Himanshu Shekhar

Alpha Science International Ltd.

Oxford, U.K.
Aircraft and Automobile Propulsion
A Textbook
260 pgs. | 147 figs.

Himanshu Shekhar
Scientist ‘F’, Joint Director
High Energy Materials Research Laboratory
Defence Research and Development Organization
Sutarwadi, Pune

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ISBN 978-1-84265-778-2
E-ISBN 978-1-84265-975-5

Printed in India
 Dedicated to
MY PARENTS
DR. KIRAN SHANKAR PRASAD (FATHER)
DR. KRISHNA PRASAD (MOTHER)
 Preface

‘Aircraft and Automobile Propulsion’ is restricted to chemical propulsion

of automobiles, where a working fluid is burnt to produce large amount of
gases, which gives propulsive force for execution of motion. Propulsion is a
multi-disciplinary science and the main theme of this book is basically
chemical propulsion, which needs simultaneous understanding of chemistry
of molecules, heat transfer processes, combustion mechanisms, mechanical
engineering, mathematics and all gamut of science.
This book has three aspects in general. First is discussion on internal
combustion (IC) engines. This part encompasses discussions on both
theoretical cycles and operational engines simultaneously. Second aspect is
introduction and deliberations on aircraft power plants, where specific
requirements of air-worthiness are debated. Third aspect is exhaustive
discussion on modes of heat transfer. Three modes of heat transfer namely
conduction; convection and radiation are deliberated in detail in this book.
Overall, this book covers theoretical and practical aspects of internal
combustion engines and engines for automobile propulsion. This book satisfie
well the need of the students, teachers and institutes offering the courses in
automobile propulsion. In addition, this book is very useful for graduation in
mechanical engineering courses and other engineering streams also where
propulsion, internal combustion engine, heat transfer and thermodynamics
are essential part of curriculum. This book serves the requirements of
multi-dimensional domain of students, teachers, librarians, researchers and
industries.
Himanshu Shekhar
 Contents

Preface vii
1. Cycles and Processes ................................................................. 1.1—1.44
1.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 1.1
1.2 Thermodynamic Processes and Cycles .......................................... 1.2
1.3 Otto Cycle ..................................................................................... 1.19
1.4 Diesel Cycle .................................................................................. 1.24
1.5 Dual Cycle ..................................................................................... 1.29
1.6 Comparison of Cycles ................................................................... 1.34
1.7 Brake Thermal Efficiency ............................................................. 1.38
1.8 Mechanical Efficiency ................................................................... 1.38
1.9 Overall Efficiency ......................................................................... 1.39
1.10 Volumetric Efficiency .................................................................... 1.39
1.11 Torque and Mean Effective Pressure ............................................ 1.39
1.12 Specific Fuel Consumptions ......................................................... 1.40
Summary ........................................................................................ 1.42
Questions ....................................................................................... 1.43
2. Aircraft Power Plants ................................................................ 2.1—2.25
2.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 2.1
2.2 Brief Description and Principles ...................................................... 2.2
2.3 Turbojet Propulsion ....................................................................... 2.13
2.4 Propeller Propulsion ...................................................................... 2.17
2.5 Turboprop Propulsion ................................................................... 2.18
2.6 Bypass Jet Propulsion ................................................................... 2.22
2.7 Ramjet Propulsion ......................................................................... 2.23
Summary ........................................................................................ 2.24
Questions ....................................................................................... 2.24
3. Internal Combustion Engines ................................................. 3.1—3.41
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 3.1
3.2 Types and Process .......................................................................... 3.2
3.3 Working of Spark Ignition Engines ............................................... 3.10
x CONTENTS

3.4 Working of Compression Ignition Engines ................................... 3.13

3.5 Working of 2-stroke Engines ........................................................ 3.15
3.6 Working of 4-stroke Engines ........................................................ 3.17
3.7 Parts of Engines and Their Materials ............................................ 3.20
3.8 Combustion Process ..................................................................... 3.21
3.9 Abnormal Combustion .................................................................. 3.26
3.10 Arrangements for Multi-cylinder Aircraft Engines ........................ 3.28
3.11 Intake and Exhaust Manifolds ....................................................... 3.29
3.12 Aircraft SI Engines ....................................................................... 3.30
3.12.1 Ignition Systems ............................................................... 3.31
3.12.2 Effect of Altitude and Speed ............................................. 3.33
3.12.3 Power Required and Power Available ............................... 3.34
3.12.4 Supercharging .................................................................. 3.36
3.12.5 Types of Superchargers ................................................... 3.37
Summary ........................................................................................ 3.39
Questions ....................................................................................... 3.39
4. Internal Combustion Engines ................................................. 4.1—4.22
4.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 4.1
4.2 IHP .................................................................................................. 4.2
4.3 BHP or SHP ..................................................................................... 4.4
4.4 FHP ................................................................................................. 4.6
4.5 Corrections Factors ........................................................................ 4.9
4.6 Variable Speed and Constant Speed Test ....................................... 4.11
Summary ........................................................................................ 4.21
Questions ....................................................................................... 4.21
5. Elements of Heat Transfer ....................................................... 5.1—5.65
5.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 5.1
5.2 Heat Transfer Process .................................................................... 5.2
5.3 Heat Conduction ............................................................................ 5.13
5.4 Thermal Conductivity ................................................................... 5.16
5.5 General Equation for Heat Conduction ......................................... 5.18
5.6 1-D Heat Conduction .................................................................... 5.20
5.7 2-D Heat Conduction .................................................................... 5.35
5.8 Convective Heat Transfer Process ............................................... 5.44
5.9 Free Convection Heat Transfer ..................................................... 5.48
5.9.1 Convection on Flat Plate .................................................. 5.49
5.9.2 Planes ............................................................................... 5.49
 CONTENTS xi

5.9.3 Cylinders ........................................................................... 5.50

5.9.4 Sphere ............................................................................... 5.50
5.10 Thermal Radiation ......................................................................... 5.50
5.11 Emissive Power ............................................................................. 5.52
5.12 Plank’s Distributive Law ............................................................... 5.53
5.13 Radiation Properties ...................................................................... 5.55
Summary ........................................................................................ 5.64
Questions ....................................................................................... 5.64
6. Carburetion ................................................................................ 6.1—6.15
6.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 6.1
6.2 Fuel-air Ratio Requirements ............................................................ 6.2
6.3 Typical Carburetor Elements ........................................................... 6.4
6.4 Calculation of Venturi and Fuel Orifice Size .................................... 6.9
Summary ........................................................................................ 6.14
Questions ....................................................................................... 6.14
7. Lubrication and Cooling Systems ........................................... 7.1—7.13
7.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 7.1
7.2 Type of Lubrication Systems .......................................................... 7.2
7.2.1 Petrol Lubrication System .................................................. 7.3
7.2.2 Splash Lubrication System ................................................. 7.3
7.2.3 Semi-Pressure Lubrication System .................................... 7.4
7.2.4 Pressure Lubrication System ............................................. 7.4
7.2.5 Dry-sump Lubrication System ........................................... 7.4
7.3 Properties of Engine Lubricants ...................................................... 7.5
7.4 Properties of Lubricant Additives .................................................... 7.7
7.5 Types of Colling Systems ............................................................... 7.8
7.5.1 Air Cooling ......................................................................... 7.9
7.5.2 Pressure Cooling .............................................................. 7.10
7.5.3 Steam Cooling .................................................................. 7.11
Summary ........................................................................................ 7.12
Questions ....................................................................................... 7.12
Further Reading ................................................................................. FR.1
Appendix ....................................................................................... A.1—A.5
Index ........................................................................................................ I.1
 CHAPTER

1
Cycles and Processes

STRUCTURE
‰ Introduction
‰ Objective
‰ Thermodynamic Process and Cycles
‰ Otto Cycle
‰ Diesel Cycle
‰ Comparison of Cycles
‰ Brake Thermal Efficiency
‰ Mechanical Efficienty
‰ Overall Efficiency
‰ Volumetric Efficiency
‰ Torque and Mean Effective Pressure
‰ Specific Fuel Consumptions
‰ Summary
‰ Questions

1.1 INTRODUCTION
In the internal combustion engines, the chemical energy of fuel is first
converted into heat through combustion process and then this generated heat is
converted into work. The working fluid for air standard cycle is air mixed with
fuel, which may be petrol or diesel. Invariably, the air standard cycles are
constituted by minimum four processes. It has heat rejection and heat addition
processes. Other two processes are work consumed and work produced.
Depending on nature of these processes, various cycles are prevalent. This
chapter gives a brief description of various cycles and their control terms.
The chapter deals with the reciprocating engine where piston-cylinder
arrangement is prevalent. The piston slides inside the cylinder executing
compression stroke. At the end of compression heat addition takes place by
combustion of fuel and useful work is extract during outward movement of
1.2 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

piston executed by hot combustion gases. Once piston moves out of the
cylinder, some part of useful work is stored in a flywheel, which releases work
for the compression stroke of the piston. This chapter gives details of various
air-standard cycles for reciprocating engines.

Objective
After studying this Chapter, you should be able to :
z Understand different air standard cycles
z Evaluate Otto, Diesel and Dual cycles
z Realize various types of efficiencies used in Internal Combustion
Engines
z Know power output in terms of torque
z Calculate mean effective pressure and specific fuel consumption

1.2 THERMODYN
THERMODYN AMIC PR
YNAMIC OCESSES AND CY
PROCESSES CLES
CYCLES
Thermodynamics is a physical science and is based on observation of nature. It
is made of Greek words therme meaning heat and dynamis means force; so it is
study of energy conversion between heat and mechanical work. Then how it is
different from heat transfer? If heat moves from one place to other, the
thermodynamics only gives conditions responsible for movement of heat and at
most how much heat can be transferred. However, heat transfer gives rate of
transfer of heat also and ultimately it gives idea about time taken to heat an
object. Heat transfer gives temperature at various points in the system, while
thermodynamics only gives total amount of heat transferred and assumes
entire system at a uniform temperature. Thermodynamics gives quantity of
heat while heat transfer gives rate of energy transfer. There are certain
other rate processes like mass transfer, momentum transfer, chemical kinetics
etc.
In thermodynamics formulation of intuitive and primitive concepts has a
major role. For example, if heat is given to a system, temperature will rise.
Mathematical formulation of this intuitive idea is subject matter of
thermodynamics. It involves several terms like energy, equilibrium, property,
system, process, work, heat etc. All of them have a precise definition in
thermodynamics. Before anything else, definition of thermodynamics is to be
understood.
‘Best way to study a subject is to understand it before you start’

Hotsopoulos and Keenan : Thermodynamics is the science of states and

change of state of physical systems and the interaction between systems,
which may accompany changes of states.
 CYCLES AND PROCESSES 1.3

Callen : Thermodynamics is the study of the macroscopic consequence of

myriads of atomic coordinates, which by virtue of the statistical averaging; do
not appear explicitly in a macroscopic description of a system.
Epstein : Thermodynamics deals with systems, which, in addition to
mechanical and electromagnetic parameters, are described by a specifically
thermal one, namely the temperature or some equivalent of it. Thermodynamics
is essentially a science about the conditions of equilibrium of systems and about
the processes, which can go in states little different from the state of
equilibrium.
Kestin : The science of thermodynamics is a branch of physics. It
describes natural processes in which changes in temperature play an important
part. Such processes involve the transformation of energy from one form to
another. Consequently thermodynamics deals with the laws, which govern
such transformation of energy.
Van Wylen and Sonntag : Thermodynamics is a science of energy and
entropy.
In general, thermodynamics is (i) study of three ‘E’s namely energy,
entropy and enthalpy (ii) study of heat and work interactions (iii) study of
thermal effects on system (iv) study of energy, matter and the law governing
their interactions. Whenever thermodynamic study is conducted, a region in
space or a fixed mass or volume of material is considered. The constant volume
or mass or control volume on which attention is focused for a given study is
called ‘system’. Anything outside system is called ‘surrounding’ and the
demarcation of system is called ‘boundary’. Boundary is basically a
hypothetical dividing line between system and surrounding. A diathermal
boundary is one, which allows heat transfer, while adiabatic boundary means
prevention of any heat transfer across the boundary.
Once system is defined, then it undergoes two types of interaction with
surrounding. First type is called energy transfer. This energy transfer is also
divided into two parts namely work transfer and heat transfer. Heat transfer is
basically all the energy transfers between the system and surrounding
due to temperature difference. Heat flow out of the system is negative heat
transfer. Work transfer is all other forms of energy transfer and is defined in
thermodynamics as those energy transfers in which sole effect external to
the system can be reduced to raising or lowering of weight. Work transfer
associated with raising of weight is taken positive as convention. This definition
of work is different from work defined in mechanics. In mechanics, work is
associated with displacement due applied force and is defined as product of
force and displacement. However, in many energy conversion systems
displacement is not easily available. Another form of interaction is called mass
1.4 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

transfer. Mass transfer is associated with change in mass of the system and is
always associated with the energy transfer. Mass transfer in absence of energy
transfer is not possible.
Depending on these two forms of system-surrounding interactions, namely
energy transfer and mass transfer, systems are classified in three different
modules. First form is called closed system, in which mass transfer is
prohibited and only energy transfer is permitted through boundary of the
system. The mass of the system remains constant. Another form is called open
system, which permits both mass and energy interactions. To study open
system, generally closed volume concept is utilized, which is a fixed space,
through which working fluids pass. Almost all the real systems are open
system. Third type of system is called isolated system, which prevents
interaction of both the types through their boundaries. Combination of both
system and surrounding is an isolated system.
For each system, there are certain fixed properties on which attention is
focused. Suppose in a class, each student possesses several unique
characteristics like name, roll number, sex, religion, age, date of birth, father’s
name, height, marks obtained etc. Rather than specifying name, a number of
these characteristics can help us in identification of a particular set of students.
Male student with 5 feet 9 inch height born on 20 July may result in
identification of a single student. There are different ways in which students in
a class can be studied. It may be their sex-ratio, height profile; date of birth
dispersion etc and for each study one particular property is considered. For a
system, these set of characteristics are called ‘property’. Pressure is a
property, volume is a property, and temperature is a property and so on.
Properties of a system may be classified as (i) Intrinsic properties, which
are independent of mass of the system like pressure, temperature, internal
energy, density etc. They are not additive. They are also called thermostatic
properties. They arise due to mass and are evaluated by considering mass
inside a system and without considering surrounding. They do not require any
external datum point for their measurement. (ii) Extrinsic properties increase
with increase in mass of the system like volume, energy etc. Ratio of two
extrinsic properties is always intrinsic property. Properties acquire a definite
value only at the state of equilibrium. The concept of thermodynamic
equilibrium needs little explanation.
Thermodynamic equilibrium of a system is basically a combination of
three forms of equilibrium – mechanical equilibrium, thermal equilibrium
and chemical equilibrium. A system is said to be in mechanical equilibrium, if
there is no unbalanced force or moment acting on the system. This ensures that
system does not change position. Thermal equilibrium ensures that temperature
of system and surrounding are same. There is no heat transfer across the
 CYCLES AND PROCESSES 1.5

diathermal boundary of the system and surrounding. There is no temperature

change in the system. Existence of thermal equilibrium and no thermal
interaction at equality of temperature is, in fact, derived from zeroth law of
thermodynamics, which states – ‘If a body is in thermal equilibrium
separately with another two bodies, the other two bodies will also be in
thermal equilibrium with each other’. This law of thermodynamics can be
expressed in several other forms. ‘Energy can neither be created nor be
destroyed’ is the statement of first law of thermodynamics. This indirectly
indicates that energy can only change form. Another way to express this law is
– ‘Work cannot be executed without some form of equivalent amount of
heat getting absorbed by the system’. SI unit of work is joule (J), while for
heat it is calories (cal) and 1 cal = 4.187 J. The conversion factor of heat to
work is called mechanical equivalent of heat. Chemical equilibrium is
another from of equilibrium, which ensures absence of any unaided
spontaneous chemical reaction. The material, working fluid or content of the
system should not undergo any chemical reaction of its own and bring any
change in the composition of the system. Thermodynamic equilibrium is
basically a hypothetical concept to understand and ensure that system
properties are fixed and it does not change of its own. It also indirectly
indicates that all the systems will lead to thermodynamic equilibrium, if left
undisturbed. At thermodynamic equilibrium, properties of the system have a
fixed value.
The distinguishing characteristics of the system are called properties
of the system. Physical description of each system is characterized by certain
quantities like pressure, volume, temperature etc. They are called properties of
the system. These are all macroscopic in nature. Properties may be directly or
indirectly observable characteristic of the system. Any combination of such
characteristics is also a property. For example product of pressure and volume
is property of a system. New properties can be defined in terms of already
known properties. Such derived properties include enthalpy, Gibb’s free
energy, Helmholtz Function. Properties of a system are always called a state
function or a point function and change of properties is dependent on end
properties only.
For the system in thermodynamics, some of the unique properties of the
systems need special attention. Properties of the system can be stated to exist in
conjugate pairs. These pair in combination gives value of work. For example,
in mechanics product of force and displacement gives work and they form a
conjugate pair. Out of the elements of a conjugate pair, one is cause (force) and
other is effect (displacement). For thermodynamics systems, one conjugate
pair is pressure-volume, while another is temperature-entropy. Pressure is
cause and it results in change in volume. Area under the curve on a pressure
1.6 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

volume thermodynamic plane is equal to work interaction in the system.

