15th- class: 28.09.

2020

Chapter 9: Intelligence
What is intelligence?
Intelligence is like electricity, easy to measure hard to define.
Year of definition rejection: Intelligence is intellect put to use (rejected later). Some say intelligence is
related to verbal and academic skills (not accepted either). Some said social adaptability (rejected)

Scientists tried to find out the definition of intelligence and asked it in many countries- South
America said it was car skills, North America said oratory skills, African said hunting skills, and
Pacific Island said it was the ability to control boats. None satisfied the scientists and the real
definition was created accepted by all.
Intelligence: The capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources
effectively when faced with challenges.
3parts
1. Decide what to do in time
2. Think first and then do the work
3. Use limited resources
Intelligence Tests: Tests devised to quantify a person’s level of intelligence

Theories of intelligence:
Are There Different Kinds of Intelligence?
One may see himself as a good writer, but as someone who lacks ability in math. Or maybe see
himself as a science person who easily masters physics but is weak in literature. The
Different ways in which people view their own talents mirrors a question that psychologists
have grappled with. Is there a single, general ability, or is it multifaceted and related to specific
abilities?
Early psychologists interested in intelligence assumed that there was a single, general factor for
mental ability which they called “g” or the g-factor. This general ability factor was thought to
underlie performance in every aspect of intelligence.
More recent theories see intelligence in a different light. Rather than viewing intelligence as a
unitary entity, they consider it to be a multidimensional concept that includes different types of
intelligence.
Fluid and Crystallized intelligence
Fluid intelligence reflects information-processing capabilities, reasoning and memory. Solving
an analogy, the exam we give, grouping a series of letters according to some criterion, or
remembering a set of numbers are examples of using fluid intelligence.
Crystallized intelligence is the accumulation of information, skills, and strategies that people
have learned through experience and that they can apply in problem-solving situations. It
reflects our ability to call up information from long-term memory.
Ex- Here instead of giving exam, you say what you think about the problem- but it has to be
sensible.

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

Psychologist Howard Gardner has taken an approach very different from traditional thinking
about intelligence. Gardner argues that rather asking “How smart are you?” we should be
asking a different question, “How are you smart.” To answer this question, Gardner has
developed a theory of multiple intelligences.
Gardner’s intelligence theory proposes that there are eight distinct spheres of intelligence, each
relatively independent of the others: musical, bodily-kinesthetic, logical-mathematical,
linguistic, spatial, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist. In Gardner’s view, each of the
multiple intelligences is linked to an independent system in the brain. According to Gardner
each person has the same eight kinds of intelligence____ in different degrees. Moreover,
although the eight basic types of intelligence are presented individually, Gardner suggests that
these separate intelligences do not operate in isolation. Normally any activity encompasses
several kinds of intelligence working together.
Eight types of intelligence:
1. Musical intelligence (skills in tasks involving music)
2. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence (skills in using the whole body or various portions of it in
the solutions of problems or in the construction of products or displays____ dancers,
athletes, actors, and surgeons).
3. Logical-mathematical intelligence (skills in problem-solving and scientific thinking)
4. Linguistic intelligence (skills involved in the production and use of language)
5. Spatial intelligence (skills involving spatial configurations, such as those used by artists
and architects).
6. Interpersonal intelligence (skills in interacting with others, such as sensitivity to moods,
temperaments, motivations, and intentions of others).
7. Intrapersonal intelligence (knowledge of the internal aspects of oneself, access to one’s
own feelings and emotions).
 8. Naturalist intelligence (ability to identify and classify patterns in nature).

Information Processing
One of the newer contributions to understanding intelligence comes from the work of cognitive
psychologists who take an information processing approach. They assert that the way people
store material in memory and use that material to solve intellectual tasks provides the most
accurate measure of intelligence. Consequently, rather than focusing on the structure of
intelligence or its underlying content or dimensions, information-processing approaches
examine the processes involved in producing intellectual behavior. 3 steps:
1. Encode the information
2. Store the information in highly organized way
3. Retrieval of the information in short time

People who has a high IQ first think about materials of problem and sort them. They spend
more time in encoding process.

Practical and Emotional Intelligence

According to Sternberg, practical intelligence is related to overall success in living. Intelligence
in terms of nonacademic, career, and personal success.
Emotional intelligence is the set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment, evaluation,
expression, and regulation of emotions.
Intra and inter personal

Assessing Intelligence
Intelligence Tests: Tests devised to quantify a person’s level of intelligence
A test: In early 1900s 6 ‘black’ children were put into a special class in France- for which the
parents filed cases in court. 4 basic questions were asked by court to school authorities.
 1. Why- School said ‘mentally retarded- dull, slow learner’
2. Hearing/ Eyesight problem
3. Neurological problem/ brain damage
4. Information of problem in family- no
How to distinguish dull from normal: A French psychologist Alfred Binet was studying
his own children and approached government that he would be able to develop a test to
distinguish dull from normal. He was helped by Theodore Simon.

Binet and the Development of IQ Tests

The first intelligence tests were developed by the French psychologist Alfred Binet in 1905. On
the basis of the Binet-Simon test, children were assigned a score relating to their mental age.
Intelligence test is a test that is used to identify or measure intelligence level of a person.
Construction of the test: First, they developed items for each age group. It has different age
groups, starting from 3.5-15.
Example: 100 items will be created and tested on 7 year age group kids one by one. If the item
is passed by majority, then it would be discarded. If the is passed by a few people (20-40) it
would be taken as a selective item for that age group.
Mental age: The average age of individuals who achieve a particular level of performance on a
test. For example, if the average 8-year old answered 45 items correctly on a test, anyone who
answered 45 items correctly would be assigned a mental age of 8 years. Consequently, whether
the person taking the test was 20 years old or 5 years old, he or she would have the same
mental age of 8 years.
Intelligence Quotient (IQ): A score that takes into account an individual’s mental and
chronological ages.
The first IQ scores employed the following formula, in which MA stands for mental age and CA
for chronological age

Mental Age
IQ score = -------------------------------- X 100 (Terman’s formula)
Chronological Age
It is important to know the traditional formula for IQ scores in which IQ is the ratio of mental
age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100. The actual calculation of IQ scores today is
done in a more sophisticated manner.
The average and most common IQ score is 100, and 68 percent of all people are between 85
and 115

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale: Categorize by mental age

A major revision of Binet Intelligence Scale was made in the year 1916 by Lewis Terman at
Stanford University and was called the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. For the first time the
test was translated into English. Terman also gave the IQ formula. The test consists of a series
of items that vary in nature according to the age of the person being tested. For example,
young children asked to copy figures or answer questions about everyday activities. Older
people are asked to solve analogies that underlie sets of words.
The test is administered orally. An examiner begins by finding a mental age level at which a
person is able to answer all the questions correctly, and then moves on to successfully more
difficult problems. When a mental age level is reached at which no items can be answered, the
test is over.
Only when diagnosed with psychological issues, the test will take place.
Problem: Children may not understand the oral language of examiner. Child can get nervous
which can affect test. One individual can be tested at a time. Same question cannot be asked
twice to a same individual. Take a long time of 2-3 hours. Hard both for patient and examiner.

