Lecture Notes by Dr.

Abdul Rauf Nizami

Subject: Calculus and Analytic Geometry

Lect: Function and Graphs

Instructor: M. Zeeshan

Spring 2020
2

Function. A function from a set X to a set Y is a rule f which assigns to

ever element x of X a unique element y of Y .

• The set X is called the domain of f and the set Y is called the codomain
of f .

• y is called image of x under f , and is usually represented in terms of a

formula y = f (x).

• The set of all images is called the range of f .

• The variable x which represents all the elements of the domain of f is

called the independent variable.

• The variable y which represents all the elements of the range of f is

called the dependent variable.

• If range(f ) = Y , the full codomain, then f is said to be an onto function.

• f is said to be a one-to-one function if distinct elements of domain has

distinct images in codomain.

Note.
1. Domains and ranges of all our functions will be subsets of real numbers.

2. The domain of f is all real numbers if there is no square root or fraction

in the formula.

Geometric Approach.
• Vertical Line Test: Every vertical line intersects the graph of a function
f exactly at one point.

• If a horizontal line intersecting the graph meets the y-axis at the point
y, then y belongs to the range of f . The set of all such y points form
the range of f .

• f is onto if every horizontal line intersects the graph of f .

• f is one-to-one if every horizontal line that intersects the graph of f

intersects it exactly at one point.

Example 1. Sketch the function f (x) = x2 and find its domain and range.
Check wether it is one/onto or not.
 Functions and Graphs 3

Solution.
Step 1. (Graph)

Graph of f (x) = x2
Step 2. (Domain and Range)

Domain: Since square of every real number is possible, the domain(f ) = R.

Range: Since all the horizontal lines that cut the graph lie on and above the
x-axis, the range(f ) = [0, +∞).

Step 3. (One-to-One and Onto)

One-One: Since each horizontal line that lies above the x-axis intersects the
graph at TWO points, f is not one-to-one.

Onto: Since the lines that lie below the x-axis do not intersect the graph, f
is not onto.

————————-Solution Ends——————————–
Example 2. Sketch the function f (x) = x3 and find its domain and range.
Check wether it is one/onto or not.

Solution.
Step 1. (Graph)

Graph of f (x) = x3
4 Functions and Graphs

Step 2. (Domain and Range)

Domain: Since cube of every real number is possible, the domain(f ) = R.

Range: Since all the horizontal lines intersect the graph, the range(f ) = R.

Step 3. (One-to-One and Onto)

One-One: Since each horizontal line intersects the graph exactly at one point,
f is one-to-one.

Onto: Since all horizontal lines intersect the graph, f is onto.

————————-Solution Ends——————————–
Some Basic Functions.

1. Constant Function. The function of the form f (x) = c, c ∈ R, is called

the constant function.

Graph: The graph of the constant function is always a horizontal line

passing the y-axis at point c.

Example: y = 2

2. Identity Function. The function of the form f (x) = x, x ∈ R, is called

the identity function.

Graph: The graph of the identity function is always a straight line

through the origin, making the angle of 45o with the positive x-axis.

Example: f (x) = x
 Functions and Graphs 5

3. Linear Function. The function of the form f (x) = ax + b, x ∈ R and a, b

are fixed real numbers, is called the linear function.

Graph: The graph of a linear function is always a straight line with slope
a (the coefficient of x).

Example:

f (x) = 2x − 3

4. Quadratic Function. The function of the form f (x) = ax2 +bx+c, x ∈ R

and a, b, c are fixed real numbers, is called the quadratic function.

Graph: The graph of a quadratic function is always a parabola. If a

is positive, parabola opens upward; if a is negative, parabola opens
downward.

y = x2 y = −x2

y = x2 − 2x − 1 y = −x2 + 2x + 1

P (x)
5. Rational Function. A function of the form f (x) = Q(x) , where P (x) and
Q(x) are polynomials, is called the rational function.
6 Functions and Graphs

1 1
f (x) = x f (x) = x2

√
6. Square Root Function. A function of the form f (x) = x is called the
root function.