Similarly temperature is a cause, which results in change of entropy. As their
product gives heat interaction during any change in the system, they form a
conjugate pair. Here it must be noted that as per first law of thermodynamics,
heat and work are mutually convertible. One interaction can be replaced totally
by the other form of energy interaction. These four properties are important for
understanding various energy transfer processes. So, each one is defined
below.
Pressure (P) is derived from force directly. Force acting perpendicular to
a surface is called thrust and thrust per unit area is called pressure. Force is a
vector quantity, area is also a vector quantity, but pressure is a scalar quantity.
It only indicates amplification of vector area to denote force acting on the
surface. The scalar behaviour of pressure can be understood from the fact that
hydraulic pressure at certain depth from free surface of water remains same
and is independent of direction of considered plane at given depth. This makes
it different from stress, which has identical units as pressure, but has tensor
properties. Stress is force of resistance generated inside the body against an
externally applied force, while pressure is constituted by the external forces
directly. The application of pressure is seen in real life. A knife can cut
vegetables with manual efforts. This is because, due to small area at the sharp
edges of the knife, value of pressure becomes so high that vegetables get cut.
However applying same force with a blunt knife or opposite edge of the knife
require much higher force for execution of same operation. Similarly putting
nail on wall, ease of movement for camels in desert, etc., are some direct
applications of pressure in real life.
Pressure is expressed in Pascal (Pa = N/m 2). Atmospheric pressure is
measured by barometer. However, there are several other auxiliary units
prevalent for indicating pressure. Their relations are given below.
1 atmospheric pressure = 1.0332 kg/cm2 = 1.0332 ata = 1.01325 bar =
101.325 kPa = 1.01325 × 105 N/m2 = 1.01325 × 105 Pa = 14.696 psi = 760
mm Hg = 10.26 m of water.

Pressure at a given point is called absolute pressure. This is used only when
equation of state is to be used. In most of the real systems, it is change of
pressure, which is important. So instead of absolute pressure, some relative
variation of pressure is important. In real systems, value of pressure over
atmospheric pressure is desirable. Such excess overpressure is called gauge
pressure. In automobile tires, the pressure is expressed as 220 kPa/32 psi.
These values are, in fact, gauge pressures and atmospheric pressure (101.325
kPa/14.696 psi) should be added to express the values correctly in absolute
pressure. The absolute pressure in tires is 321.325 kPa/46.696 psi.
 CYCLES AND PROCESSES 1.7

For pressure of gases, it needs a little more discussion. As per kinetic

theory of gases, molecules of gases are in continuous motion inside a container.
They collide amongst themselves and with the wall of the container in elastic
manner and rebounds without any loss of energy. The net interactions of these
molecules with wall of the container cause pressure.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 1.1
A manometer has two limbs. One limb is open to atmosphere and other is
connected to a pipe. If mercury (density 13.6 g/cc) is filled in manometer and
open limb is 300 mm above the height of mercury in other limb of the
manometer, find pressure in the pipe.

SOLUTION
Gage pressure in the open limb of the pipe
= Pressure due to difference in mercury column
= Density of mercury × Height of mercury column
= 13.6 × 30 g/cm2 = 4.08/1000 kg/cm2
= 0.408 × 101.325/1.0332 kPa
= 40.0 kPa.
As limb connected to pipe has on lower side, pressure in pipe is higher than
atmosphere. So, absolute pressure in the pipe = atmospheric pressure + gage
pressure
= 101.325 kPa + 40 kPa = 141.325 kPa.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 1.2
In example 1.1, if height of mercury in open limb is 300 mm below the height of
mercury in the other limb, find pressure in the pipe.

SOLUTION
Gage pressure remains same as 40.0 kPa as calculated in the previous solution.
However, absolute pressure in the pipe will be lower than atmospheric pressure
by the pressure equal to gage pressure.
So, absolute pressure in the pipe = atmospheric pressure – gage pressure =
101.325 kPa – 40 kPa = 61.325 kPa.
Volume (V) is another significant property for a system and is derived
from the geometry of the system. Volume is how much three-dimensional
space a substance (solid, liquid, gas, or plasma) or shape occupies or contains,
often quantified numerically using the SI derived unit, the cubic meter. The
volume of a container is generally understood to be the capacity of the
1.8 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

container, i.e. the amount of fluid (gas or liquid) that the container could hold,
rather than the amount of space the container itself displaces. Three
dimensional mathematical shapes are also assigned volumes. Volumes of some
simple shapes, such as regular, straight-edged, and circular shapes can be
easily calculated using arithmetic formulas. The volumes of more complicated
shapes can be calculated by integral calculus if a formula exists for the shape’s
boundary. One-dimensional figures (such as lines) and two-dimensional shapes
(such as squares) are assigned zero volume in the three-dimensional space. The
volume of a solid (whether regularly or irregularly shaped) can be determined
by fluid displacement. Displacement of liquid can also be used to determine the
volume of a gas. The combined volume of two substances is usually greater
than the volume of one of the substances. However, sometimes one substance
dissolves in the other. In that case, the combined volume is not obtained by
addition of volumes of solvent and solute. In thermodynamics, volume is a
fundamental parameter, and is a conjugate variable to pressure.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 1.3
Find volume of a figure made by a hemisphere placed over a cylinder of
diameter of 30 mm and height of 50 mm. radius of hemi-sphere is same as that
of cylinder and bottom end of the cylinder is flat.

SOLUTION
Given, Diameter, D = 30 mm,
Height of the cylinder, H = 50 mm.
Volume of the cylinder = πD2 H/4 = π × 302 × 50/4
= 35342.9 mm3 = 35.3429 cc.
Volume of the hemi-sphere = πD3/12 = π × 303/12
= 7068.58 mm3 = 7.06858 cc.
Total volume of the figure = 35.3429 cc + 7.06858 cc = 42.4115 cc.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 1.4
Find work interaction in the process, which takes place in such a way that
product of pressure and volume is constant. Pressure of the system changes from
atmospheric pressure to 600 kPa and initial volume is 400 cc.

SOLUTION
Since pressure and volume are conjugate process, product of both can give
work. For a given process, work interaction is given by area under the pressure
volume curve. Here it is given that product of pressure and volume is the same. If
first condition is expressed as subscript 1 and final condition by subscript 2, then
 CYCLES AND PROCESSES 1.9

Given, P1 = 101.325 kPa

P2 = 600 kPa
V1 = 400 cc
PV = Constant
or, P × V = P1 × V1 = P2 × V 2
or, V2 = P1 × V1/P2 = 101.325 × 400/600 = 67.55 cc.
Work interaction
W = ∫ PdV = ∫ (P1 × V1/V) dV
= (P1 × V1) ∫ (1/V) dV = (P1 × V1) ln (V2/V1)
= (P1 × V1) ln (P1/P2)
= (P2 × V2) ln (P1/P2)
= (P2 × V2) ln (V2/V1)
(Any one of above 4 relations can be used for the calculation of work
interaction)
= 101.325 kPa × 400 cc ln (101.325/600)
= 40530 × – 1.7786 × 10–6 kJ
= – 0.0721 kJ.
Since work interaction is negative, it indicates that work is done on the
system. Another observation is calculation of volume is a redundant exercise
and without calculating volume also calculations can be made for work
interaction.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 1.5
Solve example 1.4, if product of pressure and square of the volume is constant
for the system.

SOLUTION
Given, P1 = 101.325 kPa
P2 = 600 kPa
V1 = 400 cc
PV 2 = Constant
or, P × V 2 = P1 × V12 = P2 × V22

V 2 = V1 × P1/P2 = 400 × 101.325/600 = 164.38 cc.

Work interaction,
W = ∫ P dV
1.10 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

= ∫ (P1V12/V 2) dV = (P1V12) ∫ dV/V2

= (P1 V12) [(1/V1) – (1/V2)]
= 101.325 × 4002 [(1/400) – (1/164.38)] × 10–6 kJ
= – 0.0581 kJ.
Since work interaction is negative, it indicates that work is done on the
system. As far as absolute work done is concerned, this numerical value of
work transfer is lower than that in the earlier case. This indicates that
increasing power of volume in the equilibrium equation leads to reduction in
numerical value of work. If product of pressure and cube of the volume is
constant for the system, the numerical value of the work done will reduce
further.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 1.6
Solve example 1.4, if pressure is proportional to volume of the system.

SOLUTION
Given, P1 = 101.325 kPa
P2 = 600 kPa
V1 = 400 cc
P/V = Constant
or, P/V = P1/V1 = P2/V2
or, V2 = P2 × V1/P1 = 600 × 400/101.325 = 2368.6 cc.
Work interaction,
W = ∫PdV = ∫(P1V/V1)dV
= (P1/V1) ∫V dV
= (P1/V1) (V22 – V12)/2
= (P2/V2) (V22 – V12)/2
(Any one of above 2 relations can be used for the calculation of work
interaction)
= (101.325/400) × (2368.62 – 4002) × 10–6/2 kJ
= 0.69 kJ.
Since work interaction is positive, it indicates that work is done by the
system.
Temperature (T) is a measure of degree of hotness or coldness of the
body. In thermodynamics, heat flows from a body at higher temperature to a
body at lower temperature and in fact second law of thermodynamics negates
 CYCLES AND PROCESSES 1.11

any reverse heat interaction of its own. As per Clausius statement of second
law of thermodynamics – ‘It is impossible to construct a device, which
operating in a cycle will produce no effect other than transfer of heat
from a body at low temperature to a body at high temperature’. An
equivalent statement of second law of thermodynamics is given by Kelvin Plank
as – ‘It is impossible for a system to produce work continuously by
exchanging heat with a single heat reservoir, maintained at constant
temperature’. As per kinetic theory of gases, it is defined as interaction
density. Higher temperature means more kinetic energy with gaseous molecules
and subsequently less inter-collision time of the gaseous molecules. The
temperature in SI unit is expressed in Kelvin. However there are several other
units used to express temperature. Their relations are given below :

1 Kelvin = – 273.15°Celsius = – 459.67° Fahrenheit = 1° Rankin.

Various units are written with symbol derived from first alphabet of their
names. Selection of scale for these units is arbitrary and for comparison, ice
point and boiling point of water is considered as reference. For first two units,
difference is 100 units, while for the later two the difference is 180 units. Their
interrelations are given below :

T K = (T – 273.15)°C = [(T – 273.15) × (180/100)] + 32°F = 180 × T/100°R.

Temperature is measured by a device called thermometer. In thermometer,

a property of the system is selected, which varies with temperature. Such
properties are called thermometric properties. The properties can be volume,
pressure, resistance, voltage or any other property of the substance, which
varies with temperature. Mercury in glass thermometer, which is used to
measure temperature in domestic application, uses length of mercury column
as an indicator of temperature. Higher is temperature higher is length of
mercury column. This is a volume based temperature measurement device. For
thermometric properties certain requirements are set. First is linearity, which
indicates that for a given change in temperature, the variation in thermometric
property is fixed and is independent of temperature level. For example, if
change in length for a change in temperature from 30°C to 70°C is 40 cm on a
thermometer, then linearity demands that for any other temperature levels say
from 200°C to 240°C, the change in length of column in thermometer should be
40 cm. linearity also demands that, for each degree Celsius rise in temperature
1 cm change in length of column must be seen at any temperature levels. Other
requirements are reproducibility and consistency. The readings on thermometer
and at least variation in thermometric property with temperature should be
independent of place, atmospheric conditions, method of measurement,
operator and other sundry factors affecting measured parameter.
1.12 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 1.7
Convert –40°C into degree Fahrenheit.

SOLUTION
Given temperature = –40°C.
Formulation: T°C = (180 × T/100) + 32°F
= (180 × –40/100) + 32°F = –72 + 32°F = –40°F
So at –40°, both Celsius and Fahrenheit scales give same temperature.
Using this identity, another conversion formulation, which is more uniform
as compared to earlier formulation, can be developed between Celsius and
Fahrenheit.
(T + 40)/100°C = (T + 40)/180°F.

Entropy (S) is a measure of quality of energy to do work. Higher quality

means higher capability to do work. It is a conjugate property of temperature.
Work reservoir has highest level of work output. Energy of work reservoir is of
highest quality. The potential of a system to do work is also called availability.
Total energy of a system is equal to sum of available energy and unavailable
energy. Available energy is work, which is possible to derive from the system.
Entropy is proportional to unavailable energy of the system. So, dS = K × dEUA.
= K × (dE – dEAV). For an isolated system, there is no change in the total
energy, dE = 0. As degradation of energy occurs, dEAV must be negative thus
making dS positive. This gives dSISO > 0 and is written as entropy of an isolated
system always increases, it can never decrease.
For a work reservoir, entire energy is available as work. So total energy is
same as available energy, thus making dS = 0 for work reservoir. A heat
reservoir is characterized by constant temperature T and has infinite heat
capacity. It has a fixed energy. dE = dQ or dS = k × (dQ – dEAV). The constant
of proportionality is equal to 1/T and dS = dQ/T for a heat reservoir. When heat
is added, entropy will increase or capacity of reservoir to do work increases.
Every system has entropy and it is a primitive concept. Entropy is an
extensive property.
Work reservoir has fixed entropy. For other systems, it changes.
Entropy is a measure of unavailable energy.
Entropy of an isolated system is not conserved but increases monotonically.
If change in entropy is positive, it is an irreversible process. If it is
zero, process is reversible. If change in entropy is negative, the process is
impossible.
 CYCLES AND PROCESSES 1.13

In thermodynamics, internal energy (U) also plays a major role. It is all

forms of energy other than kinetic (KE) and potential (PE) energy. Total energy
of a system, E = U + PE + KE. As per first law of thermodynamics, dQ = dW
+ dE. Here dW includes all types of quasi-static process including stretching,
electric current flow through a resistor, magnetic interactions etc. Only PdV
work is relevant for thermodynamic system. If there is no accounting for PE
and KE, total energy can be replaced by internal energy. dQ = dU + PdV. For a
constant pressure process, dQ = d(U + PV). A function enthalpy is defined,
H = U + PV, then dQ = dH. So, change in enthalpy is heat transfer in a quasi-
static constant pressure process for a substance or system where PdV work is
important. Enthalpy is a purely mathematical convenience and it is not limited to
special process only. Enthalpy also represents condition for thermal equilibrium
and in other processes, it still represents heat exchange. For ideal gases,
internal energy and enthalpy depends on specific heat of the working fluid.
Although solids and liquids have only one heat capacity but gases exhibits
two specific heats, mainly due to their high level of compressibility. The
following are of special significance.
(i) Specific heat at constant volume (Cv)
(ii) Specific heat at constant pressure (Cp)
If we consider a unit mass of gas, these specific heats are called the
principal specific heats of the gas. In this case, Cv denotes the specific heat of
the gas at constant volume. It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of 1 gram of the gas through 1°C at constant volume. The
specific heat of the gas at constant pressure is denoted by Cp. It is defined as
the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of the gas
through 1°C at constant pressure. Instead of considering one gram of the gas,
if we consider one mole of the gas, then specific heats are called gram
molecular or molar specific heats of the gas.
Cp is greater than Cv. If a gas is heated at constant volume, the gas does no
work against external pressure. In this case, the whole of the heat energy
supplied to the gas is spent in raising the temperature of the gas.
If a gas is heated at constant pressure, its volume increases. In this case,
heat energy is required for the following two purposes:
(i) To increase the volume of the gas against external pressure. (ii) To
increase the temperature of 1 mole of gas through 1 K.
Thus, more heat energy is required to raise the temperature of 1 gram mole
of gas through 1 K when it is heated at constant pressure than when it is heated
at constant volume. The difference between Cp and Cv is the thermal equivalent
of the work done by the gas in expanding against external pressure.
1.14 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 1.8
Find heat transaction constant volume process undergone by air, if temperature
of air changes from 300K to 550 K. Carry out same calculation for constant
pressure process. Specific heats at constant volume and constant pressure of air
are 0.718 kJ/kg/K and 1.008 kJ/kg/K.