Wechsler Intelligence Scale

Another most frequently used test in the United States was devised by psychologist David
Wechsler and is known as the Wechsler Intelligence Scale. There are two versions of the scale:
WISC and WAIS
WISC: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. 4-15 years
WAIS: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. 15-60 years
The scales have two major parts: a verbal scale and a performance scale

Verbal Scale:
1. Information_________ Assess general information
2. Comprehension_______ Assess understanding and evaluation of social norms and past
experience
3. Arithmetic__________ Assess math reasoning through verbal problems
4. Similarities_________ Tests understanding of how objects or concepts are alike
Child with verbal problem would not be administrated to this part.
Performance Scale:
1. Digit Symbol________ Assess speed of learning
2. Block Design________ Tests understanding of relationship of parts to whole
3. Bead Assembly______ Assemble beads of different colors into a pattern
4. Matrix Reasoning_______ Tests spatial reasoning
5. Picture Arrangement______ Puzzles
Child with physical problem would not be administrated to this part.

Both Stanford-Binet and Wechsler Scales are individual scales, one-to-one administration. It is
relatively difficult and time-consuming to administer and score them on a large-scale basis. One
examiner ask one person at a time to respond to individual items.

Group Tests of Intelligence

Group IQ tests are strictly paper-and-pencil tests. Instead of having one examiner ask one
person at a time to respond to individual items, group tests are administered to a large of
individuals at a time. Group tests generally offer fewer kinds of questions than do tests
individually.
Furthermore, people may be more motivated to perform at their highest ability level when
working on a one-to-one basis with a test administer than they are in a group. But it is
impossible to employ group tests particularly with young children or people with unusually low
IQ.

Achievement and Aptitude Tests

Achievement Test: A test to determine a person’s level of knowledge in a given subject area.
Rather than measuring general ability, an achievement test concentrates on the specific
material a person has learned.
Aptitude Test: A test designed to predict a person’s ability in a particular area or line of work.
The SAT and ACT are meant to predict how well people will do in college. The scores have
proved over the years to be moderately correlated with college grades.

Standardization of Intelligence Test:

Reliability, Validity, and Norms
Reliability: The property by which tests measure consistently what they are trying to measure.
Validity: The property by which tests actually measure what they are supposed to measure.
Norms: Standards of test performance that permit the comparison of one person’s score on a
test with the scores of other individuals who have taken the same test.

When it fulfills all criteria, it’s a good test.

Average IQ is 100. Deviation can be favorable or unfavorable
>115- intellectually gifted
<85(we take 70)- retarded

10 Mental Retardation (Intellectual Disabilities)

Mental retardation occurs in 1 to 3 percent of the population. The American Psychological
Association suggests that mental retardation or (intellectual disability) is a disability
characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in conceptual, social
and practical adaptive skills. 1 in every 3 family is affected by this situation.
Cannot do simple tasks, deficient in reception info. Very difficult to teach something. Normal
children though may be unable now, would express and try to do things itself.
Levels of Mental Retardation
1. Mild Mental Retardation: IQ. Scores ranging from 55 to 69, constitute some 90 percent
of all people with mental retardation.
2. Moderate Mental Retardation: IQ. Scores (40 to 54), deficits are obvious early, with
language and motor skills lagging behind those of peers. 7-8%. Mental development of a
6 years old.
3. Severe Mental Retardation (IQ. 25 to 39)
 4. Profound Mental Retardation (IQ. Below 25): Individuals with severe and profound
mental retardation are generally unable to function independently and typically require
care for their entire lives.
Causes of Mental Retardation
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: The most common cause of mental retardation in newborn, occurring
when the mother uses alcohol during pregnancy.
Familial retardation: Mental Retardation in which no apparent biological defect exists but there
is a history of retardation in the family.
Down syndrome: A type of mental retardation results from the presence of an extra (trisomy-
21) chromosome. The baby is born with 47 instead of 46 chromosomes.
Other causes are:
a. Abnormality in the structure of chromosome
b. Birth complications, such as temporary lack of oxygen
c. Head injury, a stroke, or infections such as meningitis
d. Radiation__ such as X-ray, gas explosion, lead poisoning
e. Mother’s age more than 35

Face round shaped and almond eyes, baby cannot open eyes, flat nose, short hair. Amniotic
fluid test or parental screening can say if the child has down syndrome and parents may have
an abortion.

Familial Mental Retardation

History shows that retardation can run into family. But researchers are still not sure if it is because poor
environment or genetics.

Case of Rose Mary Kennedy:

She was retarded. Sent to a good school but later school authority as she didn’t meet their expectation
sent her back. Family kept a governance for her who taught her activities and brother – sisters helped
her a lot.

The Intellectually Gifted

Intellectually Gifted: The 2 to 4 percent of the population who have IQ scores greater than 130.
Intellectually gifted people tend to be healthier and more successful than the non-gifted.
18th class: 07.10.2020
 Chapter 13: Personality
What is personality?
Personality is the pattern of enduring characteristics that produce consistency and individuality
in a given person. Personality encompasses the behaviors that make each of us unique and that
differentiates us from others. It is also personality that leads us to act consistently in different
situations and over extended periods of time.
Identical twins and fraternal twins. Identical twins have different personality too.

Different Approaches to Personality

1. Psychodynamic Approaches to Personality: Approaches that assume that personality is
motivated by inner forces and conflicts about which people have little awareness and over
which they have no control. Emphasize the importance of the unconscious.
2. Trait Approaches: A model of personality that seeks to identify the basic traits necessary to
describe personality. Traits are consistent personality characteristics and behaviors displayed in
different situations.
3. Learning Approaches: Theories that view personality as a set of learned behaviors.
Personality is simply the sum of learned responses to the external environment.
4. Biological and Evolutionary Approaches: Theories that suggest that important components
of personality are inherited. Seek to explain the consistencies in personality that are found in
some families.
5. Humanistic Approaches: Theories that emphasize people’s innate goodness and desire to
achieve higher levels of functioning.

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

Sigmund Freud, an Austrian physician developed psychoanalytic theory in the early 1900s.
According to Freud’s theory, conscious experience is only a small part of our psychological
makeup and experience. He argued that much of our behavior is motivated by the unconscious,
a part of the personality that contains the memories, knowledge, beliefs, feelings, urges, drives
and instincts of which the individual is not aware. Compared personality with iceberg and a
little portion can be seen.
Freud maintained that to understand personality, it is necessary to expose what is in the
unconscious. But because the unconscious disguises the meaning of the material it holds, the
content of the unconscious cannot be observed directly. It is therefore to interpret clues to the
unconscious____ slips of the tongue, fantasies, and dreams____ to understand the unconscious
processes that direct behavior.
Unconscious____ To Freud, much of our personality is determined by our unconscious.
Preconscious____ Some of the unconscious is made up of the preconscious, which contains
material that is not threatening and is easily brought to mind, such as the knowledge that
2+2=4.
But deeper in the unconscious are instinctual drives, the wishes, desires, demands, and needs
that are hidden from conscious awareness because of the conflicts and pain they would cause if
they were part of our everyday lives. The unconscious provides a “safe haven” for our
recollections of threatening events.

