 5.78 ± 0.1 5.56 ± 0.0 5.60 ± 0.0 5.64 ± 0.1 5.67 ± 0.07
Expressed juices 36.8 ± 3.7 35.6 ± 3.4 36.3 ± 1.8 35.0 ± 1.8 36.5 ± 4.2 35.5 ± 3.7
Cooking loss (%) 21.9 ± 3.7 21.3 ± 3.6 25.3 ± 2.2 23.8 ± 2.13 24.8 ± 1.7 23.4 ± 1.8
WB values (kg)b 7.2 ± 1.8 4.5 ± 2.2 7.4 ± 2.4 5.3 ± 1.4 7.7 ± 1.4 5.4 ± 1.2
L* (lightness) 40.7 ± 1.1 38.9 ± 1.5 40.1 ± 1.3 39.9 ± 1.7 42.1 ±2.8 40.3 ± 3.5
a* (redness) 23.2 ± 0.7 23.4 ± 1.5 23.6 ± 1.2 23.1 ± 1.4 23.5 ± 1.8 23.4 ± 1.5
b* (yellowness) 4.7 ± 0.7 4.3 ± 0.8 4.8b ± 0.7 4.4 ± 1.0 5.7 ± 1.5 4.4 ± 0.8

so, Standard deviation.


aExpressed juice = water area (cm2)/sample weight (g).
bWarner-Bratzler shear force value.
312 I. T Kadim and 0. Mahgoub

most likely to occur during the early post- intermediate (Kannan et al., 2001; Kadim
mortem conditions. et al., 2004). These authors reported that the
The influence of post-mortem ageing on average cooking loss was high in leg cuts
meat water-holding capacity is of practical and low in loin cuts.
interest. Degradation of skeletal muscle pro- Ageing of goat muscles for 6 days pro-
teins such as desmin, vinculin, titin and duced significantly lower L* values than
nebulin was considered to be responsible those aged for 1 day (Kadim et al., 2004).
for changes in water-holding capacity dur- Kannan et al. (2001) reported that the aver-
ing ageing (Kristensen and Purslow, 2001; age value of a* (redness) for chevon cuts
Baron et al., 2004; Lametsch et al., 2004). was high at day 0 and low at day 8. The
Formation of drip is generally considered a colour of the meat surface depends not only
result of denaturation of contractile pro- on the quantity of myoglobin but also on the
teins and shrinkage of myofibrils during relative proportions of the three main states
rigor development (Bertram et al., 2004; of myoglobin on the surface. Ultimate pH
Hwang et al., 2004b). However, reduced can influence colour independently of meat
drip loss has also been related to the 'leak- myoglobin content (Leeward, 1985), which
out' effect, and ageing itself did not improve explains the differences between aged and
the water-holding capacity. A higher rigor non-aged samples.
temperature accelerated drip loss during
vacuum-packed storage and drip loss
increased at a high pH of 6.2 as ageing time
lengthened (Hwang et al., 2004b). Ageing of 13.7.5 Muscle fibre types and meat quality
goat muscles had significantly lower water-
holding capacity than non-aged samples Skeletal muscle features are complex due
(Moller et al., 1983; Kim et al., 1993; Joo to their role in movement, deposition of
et al., 1995; Kadim et al., 2004). This differ- protein, protection and transformation of
ence might be explained by the 'leaking-out' muscles to meat (Hocquette et al., 1998;
hypothesis, which states that water is lost Geay et al. 2001). Skeletal muscle is com-
by evaporation or dripping during the age- posed of a large number of different types of
ing period. Slight differences in expressed muscle fibre that contribute to a variety
juice between different muscles were of functional capabilities and metabolic
reported by Gonzalez et al. (1983), Mari- enzymes (Schiaffino and Reggiani, 1996).
nova et al. (2001) and Kadim et al. (2004). These fibre types differ according to their
Ageing of the biceps femoris, semitendino- molecular, metabolic, structural and con-
sus and semimembranosus muscles for tractile properties (Pette and Staron, 1990).
6 days had significantly lower percentage Fibre-type diversity is usually defined by
cooking losses than muscles aged for 1 day the isoform of the myosin heavy chain
(Kadim et al., 2004). Similarly, Kannan present (Pette and Staron, 1990). Myosin
et al. (2001) found that the percentage cook- heavy-chain composition and skeletal mus-
ing loss was higher at day 0 than at days 4, cle fibre types are two of the most important
8 or 12 of display for goat steaks. According determinants in meat quality and meat
to Trout (1988), cooking loss is more depen- products, as quality is currently an impor-
dent on ultimate pH, sarcomere length and tant social and economic challenge for meat
cooking conditions. Bouton et al. (1972) producers and retailers (Xiong, 1994). The
suggested that the myofibrillar protein molecular diversity of skeletal muscle fibre
changes structurally with ageing, resulting types is species specific (Pette and Staron,
in significantly reducing cooking loss for 1990). Physiological differences between
aged rather than non-aged muscles. Goat species related to body size have been
semimembranosus muscle had the highest reported by Rome et al. (1990). The most
percentage cooking loss, while the longissi- useful schemes to describe skeletal fibre
mus dorsi had the lowest and the biceps types are based on specific myosin profiles
femoris and semitendinosus muscles were to provide greater insights into the
The Nutritive Value of Goat Meat 313

molecular and functional diversity, versatil- Goat skeletal muscle cells are classified
ity and adaptability of muscle fibres. Pheno- into several specialized classes, termed
typic profiles of skeletal muscle fibre types fibre types, which show variations in con-
are affected by innervation/neuromuscular tractile and metabolic properties. The iso-
activity, exercise training, loading/unload- forms of the myosin heavy-chain molecule
ing, hormones and ageing (Pette and Staron, represent the best markers of muscle fibre
1990). According to the above information, diversity (Pette and Staron, 1990). It is
the quality of meat is therefore determined thought that both myosin heavy-chain com-
by the muscle architecture, attachment of position and skeletal muscle fibre types are
fibres to connective tissue and post-mortem two of the most important determinants in
changes in these structures. The quality meat quality and meat products (Xiong,
characteristics of goat meat such as flavour, 1994). Different combinations of myosin
colour, juiciness and tenderness are influ- heavy-chain isoforms may occur within the
enced by many factors, among which fibre same fibre, but the predominant isoform is
type is important. Muscle structures, the the main determinant of the fibre's func-
conversion of muscle to meat and the tional properties such as speed of contrac-
phenomenon of rigor mortis have been tion and fatigue resistance (Schiaffino and
discussed above. Reggiani, 1996). The molecular diversity of

Fig. 13.3. Serial frozen sections of adult goat semitendinosus muscle stained for immunohistochemistry
with monoclonal antibodies raised against specific myosin heavy-chain isoforms (a-f) and by enzyme
histochemistry for myofibrillar ATPase and quantitative succinic dehydrogenase (g-i). The sections in a-f
were stained with monoclonal antibodies specific for isoforms I, IIA, IIB and IIX. The fibres labelled 1, 3 and
5 are pure fibres containing isoforms I, IIA and IIX, respectively; fibres 2 and 4 are hybrid fibres containing
isoforms I plus IIA, and IIA plus IIX, respectively. (g, h) Myofibrillar ATPase activity after pre-incubation at
pH 4.5 (g) and pH 10.5 (h). (i) Succinate dehydrogenase activity. Bar, 50 pm (from Arguello et al., 2001).
314 1. T Kadim and 0. Mahgoub

adult skeletal muscle fibres is species spe- than fast-twitch oxidative fibre types
cific (Pette and Staron, 1990), and important (Kadim et al., 2010). The latter authors com-
physiological differences between species pared the diameters of slow-twitch oxida-
related to body size have already been tive, fast-twitch oxidative and fast-twitch
reported (Rome et al., 1990). Figure 13.3 muscle fibres and found that fast-twitch
demonstrates the presence of three different fibres were larger than fast-twitch oxidative
muscle fibre types in goat semitendinosus fibres, and fast-twitch oxidative fibres were
muscle containing a unique myosin heavy- larger than slow-twitch oxidative fibres
chain isoform: one slow-twitch fibre type (Table 13.10). The effect of muscle fibre
(type I) and two fast-twitch fibre types type on meat quality of goat meat may be
(types IIA and IIB) (Arguello et al., 2001). due to the muscle fibre size - the larger the
The quality of goat meat is the main fac- size, the tougher the meat. Fast-contracting
tor of importance in the provision of meat, fibres with a glycolytic metabolism (fast-
and is affected by muscle structure and twitch fibres) are larger than slow and oxi-
muscle fibre types. Enhancing meat safety dative red fibres. The red fibres are rich in
involves the application of measures to lipid and red in colour, therefore contribut-
delay or prevent microbiological, chemical ing to taste and colour quality, and they are
and/or physical changes that make meat also related to metabolic differences.
unhealthy for human consumption. Recent
advances have helped our understanding of
meat structure and its effect on the meat-
quality characteristics of goats. 13.8 Processing of Meat
Three myosin heavy-chain isoform pro-
teins have been found in goat longissimus Goat meat processing is important for
dorsi muscles: slow-twitch oxidative (type human nutrition and refers to applying
I), fast-twitch oxidative (type IIA) and fast- technology to improve or maintain quality
twitch (type IIB) (Kadim et al., 2010). The and add value, and to preserve the meat and
constant staining pattern of muscle fibres produce suitable high-quality meat prod-
for myosin ATPase is consistent with the ucts to be used at different times and places
goat muscle study by Arguello et al. (2001) for consumption. Meat processing is an
(Fig. 13.3). It has been reported that the fast- extensive subject and only some aspects of
twitch fibre type occurs at a significantly goat meat will be highlighted. Goat meat is
higher frequency than the slow-twitch oxi- preserved by drying, curing with salts or
dative or fast-twitch oxidative fibre types, smoking, or is manufactured into reconsti-
while the slow-twitch oxidative fibre types tuted products. Goat meat is processed not
occur at a significantly higher frequency only as a means of preserving but also to

Table 13.10. Muscle fibre type parameters (means ± SD) in longissimus dorsi muscles from two breeds
of goats (from Kadim et al., 2010).

Breed

Parameter Dhofari Batina SD

Proportion
Type I 19.2 18.9 0.66
Type IIA 9.9 9.6 0.42
Type IIB 71.0 71.4 0.74
Diameter (pm)
Type I 56.3 52.9 1.25
Type IIA 61.1 56.7 1.36
Type IIB 58.0 56.6 1.04

so, Standard deviation.


The Nutritive Value of Goat Meat 315

produce consumer-acceptable products, low-voltage electrically stimulated car-


compatible with marketing and lifestyles casses of goats compared with the counter-
and related to human health. Therefore, the part of beef silverside received higher
processing has to reflect the image and sale- ratings (P < 0.01) in terms of aroma, tender-
ability of the envisaged products. The deci- ness, juiciness and tastiness (Table 13.12)
sion-making process of the consumer needs (Breukink and Casey, 1989). The authors
to be defined in terms of real and perceived concluded that smoked and cured goat leg
values, the convenience the product offers meat has the potential to be a delicacy and
and its palatability. could compete comfortably with other
Although goat meat has a less desirable products such as smoked beef.
flavour and aroma than the meat of other Pre-rigor goat muscle has a higher
species, objective evaluation of meat quality water-holding capacity, better fat-emulsi-
found that substitution of up to 40% of beef fying properties and produces sausages
by goat meat was acceptable in frankfurters with less moisture loss and rendering out
(Table 13.11) (Marshall et al., 1977). The when cooked. According to Padda et al.
goat frankfurters had good physical attri- (1988),patties manufactured from hot goat
butes, being firm, resilient and springy carcasses (around 3-4 h post-mortem) had
under forefinger pressure and a firm bite, significantly lower cooking yields than
a desirable textural attribute in quality patties prepared from chilled meat (24 h
emulsified sausages. The goat frankfurters post-mortem). However, reducing the post-
maintained their form and shape during mortem time interval to processing to
peeling, indexing and packaging opera- 1-2 h improved the yield. Reheating pre-
tions. Sausages made from mature does' cooked, frozen patties significantly reduced
meat had different quality parameters with sensory scores. The fat content of patties
higher shear force values than sausages has a significant influence on cooking loss,
made from beef. Differences in physical, flavour, texture and overall acceptability
chemical, structural and quality attributes (Padda et al., 1985). According to sensory
between goat and beef sausages might be scores, a 20% fat content would be the
related to the characteristics of the raw optimal. The quality of warm minced goat
meat. Cured and smoked leg muscles of meat (3 h post-mortem) could be improved

Table 13.11. Sensory panel rating for frankfurters in which beef was substituted by 40% goat, mutton
and pork (from Marshall et al., 1977).

Formulation Flavour Juiciness Texture Overall

Control 4.4 5.0 4.6 4.5


Old age goat 5.3 5.8 5.3 5.4
Young age goat 5.1 5.3 5.1 5.2
Mutton 5.1 5.5 4.8 5.1
Pork 3.1 3.2 1.8 2.4

Table 13.12. Sensory parameters (mean ± SD) of cured and smoked meat from goat and beef (from
Breukink and Casey, 1989).

Parameter Goat Beef

Aroma 4.05 ± 0.27 3.89 ± 0.29


Tenderness 2.95 ± 0.50 2.37 ± 0.49
Juiciness 3.16 ± 0.32 1.88 ± 0.64
Overall 3.54 ± 0.60 2.96 ± 0.97

so, Standard deviation.