SOLUTION
Given that for the process volume is constant and specific heat at constant
volume is needed for calculation. Heat transacted = C v × (Change in
temperature)
= 0.718 × (550 – 300) kJ/kg = 179.5 kJ/kg.
Calculation is repeated for constant pressure process also. As pressure is
constant, heat transaction needs utilization of specific heat at constant
pressure.
Heat transacted = Cp × (Change in temperature)
= 1.008 × (550 – 300) kJ/kg = 252 kJ/kg.
When properties of a system are completely defined, they are said to exist
in a state. Properties are coordinates to define state of a system. They are state
variables of the system. If properties of system change, they are said to have
undergone a change of state. The succession of states passed through by the
system during a change of state is called the path of change of state.
State postulate is one concept, which is helpful to develop functional
relationship between intrinsic properties. Properties may be assigned an
arbitrary numerical value, which will be referred for all subsequent
calculations. To develop such relationship, it is needed to find out, how many
intrinsic properties of a substance can be varied independently. Number of
independent intrinsic properties required to fix the state of a substance is equal
to one more than number of possible relevant quasi-static work modes. The
equilibrium state of a simple homogenous substance is fixed by specifying the
values of any two independent intrinsic properties.
If path is completely defined, then change of state is called a
thermodynamic process e.g. isobaric process. In isobaric process, pressure is
constant. There are several processes that are encountered in thermodynamics.
If volume is constant during a process, it is called isochoric process. If
temperature is constant, the process is called isothermal process and if entropy
is constant, the process is called isentropic process. For an isentropic process,
there is no heat transfer and process occurs in adiabatic manner. The governing
relation is expressed as PVγ = constant, where γ is isentropic exponent and is
equal to ratio of specific heats of the gases. Value of isentropic exponent is
 CYCLES AND PROCESSES 1.15

generally 1.4 for air treated as ideal gases. For an ideal gas, combined gas law is
given by the following relation.
Pressure × Volume = Mass × Gas constant × Temperature
P × V = m × R × T.

Here gas constant has different values as per units of other properties of the
system. Universal gas constant can be 8.314 kJ/kg-mol/K or 82.04 atm
litre/kg mol/K or 1.987 kcal/kg mol/K.
Different processes have different representation on PV diagram. Isobaric
is horizontal and isochoric is vertical. It is clear that, as ‘n’ rises, the curve
shifts in clockwise direction. The expression of slope for any general curve
represented by PV n is given by –nP/V. Higher ‘n’ means higher numerical value
of the slope or steeper curve. Isobaric process has, n = 0, slope is zero.
Isothermal process has n = 1, adiabatic process has slope equal to 1.4 and
isochoric process has n = infinity. So, curves are traced accordingly as figure
1.1. Sequence of slopes of different curves at any point is p-T-h-s-V in
clockwise direction.

n=0 Isobaric
Pressure (MPa)

n
PV = Constant

n=1

n = 1.4
Isothermal
n=
n=2
Isentropic
Isochoric Polytropic

3
Volume (m )

Fig. 1.1 : Variation of Different processes on P-V Plane

Area under P-V curve is work done in the process. Since work is a path
function, it depends on the process undergone. Although it is expressed in
terms of end condition, but complete description need specification about
nature of the process. Different processes have different work expression.

Isobaric: W = P(V2 – V1)

Isothermal: W = P1 × V1 × ln (V2/V1)
Polytropic: W = [P1 × V1 – P2 × V2] / (n – 1)
Isochoric process: W = 0.
1.16 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Another thermodynamic plane is created by temperature and entropy,

which forms a conjugate pair. Area under T-S diagram gives heat transfer is the
process. Temperature should be in absolute scale. For a polytrophic process,
first law of thermodynamics states that heat supplied to a system does two
types of changes – increase in internal energy of the system and work output
from the system. Heat supplied to the system must be equal to sum of increase
in internal energy and work done by the system.
∂T/∂
ds = [du + p dv]/ T = cvdT/T + R dv/v; (∂ ∂s)v = T/cv
∂T∂
= [dh – v dp]/T = cpdT/T – R dp/p; (∂ ∂s)p = T/cp.

So many observations are possible from the basic fact that for an ideal gas
Cp > Cv. In the example 1.7, it is clear that heat transfer in an isochoric process
is less than the same in constant volume process. Isobaric and isochoric
processes are plotted in figure 1.2.
Slopes of isobaric as well as isochoric processes are positive on T-S
diagram. So rise in temperature is associated with increase for entropy for both
isobaric and isochoric processes.
Slope of constant volume line at a point on T-S plane is higher than that of
constant pressure line. This indicates that for a given initial state, given higher
temperature is attained with lower rise in entropy resulting in lower area under
the curve on T-S plane, as compared to same for an isobaric process. So, heat
transfer in isobaric process for same temperature rise is higher than same in
isochoric process. This is confirmed by example 1.7 also.
From the first equation, if isothermal process (dT = 0) is considered, ds =
Rdv/v, or s2 – s1 = R ln (v2/v1). As volume decreases v2 < v1, s2 < s1 and line
shifts towards left or entropy of the system decreases.
From the second equation, if isothermal process (dT = 0) is considered,
ds = –Rdp/p, or s2 – s1 = –R ln (p2/p1). As pressure decreases p2 < p1, s2 > s1 and
line shifts towards right or entropy of the system increases.

V1 < V2 < V3
Temperature

P1 > P2 > P3

Entropy

Fig. 1.2 : Variation of Different processes on T-S Plane

 CYCLES AND PROCESSES 1.17

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 1.8
Find heat and work interactions in an isobaric process, in which initial volume
and temperature of working fluid air is 300 cc and 300 K respectively. Constant
pressure is 200 kPa and final volume is 200 cc. Mass of air is 0.5 g and specific
heat at constant pressure is 1.008 kJ/kg/K.

SOLUTION
The process is carried out in isobaric manner, so pressure is constant. Air can
be assumed to behave as ideal gas and gas law can be applicable. Initial state is
represented by subscript 1 and final state by subscript 2. Since volume is
reduced at constant pressure, it is a process of contraction at constant
pressure, which is always associated with reduction in temperature. In other
words, the process is a constant pressure cooling operation, where both
temperature and volume reduces in proportion.
Given, P1 = 200 kPa, V1 = 300 cc, T1 = 300 K
P2 = 200 kPa, V2 = 200 cc,
m cp × V/T = Constant or T2 = (P2/P1) × (V2/V1) × T1 = 200 K.
Work transfer,W = Pressure × change in volume
= 200 × (200 – 300) × 10–6 kJ = –0.02 kJ
Work is negative, so work is done on the system.
Heat transfer, Q = m cp (T2 – T1)
= 0.5 × 10–3 × 1.008 × (200 – 300) = –0.0504 kJ.
Heat transfer is negative. It indicates heat is taken out from the system.
Numerically more heat is taken out of the system as compared to work done on
the system, so internal energy of the system will decrease in this process.
Change in internal energy of the system is dU = Q – W = –0.0304 kJ. Negative
sign indicates reduction in internal energy of the system.
Quasi-static process is one important concept. In this case, system
departs at every instance from initial equilibrium state only marginally or
infinitesimally. In such cases, path followed by the system is basically
succession of equilibrium states. Such processed are internally reversible. This
is an ideal process. It is approximately realized when change occurs very
slowly. All processes in real life are not quasi-static, because there is always
some finite difference of P, T between system and surrounding.
A process is reversible if after it has been executed, it is possible to bring
both system and surrounding involved in the interaction back to original state.
It is possible to undo a reversible process in such a way that no trace of
occurrence of that process exists. All real processes are irreversible.
1.18 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Irreversibility occurs due to (i) lack of equilibrium (ii) free expansion (iii)
dissipative effects (friction, heating of electric wire, fluid friction).
If final state after a succession of change is identical to the initial state of a
thermodynamic system, it is called thermodynamic cycle. A simple cycle is
described below :
Simple steam power system : This system takes care of the need of the
society by converting thermal energy into mechanical or electrical energy. A
simple system for the same contains four units – boiler, turbine, condenser and
pump. The process starts with heating of water in the boiler, which generates
steam at high pressure and temperature. External supply of heat is made to the
system. The steam expands in the turbine and does useful work. Steam coming
out of the turbine is at low temperature and pressure. It goes to condenser,
where temperature is further lowered by extraction of heat. This is a heat sink
or heat output device. After this, condensed water is pumped to increase its
pressure. Water at higher pressure is sent to boiler, which heats it at constant
high pressure to higher temperature. Thus cycle continues. Working media may
vary also. Water, ammonia, organic fluid, mercury etc are used as working
media in various systems.

High P
High T Work out Electricity
Steam
Turbine Generator
Low P
Heat in Low T
Steam
Boiler Heat out
Conden
ser
High P Low P
Low T Low T
Liquid Liquid
Work in
Pump
Steam Power System Schematic

Fig. 1.3 : A Simple Thermodynamic Cycle

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 1.9
A simple thermodynamic cycle with air as working fluid has three processes,
first is isobaric compression, followed by isochoric compression and followed
by isothermal expansion to the initial state. Initial pressure, temperature and
volume of the working fluid are 101.325 kPa, 300 K and 300 cc. Volume at the
end of isobaric compression is 200 cc. Assume that air behaves as ideal gas
with Cp = 1.008 kJ/kg/K and Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg/K. Find work done in each
process. Find net work done in the cycle.
 CYCLES AND PROCESSES 1.19

SOLUTION
Let subscripts 1, 2 and 3 indicates initial state, end of isobaric compression and
end of isochoric compression, respectively.
Given, P1 = P2 = 101.325 kPa, V1 = 300 cc, T1 = 300 K, V2 = V3 = 200 cc
For an isothermal process, P × V = constant. So P1 V1 = P3 V3
So, P3 = P1 V1/V3 = 101.325 × 300/200 = 151.98 kPa.
Work done in isobaric process 1-2, W1-2 = P1 (V2 – V1)
= – 0.01013 kJ
Work done in isochoric process 2-3, W2-3 = 0 kJ.
Work done in isothermal process 3-1, W3-1 = P1V1 ln (V1/V3)
= 0.0123 kJ
Net work done by the working fluid in each cycle = –0.01013 +
0 + 0.0123 kJ = 0.002 kJ.

1.3 O TT
OTT O CY
TTO CLE
CYCLE
As described in figure 1.3, any cycle has four essential processes – heat
addition, expansion work, heat rejection and compression work. During heat
additional and heat rejection heat transactions takes place and invariably these
processes are considered to occur as per different processes. Heat transactions
results in temperature variation directly. However work interactions in real
cycles are generally considered to occur in isentropic way. Temperature
variations may occur during work interaction processes also.
Otto cycle was conceived in 1876 by a German engineer Nikolaus A. Otto.
The cycle was based on 4 separate processes. Petrol engines work on Otto
cycle. In the actual cycle, suction, compression, expansion and exhaust
strokes are considered in a cycle and at the end of each cycle, fresh charge
(fuel-air mixture) is taken inside the engine cylinder. So real systems never
occur in a cyclic manner and working fluid does not undergo any cyclic
process. But for analysis, the same can be idealized. Thermodynamic
description of Otto cycle is given in figure 1.4. It has isentropic expansion and
compression indicating work flow. Heat addition and heat rejection takes place
in isentropic way. Process indicated by 1-2 is compression of air from pressure
p1 to pressure p2. At the same time volume of air reduces from V1 to V2. No
heat is added or rejected during the process. Volume of compressed air at the
end of this stroke is called clearance volume (V c). During next process
indicated by 2-3, constant volume heat addition takes place. This process takes
place by bringing chamber containing compressed air in contact with hot
source reversibly. The pressure rises from p2 to p3. As there is no volume
1.20 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

change, no work is done by the system during this process. During process
3-4, isentropic expansion of air takes place resulting in positive work output
from the cycle. In this process, volume increases and pressure reduces. In this
process work is done by air and there is no heat transfer. Finally, process 4-1 is
constant volume heat rejection resulting in reduction of pressure. This process
is executed by bringing air reversibly in contact with cold sink. This process is
exactly opposite of process 2-3.

3 3
Pressure

Temperature
4
4 2
2
1 1

Volume Entropy

Process 1-2 : Isentropic Compression

Process 2-3 : Constant Volume Heat Addition
Process 3-4 : Isentropic Expansion
Process 4-1 : Constant Volume Heat Rejection

Fig. 1.4 : Otto Cycle on Thermodynamic Planes

Two important terms are used while describing this cycle. First term is
called compression ratio defined by symbol ‘r’. It is ratio of initial volume (V1)
to volume of air after compression (V2 = Vc). Another term is called explosion
ratio or pressure ratio and is denoted by ‘α’. It is equal to ratio of pressures
during constant volume heat addition process and is numerically given by p3/p2.
Values of both ‘r’ and ‘α’ are always more than 1.
If specific heat of air at constant volume is given by Cv, and ratio of specific
heats is given by γ, then
Heat added per unit mass of air during process 2-3
= Cv (T3 – T2)
Heat rejected per unit mass of air during process 4-1
= Cv (T4 – T1).
Net work done per unit mass of air during cycle
= (heat added – heat rejected) per unit mass of air
= Cv (T3 – T2) – Cv (T4 – T1)
For the isentropic processes 3-4 and 1-2,
T3/T4 = (V4/V3)γ–1 = (V1/V2)γ–1 = T2/T1
or, T3/T2 = T4/T1
 CYCLES AND PROCESSES 1.21

Air standard efficiency for the cycle, η

= Net work done/Heat Added
= 1 – (T4 – T1)/(T3 – T2)
= 1 – [T1 ({T4/T1} – 1)]/[T2 ({T3/T2} – 1)]
= 1 – (T1/T2) = 1 – (V1/V2)1–γγ = 1 – {1/r(γγ–1)}.

Air standard efficiency of Otto cycle depends on compression ratio alone

and is not dependent on temperature levels at which cycle is operating. Higher
compression ratio gives higher air standard efficiency. However, compression
ratio of petrol engines cannot be raised beyond certain levels due to abnormal
combustion and is generally restricted to less than 8-10. At higher compression
ratios, knocking or noisy combustion may take place, thus reducing the
combustion efficiency of fuel in the system significantly. To enhance
compression ratio without knocking some additives are used in fuel. However,
selection of compression ratio depends on design of engine, fuel type, operating
conditions and auxiliary heat sinks etc.
It is also observed that variation of air standard efficiency with
compression ratio depends on value of compression ratio. At lower
compression ratios, air standard efficiency changes more with a given change
in compression than that at higher compression ratio. For ratio of specific heat
as 1.4, changing compression ratio from 3 to 4, gives a variation of air standard
efficiency from 35.56% to 42.56%. It means by changing compression ratio by
1, change in air standard efficiency is around 19.68%. For similar conditions, if
compression ratio is changed from 9 to 10, air standard efficiency changes
from 58.47% to 60.19%. This indicates that at higher compression ratio, same
change of 1 unit in compression ratio brings a change of 2.94% in air standard
efficiency. However in terms of percentage, at lower compression ratio (r = 3)
1 unit is equivalent to 33.33% rise in compression ratio and at higher
compression ratio (r = 9), 1 unit rise in compression ratio is equivalent to
11.11% only. These are discrete calculations. For a continuous variation, it is
observed that the percentage change in air standard efficiency is equal to a
factor time’s percentage change in compression ratio. The factor depends on
both ratio of specific heats and compression ratio and is mathematically equal
to [(γ – 1)/η].
η = [(γγ –1)/η
η/η
dη η] × dr/r or, dη
η/dr = [(γγ – 1)/r γ].