Structure of Personality: ID, EGO and SUPEREGO

According to Freud personality consists of three separate but interacting components: the id,
the ego and the superego. Although the three components of personality described by Freud
may appear to be actual physical structures in the nervous system, they are not. Instead they
represent abstract conceptions of a general model of personality that describes the interaction
of forces that motivate behavior.
ID: The raw, unorganized, inborn part of personality whose sole purpose is to reduce tension
created by primitive drives related to hunger, sex, aggression and irrational impulses. The id
operates according to pleasure principle, in which the goal is the immediate reduction of
tension and the maximization of satisfaction. However, in most cases reality prevents the
fulfillment of the demands of the pleasure principle. We cannot always eat when we are
hungry. To account for this fact of life, Freud suggested a second component of personality
which he called the ego.

EGO: The part of the personality that provides a buffer between the id and the outside world. It
begins to develop soon after birth, strives to balance the desires of the id and the realities of
the objective, outside world. The ego operates according to reality principle, in which
instinctual energy is restrained to maintain the safety of the individual and to help integrate the
person into society. The ego is the executive of personality. It makes decisions, controls actions,
and allows thinking and problem solving of a higher order than the id’s capabilities permit.
Ego cannot decide what is right and what is wrong. Moral decisions are taken by super ego.

SUPEREGO: According to Freud, the final personality structure to develop in childhood (around
the age of 5), represents the rights and wrongs of society as taught and modelled by a person’s
parents, teachers, and significant individuals. The superego includes the conscience, which
prevents us from behaving in a morally improper way by making us feel guilty if we do wrong.
The superego include the ego-ideal part also which helps us control impulses coming from the
id, making our behavior less selfish and more virtuous. The superego follows the morality
principle.
Both the superego and the id are unrealistic in that they do not consider the practical realities
imposed by society. The superego if left to operate without restraint, would create
perfectionists unable to make the compromises that life requires. An unrestrained id would
create a primitive, pleasure-seeking, thoughtless individual seeking to fulfill every desire
without delay. As a result, the ego must mediate between the demands of the superego and
the id.-

Development of Personality: Psychosexual Stages

According to Freud, personality develops through a series of five psychosexual stages, during
which individuals encounter conflicts between the demands of society and their own sexual
urges. Failure to resolve the conflicts at a particular stage can result in Fixations.
Fixations: Conflicts or concerns that persist beyond the developmental period in which they
first occur. Such conflicts may be due to having needs ignored or conversely being overindulged
during the earlier period.
Oral Stage: According to Freud, a stage from birth to 12 to 18 months, in which an infant’s
center of pleasure is the mouth. Children suck, eat, chew and bite anything they can put into
their mouths. If infants are either overindulged (perhaps by being fed every time they cry) or
frustrated in their search for oral gratification, they may become fixated at this stage.
Ex- Child learning thumb-sucking because of being underfed. From use of pacifier, it is hard to
take it away. – Oral Stage
Anal Stage: A stage from 12 to 18 months to 3 years of age, in which a child’s pleasure is
centered in the anus. Children obtain considerable pleasure from both retention and expulsion
of feces. If toilet training is particularly demanding, fixation might occur. Fixation during the
anal stage might result in unusual rigidity, orderliness, punctuality even OCD____ or extreme
disorderliness or sloppiness___ in adulthood.
UNCLEANINESS and bed-wetting if parents go too easy on children.
Phallic Stage: A period beginning around age 3 during which a child’s pleasure focuses on the
genitals. Questions like who am I- occurs in mind. Children forms two different group for
playing. Sex role perception creates till age 6. It results into identification.
Identification: The process of wanting to be like another person as much as possible,
imitating that person’s behavior and adopting similar beliefs and values.
Daughter wants to be like their mother and sons want to be like father. But if fixation occurs, it
can cause Oedipal Conflicts.
Oedipal Conflict: A child’s sexual interest in his or her opposite parent, typically resolved
through identification with the same sex parent.
Think same sex parent is enemy and hate him/her, as he/she is the reason of his/her failure to
possess opposite sex parent. But as the desire is unethical it is repressed. Also the society
condemning it also helps to repress.
Freud wrote it from his own experience, he hated his father for dishonesty and beating his
mother. Her mother was a sweet woman according to him. He later recollected some memories
and thought or analyzed thoroughly and decided his love for mother was unethical.
Repression: Means sending memories to unconscious to forget about it. But it comes
back by other means- like skin order eczema or anxiety/phobia.
Example of horse phobia: A nine year old kid Hans stopped going to school due to horse
phobia and was brought to Freud. Freud made dream analysis to get to unconscious mind. The
boy only saw horses in his dreams and feared if he went outside he would see horses too. The
other dream he saw was- he went to a forest and he only saw crooked trees and the path was
crooked too. Freud decided Hans had oedipal complex. When asked Hans said he loved his
mother and feared father. He also feared if father knew about this love there would be severe
punishment. And one day while going to school his father’s eyes wearing thick glasses were
transferred on horses’ eyes and father’s mustache was transferred to horses’ mouth. Freud
helped him to resolve these issues.
Latency Stage: At around 5 or 6, children move into the latency period, which lasts until
puberty. During this period children’s sexual concerns are temporarily put aside. It becomes
dormant even in the unconscious. Children become more interested in outside world.
Genital Stage: The period from puberty until death, is marked by mature sexual behavior
Freud’s daughter Anna Freud and students criticized and rejected some of the points in theory,
specially sexually driven ones. Also the theory was developed based on observing clinical
mental patients. And such was criticized.
19th class: 12.10.2020

Defense Mechanisms
Definition: In Freudian theory, defense mechanisms are unconscious strategies that people use to
reduce anxiety by concealing the source of the anxiety from themselves and others. It protects ego from
unpleasant feelings (anxiety). Some common defense mechanisms are:

a) Repression: Unacceptable or unpleasant impulses are pushed back into the

unconscious. Example, a woman is unable to recall that she was raped. Helps to darken
threatening unhappy memories and keep it into unconscious to lead a normal a life.
b) Regression: People behave as if they were at an earlier stage of development. Ex. A boss
has a temper tantrum when an employee makes a mistake.
c) Displacement: The expression of an unwanted feeling or thought is redirected from a
more threatening powerful person to a weaker one. Ex. A brother yells at his sister after
a teacher gives him a bad grade.
d) Rationalization: People provide self-justifying explanation in place of the actual, but
threatening, reason for their behavior. Ex. A student who goes out with his friends the
night before an exam rationalizes his behavior by saying the test was not at all
important. Doctor supporting smoking.
e) Denial: People refuse to accept or acknowledge an anxiety-producing piece of
information. Ex. A student refuses to believe that he has flunked a course.
f) Projection: People attribute unwanted impulses and feelings to someone else. Ex. A
man who is unfaithful to his wife and feels guilty suspects that his wife is unfaithful.
g) Sublimation: People direct unwanted impulses into socially approved thoughts, feelings
and behaviors. Ex. A person with strong feelings of aggression becomes a soldier.
h) Reaction Formation: Unconscious impulses are expressed as their opposite in
consciousness. Ex. A mother who unconsciously resents her child act in an overly loving
way toward the child.
 The Neo-Freudian Psychoanalysts
Psychoanalysts who were trained in traditional Freudian theory but who later rejected some of
its major points.