√ √
f (x) = x f (x) = x−1

7. Exponential Function. A function of the form f (x) = ex is called the

exponential function.

f (x) = ex f (x) = ex + 10

8. Power Function. A function of the form f (x) = xn , where n ∈ Z+ is

called the power function.
 Functions and Graphs 7

f (x) = x f (x) = x2

f (x) = x3 f (x) = x4

f (x) = x5 f (x) = x6

9. Sine Function. A function of the form f (x) = sin x is called the sine
function.
8 Functions and Graphs

f (x) = sin x f (x) = 2 sin x

10. Cosine Function. A function of the form f (x) = cos x is called the Co-
sine function.

1
f (x) = cos x f (x) = 2 cos x
11. Tangent Function. A function of the form f (x) = tan x is called the
tangent function.

f (x) = tan x
12. Piecewise-Defined Function. A function is represented by different for-
mulas for different parts of its domain.

Example 1.
 Functions and Graphs 9


−1 x<0
f (x) =
1 0≤x

Example 2.


−x x<0
f (x) =
x 0≤x

Example 3.



 −1 x < −1
−x −1 ≤ x < 0

f (x) =

 x2 0≤x<1
2 1≤x


Translations.

Upward :

• Operation: Add a positive constant c to f (x).

• New Equation: y = f (x) + c

• Geometric Effect: Translates the graph of y = f (x) up c units.

10 Functions and Graphs

• Example:

f (x) = x2 f (x) = x2 + 2
Downward :

• Operation: Subtract a positive constant c from f (x).

• New Equation: y = f (x) − c

• Geometric Effect: Translates the graph of y = f (x) down c units.

• Example:

f (x) = x2 f (x) = x2 − 2
On the Left:

• Operation: Add a positive constant c to x.

• New Equation: y = f (x + c)

• Geometric Effect: Translates the graph of y = f (x) left c units.

• Example:

f (x) = x2 f (x) = (x + 2)2

On the Right:

• Operation: Subtract a positive constant c from x.

 Functions and Graphs 11

• New Equation: y = f (x − c)

• Geometric Effect: Translates the graph of y = f (x) right c units.

• Example:

f (x) = x2 f (x) = (x − 2)2

Stretches and Compressions.

Vertical Stretch:

• Operation: Multiply f (x) c (c > 1).

• New Equation: y = cf (x)

• Geometric Effect: Stretches the graph of y = f (x) vertically by a factor

of c.

• Example:

f (x) = cos(x) f (x) = 2 cos(x)

Vertical Compress:

• Operation: Multiply f (x) by c (0 < c < 1).

• New Equation: y = cf (x)

12 Functions and Graphs

• Geometric Effect: Compresses the graph of y = f (x) vertically by a

factor of 1c .

• Example:

1
f (x) = cos(x) f (x) = 2 cos(x)
Horizontal Compress:

• Operation: Multiply x by c (c > 1).

• New Equation: y = f (cx)

• Geometric Effect: Compresses the graph of y = f (x) horizontally by a

factor of c.

• Example:

f (x) = cos(x) f (x) = cos(2x)

Horizontal Stretch:

• Operation: Multiply x c (0 < c < 1).

 Functions and Graphs 13

• New Equation: y = f (cx)

• Geometric Effect: Stretches the graph of y = f (x) horizontally by a

factor of 1c .

• Example:

f (x) = cos(x) f (x) = cos( 21 x)

Symmetries.

• About the y-axis: The graph of y = f (x) is symmetric about the y-axis
if and only if replacing x by −x in it produces an equivalent equation.

Example. The graph of y = x2

is symmetric about the y-axis as
y = (−x)2 is exactly y = x2 .

y = x2
• About the Origin: The graph of y = f (x) is symmetric about the origin
if and only if replacing x by −x and y by −y in it produces an equivalent
equation.
14 Functions and Graphs

Example. The graph of y = x3

is symmetric about the origin as
−y = (−x)3 is exactly y = x3 .

y = x3

——————————————————–
Practice Problems
Plot the following functions by hand and by MAPLE.

1. f (x) = 2x + 3
2. f (x) = −x2 + 1
3. f (x) = −x3
4. f (x) = |x + 1|
2
5. f (x) = − x−3
6. f (x) = 3sin x
 −3 x < −2

 23 x −2 ≤ x < 0


7. f (x) = −x 0 ≤ x < 1
2 1≤3




0 3<x


——————————————————–

Book: calculus and analytical geometry by Thomas and Finney 9th edition

Practice Exercise 1.3, Question: 1 − 10, 15 − 25

In addition, Reading of this book from page no. 19 to 25 is also recommended.
(I shall welcome your suggestions to improve these notes.)