For higher compression ratio value of air standard efficiency is higher and
factor is lower. Same is depicted by the alternate expression also. So at higher
compression ratio variation of air standard efficiency with compression ratio is
less sensitive. Although for air as working fluid value of ratio of specific heats
is constant and is equal to 1.4. However, effect of variation in air standard
efficiency due to ratio of specific heats can also be ascertained. For monatomic
gases like helium, argon, ratio of specific heats is 1.67 and for same
1.22 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

compression ratio higher air standard efficiency is possible. For carbon dioxide
and ethane, the values of ratio of specific heats are 1.3 and 1.2 respectively. For
such systems lower air standard efficiency is obtained.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 1.10
The bore and stroke of an engine working on Otto cycle are 20 cm and 30 cm
respectively. The clearance volume is 0.001025 m3. Calculate air standard
efficiency.

SOLUTION
Refer figure 1.4
Given, Bore or diameter of cylinder, D = 20 cm
Stroke of piston, L = 30 cm
Clearance volume, Vc = 0.001025 m3
Assume Ratio of specific heat for air, γ = 1.4
So, Swept volume, Vs = (π/4) D2 L = 0.00282 m3
Volume in the beginning of compression stroke,
V1 = Vs + Vc = 0.003852 m3
Volume at the end of compression stroke, V2 = Vc = 0.001025 m3
Compression ratio, r = V1/V2 = 3.758
Air standard efficiency = 1 – (1/rγ–1)
= 0.4111 = 41.11%.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 1.11
Calculate compression ratio and air standard efficiency of an Otto cycle, if
temperatures at the beginning and end of compression are 300 K and 500 K.
Take ratio of specific heats as 1.4.

SOLUTION
Refer figure 1.4
Given,
Temperature at the beginning of compression, T1 = 300 K Temperature at
the end of compression, T2 = 500 K
Air standard efficiency, = 1 – T1/T2 = 40%.
For calculation of compression ratio, either efficiency can be used or
isentropic compression process can be utilized.
From the calculated value, 0.4 = 1 – (1/rγ–1) or r = 3.586.
From isentropic expansion, V1/V2 = (T2/T1)1/(γ–1)
= (500/300)1/0.4 = 3.586
 CYCLES AND PROCESSES 1.23

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 1.12
In an ideal Otto cycle the air at the beginning of isentropic compression is at
1 kg/cm2 and 15°C. The value of compression ratio is 8. If the heat added
during the constant volume process is 250 kcal/kg, determine (a) the maximum
temperature in the cycle, (b) the air standard efficiency, (c) the work done per
kg of air, and (d) the heat rejected. Take Cv = 0.17 kcal/kg K and λ = 1.4.

SOLUTION
Refer figure 1.4
Given Pressure before compression stroke, p1 = 1 kg/cm2
Temperature before compression stroke, T1 = 15°C
= 288 K
Compression ratio, r = 8
Heat added, Q1 = 250 kcal/kg
Specific heat at constant volume, Cv = 0.17 kcal/kg K
Ratio of specific heat, γ = 1.4
So, Air standard efficiency = 1 – (1/rγ–1) = 0.5647 = 56.47%. Ans (b)
Air standard efficiency = 1 – (heat rejected/heat added)
Heat rejected = {1 – (Air standard efficiency)} × heat added
= 108.8 kcal/kg Ans (d)
Work done per kg of air = heat added – heat rejected
= 250 kcal/kg – 108.8 kcal/kg
= 141.2 kcal/kg Ans (c)
Since compression stroke is isentropic, p2/p1 = (V1/V2)γ = rγ
So, pressure at the end of compression stroke, p2 = p1 × rγ = 18.38 kg/cm2
Similarly, T2 = T1 × (V1/V2)γ–1 = 661.6 K
Heat added per stroke to the cycle, Q1 = Cv (T3 – T2)
So, maximum temperature in the cycle, T3 = T2 + Q1/Cv
= 2132.2 K
= 1859°C Ans (a)

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 1.13
In an ideal Otto cycle, the compression ratio is 6. The initial pressure and
temperature of the air are 1 kg/cm2 and 100°C. The maximum pressure in the
cycle is 35 kg/cm2. For 1 kg of air flow, calculate the values of the pressure,
1.24 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

volume and temperature at the four salient points of the cycle. What is ratio of
heat supplied to heat rejected? Take Cv = 0.178 kcal/kg K and γ = 1.4.

SOLUTION
Refer figure 1.4
Given, Compression ratio, r = 6
Pressure at the beginning of compression, p1 = 1 kg/cm2
Temperature at the end of temperature, T1 = 100°C = 373 K
Maximum pressure in the cycle, p3 = 35 kg/cm2
Ratio of specific heats, γ = 1.4
Gas constant for air, R = 29.27 kgf-m/kg K
Volume at the beginning of compression, V1 = m × R × T/p1
= 1.0918 m3.
Since 1-2 is an isentropic process with compression ratio of 6,
Volume at the end of compression, V2 = V1/r = 0.18196 m3.
Pressure at the end of compression, p2 = p1 × rγ = 12.28 kg/cm2.
Temperature at the end of compression, T2 = p2V2T1/p1V1
= 763.4 K.
Since 2-3 is a constant volume process,
Volume at the end of heat addition, V3 = V2 = 0.18196 m3.
Temperature at the end heat addition, T3 = p3 T2/p2
= 2175.8 K.
Volume at the end of expansion stroke, V4 = V1 = 1.0918 m3.
Since 3-4 is an isentropic process
Pressure at the end of expansion stroke, p4 = p3/rγ
= 2.848 kg/cm2.
Since 4-1 is a constant volume process
Temperature at the end of expansion stroke, T4 = T1 × (p4/p1)
= 1062.3 K
Ratio of heat supplied to heat rejected = (T3 – T2)/(T4 – T1)
= 2.049.

1.4 DIESEL CYCLE

CYCLE
Original Diesel engine was invented by Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel (1958-
1913), France in 1892. Diesel engines work on Diesel cycle. It differs from
Otto cycle in only one respect. Heat addition is done at constant pressure
 CYCLES AND PROCESSES 1.25

instead of constant volume. In Otto cycle higher compression ratio gives

higher air standard efficiency. Since in Otto cycle, both fuel and air mixture are
introduced in the engine, obtaining higher air standard efficiency by
introducing working fluid at higher compression ratio is restricted by abnormal
combustion phenomena. At higher compression ratio, knocking may occur in
the engine and air standard efficiency is restricted by this phenomena. In diesel
cycle, only air is compressed rather than a mixture of air and fuel. The
compression is carried to such an extent that auto ignition temperature of fuel
is attained in the cylinder. Fuel is introduced in the engine in the compressed
high temperature air. Fuel ignites instantaneously without any external spark
plug or initiation device. This eliminates chances of knocking also.
Heat Addition 3

Temperature
2 3
Pressure

4
4 2

1Heat Rejection 1
Volume Entropy

Process 1-2 : Isentropic Compression

Process 2-3 : Constant Pressure Heat Addition
Process 3-4 : Isentropic Expansion
Process 4-1 : Constant Volume Heat Rejection

Fig. 1.5 : Diesel Cycle on Thermodynamic Planes

In practical systems, adding heat at constant volume is difficult.

Thermodynamic description of Diesel cycle is given in figure 1.5. Process
indicated by 1-2 is compression of air from pressure p1 to pressure p2. At the
same time volume of air reduces from V1 to V2. No heat is added or rejected
during the process. Volume of compressed air at the end of this stroke is called
clearance volume (V c). During next process indicated by 2-3, constant
pressure heat addition takes place. In this process, the pressure is constant but
volume rises from V2 to V3. During process 3-4, isentropic expansion of air
takes place resulting in positive work output from the cycle. In this process,
volume increases and pressure reduces. In this process work is done by air
and there is no heat transfer. Finally, process 4-1 is constant volume heat
rejection resulting in reduction of pressure.
In addition to various terms defined for Otto cycle, one more term is
predominant in calculation for Diesel cycle. This term arises due to isobaric or
constant pressure heating process, where volume changes from V 2 to V 3.
Ratio of these two volumes is called cut-off ratio and is represented by symbol
rc (= V3/V2).
1.26 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Heat addition in this case is given by the isobaric process 2-3.

Heat addition per cycle (process 2-3), Q1 = Cp (T3 – T2)
Heat rejection per cycle (process 4-1), Q2 = Cv (T4 – T1)
Net work done per unit mass of air during cycle
= (heat added – heat rejected) per unit mass of air
= Cp (T3 – T2) – Cv (T4 – T1)
For the isentropic processes 1-2,
T1/T2 = (V2/V1)γ–1 = (1/r)γ–1
T2 = T1 × (r)γ–1
For isobaric process, 2-3, T3/T2 = V3/V2 = rc
T3 = T1 × (T3/T2) × (T2/T1)
= T1 × rc × (r)γ–1
For the isentropic processes 3-4,
T4/T3 = (V3/V4)γ-1 = (V3/V1)γ-1 = (rc/r)γ–1
T4 = (T4/T3) × T3 = T1 × rcγ
Air standard efficiency for the cycle,
= Net work Done/Heat Added
= 1 – Cv (T4 – T1)/Cp (T3 – T2)
= 1 – (1/γ) × [rcγ – 1] / [(r)γ–1 × (rc – 1)
Air standard efficiency of Diesel cycle is given by

η = 1− {( r
c
γ
}
− 1) / ⎡⎣ γ .r γ − 1. ( rc − 1)⎤⎦ .

From the expression, it is clear that air standard efficiency of a diesel cycle
depends on three parameters, namely compression ratio, cut-off ratio and ratio
of specific heats. The effect of these parameters is depicted in figure 1.6. It is
clear that as compression ratio increases air standard efficiency rises. This
trend is similar to trend of air standard efficiency of an Otto cycle. As ratio of
specific heat lowers, value of air standard efficiency also reduces. This trend
is also similar to that for an Otto cycle. However, for diesel cycle, dependence
on ratio of specific heat is on higher side. The additional parameter called cut-
off ratio affects air standard efficiency of a diesel cycle significantly. As cut-
off ratio increases, air standard efficiency reduces. So for higher air standard
efficiency, higher value of compression ratio and ratio of specific heat is
desirable, but value of cut-off ratio should be as small as possible. For a
practical system, this indicates a quicker fuel injection.
 CYCLES AND PROCESSES 1.27

0.6

0.55 Compression ratio = 12, Gamma = 1.4

Air Standard Efficiency 0.5

0.45 Compression ratio = 10, Gamma = 1.4

0.4

0.45 Compression ratio = 10, Gamma = 1.3

0.3
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Cut-off ratio

Fig. 1.6 : Variation of Air Standard Efficiency of Diesel Cycle

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 1.14
An air-standard Diesel cycle has a compression ratio of 14. The pressure at the
beginning of the compression stroke is 1 kg/cm2 and the temperature is 27°C.
The maximum temperature is 2500°C. Determine the thermal efficiency and
the mean effective pressure. Take Cp = 0.24 kcal/kg K, Cv = 0.17 kcal/kg K,
γ = 1.4.

SOLUTION
Refer figure 1.5
Given, Compression ratio, r = 14
Pressure in the beginning of compression, p1 = 1 kg/cm2
Temperature in the beginning of compression, T1 = 27°C
= 300 K
Temperature at the end of heat addition, T3 = 2500°C = 2773 K
For the isentropic process 1-2,
Pressure at the end of compression, p2 = p1 × rγ = 40.23 kg/cm2.
Temperature at the end of compression, T2= T1 × rγ–1= 862.13 K
Cut-off ratio, rc = V3/V2 = T3/T2 = 3.216.
For the isentropic process 3-4
Temperature at the expansion, T4 = T3 × (V3/V4)γ–1
= T3 × ([V3/V2] × ([V2/V1])γ–1
= T3 × (rc/r)γ–1 = 1539.6 K.
1.28 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Heat added = Cp (T3 – T2) = 458.6 kcal/kg.

Heat rejected = Cv (T4 – T1) = 210.7 kcal/kg.
Thermal efficiency = 1 – (Heat rejected/Heat added)
= 0.5404 = 54.04%.
Gas constant for air, R = Cp – Cv = 0.07 kcal/kg K
= 29.89 kgfm/kg K.
Volume at the beginning of compression, V1 = R × T1/p1
= 0.894 m3/kg.
Stroke volume = V1 – V2 = V1 (1 – 1/r) = 0.83 m3/kg.
Mean effective pressure = net work per cycle/stroke volume
= (heat added – heat rejected)/stroke volume
= 12.75 kg/cm2.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 1.15
An ideal diesel engine has a diameter 10 cm and stroke 15 cm.the clearance
volume 10% of the swept volume. Determine the compression ratio and the air
standard efficiency of the engine, if cut-off takes place at 8% of the stroke.
Take γ = 1.4.

SOLUTION
Refer figure 1.5
Given, V2 = 0.1 × (V1 – V2).
or, Compression ratio, r = (V1/V2) = 11
Bore of the cylinder, d = 10 cm
Stroke of the engine, L = 15 cm
V3 – V2 = 0.08 × (V1 – V2) or cut-off ratio, rc = V3/V2 = 1.8
Compression ratio, r = (V1/V2) = 11.
Air standard efficiency of Diesel cycle is given by
η = 1 – {(rcγ – 1)/[γ.rγ–1.(rc – 1)]} = 56.3%.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 1.16
An oil engine works on the ideal diesel cycle. The overall compression ratio is
16:1 and constant pressure energy addition ceases at 10% of the stroke. Intake
conditions are 1 kg/cm2 and 25°C. The engine uses 100 m3 of air per hour. If γ
= 1.4, determine (a) the maximum temperature and pressure in the cycle (b) the
thermal efficiency of the engine.
 CYCLES AND PROCESSES 1.29

SOLUTION
Refer figure 1.5
Given Compression ratio, r = 16
Pressure at the beginning of compression, p1 = 1 kg/cm2
Temperature at the beginning of compression, T1 = 25°C = 298 K
Swept volume, V1 – V2 = 100 m3
Volume change during constant pressure energy addition,
V3 – V2 = 0.1 (V1 – V2) or Cut-off ratio, rc = V3/V2 = 2.5
Maximum pressure occurs at point ‘2’ or point ‘3’. It can be calculated
from isentropic compression formula with the help of pressure at ‘1’.
p2 = p3 = p1 × rγ = 48.5 kg/cm2.
T2 = T1 × rγ–1 = 903.3 K
So, temperature at the end of constant pressure heat addition process can
be calculated from temperature at the beginning of constant pressure heat
addition.
T3 = T2 × rc = 2258.4 K
Air standard efficiency of Diesel cycle is given by
η = 1 – {(rcγ – 1) / [γ. rγ–1.(rc – 1)]} = 59.1%.