316 1. T Kadim and 0. Mahgoub

by the addition of 2.5% sodium chloride the risk of cardiovascular diseases. Goat
and 1% tetrasodium pyrophosphate (Kon- meat is also a good source of desirable fatty
daiah et al., 1985). These salts resulted in acids, as goats deposit relatively higher
significantly increased pH, water-holding amounts of PUFAs than other ruminants.
capacity and level of water-soluble Goat meat is a nutrient-dense food, but the
proteins, decreased cooking loss and complementary role of goat meat in local
improved redness and overall appearance. diets, taking lifestyles and customs into con-
The effects on the emulsifying capacity sideration, should be quantified. The quality
and salt-soluble protein concentration of goat meat can be improved through appro-
were also significant. priate technology: processing can extend the
range of products, improve the shelf life and
give added value to products.
13.9 Conclusions Pre- and post-mortem factors should be
considered carefully to improve meat-
Goat meat is an important nutrient source to quality characteristics. Pre-slaughter trans-
a large proportion of the world population. portation may cause significant responses
Goats are well adapted to a variety of envi- in goat meat quality and transportation
ronments and few feed resources as they are under high ambient temperatures should be
able to utilize marginal land to produce avoided or goats should be allowed to rest
high-level protein products. There is a prior to slaughter in order to reduce eco-
worldwide tendency towards a rapid nomic losses. To counter post-slaughter
increase in the demand for goat meat due to conditions, technology has been used to
health reasons because of its lower fat con- improve goat meat quality through electri-
tent. This is an important factor in reducing cal stimulation, ageing and chilling.

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Wood, J.D. and Enser, M. (1997) Factors influencing fatty acids in meat and the role of antioxidation in
improving meat quality. British Journal of Nutrition 78, S49-S60.
Wood, J.D., Enser, M., Fisher, A.V., Nute, G.R., Richardson, R.I. and Sheard, P.R. (1999) Manipulating
meat quality and composition. Proceedings of the Nutritional Society 58,363-370.
Wood, J.D., Enser, M., Fisher, M., Nute, G.R., Sheard, P.R., Richardson, R.I., Hughes, S.I. and Whittington,
F.M. (2008) Fat deposition, fatty acid composition and meat quality: a review. Meat Science 78,
343-358.
Worthington-Roberts, B. and Monsen, E.R. (1990) Iron. In: Pearson, A.M. and Dutson, T.R. (eds) Advances
in Meat Research - Meat and Health, Vol. 6. Elsevier Applied Science, London.
Xiong, Y.L. (1994) Myofibrillar protein from different muscle fiber types: implications of biochemical and
functional properties in meat processing. Critical Review Food Science and Nutrition 34,293-320.
Zygoyiannis, D., Kufidis, D., Katsaounis, N. and Philips, R (1992) Fatty acid composition of carcass fat of
indigenous (Capra prisca) suckled Greek kids and milk of their does. Small Ruminant Research 8,
83-95.
14 Effect of Early Nutrition on Carcass
and Meat Quality of Young Goats Under
Milk Production Systems
A. Arguellol, N. Castrol, D. Sanchez-Maciasi and J. Capote2
1 Animal Science Department, Veterinary Faculty, Universidad de Las Palmas de
Gran Canaria, Las Palmas, Spain; 2lnstituto Canario de Investigaciones Agrarias,
La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain

14.1 Abstract birth. After the colostrum feeding


period, the kids usually are accommo-
Goat kids in intensive dairy goat farms are dated in artificial rearing pens with at
usually reared on milk replacers, due to least 0.3 m2 floor space per kid. Cen-
farmers' desire to use all the milk for com- trally heated pens have a temperature
mercial purposes or cheese-making. In of around 202C. The animals are trained
this chapter, growth, carcass and meat to suckle from an artificial teat fitted to
quality characteristics of goat kids fed a unit for feeding liquid diets. The milk
milk replacers are studied in depth in replacer is continuously mixed and
comparison with kids reared naturally on offered ad libitum on a 24 h basis.
goat milk. Under the RAR system, kids are reared
as for the ALAR group except that milk
replacers are made available twice a
14.2 Introduction day for a limited period of time.

Different management methods have been Goat milk and milk replacers differ in
proposed for goat kid rearing on dairy goat composition. The protein source of milk
farms. These include natural suckling (NS), replacers is often milk protein concentrates
restricted natural suckling (RNS), ad libi- and whey proteins (Beserra et al., 2003). The
tum artificial rearing (ALAR) on milk casein content of milk replacers is lower
replacers and restricted artificial rearing than in goat milk, which may produce some
(RAR). These are summarized as follows: problems with curd formation in the kid
abomasum (Sanz Sampelayo et al., 1990).
The NS system implies that kids remain Hashimoto et al. (2007) included soy as a
with their dams from birth until the protein source in milk replacers, but the
end of the suckling period with free effects on growth and meat quality are yet to
access to goat milk 24 h a day. be clearly defined. Carbohydrates are higher
RNS is a system in which kids have in milk replacers due to the overall lactose
access to their dams for a limited period content. The main raw components in milk
of time per day. replacers are cow skimmed milk and cheese
ALAR implies that kids are hand-fed whey, and both are very rich in lactose. A
colostrum during the first 2 days after high lactose content in milk replacers has
© CAB International 2012. Goat Meat Production and Quality
324 (eds 0. Mahgoub, I.T. Kadim and E.G. Webb)
Early Nutrition and Meat Quality of Goats 325

been related to osmotic diarrhoea in kids emerging as an alternative and attractive


(Arguello et a/., 1999). Some experiments source of meat in other parts of the world.
have been carried out using starch as a raw With milk goat breeds, kids are usually
material in milk replacers (Nitsan et al., reared on milk replacers, so that all milk
1990), but diarrhoea was a major problem. A produced can be sold as fresh milk or pro-
major difference in chemical composition cessed into dairy products as cheese or
between goat milk and milk replacers is also yogurt. Young kids have to be routinely fed
the fat source. Milk replacers are based on milk replacers.
cow skimmed milk and cheese whey, and
both ingredients have a low fat content.
Therefore, vegetable fats are added to milk 14.3.1 Growth curves
replacers as the main fat source. These
include mainly palm or coconut oils. BatIon
et al. (2006) recently reported substantial Growth in farm animals in general, and
differences in fatty acid composition goats in particular, is usually represented
between goat milk and milk replacers. The by an exponential curve. However, observa-
main fatty acids in goat milk are C16:0 tions during the first month of life have
(30%), C18:1 (22%) and C18:0 (14%), shown a better statistical fit to a linear
whereas in milk replacers they are C12:0 regression (Arguello et al., 2004).
(29%), C16:0 (23%) and C18:1 (16%). New Growth curves of kids reared during the
advances in milk replacer formulations are first month of life under NS, ALAR and
currently under way. Tacchini et al. (2006) RAR systems are shown in Fig. 14.1
reduced the use of cow milk to 15%, and our (Arguello et al., 2004). NS kids have a sig-
group is introducing seaweed into formula- nificantly higher average daily gain (ADG)
tions with encouraging preliminary results. than ALAR and RAR kids (Perez et al.,
2001; Arguello et al., 2004), and ALAR kids
have a significantly higher ADG than RAR
kids (Arguello et al. 2004). The higher ADG
14.3 Goat Kid Growth Under Goat in NS kids is caused by the higher digest-
Milk or Milk Replacer Diets ibility of components in goat milk than in
milk replacers because the goat milk curd
The goat is an important source of meat in
stays longer in the abomasum than the milk
Africa, Asia and the Far East. It is now replacer curd (Sanz Sampelayo et al., 1990;

Fig. 14.1. Growth curves of goat kids raised under different feeding management systems (Arguello
et al., 2004). NS, natural suckling; ALAR, ad libitum artificial rearing; RAR, restricted artificial rearing.
326 A. Arguello et al.

Baumrucker and Blum, 1993). Baumrucker Feed conversion efficiency


and Blum (1993) found that dams' milk has
a growth promoter that is not present in From a financial point of view, it is also nec-
milk replacers, which could explain the essary to evaluate the feed conversion effi-
higher ADG in NS kids. NS kids' growth ciency (FCE), which is a measure of an
rates ranged from 140 to 200 g/day in differ- animal's efficiency in converting feed mass
ent breeds such as Majorera (Arguello into increased body mass. Arguello (2000)
et al., 2004), Verata (Farina et al., 1989) reported similar FCEs for both male and
and Damascus (Louca et al., 1977). Some female animals, with higher FCE values
authors have attributed the higher growth observed at the beginning of the experiment
rate to a higher feed intake capacity in kids compared with the final period (Fig. 14.2).
raised ad libitum (Sanz Sampelayo et al., Tejon et al. (1995) reported FCE levels
1987; Yan et al., 1993). of 1060.19 and 1115.11 g/kg for males
There are many factors that affect growth and females, respectively, in Guadarrama
curves of farm animals, including birth goat kids reared by artificial rearing for
weight, feed conversion efficiency and RNS, 0-21 days. The differences displayed
each of which is discussed in more detail. between initial and final FCE levels are
probably due to the lesser development of
the digestive tract in kids at an early age.
Birth weight
This becomes more evident in terms of milk
Birth weight has an important effect on the assimilation and transformation as the ani-
first month's growth pattern for goat kids mal grows older. The results obtained for
(Arguello et al., 2004). Table 14.1 shows FCE in males and females indicate that
the results for Majorera goat kids where females are more efficient in terms of milk
the Pearson correlation coefficients replacer transformation. Nevertheless, such
between birth weight and weight at n days differences are slight and are probably due
were statistically significant (P < 0.01) to the greater voracity of males, which
throughout the first 28 days of life for all makes them tend to consume greater
groups. While the significance of the cor- amounts of feed regardless of age.
relation coefficients observed with the
ALAR and RAR methods lasted throughout Restricted natural suckling
the whole experiment, in the NS method
the correlation lasted only until day 28. In special circumstances, kids are reared
This behaviour is the opposite of what we under RNS management. When the milk is
expected, as the constant availability of highly valuable, farmers try to minimize the
food should have minimized the effect of amount of milk used for feeding kids and
birth weight. allow the kids to access their mothers for

Table 14.1. Correlation matrix for birth and live weights of kids at different ages, as
influenced by rearing methods (from Arguello et al., 2004).

Birth weight

Weight at: NS ALAR RAR NS+ ALAR+RAR

7 days 0.92* 0.79* 0.90* 0.78*


14 days 0.73* 0.73* 0.76* 0.64*
21 days 0.83* 0.68* 0.65* 0.60*
28 days 0.73* 0.60* 0.62* 0.52*
35 days NS 0.54* 0.55" 0.39*

NS, Natural suckling; ALAR, ad libitum artificial rearing; RAR, restricted artificial rearing.
" , P < 0.01; NS, no significant differences.
Early Nutrition and Meat Quality of Goats 327

(b)
9 1.7

1.6

1.5

Y' 6 1.4

1.2

1.1

14 21 28 35 14 21 28 35
Days Days

Fig. 14.2. Male (a) and female (b) goat kid feed conversion efficiency (efficiency of conversion of feed
mass (kg) into increased body mass (kg)) under the ad libitum artificial rearing method (Arguello, 2000).

only a few hours a day. This system of cheese manufacturing. Therefore, goat
management reduces the ADG in kids keepers remove the kids from their dams
(Genandoy et al., 2002) compared with NS very early postnatally (15 days of age;
management due to the lower milk intake. 5-6 kg live weight). These kids are then
Therefore, RNS is not an adequate manage- harvested for meat. Unfortunately, car-
ment system for meat production and must casses from these kids are very light in
be recommended only when milk has a weight (-3 kg) and therefore have little sale-
high price. able meat. Furthermore, consumers in Med-
iterranean countries and other regions
(e.g. Canary Islands) prefer meat from kids
14.4 Effect of the Diet (Goat Milk that have only been fed milk. All these fac-
or Milk Rep lacers) on Kid Carcass tors contribute to the production of a very
Quality light live weight of kids at slaughter and
carcasses with low meat quality and yield,
Goats are ruminant animals that produce resulting in goat keepers not earning signi-
useful products such as fibre, meat, milk ficant financial profits.
and leather. In some regions of the world
such as southern Europe, goats have been
selected primarily for milk production 14.4.1 Body weight, carcass yield
(Harvey and Rigg, 1964). In such systems, and offal
few goats are raised for meat production as
the major selection criterion in regions Losses in goat kid carcasses due to chilling
where milk production is the primary focus. are not affected by diet (goat milk versus
Kid carcasses from dairy goats have little fat milk replacers) according to Arguello et al.
(Kirton, 1988). Traditionally, in non-spe- (2007). In reference to carcass yield, some
cialized dairy goat herds, goat kids are authors (Arguello et al., 2007) did not
reared with their dams, which results in observe differences between animals fed
reduced milk yield and thus less milk for goat milk or milk replacers due to lack of
328 A. Arguello et al.

differences in nutritive characteristics right kidney was significantly higher in kids


between diets. Table 14.2 shows weights fed with milk replacers.
and carcass yield in goat kids fed goat milk
or milk replacers (Arguello et al., 2007).
Arguello et al. (2007) studied the influ- 14.4.2 Carcass conformation
ence of diet on offal components in kids
(Table 14.3). There was no significant effect Arguello et al. (2007) studied carcass con-
of diet on the percentage of blood, skin, feet, formation measurements and indices in
gastrointestinal tract full and empty, gastro- Majorera goat kids fed goat milk or milk
intestinal content, liver, urinary bladder, replacers. These included: width between
testicle plus penis, spleen, head, lungs plus hips (G), depth at 6th rib (Th), carcass
trachea, heart and thymus of the live weight length (L), leg length (F), chest width (Wr),
at slaughter. However, the weight of the hips perimeter (B), long leg compact indices

Table 14.2. Carcass yield parameters from kids fed milk or milk replacers
(from Arguello et al., 2007).

Goat milk Milk replacers SEM

Number of animals 20 20
Live weight slaughter (kg) 8.31 8.10 0.33
Empty body weight (kg) 5.89 5.91 0.31
Hot carcass weight (kg) 2.97 3.01 0.18
Cold carcass weight (kg) 2.87 2.75 0.18
Chilling losses (%) 3.45 3.29 0.16
Net carcass yield (cYo)a 50.43 50.23 0.39

SEM, Standard error of the mean.


aNet carcass yield = (carcass weight/empty body weight) x 100.