Jung’s Collective Unconscious

One of the most influential neo-Freudians’ Carl Jung rejected Freud’s view of the primary
importance of unconscious sexual urges. Instead, he looked at the primitive urges of the
unconscious more positively, arguing that they represented a more general, and positive life
force that encompasses an inborn drive motivating creativity and more positive resolution of
conflict.
Jung suggested that we have a universal collective unconscious___ a common set of ideas,
feelings, images, and symbols that we inherit from our relatives, the whole human race, and
even nonhuman animal ancestors from the distant past. This collective unconscious is shared by
everyone and is displayed in behavior that is common among diverse cultures___ such as love
of mother, belief in Supreme Being, and even behavior as fear of snakes.
Archetypes___ Jung proposed that the collective unconscious contains archetypes. Archetypes
are universal symbolic representations of a particular person, object, or experience (such as
good and evil).

Horney’s Neo-Freudian Perspective

Karen Horney suggested that personality develops in the context of social relationships and
depends particularly on the relationship between parents and child and how the child’s needs
are met. Horney was also one of the first to stress the importance of cultural factors in the
determination of personality.
Unwanted incidents (i.e. abuses physically or sexually) during childhood can create prolonged
trauma in later life – even suicide

Adler and Other Neo-Freudians

Alfred Adler proposed that the primary human motivation is a striving for superiority, not in
terms of superiority over others but in a quest for self- improvement and perfection. Adler used
the term inferiority complex to describe situations in which adults have not been able to
overcome the feelings of inferiority they developed as children, when they were small and
limited in their knowledge about the world.
Other neo-Freudians are Erik Erikson, and Anna Freud, who focused less on inborn sexual and
aggressive drives and more on the social and cultural factors behind personality. Erik named it
psycho-social instead of psycho-sexual. Anna gave emphasis on cultural context.

Other Approaches to Personality

2. Trait Approaches
A model of personality that seeks to identify the basic traits necessary to describe personality.
Traits are consistent personality characteristics and behaviors displayed in different situations.
Trait theorists propose that all people possess certain traits, but the degree to which a
particular trait applies to a specific person varies. For instance, you may be relatively friendly,
whereas I may be relatively unfriendly. But we both have a “friendliness” trait, although the
degree of “friendliness” is higher for you than mine.

Allport’s Trait Theory:

Personality psychologist Gordon Allport proposed that there are three fundamental categories
of traits: Cardinal, Central and Secondary traits.
A cardinal trait is a single characteristic that directs most of a person’s activities. A selfless
woman may direct all her energy toward humanitarian activities. Central traits, such as honesty
and sociability, are the major characteristics of an individual. Secondary traits are
characteristics that affect behavior in fewer situations and are less influential than central or
cardinal traits. For instance, reluctant to eat meat or love of modern art would be considered
secondary traits.

Cattell and Eysenck approach:

Personality psychologist Raymond Cattell suggested that 16 pairs of traits represent the basic
dimensions of personality. Using these traits he developed the Sixteen Personality Factor
Questionnaire, or 16 PF.
According to Trait theorist Hans Eysenck, personality could best be described in terms of just
three major dimensions: Extraversion, Neuroticism and Psychoticism. The extraversion
dimension relates to the degree of sociability (lively-active-sensation seeker), whereas the
neuroticism dimension encompasses emotional stability (emotional instability, guilt feeling).
Finally, psychoticism refers to the degree to which reality is distorted (worst case scenario- i.e.
hallucination, false beliefs, Schizophrenia).

The Big Five Personality Traits

The most influential trait approach contends that five traits or factors___ called the “Big Five”
____ lie at the core of personality. The five factors are
1. Openness to experience
a) Independent_______ Confirming
b) Imaginative________ Practical
c) Preference for variety_____ Preference for routine
2. Conscientiousness
a) Careful_____ Careless
b) Disciplined____ Impulsive
c) Organized_____ Disorganized
3. Extraversion
a) Talkative_____ Quiet
b) Fun-loving____ Sober
c) Sociable____ Retiring

4. Agreeableness
a) Sympathetic_____ Fault-finding
b) Kind_____ Cold
c) Appreciative____ Unfriendly
5. Neuroticism ( Emotional Stability)
a) Stable____ Tense
b) Calm_____ Anxious
c) Secure___ Insecure

3. Learning Approach: We Are What We’ve Learned

Learning theorist consider personality as the sum of learned responses to the external
environment. Internal events such as thoughts, feelings, and motivations are ignored.
B.F. Skinner’s Behaviorist Approach_____ Personality is a collection of learned behavior
patterns. (reinforcement & punishment. Reinforcement is more important. See chapter
learning. We learn through association and cognition, cognition three steps- cognitive map,
latent learning and observation)
Social Cognitive Approach to Personality
Theories that emphasize the influence of a person’s cognitions___ thoughts, feelings,
expectations, and values___ as well as observation of others’ behavior, in determining
personality. According to Albert Bandura, people can foresee the possible outcomes of certain
behaviors in a specific setting without actually having to carry them out. This understanding
comes primarily through observational learning____ viewing the actions of others and
observing the consequences. This approach pays particular attention to Self-efficacy and Self-
esteem.
Self-efficacy: Belief in one’s personal capabilities. Self-efficacy underlies people’s faith in their
ability to carry out a particular behavior or produce a desired outcome.
Self-esteem: The component of personality that encompasses our positive and negative self-
evaluations.
If anyone trust himself truly, he will accept both positive sides and limitation. Or else it creates
problems like sibling rivalry.

4. Biological and Evolutionary Approach: Are We Born with

Personality?
Theories that suggest that important components of personality are inherited. They believe
that personality is determined at least in part by our genes, in much the same way that our
height is largely a result of genetic contributions from our ancestors. Biological and
evolutionary approaches to personality seek to explain the consistencies in personality that are
found in some families. Infants are born with particular temperaments, dispositions that are
consistent throughout childhood.