1.5 DUAL CY
DUAL CLE
CYCLE
Diesel cycle efficiency increases as cut-off ratio, r c decreases. So, it is
desirable to keep the value of cut-off ratio, as small as possible to increase the
efficiency. However, practically, it is very difficult to introduce fuel completely
in a very short duration. So, fuel injection is partially done at constant pressure
and partially at constant pressure. This is origin of dual cycle. This is possible
in dual cycle by the combustion of fuel taking place partly at constant volume
and partly at constant pressure. So it is also referred as mixed cycle. A typical
dual cycle is represented on thermodynamic planes in figure 1.7.
For dual cycle, compression ratio, r is given by V1/V2. Pressure ratio, α
during constant volume heat addition is given by p5/p2. Cut-off ratio (rc) is
given by ratio of volumes during constant pressure heat addition and is
numerically given by V3/V5. In addition to already defined terms, one more
term is added. This term is called expansion ratio and is represented by rc. It is
numerically calculated as V4/V3. Air standard efficiency of dual cycle is given
by following expression.
Heat addition in this case is given by the isobaric process 2-3.
Heat addition per cycle (process 2-5-3), Q1
1.30 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Heat Addition 3
5 3 5

Temperature
Pressure
2 4
4 2
Heat
Rejection 1
1
Volume Entropy

Process 1-2 : Isentropic Compression

Process 2-5 : Constant Volume Heat Addition
Process 5-3 : Constant Pressure Heat Addition
Process 3-4 : Isentropic Expansion
Process 4-1 : Constant Volume Heat Rejection

Fig. 1.7 : Dual Cycle on Thermodynamic Planes

= Cp (T3 – T5) + Cv (T5 – T2)

Heat rejection per cycle (process 4-1), Q2 = Cv (T4 – T1)
Net work done per unit mass of air during cycle
= (heat added – heat rejected) per unit mass of air
= Cp (T3 – T5) + Cv (T5 – T2) – Cv (T4 – T1)
For the isentropic processes 1-2,
T1/T2 = (V2/V1)γ–1 = (1/r)γ–1
T2 = T1 × (r)γ–1
For isochoric process, 2-5, T5/T2 = P5/P2 = α
T5 = T1 × (T5/T2) × (T2/T1) = T1 × α × (r)γ–1
For isobaric process, 2-5, T3/T5 = V3/V5 = rc
T3 = T5 × (T3/T5) = T1 × α × rc × (r)γ–1
For the isentropic processes 3-4,
T4/T3 = (V3/V4)γ–1 = [(V3/V5) (V5/V2) (V2/V1)(V1/V4)]γ–1
= (rc/r)γ–1
T4 = (T4/T3) × T3 = T1 × α × rcγ
Air standard efficiency for the cycle, η
= Net work Done/Heat Added
= 1 – Cv (T4 –T1)/[Cp (T3 – T5) + Cv (T5 – T2)]

α .rcγ–1) / [r(γγ – 1).{(α

η = 1 – [(α α – 1) + γ .α
α .(rc – 1)}]]

The dependence of air standard efficiency on already discussed

parameters in the context of Otto and Diesel cycle has similar effects. Higher
 CYCLES AND PROCESSES 1.31

value of compression ratio and ratio of specific heats and lower value of cutoff
ratio is desirable. However, the pressure ratio is one extra term added in the
expression of air standard efficiency of a dual cycle. Variation of air standard
efficiency with pressure ratio is plotted as figure 1.8. It is observed that higher
value of pressure ratio gives higher air standard efficiency and rate of rise
reduces at higher values of pressure ratio. Practically higher pressure ratio
means more fuel addition at constant volume and it enhances mean
temperature of heat addition also. This leads to higher value of air standard
efficiency. However, the variation in air standard efficiency is very small
numerically.
0.584

0.582

0.58
Air Standard Efficiency

0.578

0.576

0.574
Calculation for Dual cycle
0.572 Compression ratio = 10
Cut-off ratio = 1.5
0.57 Ratio of specific heat = 1.4

0.568
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6
Pressure ratio P5/P2

Fig. 1.8 : Variation of Air Standard Efficiency with Pressure Ratio of Heat Addition

If this expression is realized, efficiencies of both Otto and Diesel cycle can
be obtained. To make dual cycle behave as Otto cycle, point ‘5’ should
coincide point ‘3’. This indicates that cut-off ratio, rc is equal to 1. Similarly to
get Diesel cycle from dual cycle, point ‘5’ and point ‘2’ should coincide. This
means pressure ratio, α should be equal to 1.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 1.17
A dual combustion cycle has an adiabatic compression volume ratio of 15:1.
The conditions at the commencement of compression are 1 kg/cm2, 25°C and
0.15 m3. The maximum pressure of the cycle is 60 kg/cm2 and the maximum
temperature of the cycle is 1500°C. If γ = 1.4, calculate the pressure, volume
and temperature at the corners of the cycle and the thermal efficiency of the
cycle.

SOLUTION
Refer figure 1.7.
1.32 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Given Compression ratio, r = 15

Initial conditions, p1 = 1 kg/cm2,
V1 = V4 = 0.15 m3,
T1 = 25°C = 298 K.
Maximum pressure, p3 = p5 = 60 kg/cm2
Maximum temperature in the cycle, T3 = 1500°C = 1773 K
Volume at the end of compression, V2 = V5 = V1/r = 0.01 m3.
Pressure at the end of compression, p2 = p1 × rγ = 44.3 kg/cm2.
Temperature at the end of compression, T2 = T1 × rγ–1
= 880.3 K.
Temperature at the end of constant volume heat addition, T5 = T2 × p5/p2
= 1192.3 K.
Volume at the end of constant pressure heat addition, V3 = V5 × T3/T5
= 0.01487 m3.
Pressure at the end of expansion, p4 = p3 (V3/V4)γ = 2.36 kg/cm2.
Temperature at the end of expansion, T4 = T1 × p4/p1
= 703.28 K.
Thermal efficiency of the cycle = work output/Heat addition
= 1 – (heat rejected/heat added)
= 1 – (Cv [T4 – T1]/{Cv [T5 – T2] + Cp [T3 – T5]}).
= 1 – ([T4 – T1]/{[T5 – T2] + γ [T3 – T5]).
= 74 %.
Pressure, volume and temperature at salient points of the dual cycle are
tabulated below.
Point Pressure(kg/cm2) Volume(m3) Temperature (K)
1 1 0.15 298
2 44.3 0.01 880.3
3 60 0.01487 1773
4 2.36 0.15 703.28
5 60 0.01 1192.3

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 1.18
A dual combustion cycle has an adiabatic compression volume ratio of 15:1.
The conditions at the commencement of compression are 1 kg/cm2, 25°C and
 CYCLES AND PROCESSES 1.33

0.15 m3. The maximum pressure of the cycle is 60 kg/cm2 and heat transferred
at constant pressure is same as heat transferred at constant volume. If γ = 1.4,
calculate the pressure, volume and temperature at the cardinal points of the
cycle and the thermal efficiency of the cycle.

SOLUTION
Refer figure 1.7.
Given Compression ratio, r = 15
Initial conditions, p1 = 1 kg/cm2,
V1 = V4 = 0.15 m3,
T1 = 25°C = 298 K.
Maximum pressure, p3 = p5 = 60 kg/cm2
Cv (T5 – T2) = Cp (T3 – T5) or T3 = T5 (1/γ + 1) – T2/γ
Volume at the end of compression, V2 = V5 = V1/r = 0.01 m3.
Pressure at the end of compression, p2 = p1 × rγ = 44.3 kg/cm2.
Temperature at the end of compression, T2 = T1 × rγ–1
= 880.3 K.
Temperature at the end of constant volume heat addition, T5 = T2 × p5/p2
= 1192.3 K.
Maximum temperature, T3 = T5 (1/γ + 1) – T2/γ = 1415.15 K
Volume at the end of constant pressure heat addition, V3 = V5 × T3/T5
= 0.01187 m3.
Pressure at the end of expansion,
p4 = p3 (V3/V4)γ
= 1.721 kg/cm2.
Temperature at the end of expansion,
T4 = T1 × p4/p1
= 512.89 K.
Thermal efficiency of the cycle = work output/Heat addition
= 1 – (heat rejected/heat added)
= 1 – (Cv [T4 – T1]/{Cv [T5 – T2] + Cp [T3 – T5]}).
= 1 – ([T4 – T1]/{[T5 – T2] + γ [T3 – T5]}).
= 65.56 %.
Pressure, volume and temperature at salient points of the dual cycle are
tabulated below.
1.34 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Point Pressure(kg/cm2) Volume(m3) Temperature (K)

1 1 0.15 298
2 44.3 0.01 880.3
3 60 0.01187 1415.15
4 1.721 0.15 512.89
5 60 0.01 1192.3

1.6 C OMP
COMP ARISON OF CY
OMPARISON CLES
CYCLES
Otto cycle and Diesel cycles differ in the process of heat addition. In Otto
cycle, heat addition occurs at constant volume, while in Diesel cycle, it occurs
at constant pressure. Dual cycle lies in between both, as heat addition occurs
partially at constant pressure and partially at constant volume. If compression
ratio and heat addition is kept constant, all three cycles are depicted in figure
1.9.
3 3
8
8 5
7
Temperature
Pressure

5
2 6 6
9
9 2 4
4
1 1

Volume Entropy

1-2 : Isentropic Compression

Cycle 1-2-3-4 : Otto Cycle 2-3, 2-7 : Isobaric Heat Addition
Cycle 1-2-5-6 : Diesel Cycle 2-5, 7-8 : Isochoric Heat Addition
3-4, 5-6, 8-9 : Isentropic Expansion
Cycle 1-2-7-8-9 : Dual Cycle 4-1, 6-1, 9-1 : Isochoric Heat Rejection

Fig. 1.9 : Comparisons of Cycles on Thermodynamic Planes

Same compression ratio is depicted by common isentropic compression

depicted by process 1-2. Since heat addition is same in all the processes,
comparison of Otto cycle and Diesel cycle can give a trend directly and
performance of dual cycle will always lie in between the two. Heat addition in
Otto cycle is given by expression Cv (T3 – T2), where as heat addition in Diesel
cycle is given by Cp (T5 – T2). Both these quantities should be equal. Since for
air as ideal gas, Cp is always greater than Cv, temperature difference in Otto
cycle is higher than that in Diesel cycle. It clearly indicates that temperature
after heat addition is higher in Otto cycle. Temperature after heat addition in
dual cycle lies in between Otto and Diesel cycles. The same is depicted in
 CYCLES AND PROCESSES 1.35

temperature-entropy plot of figure 1.9. Since heat rejection in all the cases
occur at constant volume, Otto cycle rejects least heat, while heat rejection in
diesel cycle is the highest. For same heat input, higher heat rejection means
lower work output from the cycle. Since efficiency is ratio of work output to
heat addition in a cycle, Otto cycle is most efficient and Diesel cycle is least
efficient for same compression ratio and same heat input. Actual comparison is
dependent on control parameters and other cases are to be realized also. It
must be noted that compression ratio of Otto cycle is always smaller than that
of Diesel cycle. Since higher compression ratio in Otto cycle results in
knocking, diesel cycle is designed to get higher compression ratio. Typically,
Otto cycle operates around compression ratio of 4 to 8, where as Diesel cycle
operating at compression ratio of 16 is also possible.
For comparison of other situations, if maximum temperature and
maximum pressure realized in the cycle is kept same, then representation of
various cycles on thermodynamic plane changes. The change is depicted in
figure 1.10. Since peak pressure is maintained same, compression ratio of Otto
cycle will be smaller than other two cycles and Diesel cycle will have highest
compression ratio. Since peak temperature is also maintained same, expansion
and subsequent heat rejection process is invariant for the type of cycles
chosen. The given condition refers to same heat rejection. Close scrutiny of
figure 1.10 reveals that area in the cycle depicted by Otto cycle is the least and
the same for the Diesel cycle is highest. This indicates that for same heat
rejection Otto cycle has lower work output. So Otto cycle will be least
efficient.

5 7 3 3
7
Temperature
Pressure

6
5 4
2 6
4 2

1 1
Volume Entropy

1-2, 1-6, 1-5 : Isentropic Compression

Cycle 1-2-3-4 : Otto Cycle 5-3, 7-3 : Isobaric Heat Addition
Cycle 1-5-3-4 : Diesel Cycle 2-3, 6-7 : Isochoric Heat Addition
Cycle 1-6-7-3-4 : Dual Cycle 3-4 : Isentropic Expansion
4-1 : Isochoric Heat Rejection

Fig. 1.10 : Comparisons for Same Maximum Temperature

and Maximum Pressure
1.36 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

If W = work output, Q1 = heat addition in the cycle and Q2 = heat rejection

in the cycle, then Q1 = W + Q2.
Air standard efficiency for any cycle = W/Q 1 = W/(W + Q 2) = 1/(1 +
Q2/W).
If work output (W) is lower for same heat rejection (Q2), as is the case
with Otto cycle, (Q2/W) will larger and ultimately air standard efficiency will
be lower.
Another situation may be depicted by same maximum pressure and same
work output. Since representing all three cycles on single thermodynamic
plane becomes cluttered, only Otto cycle and diesel cycle are represented in
figure 1.11. Performance of Dual cycle will lie in between performance of the
two cycles. Since work output is same and maximum pressure is also
restricted, area occupied by representation of both the cycle on
thermodynamic plane should be the same. Otto cycle will have lower
compression ratio so as to limit the maximum pressure. Contrary to this diesel
cycle will have higher compression ratio. However, temperature realized in the
Diesel cycle will be on lower side so as to maintain work output. It is clear
from the given figure 1.11 that in case of diesel cycle, heat rejection is less.
This leads to same conclusion as earlier that efficiency will be higher, if heat
rejection is higher for same work output. For same maximum pressure and
work output, diesel cycle is more efficient.

5 6 3 3
6
Pressure

Temperature

5 4
2
4 2 7
7
1 1
Volume Entropy

1-2, 1-5 : Isentropic Compression

Cycle 1-2-3-4 : Otto Cycle 5-6 : Isobaric Heat Addition
Cycle 1-5-6-7 : Diesel Cycle 2-3 : Isochoric Heat Addition
3-4, 6-7 : Isentropic Expansion
4-1, 7-1 : Isochoric Heat Rejection

Fig. 1.11 : Comparisons for Same Maximum Pressure and Work

Depending on various situations, efficiency of various cycles can be

compared and the cycles behave differently for different restrictions.
Practically Diesel cycle is more efficient than Otto cycle, because of higher
compression ratio. Dual cycle is a compromise of efficiency to include
isochoric heat addition also to the Diesel cycle.
 CYCLES AND PROCESSES 1.37

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 1.19
Compare cycle efficiency of Diesel cycle and Dual cycle with compression
ratio and cut-off ratio of 15 and 1.4 respectively. Pressure ratio for dual cycle
is 1.2. Assume γ = 1.4.

SOLUTION
Given, Compression ratio, r = 15
Cut-off ratio, rc = 1.4
Pressure ratio, α = 1.2
Air standard efficiency of Diesel cycle is given by
η = 1 – {(rcγ – 1)/[γ.rγ–1.(rc – 1)]}= 63.63%
Air standard efficiency of Dual cycle is given by
η = 1 – [(α.rcγ – 1)/[rγ–1.{(α – 1) + γ.α.(rc – 1)}]] = 64.2%.
Although efficiency of Otto cycle is not asked in this problem, but from
the trend, it is clear that for same compression ratio (= 15) Otto cycle will have
air standard efficiency higher than both the cycles. Since for Otto cycle it
depends only on the compression ratio, air standard efficiency is = 1 – 1/150.4
= 66.15%.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 1.20
Compare air standard efficiency of Otto and Diesel cycle, if air is compressed
from a pressure and temperature of 0.1 MPa and 300 K. Maximum pressure and
maximum temperatures are restricted to 7 MPa and 1800 K. Assume γ = 1.4
and Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg/K.

SOLUTION
Refer figure 1.4 and figure 1.5.
Given Initial pressure, p1 = 0.1 MPa
Initial temperature, T1 = 300 K
Maximum temperature, T3 = 1800 K
For the Otto cycle (figure 1.4)
Maximum pressure, p3 = 7 MPa
T2 = T1 (p2/p1)(γ–1/γ) = (p2/p3) × T3
p2 = 3.117 MPa
T2 = 801.49 K.
Compression ratio, r = (p2/p1)1/γ = 11.667
Air standard efficiency = 1 – 1/rγ–1 = 62.57%
1.38 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

For the Diesel cycle (figure 1.5)

Maximum pressure, p2 = p3 = 7 MPa
T2 = T1 (p2 /p1)(γ–1/γ) = 1009.9 K
Compression ratio, r = (T2/T1)1/(γ – 1) = 20.792
Cut-off ratio, rc = (T3/T2) = 1.78235
Air standard efficiency = 1 – {(rcγ–1)/[γ.rγ–1.(rc – 1)]}= 66.21%.

1.7 BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY

The engine performance is indicated by efficiency. Thermal efficiency of an
engine is important, since it determines how efficiently fuel is being used in the
engine. All power in reciprocating engines is derived from chemical energy of
the fuel. Calorific value of fuel indicates energy available per unit mass of the
fuel. This is total chemical energy available in the form of heat with the engine.
This whole energy cannot be utilized for driving the piston alone. Some part of
energy is always lost to the exhaust, coolant and radiator as heat energy. The
remaining energy is converted to power called indicated power (ip) derived
from the engine. Sometimes power is expressed in horse power and is called
indicated horsepower (ihp). This energy is passed through connecting rod to
crankshaft. During this process, there are certain transmission losses due to
friction and pumping. These losses are called friction power (fp). The
remaining energy is useful mechanical energy termed as brake power (bp).
Ratio of indicated power to energy available from the fuel is termed as
indicated thermal efficiency.
Indicated thermal efficiency = ip/energy supplied by the fuel.

Similarly brake thermal efficiency is defined as ratio of bp and energy

available with the fuel.
Brake thermal efficiency = bp/energy supplied by the fuel.

1.8 MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY

Energy available with the fuel is in terms of heat. This heat is converted to
work at piston and is expressed as indicated horse power (ihp). From this
work available at the crankshaft is called brake horse power (bhp). The lost
work in this transmission is called friction horse power (fhp = ihp – bhp). This
part may be called delivered power. Mechanical efficiency of an engine is
defined as ratio of bhp to ihp.
Mechanical efficiency = bhp/ihp = bhp/(bhp + fhp)
= 1 – (fhp/ihp).
 CYCLES AND PROCESSES 1.39

It can also be expressed as ratio of brake thermal efficiency and indicated

thermal efficiency.