Table 14.3. Offal (% live weight at slaughter) in kids fed milk or milk replacers
(from Arguello et al., 2007).

Goat milk Milk replacers SEM

Blood 3.89 3.27 0.14


Skin 10.18 9.93 0.01
Feet 3.85 4.09 0.10
GI tract (full) 14.57 15.33 0.49
GI tract (empty) 8.95 8.99 0.15
GI content 5.62 6.34 0.41
Liver 2.95 2.73 0.01
Urinary bladder 0.48 0.24 0.01
Testicle and penis 0.24 0.26 0.01
Spleen 0.22 0.21 0.01
Right kidney 0.33a 0.44b 0.01
Head 8.09 8.87 0.16
Lungs + trachea 1.72 1.69 0.01
Heart 0.75 0.68 0.01
Thymus 0.54 0.57 0.01

SEM, Standard error of the mean; GI, gastrointestinal.


Values with different letters (a, b) on the same row are statistically different (P < 0.05).
Early Nutrition and Meat Quality of Goats 329

(G/F and B/F), cold carcass weight (CCW) for L and F measurements. Rearing in small
and carcass compactness index (CCW/L) pens (milk replacer diet) could be the rea-
(Table 14.4 and Fig. 14.3). These authors son for these little differences found
found differences (P < 0.01) between diets between kids on different diets. There were

Table 14.4. Carcass conformation and indices from kids fed with different
diets (from Arguello et al., 2007).

Goat milk Milk replacers SEM

F (cm) 24.42a 23.13b 0.22


L (cm) 42.71a 40.48b 0.04
G (cm) 9.88 10.20 0.13
Wr (cm) 11.77 10.61 0.09
B (cm) 33.08 31.94 0.15
Th (cm) 16.79 16.84 0.14
CCW/L 93.55 93.16 0.21
G/F 0.41 0.44 0.01
B/F 1.36 1.38 0.01

SEM, Standard error of the mean; F, Leg length; L, carcass length; G, width between hips;
Wr, chest width; B, hips perimeter; Th, depth at 6th rib; CCW/L, carcass compactness
index (cold carcass weight/carcass length), G/F and B/F, long leg compact indices.
Values with different letters (a, b) on the same row are statistically different (P < 0.01).

Fig. 14.3. Principal measurements in kid carcass. G, Width between hips; Th, depth at 6th rib; L,
carcass length; F, leg length; Wr, chest width; B, hips perimeter.
330 A. Arguello et al.

no significant differences between diets in total fat in carcass and ribs, with the differ-
G, WR, B and TH measures and CCW/L, ences being higher in animals fed goat milk.
G/F and B/F indices. There were significant Shoulder, long leg and flanks had lower
interactions between diet and live weight at percentages of intermuscular and total fat
slaughter for L and F measures and CCW/L, in kids fed milk replacers. There were no
G/F and B/F indices. When kids' live differences in fat content in neck. Morand-
weight at slaughter was 6 kg, higher CCW/L Fehr et al. (1986) previously reported simi-
values in kids on the milk replacer were lar results. They attributed this to a higher
found, due to these animals being older. amount of fat fed in the NS system than in
kids fed with milk replacers. The carcass
total fat contents were lower than those
14.4.3 Primal cut distribution reported by Gutierrez et al. (1995) but were
closer to those obtained by Colomer-Rocher
Some authors (Arguello et al., 2007) found et al. (1992). In the same breed, Arguello
no differences in primal cut distribution in (1997a,b,c) found that, while the
et a/.
kids fed goat milk or milk replacers amount of milk replacers increased, the
(Table 14.5). However, Sanz Sampelayo total carcass fat percentage also increased.
et al. (1987) found differences in lumbar The bone and muscle tissue percentages
rib percentages (-2%) between kids fed did not differ as a result of diet.
goat milk and kids fed milk replacers.
These differences were probably a result of
using different carcass jointing procedures. 14.5 Effect of Diet (Goat Milk or Milk
Replacers) on Kid Meat Quality

14.4.4 Tissue composition The goat population in the world com-


prises four major types of goat: fibre goats
Arguello et al. (2007) studied the effect (e.g. angora, cashmere), dairy goats (e.g.
of diet (goat milk versus milk replacers) Saanen, Toggenburg and Nubian), meat
on tissue composition of kid carcasses goats (e.g. Boer) and feral goats (Naude and
(Table 14.6). There were significant effects Hofmeyr, 1981). The world's goat popula-
of diet on subcutaneous, intermuscular and tion was around 870 million in 2009,

Table 14.5. Contribution of organs and primal cuts to the carcass from kids
fed dam milk or milk replacers (from Arguello et al., 2007).

Goat milk Milk replacers SEM

Left kidney 1.32 1.44 0.01


Kidney and pelvic fat 2.95 2.62 0.14
Tail 0.50 0.39 0.01
Shoulder 20.85 20.76 0.24
Neck 10.09 10.80 0.26
Long leg 32.93 33.86 0.39
Flank 9.64 9.54 0.20
Ribs 21.64 21.33 0.36
By categories
Extra 54.58 55.20 0.45
First 20.85 20.76 0.24
Second 19.73 20.34 0.30

SEM, Standard error of the mean.


Early Nutrition and Meat Quality of Goats 331

Table 14.6. Proportions of fat, bone, muscle and primal cuts of kids
fed goat milk or milk replacers (from Arguello et al., 2007).

Goat milk Milk replacers SEM

Carcassa
Subcutaneous fat 4.69a 3.79b 0.20
Intermuscular fat 3.71a 2.56b 0.22
Total fat 11.35a 8.97b 0.46
Bone 29.43 30.32 0.45
Muscle 55.03 55.70 0.46
Losses 1.08 2.31 0.26
Shoulderb
Subcutaneous fat 3.20 2.52 0.20
Intermuscular fat 2.67a 1.69b 0.24
Total fat 5.87a 4.21b 0.32
Bone 30.87 31.69 0.46
Muscle 62.09 61.58 0.37
Losses 0.38 1.42 0.23
Neckb
Subcutaneous fat 6.89 6.43 0.51
Intermuscular fat 4.22 3.15 0.44
Total fat 11.11 9.58 0.55
Bone 28.53 29.30 0.66
Muscle 55.18 50.67 1.08
Losses 4.09 8.57 1.12
Long legb
Subcutaneous fat 4.55 3.59 0.31
Intermuscular fat 3.64a 2.46b 0.23
Total fat 8.19a 6.05b 0.41
Bone 30.16 29.94 0.46
Muscle 60.26 61.93 0.40
Losses 0.49 1.03 0.13
Flanksb
Subcutaneous fat 6.49 5.55 0.43
Intermuscular fat 6.95a 4.70b 0.57
Total fat 13.44a 10.25b 0.71
Bone 29.68 31.85 0.99
Muscle 54.19 54.34 1.01
Losses 0.47 0.43 0.12
Ribsb
Subcutaneous fat 5.44a 3.88b 0.31
Intermuscular fat 3.96a 2.66b 0.32
Total fat 9.40a 6.54b 0.49
Bone 33.80 34.93 0.75
Muscle 53.18 52.97 0.63
Losses 1.61 3.06 0.30

SEM, Standard error of the mean.


Values with different letters (a, b) on the same row are statistically different.
aProportions in carcass weight.
bProportions in joint weight.
332 A. Arguello et al.

with annual meat production of around on the meat quality of young goats (Arguello
4.9 million t (FAOSTAT, 2010). Consum- et al., 2005; Barron et al, 2006). They did
ers' preference for goat meat varies around not find significant effects of diet on pH
the world. For instance, in India, the local value or lightness, except for some slight
community specifically seeks meat from differences in chroma values (a less
mature goats, whereas, in France and Latin intense red colour) (Tables 14.7, 14.8 and
America, meat from young milk-fed kids 14.9). Meat tenderness is considered one
is considered a traditional delicacy. The of the most important attributes in terms
acceptability of meat is greatly influenced of consumer satisfaction. Diet significantly
by local custom and preference, so it is not affected shear force values in the semi-
possible to apply a universal standard for membranosus and triceps brachii muscles
the quality of goat meat (Naude and (Tables 14.8 and 14.9) with animals fed
Hofmeyr, 1981). milk replacers having greater shear force
values than animals fed goat milk. A simi-
lar trend was also observed for the longis-
14.5.1 Physical attributes simus dorsi muscle. These differences
could be attributed to the fact that the ani-
Physical attributes of meat quality include: mals were older and had consumed greater
pH, colour, tenderness and water-holding amounts of starter feed. This is in agree-
capacity. Some authors have studied the ment with reports by Pisula et al. (1994),
effect of diet (goat milk or milk replacers) who found statistical differences between

Table 14.7. Effects of diet on longissimus dorsi muscle attributes (means ± SD)
in kids fed milk or milk replacers (from Arguello et al., 2005).

Goat milk Milk replacers

pHa 6.08 ± 0.24 6.30 ± 0.31


pHb 5.59 ± 0.18 5.73 ± 0.01
Lightnessa 50.07 ± 3.92 49.53 ± 3.00
Lightnessb 56.57 ± 4.82 56.93 ± 3.96
Chromaa 9.08 ± 1.72 10.45 ± 2.43
Chromab 13.76 ± 3.99a 16.11 ± 5.69b
Huea 26.79 ± 12.25 29.75 ± 8.94
Hueb 43.99 ± 7.67 42.08 ± 6.09
Shear force (N) 50.07 ± 14.93 55.71 ± 13.41
Water-holding capacity (g) 0.66 ± 0.11a 0.46 ± 0.10b
Moisture (%) 78.21 ± 0.38 78.40 ± 1.20
Protein ( %) 18.67 ± 0.72 19.05 ± 1.74
Fat (%) 1.26 ± 0.41 0.96 ± 0.44
Ash ( %) 1.15 ± 0.09 1.12 ± 0.05
Collagen ( %) 0.60 ± 0.13 0.46 ± 0.16
Collagen solubility ( %) 70.49 ± 8.47 85.62 ± 15.84
Type I (%) 24.00 ± 11.43 32.91 ± 22.67
Type IIA ( %) 46.00 ± 10.70 35.50 ± 15.68
Type IIB ( %) 30.00 ± 4.00 31.85 ± 19.30
Type I (pm2) 484.27 ± 151.88 389.10 ± 123.79
Type IIA (pm2) 541.23 ± 224.02 354.16 ± 164.43
Type IIB (pm2) 472.49 ± 166.04 367.02 ± 86.79

so, Standard deviation.


Values with different letters on the same row (a, b) are statistically different.
aAt slaughter; barter chilling.
Early Nutrition and Meat Quality of Goats 333

Table 14.8. Effects of diet on triceps brachii muscle attributes (means ± SD) in
kids fed milk or milk replacers (from Arguello et al., 2005).

Goat milk Milk replacers

p Ha 6.34 ± 0.21 6.53 ± 0.27


pHb 5.82 ± 0.10 5.80 ± 0.14
Lightnessa 53.08 ± 4.61 53.60 ± 3.95
Lightnessb 56.33± 3.08 55.47 ± 4.98
Chromaa 12.50± 3.36 11.03 ± 1.41
Chromab 13.99± 2.46a 15.26 ± 1.76b
Huea 31.34± 8.93 31.87 ± 6.74
Hueb 39.82± 7.83 38.29 ± 10.36
Shear force (N) 83.18± 8.64a 88.40 ± 6.85b
Water-holding capacity (g) 0.41 ± 0.08a 0.33 ± 0.07b
Moisture (%) 78.38 ± 1.41 78.55 ± 0.40
Protein (%) 17.54 ± 2.07 18.53 ± 0.69
Fat (%) 0.84 ± 0.22 1.08 ± 0.51
Ash ( %) 1.08 ± 0.07 1.16 ± 0.07
Collagen (%) 0.49 ± 0.06 0.40 ± 0.06
Collagen solubility ( %) 83.04 ± 3.04 83.09 ± 12.14
Type I (%) 29.49 ± 8.63 17.53 ± 12.72
Type IIA (%) 40.13 ± 9.90 36.18 ± 19.26
Type IIB (%) 30.37 ± 6.51 46.28 ± 11.55
Type I (pm2) 596.22 ± 126.13 570.73 ± 134.55
Type IIA (pm2) 707.24 ± 238.84 636.02 ± 123.01
Type IIB (pm2) 678.77 ± 254.48 640.60 ± 142.63

so, Standard deviation.


Values with different letters on the same row (a, b) are statistically different.
aAt slaughter; barter chilling.

kids slaughtered at 16 kg live weight and resembles that of very young animals, as
exclusively fed milk replacers and those well as low muscle fat (0.84-1.26%). Fat is
that had consumed starter feed (35.7 versus a late-growing body tissue, and in goats it is
42.6 Newtons, respectively). The values deposited in the viscera more than in other
obtained for water-holding capacity ranged animals (Chilliard et al., 1981). The type of
between 0.31 g (6.2%) and 0.72 g (14.4%). diet did not have a significant effect on the
The pH value and protein content play a chemical composition of kid carcasses
fundamental role in the greater levels of (Arguello et al., 2005). This is in accor-
expelled juice in animals fed goat milk dance with the observations of Mueller
(Arguello et al., 2005). The average pH et al. (1985) using kids of similar weights
value for animals fed goat milk replacers and feed types. In contrast, Barron et al.
after chilling was 5.65, while kids receiv- (2006) reported higher moisture in kids
ing milk replacers had an average pH value fed goat milk or milk replacers (77 and
of 5.70. 76%, respectively) and less protein in
kids fed milk replacers. Collagen percent-
ages and solubility were not affected by
14.5.2 Chemical composition and muscle diet (Arguello et al., 2005; Barron et al.,
characteristics 2006). Diet did not affect muscle fibre areas
(Tables 14.7, 14.8 and 14.9), following the
Arguello et al. (2005) reported protein muscle fibre classification of Arguello et al.
values of -17-20% in goat kids, which (2001).
334 A. Arguello et al.

