Basic Workshop Technology DME 2201

CHAPTER – TWO
Measuring tools and Linear measuring equipment’s /instruments

MEASURING TOOLS
1. Steel Rule
These are made up of stainless steel and are available in many sizes ranging from
1/2 ft. to 2 ft. These are marked in inches or millimetres. All the faces are
machined true. The edges of steel rule should be protected from rough handling.

2. Callipers
These are generally used to measure the inside or outside diameters. Different
types are:
i. Outside Caliper: It is used to measure the outside dimensions.
ii. Inside Caliper: It is used to measure the inside dimensions.
iii. Spring Caliper: Spring is provided to apply the pressure and lock nut is
provided to lock any desired position.
iv. Hermaphrodite, Jenny or Oddleg Caliper: One leg is bent at the tip inwardly
and the other has a straight pointed end. It is used to scribe lines parallel to the
straight edges.

3. Vernier Caliper: It is used for measuring the outer dimensions of round, flat,
square components and also the inner size of the holes and bore. A narrow blade
is used to measure the depth of bar slots etc. The reading accuracy in metric
system is 0.02 mm and British system it is 0.001”. It is made of stainless steel.
Used for measuring inside, outside diameters & thickness of parts to an accuracy
of 0.02mm. It consists of a beam with main scale, fixed jaw & movable jaw with
vernierscale slides over the beam. The graduated beam of the metric vernier caliper
is divided into centimeters & millimeters. The 49 divisions (49 mm) of 1 mm each
on the main scale are equal to 50 divisions of the vernierscale. Thus the division
on the vernier equals 49/50 mm.
L.C = 1 m.s.d – 1 v.s.d
L.C = 1 – 49/50 mm
L.C = 50-49/50 mm
L.C = 1/50 mm
L.C = 0.02 mm.
Total Reading = M.S.R + V.S.R * L.C mm.

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Micrometer:
Is one of the most widely used measuring instruments. An external micrometer is
used for measuring external diameters & thickness of parts up to an accuracy of
0.01 mm. It is made up a frame, hardened anvil, screw spindle, graduated sleeve,
thimble, friction stop & a spindle clamp.
The metric micrometer has a spindle screw thread with a pitch of 0.5 mm. The
upper set of graduation on the sleeve represent whole millimeter & the lower set
divide each millimeter in to two equal parts or 0.5 mm. The thimble is graduated
into parts.
L.C = Pitch of the screw on the barrel/no of divisions on the thimble.
L.C = 0.5/50
L.C = 0.01 mm.
Total Reading = Reading on barrel + Reading on thimble * L.C.

TYPES OF MICROMETER
There are three common types of micrometer; their names are based on
their application:
I. Outside micrometer: Outside micrometers are used to measure the
thickness or the outside diameter of parts.
II. Inside micrometer: An inside micrometer is used to measure inside
diameters or between parallel surfaces.

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III. Depth micrometer: A depth micrometer is used to measure the depth of

holes, slots, counter bores, and recesses, and the distance from a surface to
some recessed part. This type of micrometer is read exactly opposite from the
method used to read an outside micrometer. The zero is located toward the
closed end of the thimble. The measurement is read in reverse and increases
in amount (depth) as the thimble moves toward the base of the instrument.
The extension rods come either round or flat (blade-like) to permit measuring
a narrow, deep recess or grooves.

MARKING TOOLS:
1. Surface Plate
It is used for testing the flatness, trueness of the surfaces. It is made up of cast
iron or graphite. Its upper face is planed to form a very smooth surface. It is also
used in scribing work.
While not in use, it should be covered with a wooden cover.

2. Angle Plate
It is made up of cast iron in different sizes; it has two planed surfaces at right
angles to each other and has various slots in each surface to hold the work by
means of bolts and clamps.
Never do hammering on the angle plate to fasten (lighten) the nuts and bolts.