5. Humanistic Approach to Personality

Theories that emphasize people’s innate goodness and desire to achieve higher levels of
functioning. The major component of humanistic point of view is Carl Rogers, who maintains
that all people have a fundamental need for self-actualization, a state of self-fulfillment in
which people realize their highest potential, each in a unique way (self-worth, self-image and
self-actualization).They wish to reach full potentials. All (good) human beings must possess
three characteristics:
1. Unconditional positive regard: Ability to accept others without any conditions. No
conditions should be attached while judging a human. Seeing all human as equal. Ex-
love for our parents
2. Congruence: All human should try to be honest and genuine in relationship.
3. Empathy: Your ability to listen to others and look through their eyes.

Assessing Personality
Self-Report Measures of Personality (No-projective in Old Edition)
A method of gathering data about people by asking them questions about a sample of their
behavior. This sampling of self-report data is then used to infer the presence of particular
personality characteristics.
One of the most frequently used personality tests, is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
Inventory-2 (MMPI-2). This self-report test identifies people with psychological difficulties and
is employed to predict some everyday behaviors. The test has 567 items/statements including
nine clinical symptoms.
1 Hs – Hypochondriasis: they think they are always suffering. Imaginative physical problem. Mostly from people who
are ignored like housewives.
2 D – Depression
3 Hy – Hysteria
4 Pd – Psychopathic Deviate
5 Mf – Masculinity–Femininity
6 Pa – Paranoia
7 Pt – Psychasthenia
8 Sc – Schizophrenia
9 Ma – Hypomania

The Life Orientation Test–Revised

Use the following scale to answer the items below: (Likert Type Scale- 0-4 or 1-5 points)
0 1 2 3 4
Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree
1. In uncertain times, I usually expect the best.
2. It is easy for me to relax.
3. If something can go wrong for me, it will.
4. I’m always optimistic about my future.
5. I enjoy my friends a lot.
6. It is important for me to keep busy.
7. I hardly ever expect things to go my way.
8. I don’t get upset too easily.
9. I rarely count on good things happening to me.
10. Overall, I expect more good things to happen to me than bad.
Scoring. First, reverse your answers to questions 3, 7, and 9. Do this by changing a 0 to a 4, a 1 to a 3, a 3 to a 1, and a 4 to a 0
(answers of 2 stay as 2). Then sum the reversed scores, and add them to the scores you gave to questions 1, 4, and 10. (Ignore
questions 2, 5, 6, and 8, which are filler items.)
The total score you get is a measure of a particular orientation to life: your degree of optimism. The higher your scores, the more
positive and hopeful you generally are about life. For comparison purposes the average score for college students is 14.3, according
to the results of a study by Scheier, Carver, and Bridges (1994). People with a higher degree of optimism generally deal with stress
better than do those with lower scores.

Projective Personality Test

A test in which a person is shown an ambiguous unstructured stimulus and asked to describe it
or tell a story about it. An x-ray of personality to see inside of a person.
Rorschach Test: A test that involves showing a series of symmetrical visual stimuli to people
who then are asked what the figures represent to them. This is also known as Rorschach’s
inkblot test- bisymmetrical inkblots are shown. Time is not limited. The more reaction time
(time needed to give first reaction) the client needs more severe the condition. To take the test
you need both medical and psychology degree.
The best-known projective test. Started in 1911 and developed one thousand inkblots- from which only 10 were
selected. (1-5 b&w, 6-10 colored). Devised by Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach (1924), the test involves
showing a series of symmetrical stimuli to people who are then asked what the figures represent to them. Their
responses are recorded, and people are classified by their personality type through a complex set of clinical
judgments on the part of the examiner.
For instance, respondents who see a bear in one inkblot are thought to have a strong degree of emotional
control, according to the scoring guidelines Rorschach developed.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): A test consisting a series of pictures about which a person is
asked to write a story. Total 20 cards- 19 ambiguous and 20th card a blank one. Would see 19
pictures and tell a story consisting their unconscious unethical desires in 20th one. If illiterate
the tester will write the story. Children version is called CAT.

Behavioral Assessment
Behavioral assessments are direct measures of an individual’s behavior used to describe
personality characteristics. Behavioral assessment may be carried out naturalistically by
observing people in their own settings: in the workplace, at home, or in school.
 Chapter 7: Memory
Definition: The process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information.
The initial process of recording information in a form usable to memory, a process called
encoding, is the first stage in remembering something. The second stage is storage, the
maintenance of material saved in memory. If the material is not stored adequately, it cannot be
recalled later. The last process is retrieval. Material in memory storage has to be located and
brought into awareness to be useful.
Encoding (initial recording of information) _____ keyboard
Storage (information saved for future use: maintenance) _____ hard drive
Retrieval (recovery/ recalling of stored information) _____ software to access the information
for display on the screen.

Three-system approach to memory

According to the three-system approach to memory, there are different memory storage
systems or stages through which information must travel if it is to be remembered. The three-
system proposes the existence of the three separate memory stores.
Sensory memory: The initial, momentary storage of information, lasting only an instant. An
exact replica of the stimulus recorded by a person’s sensory system is stored very briefly.
Short-term memory: Memory that holds information for 15 to 25 seconds and stores it
according to its meaning rather than as mere sensory stimulation.
Long-term memory: Memory that stores information on a relatively permanent basis, although
it may be difficult to retrieve.

Sensory Memory
There are several types of sensory memories, each related to a different source of sensory
information. For instance, Iconic memory reflects information from the visual system. Echoic
memory stores auditory information coming from the ears. In addition, there are corresponding
memories for each of the other senses.
Sensory memory can store information for only a very short time. If information does not pass
into short-term memory, it is lost for good. Iconic memory lasts less than a second and echoic
memory typically fades within two or three seconds. Despite the brief duration of sensory
memory, its precision is high. Sensory memory can almost exact replica of each stimulus to
which it is exposed. It can store enormous amount of information.
Psychologist George Sperling (1960) demonstrated the existence of sensory memory in a series
of studies. He briefly exposed people to a series of 12 letters arranged in the following pattern:
F T Y C
K D N L
Y W B M
When exposed to this pattern of letters for just 1/20th of a second, most people could recall
only four or five of the letters accurately. Although they knew that they had seen more, the
memory of those letters had faded by the time they reported the first few letters. It was
possible, that the information had initially been accurately stored in sensory memory, but
during the time it took to verbalize the first four or five letters the memory of the other letters
faded.
In second phase he asked subjected to remember only one row. High middle and low tones.
This time they remembered 100%.
Capacity- enormous. Almost anything we see, hear is encoded
Duration- less than a second Important because our senses are involved with it. The information must enter
through the senses. The first door. Surprisingly, It has enormous capacity and the encoding is the exact
replica of the stimulus, but it is meaningless.

Short-term Memory
Because the information that is stored briefly in sensory consists of representation of raw sensory
stimuli, it is not meaningful to us. If we are to make sense of it and possibly retain it, the information
must be transferred to the next stage of memory, short-term memory. Short-term is the memory store
in which information first has meaning.