1.9 OVERALL EFFICIENCY

Ratio of thermal efficiency of an actual cycle to that of the ideal cycle is called
relative efficiency or efficiency ratio. It is an important criterion for the degree
of development of the engine. At each stage of energy conversion, there are
some losses in the engines. First of all, fuel conversion losses are there and
fuel delivers less heat than ideally calculated based on mass of fuel their
calorific values. This ratio is called fuel conversion efficiency. Overall
efficiency takes into account all losses that takes place in an engine and is ratio
of ideal heat possible by combustion of fuel to final work output. For best
performance an engine should have high fuel conversion efficiency, high
thermal efficiency, high piston speed and high volumetric efficiency.

1.10 VOL
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY
OLUMETRIC
Fuel exhibits combustion for limited value of fuel-air ratio. So quantity of fuel
that can be introduced inside cylinder of a reciprocating engine is governed by
the quantity of air intake possible during suction stroke. Volumetric efficiency
indicates the breathing ability of the engine and is defined as the ratio of air
actually inducted at ambient conditions to the swept volume of the engine.
Swept volume is nothing but the product of cross-sectional area of cylinder
and stroke length of the piston. Volumetric efficiency is calculated using mass
or volume of air.

Mass or volume of air actually indicated .

Volumetric efficiency =
Mass or volume of air at intake temperature and pressure

1.11 TORQUE AND MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE

All reciprocating engines are designed to deliver power for rotation of the
crack-shafts. In an engine, crack-shaft is powered at a rotational or angular
speed. The rotational speed is generally expressed as rpm (revolution per
minute). Torque derived from the engine is defined as power developed divided
by angular speed of the engine. Torque is ability of the engine to do wok and
power is the rate at which work is done.
Mean effective pressure (mep) is a measure of average pressure in the
entire cycle. As explained earlier, work done in any cyclic process is given by
area enclosed on pressure-volume plot for the cycle. In the cyclic process,
pressure is generally variable. Mean effective pressure is defined as imaginary
constant pressure which, if exerted on the piston during one stroke would
develop the same network for the cycle as was obtained with variable
1.40 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

pressure. It is a useful criterion for the comparison of relative size of

reciprocating engines. It is also an indicator of how far actual engine
efficiency will depart from the cycle efficiency.
Mean effective pressure,
mep = work done per cycle/stroke volume.

For Otto cycle, Mean effective pressure, mep

= Work done per cycle/stroke volume
= (p3V3 – p4V4 – p2V2 + p1V1)/[(V1 – V2)(γ – 1)]
= p1.r (α – 1).(rγ–1 – 1)/[(γ – 1).(r – 1)].

1.12 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTIONS

The fuel consumptions are characteristics of an engine and are generally
expressed in terms of specific fuel consumption (sfc). It is equal to mass flow
rate of fuel per unit power developed by the engine. It is expressed in gram per
horse power (hp) hour or kilo watt hour (kWhr). It is an important
characteristic to compare performance of two engines or comparing the
performance of the same engine at two loads. If brake power is considered,
the parameter is called brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc). If indicated
power is used it is called indicated specific fuel consumption (isfc).
Brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc) = fuel flow rate/
brake power
Indicated specific fuel consumption (bsfc) = fuel flow rate/
indicated power.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 1.21
Find theoretical mean effective pressure and work of an ideal Otto cycle,
which has a compression ratio of 6, clearance volume of 200 cc and pressure
ratio during constant volume heat addition is 4. Assume initial pressure as
0.1 MPa and γ = 1.4.

SOLUTION
Refer figure 1.4
Given Compression ratio, r = 6 = V1/V2
Clearance volume, V2 = V3 =200 cc
Initial conditions, p1 = 0.1 MPa,
Pressure ratio, p3/p2 = 4
Initial volume, V1 = V4 = 6 × 200 cc = 1200 cc
Pressure at the end of compression, p2 = p1 × rγ = 1.23 MPa
 CYCLES AND PROCESSES 1.41

Pressure at the end of heat addition, p3 = 4 × p2 = 4.91 MPa

Pressure at the end of expansion, p4 = p3/rγ = 0.4 MPa
Work done per cycle, W = (p1V1 – p2V2 + p3V3 – p4V4)/(γ – 1)
= (0.1 × 6 – 1.23 + 4.91 – 0.4 × 6) × 200/(1.4 – 1)
= 940 J/cycle
Mean effective pressure = W/(V1 – V2) = 940/(1000)
= 0.94 MPa.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 1.22
Find mean effective pressure of an ideal Otto cycle for compression ratio of 6
with maximum and minimum pressure as 5 MPa and 0.1 MPa. Assume γ = 1.4.

SOLUTION
Given Compression ratio, r = 6 = V1/V2
Initial conditions, p1 = 0.1 MPa.
Maximum Pressure, p3 = 5 MPa.
Pressure at end of compression, p2 = 0.1 × 61.4 = 1.23 MPa
Pressure ratio, α = p3/p2 = 4.07.
Mean effective pressure of an Otto cycle = p1.r (α – 1).(rγ–1 – 1)/[(γ – 1).
(r – 1)] = 0.9649 MPa.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 1.23
For a dual combustion cycle, compression ratio is 12 and cut-off ratio is
1.615. Maximum pressure is 5.4 MPa. Temperature and pressure of air at inlet
are 335 K and 0.1 MPa, then find (a) mean effective pressure (b) pressure and
temperature at all the cardinal points (c) cycle efficiency. Assume γ = 1.35.

SOLUTION
Refer figure 1.7
Given Compression ratio, r = 12 = V1/V2
Cut-off ratio, rc = 1.615 = V3/V5
Initial conditions, p1 = 0.1 MPa, T1 = 335 K.
Maximum pressure, p3 = p5 = 5.4 MPa
Ratio of specific heats, γ = 1.35
Pressure at the end of compression, p2 = p1 × rγ = 2.86 MPa.
Temperature at the end of compression, T2 = T1 × rγ–1
= 799.4 K.
1.42 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Temperature at the end of constant volume heat addition, T5 = T2 × p5/p2

= 1509.3 K.
Temperature at the end of constant pressure heat addition, T3 = T5 × rc
= 2437.6 K.
Pressure at the end of expansion, p4 = p3 (V3/V4)γ
= p3 (rc/r)γ = 0.36 MPa.
Temperature at the end of expansion, T4 = T1 xp4/p1 = 1206.6 K.
Heat input, Q1 = Cv (T5 – T2) + Cp (T3 – T5) = 1963.1 Cv
Heat output, Q2 = Cv (T4 – T1) = 871.6 Cv
Work output, W = Q1 – Q2 = 1091.5 Cv
Mean effective pressure = Work output/Swept volume
= W/(V1 – V2) = W/[V1 (1 – 1/r)]
= [1091.5/(1 – 1/12)] × (Cv/V1)
= 1190.73 × [R/{V1 (γ – 1)}] = 3402.1 × (R/V1)
= 3402.1 × (p1/T1) Use ideal gas eqn p1 × V1 = R × T1
= 1.0155 MPa.
Pressure and temperature at the cardinal points are given in table below:
Points number 1 2 3 4 5
Pressure (MPa) 0.1 2.86 5.4 0.36 5.4
Temperature (K) 335 799.4 2437.6 1206.6 1509.3
Thermal efficiency of the cycle = Work output / Heat addition
= 1091.5/1963.1
= 55.6%.

SUMMARY
SUMMARY
In this chapter, air-standard cycles are introduced for reciprocating engines. Otto
cycle, diesel cycle and dual cycle are explained and compared. Thermodynamic
description as well as practical description of the engines is also described.
Several terms are used while reference is made to these air- standard engines.
Method to calculate air standard efficiency for all three engines is also described.
Salient terms used for description of such engines like compression ratio, cut-off
ratio, expansion ratio etc are also explained in the text. There are 5 types of
efficiencies prevalent for such engines namely : (i) brake thermal efficiency (ii)
indicated thermal efficiency (iii) mechanical efficiency (iv) efficiency ratio (v)
Overall efficiency. All five are described and their calculation strategies are
illustrated. Volumetric efficiency, torque, power, mean effective pressure and
specific fuel consumption are described for completeness.
 CYCLES AND PROCESSES 1.43

QUESTIONS

1. What is thermodynamics? How it is different from heat transfer?

2. What are various types of the systems?
3. How is thermodynamic equilibrium?
4. What is zeroth law of thermodynamics? Why it is called so? What is its
utility?
5. What is first law of thermodynamics?
6. What is second law of thermodynamics?
7. Substantiate whether second law of thermodynamics is a conservative law
or not?
8. Plot (i) isobaric (ii) isochoric (iii) isothermal and (iv) isentropic processes on
(a) pressure-volume diagram and (b) temperature-entropy plane.
9. Explain operation of Otto cycle? Where are these cycles used?
10. Derive expression for air standard efficiency of Otto cycle?
11. What are limitations of Otto cycle?
12. What is Diesel cycle? How it superior to Otto cycle?
13. Derive expression for air standard efficiency of diesel cycle.
14. What are main problems with diesel cycle? How it is overcome with dual
cycle?
15. Derive expression for air standard efficiency of dual cycle.
16. Compare air standard efficiency of Otto and diesel cycle for (a) same
compression ratio and heat input (b) same heat input and maximum
pressure (c) same maximum pressure and maximum temperature (d) same
work output and maximum pressure.
17. What is friction power? How it is related to indicated power?
18. Derive expression for mean effective pressure of Otto cycle?
19. Write short notes:
(a) Thermodynamic equilibrium
(b) First law of thermodynamics
(c) Thermodynamic processes
(d) Conjugate properties
(e) Temperature
(f ) Entropy
(g) Thermal efficiencies
(h) Mechanical efficiency
(i) Brake specific fuel consumption.
(j) Mean effective pressure
(k) Air standard efficiency
(l) Specific fuel consumption
(m) Volumetric efficiency.
1.44 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

20. Compare the given terms

(a) Intrinsic and Extrinsic properties
(b) Closed and open system
(c) Stress and pressure
(d) Kelvin planks and Claussius statement of second law of
thermodynamics
(e) Otto cycle and Diesel cycle
(f ) Indicated power and brake power.
❖❖❖
 CHAPTER

2
Aircraft Power Plants

STRUCTURE
‰ Introduction
‰ Objective
‰ Brief Description and Principles
‰ Jet Propulsion
‰ Propeller Propulsion
‰ Turboprop Propulsion
‰ Bypass Jet Propulsion
‰ Ramjet Propulsion
‰ Summary
‰ Questions

2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter gives a basic idea about engines used in aircrafts for propulsion.
Discussion on various types of aircraft power plants, their merits and
development requirements are discussed in this Chapter. This will give a basic
technical understanding on one hand and equip with ready knowledge for
implementation in design and efficiency aspects of aircraft propulsion.

Objective
After studying this chapter, you should be able to :
z Understand basic principles of aircraft propulsion,
z Know requirements and critical factors in aircraft propulsion,
z Assimilate development of various aircraft engines,
z Realize various types of engines used in aircrafts and missiles,
z Compare aircraft engines.
2.2 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

2.2 BRIEF DESCRIPTION AND PRINCIPLES

Aircraft propulsion is basically an air-breathing type of propulsion. It carries
fuel and needs atmospheric air for oxygen. Fuel can be solid, liquid or gas, but
for ease of combustion and easy handling, most of the time aviation fuels are
liquid. Essential requirement of aircraft propulsion is to generate hot gases at
high pressure by combustion of fuel in presence of atmospheric oxygen as
oxidizer. Expansion of these hot combustion gases is utilized for extraction of
work. Thrust produced by most of the systems is directly related to expansion
of gases.
The main principle of propulsion is derived from Newton’s laws of
motion. In this system, certain mass is discharged at high velocity in the form
of a jet and reaction of jet causes forward thrust for the propulsion of
aircrafts. This system of propulsion is also called jet propulsion. In jet
propulsion, ejection of mass at high velocity is very important and propulsive
force is always generated in the direction opposite to the outgoing jet of mass.
The ejected mass should possess certain properties. It should be a fluid and
preferably a gas, which can be expanded through nozzle. The energy available
with chemical bonds of the used fuel is extracted by combustion in the
combustors, which raises temperature as well as pressure inside the
propulsion units. Such thermal jet increases temperature of air sucked inside
the propulsion units. This is principle utilized in air-breathing engines.
However jet propulsion is not restricted to air-breathing engines alone. It can
be implemented for non-air-breathing engines also.
The non-air-breathing jet propulsion engines are utilized in rocket
propulsion, where external supply of oxidizer (air) is not needed and fuel
contains molecules, where both fuel and oxidizers segments are present. On
combustion, breakage of chemical bond generates high temperature high
pressure gases, which expands through rearward positioned nozzle, resulting
in forward thrust as a reaction. There is no need of any external air supply for
such engines. Performance of such engines is independent of outside
atmosphere. Change in altitude and forward speed of the complete unit does
not affect performance of rocket engines. Such systems can operate in
vacuum also.
In all aircraft engines, gas turbines are used for propulsion. In the system,
air is sucked in at high velocity. The velocity of air is reduced in the diffuser,
situated in the front section of the engine. This results in rise in pressure by the
compression of gases. Fuel is injected in the compressed air for combustion.
After combustion, generated hot combustion gases are passed through gas
turbine. Gases gain velocity and expand through turbines to give power
primarily to run the compressor. Spare energy of expansion gives propulsive
power. Final expansion of the gases through the nozzle is responsible for
 AIRCRAFT POWER PLANTS 2.3

acceleration of flow and generation of propulsive thrust. Each of these

subcomponents has different work and heat transfer operations and energy
transformation results in various possible changes in the system.
When aircraft moves, the first section or component that feels outside
atmosphere is called diffuser. This is placed behind intake ducts of the air
breathing engines, employed in aircrafts. Air is sucked into the diffuser
because of motion of aircraft at high velocity. Since high velocity may result in
poor combustion and flame stability related issues, velocity of incoming
stream of air is reduced in diffuser. This leads to rise in pressure of the
incoming air. Indirectly diffuser converts kinetic energy of incoming air into
pressure. This resembles compressor to some extent and the operation in a
diffuser is called ram compression. Ideally process inside diffuser can be
considered isentropic.
After diffuser air velocity reduces and pressure is slightly higher than
ambient outside atmospheric pressure. This air is passed through next
component of the aircraft engine called compressor. Compressor invariably
draws power from the turbine part of the engine component. The process
through compressor is also isentropic and incoming air is compressed to
required pressure ratio. Temperature rise of air is always accompanied with
compression. After compression high pressure high temperature air is available
in the engine, which enters combustor or combustion chamber. Fuel in
atomized droplet form is injected in the combustor. Fuel catches fire
immediately on introduction in the high temperature environment. Atmospheric
air is consumed and chemical energy of the fuel is released during this
operation. Combustion results in large volume of gases and ultimately,
pressure rise also occurs. Highest temperature as well as pressure is realized
after combustion chamber in any engine. Combustion is generally assumed to
occur at constant pressure inside combustor of an air-breathing engine of
aircraft. In combustor, constant pressure heat addition takes place from
thermodynamic point of view.
After combustor, turbine is next component in which high temperature,
high pressure, and high volume combustion product is fed. In turbine, the
incoming gases expand and work is produced. Some part of work is utilized to
drive compressor and remaining for propulsion of the aircraft. Process in
turbine is also isentropic in ideal situation and it results in reduction of pressure
and temperature. Downstream, nozzle is placed, which expands the incoming
gases further. The process in a nozzle is opposite to diffuser. In nozzles, gases
expand and velocity of stream increases at the cost of pressure. This is also
accompanied with reduction in temperature of the gases. The high velocity
exhaust gases produce thrust required for the forward movement of the
aircraft. State of air, while passing through various turbojet components, is
depicted in figure 2.1.
2.4 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Actual processes always increase entropy.