3. Scriber and Surface Gauge

It consists of a cast iron bass on the center of which a steel rod is fixed vertically.
Scriber is made up of high carbon steel and is hardened from the front edge. It is
used for locating the centres of round bars or for marking of the lines.

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4. Punches
Punches are used for marking purposes. Dot punches are used for marking dotted
line and centre punch is used to mark the centre of hole before drilling. Punches
are made up of high carbon steel or high speed steels. One end is sharpened.
Hammering is done on the second end while working. For dot punch, angle of the
punching end is 60 degree while in centre punch; angle of punching end is 90
degree.

Try Square
It is used for checking squareness of two surfaces. It consists of a blade made up
of steel, which is attached to a base at 90 degree. The base is made up of cast iron
or steel. It is also used to mark the right angles and measuring straightness of
surfaces. Never use try square as a hammer.

Vernier Height gauge:

A Vernier height gauge consists of a heavy base,

a graduated beam, a sliding head with Vernier sliding jaws holding the scriber and a
fine adjustment clamp. It is similar to large Vernier calipers in construction, except
that it consists of a heavy base which allows the gauge to stand upright instead of a
fixed jaw in a Vernier. The movable jaw of Vernier height gauge consists of a
projection or extension which is levelled to sharp edge for scribing lines at any
required height.

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METHOD OF MARKING
Marking means setting out dimensions with the help of a working drawing or
directly transferring them from a similar part. The procedure of marking is as
follows:
1. The surface to be marked is coated with the paste of chalk or red lead and
allowed to dry.
2. Then the work is held In a holding device depending upon shape
and size. If it is flat, use surface plate, if it is round use V block and clamp, else
use angle plate etc.
3. Lines in horizontal direction are scribed by means of a surface gauge. Lines at
right angles can be drawn by turning the work through 90 degree and then using
the scriber. If true surface is available, try square can also be used.
4. The centre on the end of a round bar can be located by using an odd leg caliper,
surface gauge etc.
5. The circles and arcs on a flat surface are marked by means of a divider.
6. After the scribing work is over, indentations on the surface are made using dot
punch and hammer.

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CHAPTER THREE
Bench Working Operations
3.1 Laying out
3.2 Hand sawing
3.3 Filing
3.4 Chiselling

LAYING OUT
Laying out is the operation of scribing center locations, straight lines, arcs, circles,
or contour lines on the surface of a piece of metal to show the machinist the
finished size and shape of the part to be manufactured.
The information regarding the size and shape of part is taken from a technical
drawing. The care and accuracy of the layout plays an important role in
determining the accuracy of finished parts, since the machinist uses these layout
lines as a guide for machining.

Layout Tools and Accessories

Layout Procedure
Laying out with Try−Square and Steel Rule
1. Remove all burrs from the workpiece and clean it properly.
2. Start the layout from a square machined (or filed) surface.
3. Use a try−square and a steel rule.

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4. Place the point of the sriber on the workpiece against the try−Square edge. Hold
the scriber 15 degree inclined away from the workpiece and in the direction in
which it is to be drawn.

Laying Out Circles with the Divider

1. Lay out the center of the circle
2. Punch the center of the circle
3. Adjust the divider to the proper radius while using a steel rule or a vernier
caliber
4. Place one point of the divider in the center punch hole and give some force to
this leg.
5. Move around the fixed leg and scratch the surface.

Laying Out with Surface Gauge

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FITTING
The term fitting, is related to assembly of parts, after bringing the dimension or
shape to the required size or form, in order to secure the necessary fit. The
operations required for the same are usually carried out on a work bench, hence
the term bench work is also added with the name fitting.
The bench work and fitting plays an important role in engineering. Although in
today's industries most of the work is done by automatic machines which
produces the jobs with good accuracy but still it (job) requires some hand
operations called fitting operations. The person working in the fitting shop is called
fitter
FITTING TOOLS:
Fitting shop tools are classified as below:
 Work Holding Devices/ Clamping Tools.
 Measuring and Marking Tools.
 Cutting Tools.
 Striking Tools.
 Drilling Tools.
 Threading Tools.