Table 14.9. Effects of diet on semimembranosus muscle attributes


(means ± SD) in kids fed milk or milk replacers (from Arguello et al., 2005).

Goat milk Milk replacers

pHa 6.09 ± 0.27 6.39 ± 0.22


pHb 5.58 ± 0.04 5.64 ± 0.07
Lightnessa 47.13 ± 17.32 54.43 ± 3.11
Lightnessb 53.61 ± 5.47 54.49 ± 2.11
Chromaa 9.73 ± 2.34 11.87 ± 2.61
Chromab 12.43 ± 2.24a 14.46 ± 3.64b
Huea 34.57 ± 13.71 32.28 ± 7.01
Hueb 44.93 ± 12.01 41.28 ± 6.62
Shear force (N) 32.64 ± 11.87a 43.67 ± 6.24b
Water-holding capacity (g) 0.72 ± 0.16a 0.60 ± 0.15b
Moisture (%) 78.46 ± 0.50 78.51 ± 0.88
Protein (%) 18.20 ± 0.99 18.10 ± 1.65
Fat (%) 0.91 ± 0.34 1.10 ± 0.51
Ash ( %) 1.18 ± 0.06 1.18 ± 0.09
Collagen (%) 0.46 ± 0.05 0.42 ± 0.09
Collagen solubility ( %) 81.52 ± 10.48 74.69 ± 8.77
Type I (%) 9.75 ± 5.68 31.40 ± 25.65
Type IIA (%) 84.25 ± 4.27 13.83 ± 9.24
Type IIB (%) 6.00 ± 1.82 54.77 ± 34.61
Type I (pm2) 508.45 ± 93.47 528.04 ± 106.56
Type IIA (pm2) 564.45 ± 198.00 602.65 ± 138.86
Type IIB (pm2) 565.55 ± 146.38 586.34 ± 129.95

so, Standard deviation.


Values with different letters on the same row(a, b) are statistically different.
aAt slaughter; bafter chilling.

14.5.3 Fatty acid percentages demonstrated a strong effect of diet on


fatty acid content.
Barron et al. (2006) investigated diet
effects on fatty acid composition in perire-
nal fat. The major fatty acids were C18:1, 14.5.4 Sensorial quality
C16:0 and C18:0. These authors reported
higher percentages in goat milk-fed kids Barron et al. (2006) observed that the goat
than in artificially reared kids for the milk or milk replacer diet had pronounced
fatty acids C10:0, C14:0, C15:0, C16:0 effects on the sensory quality of cooked
and C18:0. In contrast, the goat milk-fed meat. The milk replacer diet gave cooked
kids had lower values of C12:0, C16:1, meat a more intense characteristic odour
C17:0, C18:1, C18:2, C18:3, C20:0 and and flavour, more tenderness and increased
C:20:4. The main fatty acids in kids receiving juiciness.
goat milk were C16:0, C18:1 and C14:0,
and the ratio of saturated:unsaturated fatty
acids was 2.27. In animals receiving milk 14.6 Conclusions
replacers, the main fatty acids were C18:1,
C16:0 and C18:0, and the saturated: Rearing goat kids with milk replacers has
unsaturated ratio was 0.94. Together with significant repercussions on their growth,
previous results, Barron et al. (2006) thus carcass and meat quality. Goat kids fed
Early Nutrition and Meat Quality of Goats 335

milk replacers grow at a slower rate and although the kids produced using the two
have leaner carcasses than kids fed goat diets differ, rearing goat kids on inten-
milk. The meat from kids fed milk repla- sive dairy goat farms on milk replacers
cers is characterized by a more intense is more profitable if there is a large enough
colour. Substantial differences have also price margin between goat milk and milk
been reported in fatty acid profile. However, replacers.

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15 Effects of Feeding System and Diet
on Body Lipid Composition
of Young Goats

P. Morand- Fehr1, A. Araba2, P. Bas1 and A. El Aich2


1 UMR 791 INRA/AgroParisTech, Paris, France;
2lnstitut Agronomique et Veterinaire Hassan II, Rabat Instituts, Morocco

15.1 Abstract and fats in kids is less available than in


lambs and steers. The dietary factors and
The objective of this chapter is to present type of feeding system are the main factors,
findings from our experimental work, as but it is difficult to evaluate their direct
well as from other research institutes, related effects because of the influence of other fac-
to the composition and quality of goat meat, tors such as genotype, sex and stage of
particularly the lipid profile, with emphasis growth. During the milk-feeding period,
on dietary factors and feeding programmes. feeding systems based on dam grazing or
This topic is of current concern as the fatty supplementations with linseeds, fish oil or
acid (FA) composition of ruminant meats PUFA mixtures can increase the proportions
and fats contains essential FAs for health, of desirable FAs such as w -3, PUFAs and
conjugated linoleic acids (CLAs), which CLAs, and decrease C18:1 and C16:0 fatty
reduce the risks of cardiovascular diseases acids and SFAs in dams' milk and, to a
and cancers. It also plays a role in the orga- lesser extent, in meat lipids and fats of suck-
noleptic, nutritional and dietetic quality of ling kids. During post-weaning periods, sim-
meat. The FA compositions of kid and lamb ilar feeding systems with kids can have
meats are not very different. However, kid similar effects on meat and fats, although the
meat was observed to be a little richer in results are limited and heterogeneous.
polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), w -3 Future progress in the commercialization of
fatty acids and CLAs, although it was not kid meat may occur but only if its quality,
clear whether this was due to a direct effect particularly dietetic aspects, is markedly
of species. In kids, as in other ruminants, good. Therefore, the dietetic quality of lipids
muscle lipids are more unsaturated, richer present in meat or in consumed fats must be
in PUFAs and lower in saturated fatty acids improved. Kid rearing systems such as
(SFAs) than subcutaneous adipose tissues under Argan tree forests in Morocco have
and especially internal fats. However, the been shown to reduce the proportion of fats
subcutaneous fats are more sensitive to fac- in meat, increase the proportion of desirable
tors modifying their FA composition. Exper- FAs such as CLAs and the cholesterol con-
imental information on the effect of factors tent in meat, and decrease the w -6:w -3 ratio
modifying the lipid composition of meats to about 5. Such findings allow optimism for
© CAB International 2012. Goat Meat Production and Quality
(eds 0. Mahgoub, I.T. Kadim and E.G. Webb) 337
338 P Morand-Fehr et al.

the future in the production and consump- 15.3 Nutritional Role of Meat Lipids
tion of goat meat. and Fats

The major role of meat lipids and fats is to


15.2 Introduction meet human needs and consumers' satisfac-
tion. Maintaining a good level of health
depends on the frequency of meals includ-
Dietary fat is one of the three major energy ing meat, on cultural and culinary traditions,
resource-providing macronutrient groups and on the social position of consumers in
(mainly fatty acids, FAs). Humans require society and their level of education.
polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), which
are essential for life. A component of these
PUFAs, the conjugated linoleic acids
(CLAs), may reduce the risk of various dis- 15.3.1 Dietetic role of meat lipids and fat
eases, while other FAs, such as saturated
FAs (SFAs), can increase the occurrence of In most industrialized as well as other
cardiovascular diseases. Moreover, lipids countries, the lipid composition of rumi-
enable the absorption of vitamins such as A, nant meat is believed to contain high pro-
D, E and K. Ruminant meat flavour and portions of saturated FAs. This argument is
consumer preferences are also influenced used to explain the increase in cardiovascu-
by FA composition (Melton, 1990). lar diseases and other health problems such
The composition of meat lipids has as colon cancer (Bauchart et al., 2008).
been the subject of numerous investigationsHowever, the lipid content and composi-
because of the effect of dietary lipids on tion in ruminant meat and carcasses are
human blood lipid composition, energy bal- quite variable in different cuts or muscles
ance and the health consequences of cardio- and depend on very numerous factors.
vascular and other metabolic diseases Recently, the positive and negative
(Madsen et al., 1992; Nurnberg et al., 1998). roles of FAs in atherogenesis and the risk of
The role of meat in human nutrition, par- cardiovascular diseases are becoming better
ticularly for goat meat, depends on the stan- known, although there is still a lack of full
dards of living, cultural patrimony and knowledge in this area. Most FAs involved
socio-economic environment of consumers are present in goat meat and carcass fats.
(Casey et al., 2003). However, it is necessary Recent information of the effects of FAs was
to identify the characteristics of meat lipids reported by Ledoux (2006), Legrand (2008)
and adipose tissues, as cardiovascular dis- and Lecerf (2008). Currently, the overcon-
eases are increasing in many countries such sumption of SFAs is considered to increase
as in the Mediterranean Basin where much low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol
lamb meat is consumed. Therefore, it is and results in other adverse effects. This
essential to determine whether goat meat effect is much more evident with palmitic
presents the same risk for human consum- acid (C16:0) than with stearic acid (C18:0),
ers and whether it is possible to modify which is frequently considered not to have
goat-rearing techniques to improve the any negative effect. Information on the
dietetic characteristics of goat meat lipids monounsaturated FAs (MUFAs), mainly
and consequently limit health risks. represented by oleic acid (C18:1 cis), is
The objective of this chapter is to pre- currently insufficient to determine their
sent findings of our own experimental work role. Among PUFAs, the FAs of the w -3 fam-
and other studies on the composition of ily, particularly linolenic acid (C18:3w -3),
goat meat and adipose tissue lipids and the eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5w -3; EPA),
effects of diet and feeding programmes on docosapentaenoic acid (C22:5w -3; DPA) and
their quality and composition, as feeding is docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6w-3; DHA), are
the most practical method that can be the most efficient for decreasing cardiovascu-
applied by goat farmers. lar risk. The effect of linoleic acid (C18:2w -6)
Feeding System and Body Lipids 339

and other FAs of the w -6 family may have a protection from subcutaneous adipose tis-
more moderate effect. Indeed, cardiovascu- sues. Therefore, conserving kid carcasses by
lar risks decrease with C18:2w -6 excess or refrigeration may lead to losses and dryness
deficit, and an optimal level of 4% of total of external unprotected meat.
energy supply and a ratio of w -6:w -3 of It was observed that the external carcass
around 5 or less are advised (Raes et al., fat of lambs fed diets very rich in cereals and
2004). Moreover, the CLA and principally poor in fibre did not harden sufficiently dur-
the main one, rumenic acid (C18:2 cis-9, ing carcass cooling after slaughtering. The
trans-11), are said to be responsible for sev- external fats remained soft and oily due to
eral health-promoting effects on consumers a modified fat composition rich in water,
such as anti-carcinogenesis (particularly for odd- and branched-chain FAs and unsatu-
breast cancer), anti-atherosclerosis, immu- rated FAs (Mo lenat and Theriez, 1973; Bas
nomodulation and shifting of the partition- et al., 1980). The commercial value of these
ing of energy towards protein instead of fat carcasses falls drastically. As kid carcasses
deposition (Enser, 2000; Webb et al., 2005; are generally low in external fats, this aspect
Ledoux, 2006). Therefore, the lipids of red of carcass presentation is scarce in young
meat should have a high content of CLAs to kids, but was observed in 5-6-month-old
improve its dietetic quality. kids fed a diet composed exclusively of con-
Some research workers group all the centrate feeds (Bas et al., 1981).
PUFAs (a)-3 and w -6) and C18:0 FAs and Consumers' acceptability of red meats
refer to them as desirable FAs (DFAs). Some such as that of kids is determined by
workers such as Banskalieva et al. (2000) flavour (Melton,1990), which principally
and Webb et al. (2005) reported that the originates from lipids (Moody, 1983). Meat
DFA content in goat meat ranged between lipids act as a solvent for the volatile com-
60 and 80%, with values tending to be ponents that accumulate during the cook-
higher than in other ruminants. The find- ing of meat. The quantity and composition
ings of our work are more moderate but in of fats in meats, particularly the marbled
many experiments the effects of the studied fat, play an essential role in meat succu-
factors on C18:0, w -3 and w -6 FAs and CLAs lence and flavour. The lamb flavour compo-
are different in lambs and kids. nents were identified by Suzuki and Bailey
These data on the link between FA (1985). The `goaty' flavour is due to similar
composition and human diet and health components in milk and meat. They are
emphasize the importance of FA content, molecules with a chain of eight or nine car-
particularly in small ruminant meat, which bons and with acid or aldehyde functions
is one of the most saturated meats. resulting from unsaturated FA (USFA) oxi-
dation and with branched chains such
as 4-ethyl-octanoic acid, 4-methyl-nanoic
acid or 4-methyl-octanoic acid (Ha and
15.3.2 Effect of the lipid composition Lindsay, 1990, 1991; Madruga et al., 2000b;
of goat meat and carcass fats on the Martin et al., 2005). In lambs, several FAs,
organoleptic quality of meat particularly linoleic acid (C18:2), were also
involved in the increase in lamb flavour
The physical properties and chemical com- (Ralph, 1989). When the flavour becomes
position of fat influence the conservation stronger, the meat acceptability may
capacities and organoleptic qualities of increase or decrease according to consum-
meat. ers' taste. However, the meat flavour of
Adipose deposits tend to appear later small ruminants is a complicated issue due
in kid carcasses than in lambs (Tshabalala to various responses of consumers and the
et al., 2003), as confirmed by allometric numerous factors that positively or nega-
coefficients (Morand-Fehr, 1981). Conse- tively influence it, particularly conditions
quently, when kids are slaughtered at of cooking and dietary components added
an early age, their carcasses have little (Melton, 1990).
340 P Morand-Fehr et al.