Temperature
Pressure loss is observed in combustor.
Nozzle exit temperature and pressure
higher than initial values. ses
oces
s s u re pr
pre Turbine
tant
Cons Combustor

Compressor Nozzle
Ideal Isentropic processes

Diffuser
Ideal processes
Actual Processes
Entropy

Fig. 2.1 : Actual Processes in a Simple Turbojet Engine

As depicted in figure 2.1, compression of air in diffuser is ideally

isentropic and it results in increase of temperature as well as pressure.
Constant pressure curved lines are shown with positive slopes on temperature
entropy plane. However, actual flow of incoming air through diffuser is always
associated with some losses and as a result of this the outgoing air from
diffuser end up with higher entropy and temperature than expected. This is
depicted by solid line. The outgoing air from diffuser enters compressors,
where it should ideally be compressed in isentropic manner as shown by dotted
line above. However, in actual scenario, again there is some rise in temperature
and entropy of the air. Fuel is injected in combustor and is burnt. The air
becomes loaded with combustion products and there is variation in properties
of air slightly from that of air. Ratio of specific heats, specific heats at
constant volume and pressure change for the working fluid. Although process
through combustor is ideally considered to occur at constant pressure, but
again some pressure losses are expected in combustor and outgoing gases
from combustor are always fed to turbine at lower pressure than ideally
expected. Expansion in a turbojet occurs in two phase. Both are assumed to
occur in isentropic manner ideally but are always practically non-ideal. First
gases from combustor outlet are expanded in turbine, which generates enough
power to run the compressor. Turbine power is not responsible for motion of
air crafts. It is expansion of gases through nozzle that provides necessary
thrust due to momentum exchange for the propulsion of the aircrafts. Higher
the velocity of combustion gases through the nozzle, higher will be propulsive
thrust. Flow of working fluid through each component is non-ideal. The ratio
of ideal to actual temperature ratio is depicted by efficiency of that particular
component.
 AIRCRAFT POWER PLANTS 2.5

For flight-worthy configurations, several terms are introduced in course

of time as performance indicators of aircraft engines. Specific fuel
consumption, compactness, engine mass, life of components, modularity of
elements, pollution levels etc are time and again placed as governing
parameters for new ideas and designs. From performance point of view,
several terms are of prime importance.
First is air standard efficiency, which has same role as played by thermal
efficiency in standard Otto-cycle. This is dependent on pressure ratio (Pr),
alone. Since the cycle resembles Otto cycle, air standard efficiency is also
having same expression as that of Otto cycle. However, in Otto cycle,
efficiency is expressed in terms of compression ratio, which is ratio of
volumes before and after compression. But in aircraft engines, it is pressure
ratio (not volume ratio), which is accounted. So, efficiency is not having same
expression as thermal efficiency of an Otto cycle. Air standard efficiency of
aircraft engine is given by {1 – 1/[Pr(γ–1/γ)]}.
Thrust is another parameter, which is a measure of performance of a jet
engine. It has two components – one is momentum thrust and other is pressure
thrust. Momentum thrust is generated by change in momentum of air and fuel.
It is given by mass flow rate multiplied by velocity of flow. At the inlet
condition, only air enters with velocity of aircraft. However, at the exit plane
both fuel and air contributes in the mass flow rate calculation. If fuel air ratio
is given by ‘f ’, then mass flow rate at exit is (1 + f ) times mass flow rate at the
inlet. In general, air is gas and fuel is liquid. For most simplified calculations,
mass of fuel at the exit side of the aircraft engine can be neglected. However,
initial velocity of incoming air, ui attains a very high value at the nozzle outlet,
usually given by ue. Sometimes inlet velocity (ui) can be neglected in light of
very high value of exit velocity (ue >> ui).

Momentum thrust = Ma [(1 + f ).ue – ui ].

Pressure thrust is generated due to pressure mismatch at the outlet

conditions. It is given by exit area multiplied by pressure difference.

Pressure thrust = Ae (Pe – Pi).

Inlet pressure can be taken equal to atmospheric pressure in normal

situations. If flow is subsonic contribution of pressure thrust is almost
negligible due to low change in pressure value. Additionally, even if there is
some difference in the pressure values, exit cross-sectional area is so small
that compared to momentum thrust value of pressure thrust is negligible. So
for all practical purposes, pressure thrust is not considered for aircraft
propulsion. However, for rocket propulsion, it has some significant value. For
simplification effective jet velocity (Uj) is proposed for aircraft engines.
2.6 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Thrust, F = Ma [(1 + f).Uj – ui ],

where Uj = ue + Ae (Pe – Pi)/Ma.

Product of thrust and velocity of the aircraft gives thrust power of the
aircraft engine.

Power, P = F.u = Ma [(1 + f ).Uj – ui ]. ui

 Ma. [Uj – ui]. ui .
Ratio of speeds of outgoing jet and aircraft is another important parameter.
This is called speed ratio. The speed of aircraft is velocity of incoming air
given by ui. The outgoing jet can be assumed to have an effective velocity of
Uj. So flight to jet speed ratio is given by ω (= ui /Uj). When speed ratio is 1,
thrust produced is zero because incoming jet and outgoing jet attains same
velocity. For normal flight conditions, effective jet velocity must be greater
than flight speed.

Maximum value of thrust power is achieved if Uj = 2.ui.

This means effective speed ratio, ω = ½. Maximum
value of this thrust power is given by Ma.u12.

However change in energy of incoming and outgoing jet of fluid gives

propulsive power. It includes useful power given by thrust and wasted part of
available power. Wasted part of available power is the residual kinetic energy of
the gas discharged from the nozzle. The difference of propulsive power and
thrust power is called leaving losses, which forms significant part of available
power.

Propulsive power, PP = Ma [Uj2 – ui2]/2.

Propulsive efficiency is another important efficiency term which accounts

for conversion of jet power to useful thrust. It is ratio of thrust power and
propulsive power.

Propulsive efficiency, PE = 2.[Uj – ui ].ui /[Uj2 – ui2]

= 2.ui ./.[Uj + ui].
= 2.ωω/[1 + ω].

At the start of the engine, aircraft is stationary and incoming jet velocity
(u i ) is zero. Under such conditions (ω = 0), thrust power is also zero.
Propulsive efficiency is zero. If maximum thrust is achieved in an aircraft (ω =
½), then propulsive efficiency is 66.66%. If effective velocity of jet is equal to
incoming stream speed of air, expression for thrust power and propulsive
power, both becomes zero. Under limiting condition, propulsive efficiency is
calculated for (ω = 1). Maximum efficiency of 100% is achieved under such
circumstances. Specific thrust is thrust produced per unit mass flow of gases
or air. It has more significance for rocket engines.
 AIRCRAFT POWER PLANTS 2.7

Specific thrust is the highest at zero flight speed. It decreases with rise in
speed of the flight. Thrust specific fuel consumption (TSFC) is another term
which is ratio of rate of fuel flow and produced thrust. Infact overall
efficiency is another term which correlates chemical energy of fuel with the
thrust power. Chemical energy of the fuel is given by calorific value (CV) of
the fuel, which is energy produced per unit weight of the fuel. Thrust power is
given by F.ui. Overall efficiency is equal to thrust power divided by chemical
energy of the fuel.

Overall efficiency = F.ui./Mf .(CV)

= ui./(TSFC) . (CV).

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 2.1
Air flow through a turbojet engine is 50 kg/s and it propels an aircraft at a
speed of 300 m/s. Nozzle is 95% efficient and isentropic enthalpy drop in the
nozzle is 200 kJ/kg. If air fuel ratio is 80 and combustion efficiency is 95%,
find fuel consumption, propulsive power, thrust power, thrust specific fuel
consumption, propulsive efficiency, thermal efficiency, and overall efficiency.
Calorific value of the fuel is 40000 kJ/kg.

SOLUTION
Mass flow rate of air, ma = 50 kg/s
Mass flow rate of the fuel, mf = 500/85 = 0.588 kg/s
Mass flow rate of gases through the nozzle, m = 50.588 kg/s
Enthalpy drop in the nozzle results in gain of velocity of the working fluid.
Uj /2000 = 200 × 0.95
Flow velocity through the nozzle, Uj = 616.4 m/s
Thrust produced, F = m.Uj – ma.ui
= 50.588 × 616.4 – 50 × 300 = 16.17 kN
Thrust specific fuel consumption = mf /F = 0.0364 kg/kN/s
Thrust power, P = F × ui = 4854.733 kW.
Propulsive power, PP = ½ [m × Uj2 – ma × u12] = 7360.4 kW.
Propulsive efficiency = Thrust power/Propulsive power
= 4854.733/7360.4 = 65.95%.
Heat supplied to the system = 0.95 × 0.588 × 40000 kJ/s
= 22344 kW
Thermal efficiency = Propulsive power/Heat supplied
= 7360.4/22344 = 32.94%
Overall efficiency = Thrust power/Heat supplied
= 4854.733/22344 = 21.72%.
2.8 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 2.2
For a simple jet propulsion engine, efficiencies of various sub- systems are
given: Compressor = 80%, Turbine = 90%, Combustion = 96%, Mechanical
efficiency = 98%, Nozzle = 95%. Mass flow rate of air is 20 kg/s and engine
realizes a maximum temperature of 1000 K. Air at inlet condition has
following properties: Temperature = 300 K, Pressure = 101 kPa, Ratio of
specific heats for air = 1.4, Specific heat at constant pressure for air = 1.005
kJ/kg.K. Ratio of specific heats for combustion gases = 1.3, Specific heat at
constant pressure for combustion gas = 1.153 kJ/kg/K. If overall pressure ratio
is 4:1, then find (i) Pressure ratio in the nozzle, (ii) Effective jet velocity, (iii)
Thrust and (iv) Specific thrust. Neglect mass of fuel. Take suitable
assumptions.

SOLUTION
The given data is valid for a simple jet propulsion engine consisting of
compressor, combustor, turbine and nozzles. Ideally, processes inside
compressor, turbine and nozzle are isentropic and that in combustor is
isobaric. Since efficiencies are given, all the calculations are to be done for
isentropic change of properties and then efficiency terms is used to alter the
given outlet conditions. There is no diffuser used in the system. The system is
depicted in figure below.

Fluid Valid path Cp (kJ/kg/K) g

Temperature

Air 1–2 1,005 1,4

Gas 2-3, 3-4, 4-5 1,153 1,3
4 p 1 T3 = 1000 K
es, p2 =
ma = 20 kg/s cess
e pro
p r e ssur Turbine
tant h = 90%
Cons Combustor
2' 2 4
4' Nozzle
8% h = 95%
=9
Combustor h mech
h = 80% kPa 5
= 101 5'
es, p 1
cess
sur e pro hcomb = 96%
ant pres
1C onst
T1 = 300 K Ideal processes
Actual Processes
Entropy

Calculations are made in progressive manner from inlet condition using

relations available.
 AIRCRAFT POWER PLANTS 2.9

For the isentropic process, 1-2′, take γ = 1.4,

T 2′ = T1 × (p2/p1)γ–1/γ = 300 K × 41/3.5 = 445.8 K
For the actual process in compressor, 1-2, take η = 0.80
T2 = T1 + (T2′ – T1)/η = 482.3 K
Pressure at the end of compressor, p2 = 4 × 101 kPa = 404 kPa.
Compressor work = Cp (T2 – T1)
= 1.005 × (482.3 – 300) kJ/kg = 183.16 kJ/kg
Turbine work = compressor work/ηmech
= 183.16/0.98 = 186.9 kJ/kg
Turbine work = Cp (T3 – T4)
= 1.153 × (1500 – T4) = 186.9 kJ/kg
Temperature at exit of turbine, T4 = 1337.9 K
For the isentropic process in turbine 3-4, take η = 0.90
T 4′ = T3 – (T3 – T4)/η = 1319.9 K
Pressure at the end of turbine, p4 = p3 × (T4′ / T3)γ/(γ–1)
= 404 kPa (1319.9/1500)1.3/0.3 = 232.1 kPa.
Pressure ratio in the nozzle = p4/p5 = 232.1/101 = 2.298
For isentropic process in nozzle, 4 – 5′, take γ = 1.3,
T5′ = T4 (p5/p4)γ–1/γ
= 1337.9 K × (101/232.1)0.3/1.3 = 1104.2 K
For the actual process 4-5, take η = 0.95
T5 = T4 + η (T5′ – T4) = 1115.9 K.
Since kinetic energy in nozzle is gained at the cost of reduction in
temperature, initial velocity of gas in nozzle can be assumed to be zero and
outlet velocity can be calculated using relation C52/2000 = Cp (T4 – T5) = 1.153
× (1337.9 – 1115.9).
Effective jet velocity, C5 = 715.5 m/s
Take combustion efficiency as 96%,
Specific thrust = η × C5 = 686.9 N.s/kg
Thrust produced = 686.9 × 20 N = 13737.9 N.
It is worth to have a quick look at the development of aircraft engines for
fighter aircrafts. Although aero-engines evolved from piston engine, in early
days, the development of aircrafts for battlefield application was concentrated
mainly on the carrying and firing a gun in air-borne position. Major
development of aircraft propulsion engine took place due to two World Wars.
2.10 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

During First World War, aircrafts used to have a rotor, called propeller
mounted in the rear portion of the aircraft behind the pilot, so that pilot can aim
and fire from their guns. Such structures were called pusher aircrafts, but they
have higher drag and were relegated to secondary positions due to tractor
aircrafts. Tractor aircrafts used front mounted propeller and firing line of the
guns are to be located away from the propeller area. This is accomplished
either by providing angular firing, or by rearward firing or by above the rotor
firing positions. The synchronization of aiming and firing from a moving
platform was very difficult and head-on attack on incoming enemy became
difficult with such configurations. Later on technological evolution resulted in
development of a synchronized gear, which can be timed in such a way that
firing and rotor locations are distinct and rotor does not come in line during
firings. During World War I, aircrafts were dominantly fitted with rotary
engines.
However, in course of time, during period in-between two world wars,
stationary radial engines captured propulsion domain of aircrafts. This resulted
in increase of engine power five folds to a level as high as around 650 kW.
Power of radial engine was raised to around 1500 kW by the end of Second
World War. Although radial engines have higher drag, but they were preferred
for Naval applications due to less stringent separate cooling requirements.
However, parallel development of inline engines also took place. These engines
had better power-to-weight ratio and were sleek. They were preferred by land
based forces. Inline engines matched in power to their radial counterparts in
same time frame. For a short duration rocket powered aircraft engines were
also devised and used, but by 1944, first turbojet engine was designed and
built. Turbojets ruled since then in the area of military aircrafts. Major
advantages include less engine weight, far greater reliability, little cooling
problem and adaptable for safer les flammable fuel.
The turbojets were classified in five generation as per time frame. First
generation were prevalent during 1940s to 1950s and were first replacements
of piston driven aircraft engines. To achieve higher and faster flights, the
piston engines have a limited maximum speed, governed by achievement of
sonic speed by the tip of the blades of the rotor. These limitations gave birth to
the slower turbojets of first generation. Although they were faster, they were
not based on much matured technology. As a result engine used to be delicate
and massive. This results in slower adjustments of power and lack of maturity
limited induction of first generation turbojet aircraft engines significantly. One
of the major drawbacks of first generation aircrafts were their subsonic speed
and the same was addressed comfortably by second generation aircraft
engines. They covered an era of 1950s to 1960s and using advanced
technologies like after burners, sound barrier is broken by these aircrafts.
 AIRCRAFT POWER PLANTS 2.11