Some information from sensory will go into short term memory. Two control processes:-

Pattern recognition: Internal motivation makes it recognizable. Three straight line becomes letter A.
Attention: External factor. Forcefully attention will be diverted to an external factor (i.e. gun shot).
Some information become meaningful.
Capacity- The specific amount of information that can be held in short-term memory has been
identified as seven items, or “chunks,” of information, with variations up to plus or minus two
chunks (magical number). It means 7 (+-)2 (can be letters or chunks. Which means our short term
remembers 7 chunks on an average)
Memory span is the longest list of items that a person can repeat back in correct order immediately
after presentation on 50% of all trials

Chunk: A meaning grouping of stimuli that can be stored as a unit in short-term memory. A
chunk can be individual letters or numbers, or it may consist of larger categories, such as words
or other meaningful units. For example, consider the following list of letters:
BBCTABLEATNBOOKPENNTV
BBC TABLE ATN BOOK PEN NTV
Chunks can vary in size from single letters or numbers to categories that are complicated.
Information can be maintained in short-term memory as long as the information is repeated.
More important, however, rehearsal allows us to transfer the information into long-term
memory. Through repetitive rehearsal information can be kept in short-term for more than 15
to 25 seconds. If it is kept for more than this, it will automatically become long term. 2 types
auditory and visual.
In contrast, if the information in short-term memory is rehearsed using a process called
elaborative rehearsal, it is much more likely to be transferred to long-term memory.
Elaborative rehearsal occurs when the information is considered and organized in some
fashion. By using organizational strategies such as Mnemonics, we can vastly improve our
retention of information. Mnemonics are formal techniques for organizing information in a way
that makes it more likely to be remembered. Learning a rhyme is an example of mnemonics.

Working Memory
A set of active, temporary memory stores that actively manipulate and rehearse information.
Short-term memory is like an information processing system that manages both new material
gathered from sensory memory and older material that has been pulled from long-term
storage. Short-term is referred to as working memory.
Working memory contains a central executive processor that is involved in reasoning and
decision making. The central executive coordinates three distinct storage-and-rehearsal
systems: the visual store, the verbal store, and the episodic buffer.
The visual store specializes in visual and spatial information, whereas the verbal store holds and
manipulates material relating to speech, words, and numbers. The episodic buffer contains
information that represents episodes or events.

Long-term memory
The ability to store a tremendous amount of information for a very long period of time is known
as long-term memory. It enables us to remember events that occurred as recently as five
minutes ago or as far back as our early childhood. Everything we store for future reference is
encoded into long-term memory.
Duration and capacity: Life time. Forgetting is a very normal part.

The transfer from short- to long-term memory

The transfer from short-to long-term memory is governed by a control process known as
Elaborative Rehearsal. Elaborative rehearsal involves analyzing the meaning of the new
information. A study by Craik and Tulving (1975) demonstrated that the more elaborate the
rehearsal that is the more we analyze the material for meaning.

Encoding in Long-term Memory

Most of the information stored in long-term memory is encoded by meaning. Meaning can be
encoded in one of two forms, semantic coding and imagery coding.
Semantic coding, remembering the general meaning of words and sentences, is probably the
most familiar method. For example, a few minutes after hearing a sentence, all we can recall is
the meaning or the main idea of the sentence, not each word.
Imagery coding is forming a mental image to encode meaning in long-term memory.

Sharpening: Important info detailed remember

Leveling: 100 info theke 10 ta pore
Assimilation: assimilate kore onnno words use kore same info deoa

Storage and Retrieval in Long-term memory

In long-term memory storage and retrieval are strongly related. Whether or not we are able to
retrieve information from long-term memory depends largely on how well we store it. And how
well we store information depends on how well the information is organized. In an early
experiment on memory (Bousfield,1953), subjects were given a list of sixty words to memorize.
The subjects were not told that the words fell in four categories: animals, vegetables,
professions and names. The sixty were given to the subjects in a random order, for example,
cat, doctor, apple, Sam, lawyer, dog and so forth. The subjects were then asked to recall as
much of the list as they could in order they liked. Even though the words were initially
presented in a random order, Bousfield found that as the recalled the words, they grouped
them into categories. For example, a subject might name all the animals first, followed by all
the names, and so on. Memory box is stored in hippocampus.
Retrieval Cues: Because information is stored in an organized manner, certain cues called
retrieval cues helps in recalling information from long-term memory.
We use signals or retrieval queue. We can easily find out book in a library according to number and
section. Similarly, we have tools to help us retrieve.

Different types of Long-term Memory

1. Declarative Long-term Memory: Memory for factual information; names, faces, dates, a
such as “a bike has two wheels”. Declarative memory can be subdivided into Semantic
memory and Episodic memory.
Semantic memory is memory for general knowledge and facts about the world. i.e.
math formula
Episodic memory is memory for events that occur in a particular time, place, or context.
(Personal knowledge i.e. birthday name).
2. Procedural Long-term Memory: Memory for skills and habits, such as riding a bike or
hitting a baseball.

3. Explicit Memory: Intentional or conscious recollection of information . When I am asked

my name, it takes a second to consciously recall my name. When a doctor in OT, he is using
conscious explicit memory.
4. Implicit memory: Memories of which people are not consciously aware, but which can
affect subsequent performance and behavior. One way to study implicit memory is
through the use of Priming.
Priming: A phenomenon in which exposure to a word or concept (called a prime) later
makes it easier to recall related information, even when there is no conscious memory
of the word or concept. Can last lifetime.
Writing with pen. (most of memory is here)

5. Flashbulb Memories: Memories centered on a specific, important, or surprising event

that are so vivid it is as if they represented a snapshot of the event. - accidents
6. Autobiographical Memory: Our recollections of circumstances and episodes from our
own lives. Related with episodic memory.
Forgetting
Inability to recall learned material.

Why do we Forget?
One reason is that we may not have paid attention to the material in the first place, such
causing a failure of encoding.
Theories of Forgetting
1. Decay: loss of information in memory through its nonuse. This explanation for
forgetting assumes that memory traces, the physical changes that take place in the
brain when new material is learned, simply fade away over time.
Meaning, when we learn something new, the memory brings change in the brain. If we stop
using a memory, it will gradually erase. If we use it regularly, it'll stay fresh.