Similarly, intra- and intermuscular fats other FAs in lower concentrations such as
markedly influence the juiciness, succulence C10:0, C12:0, C15:0, C15:1, C17:0, C17:1,
and tenderness of red meats. In particular, a C20:1, C20:3, C22:0, C24:0, C22:4, C22:5
little intramuscular fat significantly improves and C22:6. The percentages of all these
the succulence and tenderness. Indeed, acids are quite variable from one study to
small amounts of intermuscular fat are nec- another, for example: between 28 and 50%
essary to lubricate the muscle fibres and to for C18:1, 15 and 31% for C16:0, 6 and
increase the juiciness and flavour of cooked 17% for C18:0, and 4 and 15% for C18:2.
lamb meat (Beriain et al., 2000). The average percentages of C16:0, C18:0,
Thus, lipids and fats play an essential C18:1 and C18:2 in goat muscles are simi-
role in the dietetic and organoleptic value lar to those of other ruminant species, par-
of small ruminant meats; however, this ticularly sheep, but the concentration of
topic has not yet been studied intensively C16:1 in goat muscles is frequently higher
in goat meat. than in lambs, and goat muscle lipids can
be a little richer in PUFAs (C18:2, C18:3
and C20:4) than lambs (Banskalieva et al.,
2000) with a higher w6:w -3 ratio (Sheridan
15.4 Characteristics of Goat Meat et al., 2003).
and Fat Lipids Composition As with other ruminants, in goats, the
anatomical location of adipose tissues is the
In Chapter 10, Lee and Kannan reviewed main factor affecting the FA composition of
the nutritive value of FAs and fats in goat adipose deposits. External fatty tissues such
meat. However, the characteristics of the as subcutaneous tissues contain fewer SFAs
lipid composition of goat meat need to be and more USFAs, as well as minor FAs
highlighted to enable an understanding of characterized by an odd number of carbons
the effects of feeding programmes on the or a branched chain.
dietetic and nutritive value of kid meat Regardless of the location of the adi-
fats. pose tissues in the body, the main FAs of
In comparison with steers and lambs goat fat deposits are C18:1, C18:0 and C16:0,
(Morand-Fehr et al., 1991), the FA composi- followed by C14:0, C16:1, C17:0 and C18:2
tion of kid meat has not been investigated in (Banskalieva et al., 2000). Other FAs such
much depth (Banskalieva et al., 2000). as C10:0, C12:0, C14:1, C15:0, C17:1 and
However, since 2000, the amount of C18:3 occur at the lowest levels, often mak-
research on this topic has been expanding ing them unquantifiable. Goats deposit
markedly. lipids that consist mainly of SFAs (30-71%)
In 2000, Banskalieva and colleagues and MUFAs (20-57%) with PUFAs contrib-
published an extensive and informative uting <6% in some fat depots, although in
review on the FA composition of goat mus- most studies not all PUFAs were analysed.
cle and fat deposits (Banskalieva et al., Despite the high variation related to the
2000). They observed that experimental pro- anatomical location, it appears that, as in
cedures and design, technical and statistical beef or lamb, internal deposits such as inter-
methodologies, sampling methods, breed muscular or perirenal adipose tissues in
and rearing methods, among other factors, young goats have more SFAs, particularly
varied among different researchers. C18:0, fewer MUFAs, particularly 16:1, and
As reported for other ruminant species, much fewer PUFAs, especially C18:2, C18:3
the three major FAs in the muscle lipids of and C20:4, than external deposits such as in
goats are oleic (C18:1 cis), palmitic (C16:0) subcutaneous tissues.
and stearic (C18:0) acids, which represent Table 15.1 shows data on the FA com-
60-80% of total FAs, followed by linoleic position of muscle, lipids and carcass fats in
acid (C18:2 cis). The other FAs are C14:0 in goats and sheep from bibliographic refer-
SFAs, C16:1 in MUFAs and C18:3w -3,6,9 ences published after the review of Banska-
cis, C20:4w- 6,9,12,15 cis in PUFAs, and lieva et al. (2000), between 2000 and 2008.
Table 15.1. Fatty acid composition of meat and fat lipids in young sheep and goats.

Fatty acid (molar %):


Age at
Nature of slaughtering 18:1
Animal Breed lipids (weeks) 16:0 18:0 cis-9 SFAs USFAs MUFAs PUFAs Reference

Sheep Dorper M+FLD Unknown 24.3 14.4 37.6 52.8 47.2 43.9 3.3 Tshabalala et al. (2000)
Sheep Damara M+FLD Unknown 22.5 16.4 38.9 51.8 48.2 44.3 3.9 Tshabalala et al. (2000)
Goat Boer M+FLD Unknown 21.0 20.4 36.7 54.7 45.3 41.9 3.4 Tshabalala et al. (2000)
Goat Indigenous M+FLD Unknown 19.5 20.0 37.7 53.6 46.4 42.5 3.9 Tshabalala et a/. (2000)
Kid Indigenous IMLD 54 22.2 15.1 44.5 39.0 56.0 50.3 5.7 Bas et al. (2005)
Kid Indigenous PRAT 54 30.5 32.6 19.0 67.3 26.3 24.9 1.4 Bas et al. (2005)
Lamb Timandite IMLD 41 23.1 12.1 34.1 39.0 50.2 38.7 11.5 Araba et al. (2008)
Lamb Timandite PRAT 41 18.8 30.2 28.6 53.5 39.2 35.5 3.9 Araba et al. (2008)
Lamb V IM V 22.5 15.6 40.4 43.0 51.0 43.6 7.4 Bas and Morand-Fehr (2000)
Lamb V PRAT V 20.6 26.1 36.7 52.6 45.8 39.4 6.4 Bas and Morand-Fehr (2000)
Kid Malaguena SC leg 7-8 25.5 11.5 43.4 46.6 52.7 47.0 5.7 Fernandez-Navarro et al. (2005)
Kid Malaguena IM leg 7-8 21.6 12.8 38.6 39.9 59.2 41.3 17.9 Fernandez-Navarro et al. (2005)
Kid Saanen IM 3m 4 22.6 12.0 36.3 40.8 59.0 42.4 16.2 Mele et al. (2007)
Kid Dutch White PRAT 6 24.4 17.5 35.7 51.2 47.3 40.7 8.9 Yeom et al. (2002)
Sheep Barbarine SC leg 36-40 22.2 10.6 45.1 41.8 55.1 51.9 3.2 Atti et al. (2007)
Lamb Meriniez-zata IMLD 14 17.8 10.6 21.1 30.6 69.5 23.8 45.8 Camparra et al. (2007)

SFAs, Saturated fatty acids; MUFAs, monounsaturated fatty acids; PUFAs, polyunsaturated fatty acids; USFAs, unsaturated fatty acids; M+FLD, lipids of meat (muscle and fat) in
Longissimus dorsi; IMLD, intramuscular lipids in Longissimus dorsi; PRAT, lipids of perirenal adipose tissue; IM, intramuscular lipids; SC leg, lipids of leg subcutaneous fat; IM leg, leg
intramuscular lipids; IM 3m, intramuscular lipids from three muscle mixtures (Longissimus dorsi, Triceps brachii and semimembranosus; V, very various.
342 P Morand-Fehr et al.

There was an adequate level of methodolog- Table 15.2 presents recent results on
ical quality to allow comparisons of the the contents of w -3 FAs and CLAs in intra-
results in this field during recent years. muscular lipids of lamb and kid meat. As
When sheep and goats were reared samples were collected from intramuscular
under very close conditions, the composi- lipids of the longissimus dorsi muscle, the
tions of meat lipids in these two species results are likely to be comparable. In these
were similar (Tshabalala et al., 2003), studies, the authors generally attempted to
with goat meat lipids being a little higher improve the contents of CLAs or w -3 FAs by
in C18:0 and lower in C16:0 and MUFAs, modifying the diet or using different breeds.
with not much effect of breed. Bas et al. The percentage of rumenic acid (C18:2 cis-9,
(2005) and Araba et al. (2008) carried out trans-11) is between 0.4 and 0.9% in kids.
two experiments on lambs and goats with This confirms the values reported by Haus-
the same protocol under very similar man and Snell (2000) of 0.4-0.8% for all fat
experimental conditions. They collected locations in kids. Other values (Sikora and
samples from the same tissues and in the Borys, 2006; Mele et al., 2007) are similar to
same location. Consequently, their results those reported for lambs (Camparra et al.,
can be compared. In the two species, the 2007; Delmotte et al., 2007; Vasta et al.,
perirenal adipose tissue (internal tissue) 2007; Araba et al., 2008) but tend to be
contained more SFAs, particularly C18:0, higher than in beef (Bauchart et al., 2008).
and fewer MUFAs and PUFAs than intra- The total content of w -3 FAs varies
muscular lipids sampled on the longissi- between 1 and 2% in intramuscular lipids
mus dorsi muscle. However, lamb lipids in kids, with values tending to be around
tended to be higher in PUFAs than those 2% when the diet contains feeds supplying
of kids. w -3 FAs. The content of w -3 FAs in intra-
A meta-analysis of 979 observations muscular lipids in lambs is quite variable,
from 108 references (Bas and Morand-Fehr, with values similar to those of goats,
2000) on lambs again showed that internal although some values are much higher
fats are higher in SFAs and C18:0, and (Camparra et al., 2007; Delmotte et al.,
lower in MUFAs and PUFAs. The results 2007). Similar to lambs, among the w -3 FAs,
from other references (Yeom et al., 2002; the content of C22:5 (DPA) is always higher
Fernandez-Navarro et al., 2005; Atti et al., than the C20:5 (EPA) and C22:6 (DHA) con-
2007; Camparra et al., 2007; Mele et al., tent in kids.
2007) reflect the very high variability of FA It had been hypothesized that most of
composition in kid or lamb muscles and the CLAs in goat adipose tissues, as in the
fats, probably due to various factors that can other ruminants, are synthesized by biohy-
modify this composition. drogenation and isomerization (cis/trans
There is a lack of information regarding and non-conjugated/conjugated) of the
the content of FAs likely to have a positive PUFAs in feedstuffs in the rumen into C18:1
role on human health, particularly CLAs trans-11 (trans vaccenic acid). The C18:1
such as rumenic acid and w -3 FAs such as trans-11 is absorbed and accumulates in the
EPA, DPA and DHA, as observed by Webb adipose tissues, and is then converted into
et al. (2005). It is frequently stated - CLAs by desaturation, which explains the
although with no reliable evidence - that correlation ratio close to +1 between the
goat meat contains more CLAs or w -3 FAs contents of the trans vaccenic and rumenic
than sheep meat. However, in this regard, acids in kid fats (Tsuneishi et al., 2001).
one should be aware of the large variability To conclude, the FA composition of
of findings (Webb et al., 2005) due to differ- muscle lipids and adipose tissues, particu-
ences in location of fat, breed, diet and more larly concerning the FAs with positive or
importantly the chromatographic method of negative dietetic interest, is highly variable
assessment of these FAs. Similar variability as a result of the interaction of numerous
has been reported in findings on beef factors that may modify it. Generally, the
(Bauchart et al., 2008). lipid composition of goat fats is typical of
Table 15.2. Percentage of main o-3 fatty acids and rumenic acid (a conjugated linoleic acid) and co-6:co-3 ratio in intramuscular lipids in lambs and kids.

Fatty acid

18:2 cis-9, trans-11


Animal 20:5w -3 (EPA) 22:5w -3 (DPA) 22:6w -3 (DHA) Total w -3 (CLA) (.0-6:(0-3 ratio Reference

Lamb 4.1-5.3 6.4-7.2 2.8-2.9 19.4-25.7 0.8 1.1-1.3 Camparra et al. (2007)
Lamb 1.0-1.4 0.6-0.8 5.8 -6.7 0.7-1.3 2.8-6.6 Delmotte et al. (2007)
Lamb 2.1-3.2 0.5-0.6 Vasta et al. (2007)
Lamb 1.3-2.8 0.6-0.7 2.8-7.6 Araba et al. (2008)
Kid 0.2 0.4-0.6 0.2-0.3 1.0-1.3 0.4-0.9 5.3-6.2 Mele et al. (2007)
Kid 0.2-0.8 0.1-0.4 1.0-2.9 6.1-9.4 Sikora and Borys (2006)
Kid 1.1 1.1 3.3 0.8 Nudda et al. (2005)
Kid 0.1-1.1 0.3-1.7 0.1-0.4 0.7-4.3 2.9-8.2 Bas et al. (2005)

EPA, eicosapentaenoic acid; DPA, docosapentaenoic acid; DHA, docosahexaenoic acid; CLA, conjugated linoleic acid.
344 P Morand-Fehr et al.