I. WORK HOLDING DEVICES /CLAMPING TOOLS:

1. Work Bench
A fitting process can be done at various places,
but most of the important operations of fitting
are generally carried out on a table called work
bench.
The work bench is a strong, heavy and rigid table
made up of hard wood.
The size of the work bench required is about 150
to 180 cm length, nearly 90 cm width and
approximately 76 to 84 cm height.

2. BENCH VICE:
It is firmly fixed to the bench with the help of nuts and bolts. It consists of a cast
Iron body and cast iron jaws. Two jaw plates are fitted on both the jaws. The
holding surface of the jaw plates is knurled in order to increase the gipping. Jaw
plates are made up of carbon steel and are wear resistant. One jaw is fixed to the
body and the second slides on a square threaded screw with the help of a handle.
The jaws are opened upto required length; job is placed in the two jaws and is fully
tightened with the help of handle. Handle is used to move the movable jaw

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V Block
In V Block, V grooves are provided to hold the round objects longitudinally. The
screw of the clamp applies the holding pressure. When the handle is rotated there
is movement in the screw.

CUTTING TOOLS
1. Hacksaw
Hacksaw is used for cutting of rods, bars, pipes, flats etc. It consists of a frame,
which is made from mild steel. The blade is placed inside the frame and is
tightened with the help of a flange nut. The blade is made up of high carbon steel
or high speed steel.
The points of the teeth are bent in a zig-zag fashion, to cut a wide groove and
prevent the body of the blade from rubbing or jamming in the saw cut. The teeth of
the blades are generally forward cut so in the case, pressure is applied in the
forward direction only.
Depending upon the direction of cut, blades are classified as:
 Forward cut
 Backward cut.

Depending upon the pitch of the teeth (Distance between the two consecutive
teeth) blades is classified as:
 Coarse (8-14 teeth per Inch)
 Medium (16-20 teeth per inch)
 Fine (24-32 teeth per inch)

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2. Files
Files are multi points cutting tools. It is used to remove the material by rubbing it
on the metals. Files are available in a number of sizes, shapes and degree of
coarseness.

Classification of files
i. On the basis of length 4”,6”,8”,12”

ii. On the basis of grade:

Rough (R)(20 teeth per inch)
Bastard (B)(30 teeth per inch)
Second cut (Sc) (40 teeth per inch)
Smooth file (S)(50 teeth per inch)
Dead smooth (DS)(100 teeth per inch)

Rough and bastard files are the big cut files. When the material removal is more,
these files are used. These files have bigger cut but the surface produced Is rough.
Dead smooth and smooth files have smaller teeth and used for finishing work.
Second cut file has degree of finish in between bastard and smooth file.

iv. On the basis of number of cuts:

 Single cut files.
 Double cut files.
 Rasp files.

In single cut files the teeth are cut in parallel rows at an angle of 60 degree to the
face. Another row of teeth is added in opposite direction in case of double cut files.
Material removal is more in case of double cut files.

iii. On the basis of shape and size:

The length of the files varies from 4' to 14*. The various shapes of cross-section
available are hand file, flat file, triangular, round; square, half round, knife-edge,
pillar, needle and mill file.