2. Interference: The phenomenon by which information in memory disrupts the recall

of other information.
Proactive and Retroactive Interference
Proactive Interference: Interference in which information learned earlier disrupts
the recall of newer material.
Sub. 1 Learn A Learn B Recall B
Sub. 2 Rest Learn B Recall B
Retroactive Interference: Interference in which there is difficulty in the recall of
information learned earlier because of later exposure to different material.
Sub. 1 Learn A Learn B Recall A
Sub. 2 Learn A Rest Recall A

Memory Dysfunctions
1. Alzheimer’s Disease: An illness characterized in part by severe memory
problems. In the beginning, Alzheimer’s symptoms appear as simple
forgetfulness of things such as appointments. As the disease progresses,
memory loss becomes more profound.
The cause of Alzheimer’s disease are not fully understood. Increasing evidence
suggests that Alzheimer’s results from an inherited susceptibility to a defect in
the production of the protein beta amyloid, which is necessary for the
 maintenance of nerve cell connections. Large clumps of cells form, triggering
inflammation and the deterioration of nerve cells in the brain.
2. Amnesia: Memory loss that occurs without other mental difficulties. 2 types.
a) Retrograde Amnesia: Amnesia in which memory is lost for occurrences prior
to a certain event.
b) Anterograde Amnesia: Amnesia in which memory is lost for events that
follow an injury.
3. Korsakoff’s Syndrome: A disease that afflicts long-term alcoholics, leaving some
abilities intact but including hallucinations and a tendency to repeat the same
story.
 Chapter 14: Health Psychology
What is Health Psychology?
The branch of psychology that investigates the psychological factors related to wellness and
illness, including the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of medical problems.
Health psychologists investigate the effects of psychological factors such as stress on illness.
Health psychologists recognize that good health and the ability to cope with illness are affected
by psychological factors such as thoughts, emotions, and the ability to manage stress. They
have paid particular attention to the immune system, the complex of organs, glands, and cells
that constitute our bodies’ natural line of defense in fighting disease.
Health psychology tries to help people learn how to cope with stress. For this they have team of
health professionals – physician psychologist psychiatrist dietitian nutritionist etc. They help
patients to remain psychologically healthy and prevent development of psychological diseases.
Diagnosis 1st and then treatment:
Physical: Pharmacological treatment or brain surgery
Psychological: Relaxation and other techniques
Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI)
The study of the relationship among psychological factors, the immune system, and the brain. It
is also related with body- glands, cells and other organs. Immune system is our natural ability
to fight diseases. Different type of damages or degeneration to brain can lead to diseases.

Stress and Coping

Stress: A person’s response to events that are threatening and challenging. Whether it is an
exam, or a life problem, life is full of circumstances and events, known as stressors that produce
threats to our well-being. Even pleasant events___ such as planning a party, starting a new
job____ can produce stress.
Our ability to manage and cope stresses determines our health greatly. Good ability to manage
stress leads to good health and vice versa. Some becomes upset and panic at a little stress.
Finance, education and age are some important factors here. It can cause physical disease or
worsen an already existing physical disease – Asthma.

Categorizing Stressors
 1. Cataclysmic events: Strong stressors that occur suddenly, affecting many people
simultaneously. Disasters such as tornadoes and plane crash, as well as terrorist attacks,
are examples of cataclysmic events that can affect hundreds or thousands of people
simultaneously.
2. Personal stressors: Major life events, such as the death of a family member, that have
immediate negative consequences that generally fade with time.
3. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): A phenomenon in which victims of major
catastrophes or strong personal stressors feel long-lasting effects that may include re-
experiencing the event in vivid flashbacks or dreams. Ex- Rana plaza rescuers.
4. Background stressors (Daily hassles): Everyday annoyances, such as being stuck in
traffic, that cause minor irritations and may have long-term ill effects if they continue
or are compounded by other stressful events. Problem with boss, getting late- this sort
of stresses might add up and even cause disorders like heart failure.
5. Uplifts: The minor positive events that make us feel good___ even if only temporarily.
Uplifts range from relating well to a companion to finding one’s surroundings pleasing.
The greater the number of uplifts we experience, the fewer the psychological symptoms
we report later. Marriage or picnic

Biological and Psychological consequences of stress

Long term stress has a severe effect on psychological and physical well-being.
Continued exposure to stress results in a decline in the body’s overall level of biological
functioning because of the constant secretion -of stress-related hormones. The more common
problems associated with prolonged stress are high blood pressure (number 1 physical effect),
headaches, backaches, skin rashes, indigestion, fatigue, constipation, and common cold.
On a psychological level, high levels of stress prevent people from adequately coping with life.
The common psychological problems are irritability, lack of concentration, poor memory,
inability to relax, poor appetite, and poor sleep.

Psychophysiological disorders: Medical problems influenced by an interaction of

psychological, emotional, and physical difficulties. Not many people suffer from this. Some
common psychophysiological disorders are Asthma, Hypertension, Ulcer, Eczema and Arthritis.
These diseases are all genuine physical disorders caused by psychological reasons. Ex- Parents
grandparents had hypertension not asthma, successor will have hypertension if exposed to too
much stress. Genetically one can having weak cardiac or respiratory organs can be a valid
reason too.- Family history/ hereditary factor.
The General Adaptation Syndrome Model (GAS)
The effects of long-term stress are illustrated in a series of stages proposed by Hans Selye
(1993), a pioneering stress theorist. This model, the general adaptation syndrome (GAS),
suggests that the physiological response to a stressor consists of three stages: alarm and
mobilization, resistance and exhaustion.
Stressor ______1. Alarm and Mobilization ______ 2. Resistance _______ 3. Exhaustion
 Meeting and resisting Coping with Negative
Stressor stress and consequences
resistance to of stress (such
stressor as illness) occur
when coping is
inadequate.
The first stage___ alarm and mobilization___ occurs when people become aware of the
presence of the stressor. On a biological level, the sympathetic nervous system becomes
energized, helping a person cope initially with the stressor. 90%
The second stage___ resistance___ if the stressor persists, people move into the second stage.
During this stage, the body prepares to fight the stressor. People use a variety of means to cope
with the stressor____ sometimes successfully but at the cost of some degree of physical or
psychological well-being. Like- headache backache indigestion. 7-8%
The last stage___ if resistance is inadequate, people enter the last stage of the GAS___
exhaustion. During this stage, a person’s ability to adapt to the stressor declines to the point
where negative consequences of stress appear: physical illness and psychological symptoms in
the form of an inability to concentrate, heightened irritability, or in severe cases, disorientation
and a loss of touch with reality.2-3%
Two solution for this stage: escape or face it at the cost of own health. Ex- not sitting for exam
In some cases, Exhaustion allows people to avoid a stressor. For example, people who become
ill from overwork may be excused from their duties for a time, giving them a temporary respite
from their responsibilities. At least for a time, then, the immediate stress is reduced.

Coping with Stress

Stress is a normal part of life and not necessarily a completely bad part (arousal theory- at
optimal level stress is good; neither too high, nor too low. Ex- before exam stress. Na thakle
porbi na tai fail, beshi thakle pera khaya porte na pere fail). For example, without stress, we
might not be sufficiently motivated to complete the activities we need to accomplish. However,
it is also clear that too much stress can take a toll on physical and psychological health. How do
people deal with stress? Is there a way to reduce its negative effects?