that of ruminants consuming a diet rich in anatomically well-defined site because of


fibre with intense rumen fermentation, with the heterogeneity of the FA composition
high contents of odd- and branched-chain within the same adipose tissue. However,
FAs, SFAs and particularly stearic acid this factor is rarely taken into account in
(C18:0) (Martin et al., 2005). studies on goat fat composition, which may
partially explain the variability in results.
The fat of the internal, omental, mesen-
15.5 Effect of Animal Factors and Diet teric, perirenal and pelvic depots is more
on Composition of Muscle Lipids saturated than the subcutaneous and intra-
and Adipose Tissues muscular depots. This is attributed to the
gradient in body temperature, which results
in saturated fats with a higher melting point
In addition to methodological reasons, thebeing deposited where the temperature is
large variability in FA composition of goat the highest (Marchello et al., 1967; Beriain
muscle lipids and fats is a result of three et al., 2000). The PUFA content is highest in
factors: intramuscular lipids and lowest in subcuta-
1. Location of sampling, which takes into neous adipose tissues, which also have the
consideration whether the location is near lowest C18:0 content and the highest odd-
blood vessels or not, and the metabolic and branched-chain FA contents. In goats,
specificity of the adipose tissue according to several authors observed wide differences
location and blood supply. between FA composition in internal and
2. Animal factors, such as age, live external adipose tissues (Sauvant et al.,
weight, genotype and sex. 1979; Bas et al., 1996).
3. Exogenous factors, such as climatic
and dietary factors. As subcutaneous fats
must stay fluid in all climates, the subcuta-
neous tissues are higher in SFAs and lower 15.5.2 Effect of age or live weight at
in USFAs when the ambient temperature is slaughter
high (Marche llo et al., 1967).
It is not feasible to assess the effect of stage
Dietary factors have the most significant of growth (age or live weight at slaughter-
effect on the composition of fat lipids. How- ing) on the FA composition of goat fats
ever, it is difficult to analyse these effects because the FA composition depends on the
without evoking other factors because of the composition of dietary lipids in diet feeds
complexity of interactions. For example, a during suckling and post-weaning periods.
dietary factor can have a strong effect on one During and immediately after weaning, the
genotype and a more limited effect on rate of rumen fermentation also increases
another, as shown in beef between breeds progressively, and PUFAs are hydrogenated
with early and late growth (Bauchart, 2006). and transformed into conjugated and trans
In lambs, Bas and Morand-Fehr (2000) isomers (Bas et al., 1991). Minor FAs such
also observed the risk of wrongly analysing as branched- or odd-chain FAs appear. Con-
results in a nutritional experiment if age, sequently, the FA profile of tissues that
genotype, stage of growth and type of adipose reflects the milk-feeding period gradually
tissue are not taken into account. disappears after weaning. During the milk-
feeding period, Mandrefini et al. (1988),
using a diet based on milk and concentrates,
observed a decrease in SFAs and an increase
15.5.1 Location of sampling and type in USFAs as live weight increased. With
of adipose tissue diets based on milk only, Bas et al. (1987)
and Zygoyiannis et al. (1992) reported that
Bas et al. (1992) indicated the importance of the proportion of C18:0 FAs in fat depots
sampling in goat adipose tissue at the same decreased and the percentage of other FAs
Feeding System and Body Lipids 345

increased with increasing age of unweaned (C14:0 and C8:0) content in male animals
kids. Other authors studied the evolution of compared with females. Similar findings
the FA composition of fats during kid wean- had been reported in lambs (Beriain et al.,
ing (Sauvant et al., 1979; Sikora and Borys, 2000). However, other research workers
2006). Generally, SFAs and C18:0 FA con- (Rojas et al., 1994 on perirenal fat; Todaro
centrations in all fat depots tended to et al., 2004 on pelvic fat) found no signifi-
increase and the percentage of PUFAs cant differences in the FA composition of
decreased, while the MUFA content either fat between male and female kids. Simi-
decreased or increased. Similar changes larly, Werdi Pratiwi et al. (2004) observed
were observed in lambs (Bas and Morand- no difference in the composition of meat
Fehr, 2000; Beriain et al., 2000). This is lipids and only minor changes in adipose
probably a result of the low proportions of tissues between entire and castrated Boer
short- and medium-chain FAs and high young bucks. In lambs, the concentration of
concentrations of C18 FAs in post-weaning PUFAs and C18:2 cis FAs in back fat
diets in comparison with goat milk, and decreases in the following order: male cas-
from hydrogenation of PUFAs in the rumen. trates > females > males (lowest in fat
The change in MUFAs is variable because it deposits), while SFAs increase (Nurnberg
depends on the intensity of trans-isomeriza- et al., 1996).
tion in the rumen. Indeed, trans MUFAs are It is also interesting to note an interac-
hydrogenated very slowly in the rumen. In tion between sex and diet affecting FA com-
addition, the cholesterol content in fats position. Indeed, when kids are fed diets rich
tends to increase after weaning. in grains and low in fibre, the subcutaneous
During the growth period (1-2 months fats are soft and oily, as has been mentioned
after weaning), cholesterol content is above. In this case, these fats are softer in
reported to increase continuously (Madruga males than in females (Bas et al., 1980).
et al., 2000a; Beserra et al., 2004) although
this finding was not confirmed by other
workers (Sikora and Borys, 2006). Several
months after weaning, there was still an 15.5.4 Effect of breed genotypes
increase in the C18:0 and C18:1 FAs in kid
muscle lipids and adipose tissues (Madruga Banskalieva et al. (2000) reviewed a large
et al., 2000a; Dhanda et al., 2003; Beserra body of experimental findings emphasizing
et al., 2004), but C14:0 and C16:0 propor- the effect of breed on FA composition of kid
tions decreased. Nevertheless, Werdi muscles and fat depot lipids. This review
Pratiwi et al. (2004) reported contradictory suggested that other factors, particularly die-
findings. The PUFA concentration is vari- tary factors, interact to produce this effect on
able in kid tissues, probably because it FA composition, as indicated by Beriain
depends on the intensity of rumen hydroge- et al. (2000) in sheep. Differences in fat com-
nation. Similar results were obtained in position due to breed should also be esti-
lambs (Webb and Casey, 1995; Nurnberg mated at the same stage of maturity and
et al., 1998; Bas and Morand-Fehr, 2000). fatness of young ruminants (Webb and Casey,
1995). Generally, different genotypes can
have different growth potentials and levels
of intake, feeding behaviour and feed prefer-
15.5.3 Effect of sex ences. For instance, Zygoyiannis et al. (1985)
attributed their findings on the effects of var-
The effect of sex on the FA composition ious sheep genotypes to differences in milk
of kid meat lipids and fats is limited. intake in lambs as a result of differences in
Johnson et al. (1995), Matsuoka et al. (1997) genotype. To determine whether findings are
and Mahgoub et al. (2002) observed a due to the effect of breed only, it is necessary
trend of higher PUFA (C18:2 and C18:3) to compare animals at the same level and
content in muscle lipids and a lower SFA composition of feed intake. Consequently, it
346 P Morand-Fehr et al.

is obvious that findings in kids varied 15.6.1 Milk-feeding period


because of differences in growth rates and
the composition of feed intake. This is clearly As in other ruminants, particularly lambs
observed when comparing improved breeds (Bas and Morand-Fehr, 2000), the FA com-
such as Saanen versus local breeds. Sikora position of adipose tissues reflects the FA
and Borys (2006) reported that intramuscular composition of milk ingested by kids (Bans-
lipids in Saanen kids have more w -3 and kalieva et al., 2000). The period in which
C18:2 FAs and fewer MUFAs and C18:1 FAs kids suckle their dams varies according to
than crossbreeds, while the contents of SFA, the production system. This period gener-
and C14:0, C16:0 and C18:0 FAs were similar ally lasts for a short time in systems of goat-
in both genotypes. Similarly, differences milk production but lasts longer in systems
appeared between crossbred Saanen or Boer of goat meat production.
and Feral or Angora goats (Dhanda et al., Table 15.3 clearly indicates that the FA
2003). In particular, adipose tissues in composition of kids' muscle closely reflects
Saanen x Boer goats had a significantly the composition of dam milk and can be
higher USFA (mainly C18:1) content than modified by the diet of dams, particularly
the other crossbreeds. However, Beserra by dietary fat changes (Nudda et al., 2005).
et al. (2004) observed that the variations in The dams received diets composed of hay
FA profiles in kid meat were not influenced and a concentrate with cottonseeds rich in
by genetic groups such as Moxoto x Alpine C18:2w -6 and C16:0 or linseeds rich in
or Anglo-Nubian crossbreeds. None the less, C18:3w -3. With the supply of linseeds in the
the specific genetic effects appeared to be of diet, the milk became richer in CLAs, w -3
limited influence in sheep (Nurnberg et al., FAs and C18:1 trans total FAs with lower
1998). The genetic effect is more apparent in levels of SFAs (C16:0 and C18:0) compared
subcutaneous adipose tissues than in inter- with the milk of goats fed cottonseeds. The
nal tissues. Sauvant et al. (1979) emphasized composition of kid muscle fats had the
that, in Alpine breeds, the effect of buck same profile of FA composition especially
(male ascendance) is significant on the the w -3 and C18:1 trans FAs and w -6:w -3
content of SFAs and minor FAs in various ratio, but the differences were less marked.
adipose tissues. Mele et al. (2007) added soybean oil to lac-
tating goats' diets, which modified the FA
composition of intramuscular lipids in
suckling kids. The proportions of vaccinic
15.6 Effect of Feeding Programme acid (C18:1 trans-11) and rumenic acid
and Type of Diet (C18:2 cis-9, trans-11) increased from 0.20
and 0.26% to 1.15 and 0.81%, respectively,
Dietary factors have a very significant when the concentration of SFAs, and C18:1
effect on the FA composition of muscle and w -3 FAs decreased. Camparra et al.
and fat lipids in ruminants, including (2007) also obtained interesting results with
goats. Their effects are of major interest, as goats reared indoors or on pasture. The pro-
goat farmers can easily modify the diets of portions of PUFAs, particularly w -3 FAs in
kids and rapidly appreciate the effects of muscle fats, were higher and the percentage
diet changes. of C16:0 FAs was lower in kids of grazing
Young goat growth is composed of two dams than in kids with dams of the indoor
physiologically distinguished periods: the group. The results from kids treated by add-
milk-feeding period, when kids are pre- ing linseeds to dam diets (Nudda et al.,
ruminants with their digestion similar to 2005) or raised with grazing dams (Cam-
monogastric animals (i.e. without chemical parra et al., 2007) have been confirmed by
modification of dietary lipids in the rumen), studies in sheep (Delmotte et al., 2007).
and the post-weaning period, when kids are Similarly, Martin et al. (1999) found
true ruminants, with dietary lipids that are that including protected fat (calcium soaps
modified in the rumen. of FAs) in the dams' diet modified the FA
Feeding System and Body Lipids 347

Table 15.3. Effects of dam diet on milk and kid muscle fatty acids (from Nudda et al., 2005).

Dam milks Kid muscleb

Dam dietc supplemented with: Dam dietc supplemented with:


Fatty acid (mg/100 mg
fatty acid methyl esters) Cottonseed Linseed Cottonseed Linseed

C4:0-C14:0 19.1 19.1 4.6 3.6


C16:0 25.9c 18.7d 20.7 19.5
C18:0 21.8c 16.8d 12.8 13.3
C18:1 trans-11 (VA) 0.8c 7.4d 0.9a 1.5b
C18:1 total trans 1.9c 9.2d 1.6a 2.3b
C18:1 cis-9 22.0 20.9 30.2 27.6
C18:2(0-6 3.3 4.1 11.6 12.7
C18:3(0-3 0.2e 1.8f 0.8e 1.3f
C18:2 cis-9, trans-11 (RA) 0.3c 2.2d 0.6 0.9
CLA total 0.7c 2.9d 1.3 1.4
C20:4(0-6 0.2 0.2 0.7 7.4
C20:5(0-3 (EPA) 0.05 0.08 0.9a 1.3b
C22:6(0-3 (DHA) 0.07 0.06 0.8 1.3
Total co-3 0.3e 1.9f 2.5c 4.0d
Total co-6 3.5 4.4 19.1 21.1
co-6:co-3 ratio 11.4e 2.3f 7.6 5.4

VA, vaccenic acid; RA, rumenic acid; EPA, eicosapentaenoic acid; DHA, docosahexaenoic acid.
Significant differences: on the same line, two values with different letters are significantly different at P < 0.10 (a, b);
P <0.05 (c, d) or P <0.01 (e, f).
aComposition of milk 5 weeks after the introduction of linseeds or cottonseeds into the diet.
bLongissimus dorsi lipids.
'The dams' diet of 1.2 kg dry matter concentrate/day + hay ad libitum was supplemented with 160 g cottonseed/day or
90 g linseed/day.

composition of kid perirenal fat. The effect content in perirenal adipose tissues from
of milk composition appears to be more 5.8 to 11.3% and from 0.1 to 0.8%, respec-
marked on subcutaneous and intramuscular tively, when they raised these FAs from 6.7
fats than on internal fats. Such effects to 12.4% and from 0.5 to 1.4% in milk
depend on the nature and composition of replacers. They observed that the transfer of
protected FAs. The supply of protected C18:3 FAs from milk to adipose tissue was
PUFAs to dams resulted in a higher concen- more difficult than the transfer of C18:2
tration of PUFAs, especially w -3 FAs (C20:5, FAs.
C22:5 and C22:6), but lower percentages of When the composition of goat milk and
C18:0 in kid inter- and intramuscular fats milk replacer fats are similar, the FA com-
(Fernandez-Navarro et a/., 2005). The position of kid fats does not differ, except
results were more marked with protected for the minor FAs (Rojas et al., 1994).
PUFAs than with calcium soaps. Generally, the level of milk intake has a
Kids can be fed milk replacers in which limited effect on the FA composition of kid
animal or vegetal fats replace milk fats. This fats. Sauvant et a/. (1979) observed a signifi-
feeding system is used to save kids when cant increase in C18:0 and C18:1 contents in
dams produce insufficient milk, and in several internal fats and muscle lipids when
intensive milk systems when goat milk is milk intake in kids increased from 0.75 to
sold at high prices. In this case, the FA com- 1.5 kg/day during the 35 days after birth.
position of kid fats closely reflects the com- Some feeding programmes consisted of
position of the milk replacer fat. Yeom et al. early weaning with access to dry feeds from
(2002) increased the C18:2 and C18:3 5-6 weeks after birth. These programmes
348 P Morand-Fehr et al.