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Flat file: This file has parallel edges for about two-thirds of the length and then it
tapers in width and thickness. The faces are double cut while the edges are single
cut.
Hand file: for a hand file the width is constant throughout, but the thickness
tapers as given in flat file. Both faces are double cut and one edge is single cut.
The remaining edge is kept uncut in order to use for filing a right-angled corner on
one side only.
Square file: It has a square cross-section. It is parallel for two-thirds of its length
and then tapers towards the tip. It is double cut on all sides. It is used for filing
square corners and slots.
Triangular file: It has width either parallel throughout or upto middle and then
tapered towards the tip. Its section is triangular (equilateral) and the three faces
are double cut and the edges single cut. It is used for filing square shoulders or
comers and for sharpening wood working saws.
Round file: It has round cross-section. It carries single cut teeth all round its
surface. It is normally made tapered towards the tip and is frequently known as
rat-tail file. Parallel round files having same diameter throughout the length are
also available. The round files are used for opening out holes, producing round
comers, round-ended slots etc.
Half-round file: Its cross-section is not a true half circle but is only about one-
third of a circle. The width of the file is either parallel throughout or upto middle
and then tapered towards the tip. The flat side of this file is always a double cut
and curved side has single cut. It is used for filing curved surfaces.
Knife edge file: It has a width tapered like a knife blade and it is also tapered
towards the tip and thickness. It carries double cut teeth on the two broad faces
and single cut teeth on the edge. It is used for finishing sharp corners of grooves
and slots
Diamond file: Its cross-section is like a diamond. It is used for special work.
Needle file: These are thin small files having a parallel tang and a thin, narrow
and pointed blade made in different shapes of its cross-section to suit the
particular need of the work. These are available in sizes from 100 mm to 200 mm
of various shapes and cuts. These files are used for filing very thin and delicate
work.

Methods of filing
The following are the two commonly used methods of filing:
1. Cross-filing 2. Draw filing.
Cross - filing. Refer Fig. (a).
This method is used for efficient removal of maximum amount of metal in the
shortest possible time. It may be noted that the file must remain horizontal
throughout the stroke (long, slow and steady) with pressure only applied on the
forward motion.
Draw filing. Refer Fig. (b)
This method is used to remove file marks and for finishing operations. Here, the
file is gripped as close to the work as possible between two hands. In this filing
method, a fine cut file with a flat face should be used.

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FILE CARD:
It is a device fashioned like a wire brush used to clean
dirt and chips from the teeth of a file. When particles of
metal clog the teeth the file is said to the pinned, a
condition that causes scratching of the surface of the
work. Files, therefore, require cleaning by means of a
file card or by dislodging the material between the teeth
by means of a piece of soft iron, copper, brass, tin plate
and so on, sharpened at the end. Hardened steel should
never be used.

Chisel Tools
In chiseling the cutting edge of a chisel is driven into a work piece by impact. A
chisel must be harder than the piece being worked. Most chisels are made of
alloyed tool steels.

Flat Chisel
Wedge angle for soft materials 30 to 50 degree; for mild steel 60 to 70 degree; for
alloyed steels 70 to 80 degree

Work Process
The work piece must be properly clamped when chiseling.
• The chisel must be struck on the center of the head, in the direction of the axis of
the chisel.
• The correct wedge angle must be maintained when grinding the chisel (measure
with an angle gauge). The tool must be cooled frequently when sharpening, so that
it does not lose its temper.

*************************END OF CHAPTER TWO AND THREE *************************

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Project 2:
Aim: Half-Round Joint, To Prepare a given Fitting Model as per given sketch.

Material Required: Mild Steel Plate of 50 x 50 x 5 mm = 02 no’s.

Students need to write

a) Tools Required:
b) Procedure:
c) Result: Thus the Half-Dove Tail Joint is obtained with required
dimensions

Sl. Dimension Actual Error Sl. Dimension Actual Error

No. Required Dimension No. Required Dimension

1. 1.
2 2.
3 3.
4 4.
5 5.
6 6.
7. 7.
8 8.

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Project 3:

Aim: Half-Dove Tail Joint, To Prepare a given Fitting Model as per given sketch.

Material Required: Mild Steel Plate of 50 x 50 x 5 mm = 02 no’s.

Students need to write

a) Tools Required:
b) Procedure:
c) Result: Thus the Half-Dove Tail Joint is obtained with required
dimensions

Sl. Dimension Actual Error Sl. Dimension Actual Error

No. Required Dimension No. Required Dimension

1. 1.
2 2.
3 3.
4 4.
5 5.
6 6.
7. 7.
8 8.

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