Coping: The effort to control, reduce, or learn to tolerate the threats that lead to stress.
We habitually use certain coping responses to deal with stress. Most of the time , we are not
aware of these responses___ just as we may be unaware of the minor stressors of life until they
build up to harmful levels.
People also have other, more direct, and potentially more positive ways of coping with stress,
which fall into two main categories. 2 types.
Emotion-focused coping: In emotion-focused coping, people try to manage their emotions in
the face of stress, seeking to change the way they feel about or perceive a problem. Stress is
generally induced from these problems. Examples of emotion-focused coping include strategies
such as accepting sympathy from others and looking at the bright side of a situation. Some
other examples are self-criticism, wishful thinking, problem-avoidance, and drug use. Turning to
religion is a controversial way of coping stress- we all do it- like when a close family is sick. It
may bring peace of mind. But only turning to religion without the scientific focus is an idiocy.
Problem-focused coping: Problem-focused attempts to modify the stressful problem or source
of stress. Problem-focused strategies lead to changes in behavior or to the development of a
plan of action1 to deal with stress. Starting a study group to improve poor performance is an
example of problem-focused coping. Other examples are confrontive coping, express emotion3
and cognitive restructuring2 (restructure the situation). -Lower your aspirating grade for an
exam if you are sick. Another common technique of coping is crying. This is more adaptive.
Defense mechanisms: Defense mechanisms are unconscious strategies that people use to
reduce anxiety by concealing the source from themselves and others. Examples of defense
mechanisms are repression, regression, displacement, reaction formation, denial and
projection. But being in the fantasy world for whole day is not a good thing.
Emotional insulation: In emotional insulation, a person stops experiencing any emotions at all,
thereby remaining unaffected and unmoved by both positive and negative experiences.
Psychopaths vs. Sociopath: Sociopaths are loyal to their own groups, but psychopaths are king-
egocentric and not belonging to a group. They seem nice in the beginning but all they do is
taking advantages from others. They do not suffer guilt feelings.

Coping styles: The Hardy Personality

Hardiness: Among those who cope with stress are people who are well-equipped with
hardiness, a personality characteristic associated with a lower rate of stress-related illness.
Remaining optimistic or confident. So, lower stress related illness- lower epinephrine (a stress
related hormone which increases blood pressure or heartbeats). Hardiness consists of three
components:
a) Commitment___ is a tendency to throw ourselves into whatever we are doing with a
sense that our (every) activities are important and meaningful.
b) Challenge _____ Hardy believe that change, rather than stability, is the standard
condition of life. To them, the anticipation of change serves as an incentive rather than
a threat to their security. Can accept challenges easily. Change is thought as an
opportunity in an optimistic way.
c) Control: Hardiness is marked by a sense of control___ the perception that people can
influence the events in their lives. Study whole year seriously.

Type A and Type B behavior pattern (personality)

Type A behavior pattern: A cluster of behaviors involving hostility, competitiveness, time
urgency (tries to finish work within a specific time- if not possible get tensed. Hypertension and
coronary disease candidate) and feeling driven. Hard for them to create healthy relationships.
Type B behavior pattern: A cluster of behaviors characterized by a patient, cooperative,
noncompetitive manner.
Neither too a type or b type is not good.

Social Support___ Turning to others

Social support: A mutual network of caring, interested others. Researchers have found that
social support, the knowledge that we are part of a mutual network of caring, interested
others, enables us to experience lower levels of stress and be better able to cope with the
stress we do undergo.
The different types of social support people can give others in times of emergency are
a) Tangible support: food, water, cloth, and equipment
b) Financial support
c) Emotional support: boost confidence. 2 type- Professional counselors (stop PTSD or
d) Informational support: Give right information. Do not spread rumors.

Chapter 16: Psychological Disorders and Treatments

Characteristics of normal human:
Normal: possess the following in average amount
● Average is normal. Mediocre (at least 70% in this upper and lower limit). Like Intelligence (80-120
IQ)
● Organized personality (Do not suffer from hallucinations)
● Emotional stability
● Social adaptability

Normal people can carry out daily activities with stress or anxiety.
Abnormal: Those who deviates from the norm in an unfavorable way have abnormal behavior

Criteria for distinguishing normal and abnormal behavior

a. Statistical infrequency
b. Violation of social norms:
c. Personal suffering or distress
d. Disability or dysfunction

Some Common Psychological Disorders

1. Phobic Disorder: Intense, irrational fear of some objects or situations. Only suffered when
faced, not when thought about. When phobia is faced can cause severe anxiety, heart attacks, panic
attacks etc. biological cause: some phobias are hereditary. Mother fears cockroach, son/daughter might
as well. Psychological: childhood trauma. Social factors: while giving a public speech, was not a good
speech and some started criticizing. This can lead to development of phobia.

Some common phobias are

a. Claustrophobia______ fear of closed places
b. Acrophobia________ fear of height
c. Agoraphobia_______ fear of public places
d. Monophobia______ fear of being alone
e. Nyctophobia ______ fear of darkness
f. Hydrophobia_____ fear of water

2. Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): The individual experiences long term, persistent
anxiety and worry. Person suffers from free floating anxiety (always suffering from major and minor
anxiety). They develop some somatic symptoms.
Symptoms of GAD are
a) Somatic complaints______ sweating, pounding heart, stomach upset, frequent urination, dry
mouth, lump in the throat, and breathing difficulty.
b) Psychological complaints_____ inability to relax, restlessness, impatience, irritability, and
concentration problem.

3. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): A disorder characterized by obsession

and compulsion.
a. Obsession: A persistent, unwanted thought or ideas that keep recurring. Examples of
obsessions are fear of contamination, unethical urges or desires like killing one’s father or
mother.
b. Compulsion: An irrestible urge to repeatedly carry out some act that seems strange and
unreasonable. Examples of compulsions are cleanliness, orderliness, and checking compulsions.

4. Schizophrenia: A disorder characterized by disturbances in thought, emotion, and behavior.

They withdraw from people and reality.
Symptoms of schizophrenia are
a. Disorganized speech
b. Hallucinations
c. Delusions
d. Avolition
e. Anhedonia
f. Flat affect
g. Asociability
5. Depression: An emotional state marked by great sadness and apprehension, feelings of
worthlessness and guilt. Loss of interest.
Symptoms of depression are
a. Sad, depressed mood most of the time
b. Loss of interest and pleasure in usual activities
c. Insomnia
d. Lethargic and agitated
e. Poor appetite and weight loss/ increased appetite or weight gain
f. Loss of energy and fatigue
g. Negative self-concept
h. Thoughts of death or suicide

Psychotherapy
Psychotherapy is a psychological method of treatment. It is a social interaction in which a
trained professional try to help another person, the client or patient, to behave and feel
differently. It is an attempt to prevent, lessen and even eliminate mental and emotional
suffering.
Psycho-analytic psychotherapy
It is an attempt to remove repressions that have prevented the ego from helping the individual
grow into a healthy adult. Problems develop when people remain unaware of their true
motivations, conflicts and fears. They can be restored to normal functioning only by becoming
conscious of what has been repressed.
Techniques of Psycho-analysis are
a. Free association
b. Resistance
c. Dream analysis
d. Interpretation
e. Insight
f. Termination
Behavior therapy
It is an attempt to change abnormal behavior, thoughts and feelings by applying the
procedures based on classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
Techniques of behavior therapy are
a. Counter-conditioning
b. Systematic desensitization
c. Aversion therapy
d. Token economy