allow economical savings as goat milk is (Morand-Fehr, 1981; Doreau and Ferlay,
sold at high prices and milk replacers are 1994; Sauvant and Bas, 2001).
expensive. In such cases, the biohydrogena- Bas and Morand-Fehr (2000) carried
tion and isomerization of dietary FAs took out a meta-analysis on lambs from 21 stud-
place very early in the rumen. The content ies with some diets based only on pasture
of C18:0 and sometimes C18:1 FAs tended and others on pasture plus concentrate.
to increase in the kid muscle lipids and fats, There was no significant difference in the
while C14:0 FAs decreased. This difference FA composition of muscle and internal or
in FA composition varied according to the subcutaneous fats except for a lower con-
nature of the dietary fats before and after centration of C18:3 FAs when concentrate
weaning and the nature of fibre sources in was added to the grazing diet. In the same
the post-weaning diet (Sauvant et al., 1979; analysis, there were reports on more inten-
Nitsan et al., 1987). sive diets (57 observations of roughage plus
concentrate, and 161 observations with
concentrate alone). The percentages of
C18:1 and C18:2 FAs were higher with con-
15.6.2 Post-weaning period centrate only and the percentages of C14:0
and C16:0 FAs were higher with roughage
Growth performance and FA composition plus concentrate. Some experimental work
of meat and fats in kids is linked to the in this area has indicated similar findings
nature of the diet, particularly its energy with kids (P. Morand-Fehr and J. Hervieu,
density, which depends on the nature and unpublished).
nutritive value of roughages (cultivated or Two feeding systems are usually used
uncultivated forages, stage of vegetation, during kid growth: an indoor system based
fresh pasture or conserved forages, treated on concentrate with a limited supply of hay
or untreated forages, rangeland vegetation) or straw, and a grazing system based on
and the nature and proportion of grain or grazing rangeland or natural or cultivated
other concentrate feeds in the diet. pastures. Bas et al. (2005) compared the FA
Information on the effect of the concen- composition of muscle lipids and intermus-
trate levels or forage:concentrate ratio in the cular and internal fats in kids reared under
diet on the FA composition of meat and fats an extensive rangeland system with those
is clearly lacking in kids compared with raised under an indoor system based on
lambs. Bas et al. (2005) offered concentrate concentrate alone in Morocco, where the
to young male goats grazing in an extensive most popular method for producing kid and
rangeland (an Argan tree forest) in Morocco lamb meat is the indoor system. The grazing
(Table 15.4). There was no effect of concen- system resulted in a decrease in the choles-
trate feeding on the FA composition of the terol content in meat, an increase in the
longissimus dorsi muscle lipids and perire- concentration of C18:0, C18:2w -6 and
nal adipose tissue except for a lower con- C18:3w -6 FAs, SFAS and PUFAs, and a
centration of C14:0 FAs in muscle. The FA reduction in the concentrations of C16:0
composition did not differ in goats grazed and C18:1 cis and the w -6:w -3 ratio
in the Argan forest with and without con- (Table 15.4). The differences were more
centrate supplementation. With diets rich remarkable in muscle than in intermuscular
in fibre sources or forages, particularly diets and internal fats. Rhee et al. (2000) obtained
composed exclusively of roughages, cellu- similar results for young goats by compar-
lolytic fermentations, biohydrogenation ing two diets based on rangeland grazing in
and isomerization of USFAs are very active Texas or on grain sorghum (67%). Araba
in the rumen. With diets rich in concentrate et al. (2008) observed similar results for
feeds, especially cereals, the degradability Timandite lambs in Morocco using the
of starch is intense. This reduces the biohy- same experimental design as that of Bas
drogenation of FAs in the rumen and et al. (2005) with kids. Nurnberg et al.
increases the production of minor FAs (1998) reported comparable results obtained
Table 15.4. Effect of the feeding system (indoors versus Argan tree forest grazing) on fatty acid composition of muscle lipids and fat (mg/100 g) in local
Moroccan young goats (from Bas et al., 2005).

Longissimus dorsi muscle tissue Perirenal adipose tissue

Indoors, concentrate Indoors concentrate


Fat composition alone Grazing + concentrate Grazing alone alone Grazing + concentrate Grazing alone

Cholesterol 64 58 54
C14:0 1.5a 1.5a 2.0b 2.8 2.2 2.4
C16:0 18.4a 16.1b 16.8b 27.4a 22.5b 23.0b
C18:0 14.0a 17.3b 17.4b 36.0a 39.3ab 39.8b
C18:1 cis 49.9a 32.0b 32.7b 20.2a 16.1b 14.0b
C18:2(0-6 4.1a 7.5b 7.4b 1.6a 2.3b 2.5b
C18:3(0-3 0.04a 0.12b 0.11b 0.07a 0.55b 0.59b
C20:5(0-3 0.15a 0.37ab 0.48b
C22:5(0-3 0.44a 1.68b 1.43b
C22:6(0-3 0.17a 0.14a 0.30b
SFAs 33.9a 35.2ab 36.5b 66.4 64.5 65.6
MUFAs 52.6a 38.5b 39.5b 26.0 24.7 22.9
PUFAs 8.0a 16.9b 15.9b 1.9a 3.4b 3.8b
o-6 FAs 4.9a 7.7ab 10.6b
o-3 FAs 0.9a 4.3b 4.0b
o-6:co-3 ratio 8.2a 2.9b 2.9b 26.7a 5.5b 5.0b

SFAs, Saturated fatty acids; MUFAs, monounsaturated fatty acids; PUFAs, polyunsaturated fatty acids; FAs, fatty acids.
Values within each group of tissue, on the same line, with different letters are significantly different (P < 0.05).
350 P Morand-Fehr et al.

for sheep and steers except for w -2 FAs, goat kids. There were significant changes in
which tended to decrease with grazing. the FA profile of the intramuscular fat of the
Another interesting observation by longissimus dorsi muscle, which generally
Vasta et al. (2007) described the effects on corresponded to higher percentages of
lambs of condensed tannins, which are fre- MUFAs and PUFAs, especially C18:1, C18:2
quently found in extensive rangeland vege- and C20:4 FAs, but not w -3 FAs.
tation. Condensed tannins may form Studies in goats are limited and the
complexes with proteins in the rumen and results have been somewhat variable. How-
inhibit ruminal microorganisms responsi- ever, several reports on sheep and cattle
ble for dietary FA biohydrogenation in the have shown that the concentrations of
rumen. These findings strongly confirm that PUFAs, particularly CLAs and w -3 FAs, can
the presence of condensed tannins reduces be increased by adding feeds rich in PUFAs
ruminal biohydrogenation and the content in concentrates, such as linseeds, fish oil
of C18:2 cis-9, trans-11 and C18:1 trans-11 and PUFA mixtures, under intensive feed-
FAs and CLAs. This probably explains the ing conditions (Wood et al., 2005). It is
results obtained with some extensive feed- likely that similar results could be obtained
ing systems. Indeed, some contradictory in kids.
results that have been reported may have
been because the vegetation was rich in
condensed tannins.
As w -3 FAs and CLAs have been shown 15.7 Conclusion
to have significant beneficial effects on
human health, several authors have The FA composition of meat and fats in goat
attempted to improve the content of these kids is rather similar to that in lambs when
FAs in the meat and fats of beef and lambs compared at the same stage of fattening or
by adding specific lipid sources to diets (e.g. adiposity. Generally, more SFAs and fewer
fish oil, linseeds, PUFA mixtures) or by USFAs are observed in lambs, as growth
adopting feeding strategies such as grazing and fattening rates are higher in lambs than
(Ender et al., 1997; Nurnberg et al., 1998; in kids. Furthermore, kids are frequently
Wood et al., 2005). Webb et al. (2005) indi- reared under more extensive conditions.
cated that similar results can be obtained in The proportions of structural lipids such as
goats. Thus, from all of these results, graz- phospholipids, which are richer in PUFAs
ing can be considered a good feeding system and lower in SFAs, are higher in kid adi-
for increasing the concentration of these pose tissues. However, as in other rumi-
acids in kid meat and fats. nants, the FA composition of kid fat lipids
Marinova et al. (2005) fed Bulgarian varies greatly according to the anatomical
White kids the same concentrate mixture site of the adipose tissue. Generally, muscle
with or without fish oil at a concentration of lipids are more unsaturated and are richer
2.5%. Intermuscular fat in the loin and intra- in PUFAs and lower in SFAs than subcuta-
muscular fat in the longissimus dorsi muscle neous adipose tissues, especially internal
increased slightly. However, the authors did fats. Subcutaneous fats, however, are more
not give an account of the FA composition of sensitive to factors modifying FA composi-
the meat and adipose tissues. Atti et al. tion, particularly dietary factors.
(2007) added 5 or 10% fish oil to a concen- Information on the effect of factors
trate used for feeding lambs but did not modifying the FA composition of meats and
observe any effect on the FA composition of fats in kids is more limited than in sheep
subcutaneous adipose tissues. In particular, and cattle. The major factors influencing the
there was no significant increase in w -3 FAs composition of meat lipids and fats in kids
and CLAs, although there was a decrease in are the dietary factors. However, often it is
C18:2 FAs and USFAs. not possible to evaluate their specific effects
Pienak-Lendzion et al. (2006) added because of interference from other factors
10% linseeds to the diet of White Improved such as genotype, sex or stage of growth.
Feeding System and Body Lipids 351

During the last few years, there have as well as increasing liposoluble vitamins.
been significant scientific advances with Moreover, PUFAs can improve the taste,
regard to improvements in the dietetic qual- juiciness and tenderness of meat. Conse-
ity of kid meat. Indeed, during the milk- quently, the quantities and composition of
feeding period, feeding systems based on fats can improve or decrease the dietetic,
grazing of dams and supplementation of nutritional, rheological and technological
dams' diets with linseeds, fish oil and PUFA qualities of meat.
mixtures can increase the proportions of In the future, progress in the commer-
favourable FAs such as w -3 FAs, PUFAs and cialization of goat meat is likely to occur
CLAs and decrease C18:1 and C16:0 FAs only if its quality, particularly dietetic qual-
and SFA in dams' milk and, to a lesser ity aspects, are markedly improved. Special
extent, in the meat lipids and fats of suck- systems for rearing young goats may influ-
ling kids. During post-weaning periods, ence the FA composition of their meat and
similar feeding systems and methods fat depots. For instance, reports on goats
applied directly to kids may have similar reared in a Moroccan Argan tree forest (Bas
effects on meat and fats, but the results are et al., 2005) indicated that this feeding sys-
scanty and variable in kids. tem reduced the proportion of fats in meat
The lipids of meat and intra- and inter- and increased the proportions of the favour-
muscular and subcutaneous adipose tissues able FAs such as CLAs, the w -6:w -3 ratio to
play an essential role in human nutrition as about 5 and increased the cholesterol con-
they provide essential FAs (C18:2, C18:3 cis tent in meat. Such results allow optimism
and C20:4 cis) and CLAs likely to reduce the for the future production and consumption
risks of cardiovascular diseases and cancers, of goat meat.

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Index

Page numbers in bold type refer to figures and tables.

abomasum 163-164 Australia


Africa: production environments 72-73 cross-breeding 89,92
age feral goats 16
effects on carcass characteristics 204
estimated using dentition 222-223
and fatty acids composition of meat 251 Bangladesh: cross-breeding 87
hormones 202 Batina goats 46
and meat ash content 263 Bermuda grass 252
of puberty 121 bile 164
ageing: of meat 310-312 Blakewell, Robert 70
Algeria 73 blocks, multi-nutrient 186-187
amino acids: in goat meat 297,298 factors affecting intake 188
Animal Genetic Resource Information (FAO) body-condition scoring see scoring, body-
70 condition
animals, live: evaluation see evaluation: of live Boer goat 37,95,97
goats bone
anoestrus, post-partum 131-133 growth and development 199,243
antinutrients 174-175,350 proportion in carcass 244,246,247
effects reduced by polyethylene glycol 184 weights of individual bones 245
Argentina 73 breeding see also reproduction
ash: content in goat meat benefit to producers 69
comparison with other species 295 composite populations 92,93, 94, 95,96,
data for various breeds, sexes and ages 97
262 cross-breeding
effect of age 263 3- and 4-breed crosses 107-108,152
effect of breed 262-263 backcrosses 78-79,85
effect of cooking 264 benefits 76-77
effect of diet 264 challenges 77-78
effect of litter size 263-264 disease control 78
effect of sex 263 performance of cross-breeds 22, 35,
reflects total mineral content 261-262 80-84, 90-9, 152
Asia: production environments 71-72 recombination loss 77

355
356 Index

breeding continued effects of age and sex 204


cross-breeding continued effects of pre-slaughter conditioning 206
rotational crosses 85,86 linear measurements
specific breed crosses 85,87-89, influencing factors 282-284
87-92 method and definitions 281-282,283
use of modelling 92 Omani native meat goats 44-47
genetic improvement programmes 105-107 tissue partitioning see tissues: distribution
paucity of research 53 in carcass
selection see selection tropical versus temperate breeds 37
breeds cardiovascular disease: in humans 339-340
ash and mineral content of meat 262-263, China 72,87
272 cholesterol: in goat meat 301
characteristics and definition 28 chorionic gonadotropin, equine 145
concept of breed 70-71 climate 26,29
evaluation 74-76 cloprostenol 142,143
fatty acid composition 251,345-346 cold shortening 307-308
growth and gain efficiency 28 colour: of meat 305-306
indigenous communities: communal production 20-21
Boer goats 37,95,97,203 concentrates, feed 10,28,255, 339
classification 71 conservatism 24
Creole goats 42-44 consumers
effects of age and sex 204 attitudes to goat meat 11
Omani native meat goats 44-47 extent of goat meat consumption 277,278
performance versus cross-bred goats conversion, feed
22, 35, 80-84, 152 heritability 101
replacement with exotic breeds 33 in kids 326
West African Dwarf 36 copper
linear body measurements 279-280 for control of gastrointestinal parasites 176
litter sizes 143-144 in goat meat 268-269
oestrus cycle length 125 Creole goats 42-44
ovulation rates 127 cross-breeding see under breeding
tissue distribution 238,243,244-246 selection see selection
unreported or unknown 73-74 cryopreservation: sperm 136
world statistics
list of breeds by specialty, climate and
country 68 decoquinate 182
number of breeds by country 55-60 deficiencies
bride price 20 minerals 180-181
browsing 165 protein 180
bruising 226-227 vitamins 171-172,181
development see growth and development
Dhofari goats 45-47
cacti: for dietary supplementation 174,252 diagnosis: pregnancy 148-150,151
calcium: in goat meat 265-266 diet see feeds; forages; nutrition
Canada: cross-breeding 89 diseases 29
carbohydrates 167,168 control during cross-breeding 78
carcasses: characteristics in humans 339-340
and body-condition scores 220,221 domestication: goats 1,15-16,69-70
body size 34-35,36 effect on goat form and functions 2-3
carcass indices and cuts 37,39-41,43-44, dressing percentage 212-213,277,284-286
328-330 duodenum 164
carcass weight related to live body weight
see under weight, live
classification and grading 206 economy
Creole goats 43-44 livestock as wealth 20
dressing percentage see dressing percentage and small-scale production 25
effect of milk replacers 328-330 education 24
Index 357

efficiency, production 34 effect of weight 251


Egypt: cross-breeding 79,88 health implications for humans 338-339
embryos omega-3 and conjugated linoleic acids 342,
cryopreservation and transfer 147-148 343, 346-347,350
mortality 128-129 and organoleptic meat quality 339-340
rate of growth and development 198-199 tissue distribution 300, 340
survival correlated with nutritional status variations due to sampling location 344
189 feeds see also supplementation, dietary
energy: from nutrients 172-173 additives 182,184
environment concentrates 10,28,255, 339
effect on mortality 97 forages see forages
impact of goats 3 international nomenclature 182
production environments milk replacers for kids see milk replacers
Africa and Middle East 72-73 mineral content 183
Americas 73 nutrients in feeds 165-166
Asia 71-72 carbohydrates 167,168
Europe: predominance of dairy production 4,6 fats 170
evaluation: of live goats fibre 167-168
body-condition scoring see scoring, minerals 170-171
body-condition protein 168-170
body weight see weight, live vitamins 171-172
estimating age using dentition 222-223 types 182
linear body measurements fermentation, microbial 163
accuracy and sources of error 279 fibre, dietary 167-168
definitions 279 fitness 36
differences between breeds 279-280 flavour 339
locations of measurement 278-279 fleeces 226
purpose 210 fluorogestone actetate (FGA) 141-142
ultrasound scanning 223-224 flushing 189
export slaughter intervals 225 follicles, ovarian 123-125
extension programmes 24 forages 26
effect of nutritional supplements on intake
185-186
FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization) and fatty acid composition of meat
Animal Genetic Resource Information 70 252-254
goat population statistics 4-6 as nutritional constraints 173-174
fat survival advantage of foraging 1
content in goat meat 28,105 France 73
comparison with other species freezing 306-307
295-296
influencing factors 295-296
dietary 170 gastrointestinal tract 162-164
distribution in carcass see under tissues: nitrogen utilization 169
distribution in carcass parasites 175-176
growth and development of fatty tissue 201 genetic improvement programmes 105-107
scoring 220-221 gestation 129-131
fatty acids: in goat meat girth, heart 214,215
comparison with other species 299, 341, Global Animal Genetic Data Bank 70
342 glycogen, muscle 201,294
desirable characteristics 250-251,297-298 glycolysis 294
effect of age 251,344-345 glycoproteins, pregnancy-associated (PAGs)
effect of breed 251,345-346 129-130
effect of diet grasslands 22
milk and milk replacers 334,346-348 growth and development
post-weaning period 252-257,348, birth size correlates with survival 199
349, 350 299-300 bone 199,243
effect of sex 251,345 changes in fatty acid composition 344-345
358 Index

growth and development continued and small-scale production 25


fatty tissue 201 markets
of goat kids on dairy farms 325-327 contribution of goat to meat market 6-9
growth factors 200-201 traditional subsistence 11-12
influencing factors measurements: live goats see evaluation: of live
age and sex 201-202,203,204 goats
genetics and selection 202-203 medicine, traditional
muscle 199-201 Chinese herbal medicine: potential use in
nutritional manipulation 203-205,206 production 13
principles and definitions 197-198 medicinal properties of goat meat 2
rate 198-199 Mediterranean region 72-73
skeletal system 199 melatonin 122-123
typical growth pattern 198 used in out-of-season breeding 138-139
guajilo 175 used in puberty induction 137
melengestrol acetate 143
metyl acetoxy progesterone (MAP) 141-142
heart girth 214,215 Mexico 73,89
hormones microchips 227
effects of age 202 microorganisms: in the digestive tract 163
in male reproductive physiology 133 milk replacers
in oestrus cycle 123,125,139 compared to milk 324-325
synchronization protocols 140-143 effect on body weight, carcass yield and
during pregnancy 129 offal 327-328
in pseudopregnancy 131 effect on fatty acid composition 346-348
steroid immunization 144-145 and goat kid growth 325-327
horns 134-135 growth curves 325-326
hypothalamus 122 minerals
dietary 170-171
content in feeds 183
identification: of live animals 227 deficiencies and requirements
immunization, steroid 144-145 180-181
India: cross-breeding 79,87 in goat meat
infrastructure comparison with other meat 269, 270,
and small-scale production 23-24 271
insemination, artificial 136,146-147 influencing factors 271-273
inserts, intravaginal 141-142 levels found 264-265
insulin-like growth factors 200-201 macroelements 265-268
iron: in goat meat 268,296 methodology 261
microelements 268-270
overview 260-261,301-302
Kenya 1,87 tissue distribution 270-271
kids: on dairy farms modelling: to develop cross-breeding
management methods 324 strategies 92
use of milk replacers see milk replacers monensin 182,184
Morocco 73
mortality 10
litters, size of and body-condition score 221-222
breed differences 143-144 effect of environment 97
environmental influences 144 of embryos 128-129
improved by steroid immunization mouth 162
144-145 muscle
cold shortening 307-308
composition 297,300
magnesium: in goat meat 267-268 distribution in carcass see under tissues:
manganese: in goat meat 270 distribution in carcass
marketing distribution of minerals 271
preparation of animals 224-227,228 effect of milk replacers 332-334
Index 359

effects of fibre types on meat quality Ovsynch 143


312-314 ovulation
eye muscle depth 223-224 oestrus cycle
growth and development 199-201 endocrine events 123,125
myofibrillar fragmentation index 305 follicular dynamics 123-125
pH 303 ovulation rate and reproductive
post-mortem changes 294-295 wastage 126-129
effect of electrical stimulation 310 seasonality 121-123,127
shear-force 304-305 timing 126
structure 201, 293, 294,313
tissue characteristics 293
myofibrillar fragmentation index 305 parasites: gastrointestinal tract 175-176
myogenesis 200-201 pH: of muscle tissue 303
effect of electrical stimulation 310
Philippines 72
Nigeria 72 phosphorus: in goat meat 266-267
nitrogen: use by ruminants 169 photoperiodic treatment 135-136
nomads 21-23,69,72 placenta 129
Norway 92 polyethylene glycol 184,253
nutrition population, goat 4-6,55-60
constraints potassium: in goat meat 267
forage availability and quality pregnancy 129-131
173-174 diagnosis 148-150,151
internal parasites 175-176 pregnancy-associated glycoproteins (PAGs)
plant secondary metabolites 174-175 129-130
dietary supplementation see prices 12
supplementation, dietary processing: of meat 314-316
effect on meat ash and mineral content 264, production
271, 272-273 based on concentrate feeding 10,28
effect on reproduction 128,134,189 commercial versus non-commercial 2,9,
factors of influence 161-162 15
feeding habits 164-165 communal 20-21
feeds see feeds economic and political influences 3
milk replacers see milk replacers evaluation of goats see evaluation: of live
requirements of goats goats
energy 177,180 extensive versus intensive 19-20,26-28
minerals 180-181 increased by manipulating reproduction
overview 176-177,178-179 puberty induction 137-138
protein 180 integration with crop farming 72
vitamins 181 integration with fish culture 72
source of energy 172-173 meat within milk production system 10,
used for manipulation of growth 203-205, 324
206 and natural resources 25-30
water intake 166-167 nomadic 21-23,69,72
organic 12-13
pastoral 1
oesophagus 162 primitive herding 23
oestrus cycle production environments see under
endocrine events 123,125 environment
follicular dynamics 123-125 small-scale systems: problems
oestrus expression 125-126 economics 25
synchronization protocols 140-143 infrastructure 23-24
Oman land tenure 24-25
cross-breeding 87-88 marketing 25
native meat goats 44-47 people 24
organic see under production social systems 24
organoleptic properties 339-340 subsistence 18-19
360 Index

production continued ribs, short: body-condition scoring 217-220


system types 10-11,17 rigor mortis 294-295
characteristics of indigenous systems ruminants, small: economic importance 2
21 rumination 162
definition of a system 16-17
tethering 20
transhumance 23,72,73 Sahel 72
world statistics 9, 53-54,55-60, 60,61-67, saliva 162
75 satellite cells 199-200
progestogens: in oestrus synchronization scales, weighing 213-214,215
141-143 scanning, ultrasound 223-224
prostaglandin F2a, 143 scoring, body-condition
protein fat scoring long ribs 220-221
digestibility coefficient 296 and mortality risk 221-222
in feed 168-170 purpose 216
in goat meat 295, 296 and reproductive performance 222
importance of goat meat as a source 17 short ribs
requirements of goats 180 interpretation 217
supplementation 26,176,186-187 method 216,218
pseudopregnancy 131 relationship to carcass characteristics
puberty 119-120,121 220,221
age 121 relationship to live weight 218-220
induction 137-138 reliability 218
and nutritional status 189 seasonality: of reproduction 120-123,133-134
photoperiodic treatment 135-136
selection
recombination loss 77 accelerated by minimizing generation
refrigeration 306 interval 105
reproduction advanced methodologies 109-110
assisted reproductive technologies benefits 97-98
artificial insemination 136,146-147 concept 97
embryo transfer 147-148 effects on growth and development
rationale 145-146 202-203
buck management 136-137 estimates of genetic parameters 98,99,
buck sexual behaviour 135 102-103
economic importance 29 feed conversion 101
effect of nutrition 128,134,189 weight 99,100, 101,104
factors affecting buck reproductive genetic improvement programmes 105-107
capacity 134-135 for reproductive traits 151-152
genetic improvement of reproductive for meat quality 105
traits 151-152 predicting performance of 3- and 4-breed
gestation 129-131 crosses 107-108
litter size see litters, size of selectivity 164
oestrus cycle see oestrus cycle selenium: in goat meat 270
out-of-season breeding Sericea lespedeza 252-254
buck effect 139-140 shear-force: of meat 304-305
exogenous melatonin 138-139 shearing 226
ovulation see ovulation shortening, cold 307-308
post-partum anoestrus 131-133 sodium: in goat meat 267
reproductive losses 128-129 soil: effect on farming systems 26
and body-condition score 222 Spain
seasonality 120-123,133-134 cross-breeding 88-89
photoperiodic treatment of bucks specifications, marketing 225
135-136 sperm
research 3-4 cryopreservation 136,146
reticulo-rumen 163 effect of photoperiodic treatment 136
ribs, long: fat scoring 220-221 seasonal variations 133-134
Index 361

Sri Lanka effect of sex 238-239


cross-breeding 79 tongue 162
stomach 162-163 transhumance 23,72,73
stress, pre-slaughter 201 transport: of live animals 226-227
suckling, restricted 326-327 tropics: reasons for failure of livestock
sulla 253 enterprises 33
supplementation, dietary Tunisia 73
with cacti 174,252
effect on fatty acid composition 350
effect on forage intake 185-186 ultrasound scanning 223-224
and fatty acid composition of meat 251-252 United Kingdom: cross-breeding 88
hand-crafted supplement blocks 186-187 United States 73
protein 26,176 cross-breeding 79,88
reducing intake variation 187-188 urea 186
supplements toxicity 188
ingredient characteristics 185 uterus: involution 130-131
nutritional profile 184-185
sustainability 18
synchronization: of oestrus cycle 140-143 vegetation: effect on farming systems 26
vitamins
dietary 171-172
Taiwan: cross-breeding 85 supplementation 186
tannins in goat meat 302
antinutrients 174-175,350
effects reduced by polyethylene
glycol 184 water
in parasite control 176 intake 166-167
tapes, heart girth 214 retention in meat 303-304
teeth 162 weaning 225
estimating age using dentition 222-223 weight, live
tenderness: of meat 304-305 birth weight: effect on growth 326
effect of ageing 310-312 and carcass fat 211
effect of electrical stimulation 310 dressing percentage 212-213
tenure, land 24-25 and carcass weight 37,38, 39, 44, 46,
tethering 20 211-212,280-281
Thailand: cross-breeding 79 boneless meat yield 213,214
Tibet 72 prediction of carcass weight 41,
tissues: distribution in carcass 35,41-42,44, 46, 210-211
233, 286-288 effect of diet on gain 27
bone effect of milk replacers 327-328
boneless meat yield 213,214 heritability 99,100,101,104
effect of breed and size 244,246 measurement and estimation
effect of sex 246 errors 214-216
proportion of bone 244-246,247 heart girth tapes 214,215
effect of milk replacers 330,331 livestock scales 213-214,215
fat 239-240,241 and relative growth coefficient of body
effect of body size and breed 243 components 212
effect of sex 242-243,286-287 West African Dwarf 36
influencing factors 232 withholding periods 225
muscle 232,234, 235-236, 237
effect of body weight 238
effect of breed type 238 zinc: in goat meat 269-270

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