Further developments for third generation (1960s-1970s) aircrafts were

enhancement in maneuverability and ground attack capabilities by equipping
them with advanced weapons. Use of turbofan with after burner evolved
during this era. Fourth generation aircraft evolved during 1970s to 1990s and
gave aircraft a multi-role capabilities. One advanced technologies perfected
during this period for aircrafts were stealth technologies. Fifth generation is
current vintage evolved after 2005.
Earlier engines were centrifugal flow engine with a thrust output of around
4-5 kN. This figure is presently around 200 kN with axial flow turbofans with
after burner. At present, aircraft engines use multi-stage compressors and
turbines and have supersonic speeds. In facts, various concepts of aircraft
propulsion were used in modern aircraft engines to make them more efficient
in different speed zones. With afterburners, if speed of a jet engine is
increased, efficiency rises. Actually, such engines operates as turbojets at low
speeds and as ramjets as higher speeds. At lower speeds, energy is derived
from combustion of the fuel before expansion in the turbine and in true sense;
turbojet is mainly responsible for the entire power generation. At higher
speeds, compression takes place in the shock-waves and bypass flow of
incoming air becomes predominant. In this case, no fuel is consumed before
turbine after compression. Entire combustion of fuel takes place in after
burner alone. In fact at very high speeds of the order of 2-3 Mach, the sock
compression is sufficient to raise the temperature of incoming air to sufficient
high level and fuel consumption becomes zero. Compressor–turbine
combination does not deliver any power and bypass jet of air in ramjet mode
delivers entire power.
Advanced version of turbojets is utilized in modern jet fighters, while
helicopters invariably base their propulsion on turbo shaft power plants. Bigger
military transporters use high bypass ratio turbofan or turboprop engines. The
current trend is harnessing more power by lighter, smaller and simpler aircraft
engines. Reliability, resistance to battle damage, easier maintenance, fuel
efficiency, environment friendly exhaust are some additional features always
inculcated in the new design of aircraft engines. In subsequent parts,
thermodynamics andoperational characteristics of these aircraft engines are
described in details.
Consideration of materials for construction of gas turbines in aero-engine
has been a prime concern since beginning. In early engine designs, coating of
turbine blades are contemplated to be a remedial measure for realized high
temperature and offset effects of design shortfalls. Earlier engines are
designed on the concept of ‘built and test’ but later, this philosophy is replaced
by incorporating modeling techniques, optimization of material, manufacturing
process, reduced cycle time and predictive techniques in the design of the aero
2.12 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

engines. Fifty years back, steel dominated the construction materials, which is
replaced with two major alloy classes – nickel based super alloys and titanium
alloys. Steel is continued to be used in bearings and shafts where high strength
and hardened surfaces are needed. Aluminum alloy have virtually disappeared
from the aero-engine domains. In addition to material development, increasing
reliance is being placed on coatings and surface treatment to achieve reliability
and performance retention targets of the engines.
The development of any product has to undergo 4 stage process including
product planning, full concept definition, product development and in-service
management. After product planning a preliminary launch of the product
occurs, this is followed by full launch at the end of concept development. After
product development, product delivery phase starts. But this model is more of
a business oriented development cycle. Turbine blades are critical components
of an aero-engine and it should have provision for improved cooling and
application of thermal barrier coating. This may enhance engine thrust, reduce
weight, reduce fuel consumption and of course improves life. The expected
benefits in terms of fuel burn, payload and operating cost are derived from
such systems.
In addition to turbine, compressors also use blades and these blades are
subjected to impact of outside atmospheric air. Compared to cargo engines or
high flying aircraft engines, military engines, while operating in desert
condition has very hostile atmosphere and blades are subjected to erosion by
sand particles. Coating in such cases will have effective erosion resistance
coating. For such erosive atmosphere, coating based on conventional titanium
nitride coatings is now replaced by multilayer ceramic/ceramic or metal/
ceramic combinations for improved wear resistance. For high and intermediate
pressure turbines, nickel based alloys have dominated. Invariably such blades
are subjected to severe condition of temperature and stress during service and
sometimes the temperature may be higher than melting point of the alloys being
employed. These blades must have demanding mechanical properties and
environmental stability of the blade system. Creep and fatigue strength also
play a major role from mechanical properties point of view and from
environmental side, corrosion and oxidation are always taken into
consideration.
In early 1960s, premature blade failure due to environmental degradation is
observed and surface coating was considered fit to offset such problems.
Simple, cheap aluminide coatings improved blade life significantly. However
temperature remains a critical issue in such developments and further quest for
higher performance raised the severity of atmospheric degradation, making
aluminide coating insufficient for further use. So, platinum-aluminide coating
is evolved. The latest trend is application of thermal barrier coating on blades,
 AIRCRAFT POWER PLANTS 2.13

which prevents high temperature to percolate deep inside blades. This can
improve operating temperature by at least 100 K. the thermal barrier coating
may be Yttria-stabilized zirconia and is generally applied by electron beam
physical vapour deposition. This process results in development of columnar
grain microstructure necessary to resist thermal and mechanical strains. The
requirement of durability of coating and above all bonding with base metals are
major concerns.
Above all turbine entry temperature is the controlling factor, which is
raised by cooling provisions and selection of advanced materials of
construction. From the material of construction point of view, all engines are
based on single crystal alloys in most demanding high pressure turbine stages
and the enhancement in turbine entry temperature (TET) is achieved by
research in material science. Different materials used in construction of
turbine blades have different peak temperature capabilities. Turbine entry
temperature was generally of the order of 950 K in the beginning. Wrought iron
works in the range of around 1000 K and is generally uncooled. Provision of
cooling can be incorporated in cast alloys and it can withstand a temperature of
around 1100 K. With thermal barrier coating, turbine entry temperature can be
raised to as high as 1500 K. For a service life of 2500 hours, uncoated blades
may show severe hot corrosion, while aluminized coated blades does not show
any sign even if subjected to marine atmosphere, where severe corrosion is
expected.

2.3 TURBOJET PROPULSION

Turbojet, as a concept was prevalent in early days but realization of operational
engines started in 1930s in Italy, Germany, UK and other European countries.
It has been in use for propulsion of aircrafts and missiles. Turbojet utilizes
combined effects of turbines and high speed fluid jet for realization of desired
power. As it is an air-breathing engine, it has a simple or complex air intake
system. Design of intake depends on the flight speed and the geometry of
aircrafts. The incoming air is compressed in an axial or a centrifugal
compressor. This raises pressure of incoming air at the cost of its velocity.
After compression, pressure and temperature both rises and liquid fuel is
injected in compressed air stream. This resembles heat addition process. After
heat addition, it is passed through turbine to extract power. A part of turbine
power is used for driving compressor and remaining part of energy is
extracted during expansion of fluid stream through nozzle. In nozzle high
pressure fluid stream is converted to high velocity fluid jet to produce thrust.
Turbojet has five components namely intake, compression, combustion,
turbine and nozzle. Except nozzle, all other parts are used for gas generation
2.14 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

while nozzle helps in generation of thrust. The components of a turbojet engine

are depicted in figure 2.2.
Axial Compressor

Intake Combustor Turbine Nozzle

Fig. 2.2 : A Simple Turbojet with Axial Compressor

After air intake, compressor becomes an important component of

turbojets. For centrifugal compressors, pressure ratio may vary up to 6-8 in
single stage. For axial compressors, several stages are used. Each stage has a
combination of stator and rotor. In the rotor, fluid is accelerated while in stator,
the kinetic momentum is recovered in the form of advanced pressure. Pressure
ratio in single stage of axial compressor may vary from 1.4 to 1.6.
From thermodynamic point of view, the process occurring inside a
turbojet engine can be described as figure 2.3. Air at local ambient condition
and zero velocity is available as depicted by point ‘0’ on the temperature
entropy plot. First, air is sucked-in through intake at certain velocity. This
process is depicted by ‘0-1’. Intake portion does no change in condition of air
from temperature point of view and is depicted by process ‘1-2’. Next portion
depicts ram-compression and in some cases, a diffuser also. During
movement of air through compressor, velocity reduces and pressure rises.
This is simultaneously associated with rise in temperature of gas streams. The
process is isentropic and is depicted by process ‘2-3’.
4
Temperature

0 : Free stream
3
1-2 : Intake

5 2-3 : Compressor
3-4 : Combustor
6 4-5 : Turbine
5-6 : Jet pipe
1,2
7 6-7 : Nozzle

Entropy

Fig. 2.3 : Representation of Turbojet Engine on Thermodynamic Plane

 AIRCRAFT POWER PLANTS 2.15

During motion of air through combustor, first fuel is injected in the

beginning and burns during the process. It may be considered as constant
process heat addition and is depicted by process ‘3-4’. Here rise is temperature
is expected and this process is always associated with highest temperature of
the cycle. Such high temperature gases are expanded through turbine, where
positive work is extracted. This process is isentropic and is depicted by
process ‘4-5’. If afterburner is used, process is depicted by ‘5-6’ else turbine
process continues till point ‘6’ on thermodynamic plane. Expansion of
compressed gases takes place in nozzle and pressure is converted to kinetic
energy. This flow is also isentropic and is depicted by process ‘6-7’.
In turbojet engines, compressor pressure ratio is an important parameter is
equal to ratio at the end and beginning of the compression process (~ p3/p2).
Another relevant parameter is turbine pressure ratio, which is decided by the
power required by the compressor. It is equal to ratio of pressure after passage
through turbine to pressure at the entry of the turbine (p5/p4).

The expression for thrust from turbojet engine is given below.

F = ma [V7 (1 + f) – V1] + A7 (p7 – p0), where m = mass of air, V = volume,
A = area of cross section, p = pressure, subscripts denote condition
at respective points on thermodynamic plane.

There are several advantages of turbojet engines. It is used mostly in larger

planes. It has simple construction and diffuser action is predominant. It has
lower weight and it occupies lower space also. It is suitable for long distance
flight at higher speed and altitude. Flow of air is also continuous and there is no
extra air flow line needed for operation. It has compression ratio varying from
5 to 18 and flight speeds of 260 m/s. However, it needs a longer runway to take
off and is not an economically viable option for short distance flights. At lower
speeds, the thrust reduces significantly, thereby reducing propulsive
efficiency. At low altitude and lower speed, thrust specific fuel consumption is
much higher than contemporary engines.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 2.3
A turbojet aircraft flies with a velocity of 300 m/s at an altitude where pressure
and temperature are 30 kPa and –50°C. The compressor has a pressure ratio of
10 and air enters at a speed of 50 kg/s. Temperature at turbine inlet is 1500 K.
Find temperature and pressure of gases at compressor, turbine and nozzle exit,
nozzle pressure ratio, velocity of gas at nozzle exit, jet speed ratio and
propulsive efficiency.

SOLUTION
The process is named as below:
1-2: ram compression of incoming air in the diffuser
2.16 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

2-3: compression of air in compressor

3-4: constant pressure heat addition
4-5: isentropic expansion of gases in the turbine
5-6: isentropic expansion of gases in the nozzle
Given T1 = – 50°C = 223.16 K, p1 = 30 kPa.
ui = 300 m/s, p3/p2 = 10, T4 = 1500 K.
ma = 50 kg/s
Assume All processes are isentropic.
• Neglect mass increase of working fluid due to fuel.
• Property of combustion gases resembles that of air.
• Specific heat at constant pressure, Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg/K
• Ratio of specific heats, γ = 1.4
• Turbine generates power to run compressor only.
• No pressure drop in operation, p3 = p4 and p1= p6
• Velocity of jet at nozzle entrance is negligible.
Temperature at compressor inlet, T2 = T1 + u12/2 Cp
= 277.94 K.
Pressure at compressor inlet, p2 = p1 × (T2/T1)γ/(γ–1)
= 55.48 kPa
Pressure at compressor exit, p3 = 10 × p2 = 554.8 kPa
Pressure at turbine entry, p4 = p3 = 554.8 kPa
Temperature at compressor exit, T3 = T2 × (p3/p2)γ–1/γ
= 277.94 K × 101/3.5 = 536.6 K
Temperature drop in turbine = Temperature drop in compressor.
or, T4 – T 5 = T3 – T 2,
Temperature at turbine exit, T5 = T4 – T3 + T2
= 1500 – 536.6 + 277.94 = 1214.3 K
Pressure at turbine exit, p5 = p4 × (T5/T4)γ/(γ–1) = 286 kPa
Pressure at nozzle exit, p6 = p1 = 30 kPa
Nozzle pressure ratio = p5/p6 = 286/30 = 9.533
Temperature at nozzle exit, T6 = T5 × (p6/p5)γ–1/γ = 637.6 K
Velocity of jet at nozzle exit,
V6 = √[2000 × 1.005 × (1214.3 – 637.6)] = 1076.64 m/s
Jet speed ration, ω = 300/1076.646 = 0.2786
Propulsive efficiency = 2ω/(1 + ω) = 43.58%.
 AIRCRAFT POWER PLANTS 2.17

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 2.4
An advanced fighter aircraft engine operating at 250 m/s at an altitude of
10 km (Temperature = 230 K) has the following performance characteristics:
Thrust force = 50 kN, mass flow rate of air = 40 kg/s, mass flow rate of fuel =
2.5 kg/s, exit pressure = ambient pressure. If calorific value of the fuel is
40000 kJ/kg, find (i) specific thrust (ii) thrust specific fuel consumption (iii)
jet velocity (iv) thrust power (v) propulsive power (vi) heat supplied (vii)
thermal efficiency (viii) propulsive efficiency (ix) overall efficiency (x) jet
speed ratio.

SOLUTION
Mass flow rate of gas through the nozzle = mass flow rate of
(air + fuel) = 50 + 2.5 kg/s = 52.5 kg/s.
Specific thrust = thrust/mass flow rate of gas = 50000/52.5 = 952.4 N/
kg/s
Thrust specific fuel consumption = fuel consumption / thrust
= 2.5/50000 = 5 × 10–5 kg/N/s = 0.18 kg/N/hr
From thrust equation, F = m.Uj – ma.ui
= 52.5 × Uj – 50 × 250= 50 kN
So, Effective jet velocity, Uj = 1190.5 m/s.
Thrust power, P = F × ui = 50 × 250 = 12500 kW.
Propulsive power, PP = ½ [m × Uj2 – ma × u12] = 35641.4 kW.
Heat supplied to the system = 2.5 × 40000 kW = 100000 kW
Thermal efficiency = Propulsive power/Heat supplied
= 35641.4/100000 = 35.64%
Propulsive efficiency = Thrust power/Propulsive power
= 12500/35641.4 = 35.07%.
Overall efficiency = Thrust power/Heat supplied = 12.5%
Jet speed ration, ω = 250/1190.5 = 0.20999
Propulsive efficiency = 2ω/(1 + ω) = 34.71%.

2.4 PROPELLER PROPULSION

Reciprocating engines are developed for automobiles, but as power
requirements increase, the reciprocating engine turns out to be more
voluminous. Typical power to volume ratio of most of the reciprocating
engines lies within 0.3 to 0.5 kW/m3. For application in aircrafts, this may not
be a suitable alternative. However before 1940s, the systems based on piston-
2.18 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

engine propeller dominated the propulsion needs for aircrafts. The system is
designated as propeller propulsion because main thrust producing element in
this case is propeller, which receives power generated by the engine and
whose rotation causes increase in the speed of the air stream also. Later on
turbojets took over rein. In recent times, propeller propulsion is used for low
power low mass high efficiency engines of small single seater aircraft and
unmanned aerial vehicles.
Another problem with use of reciprocating engines in aircraft is altitude
correction. As altitude rises, density of air reduces and power output also
reduces. At high altitudes, the system gives lower energy. Of course, running
engine at higher rpm can offset this drawback to some extent.
Expression for power output is given below.

P = K . N . Vc . ρ air.(1 + f).Qm.f.η
η ov, where K = 1 for 2-stroke engine and
0.5 for 4-stroke engine, N = rpm of engine, Vc = volume of cylinder,
ρ air = density of air, f = fuel-air ratio, Qm = heat released per unit
mass of fuel (calorific value), η ov = overall efficiency.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 2.5
The diameter of the propeller of an aircraft is 2.5 m. if flies at a speed of
540 kmph at an altitude of 8000 m, where density of air is 0.528 kg/m3. If jet
speed ratio is 0.75, determine (i) jet velocity (ii) mass flow rate of air
(iii) thrust produced (iv) thrust power (v) specific thrust (vi) specific impulse.

SOLUTION
Air intake area, A = π d2/4 = 4.91 m2
Flight speed, ui = 540 kmph = 150 m/s
Jet velocity, Uj = 150/0.75 = 200 m/s
Average flow velocity = (Uj + ui)/2 = 175 m/s
Mass flow rate of air = density × area × velocity
= 0.528 × 4.91 × 175 = 453.68 kg/s
Thrust produced, F = ma (Uj – ui) = 22.684 kN
Specific thrust = thrust/mass flow rate = 50 N.s/kg
Thrust power, P = F × ui = 3402.6 kW
Specific impulse = specific thrust/g = 50/9.81 s = 5.097 s.

2.5 TURBOPROP PROPULSION

Turboprop propulsion is a combination of propeller and turbojet. In this case
thrust is partially produced by propeller and partially by jet. First incoming gas
 AIRCRAFT POWER PLANTS 2.19

expands in turbine and residual expansion takes place in nozzle. Performance

of such engines lie between turbojet and propeller propulsion engines. It is fuel
efficient as compared to turbojet. This is achieved because large mass of air
undergoes small velocity increments. Additionally, propulsive efficiency
increase and specific fuel consumption reduce. It offsets limitations of
altitude-speed envelope prevalent in propeller engines.
Schematic details of a typical turboprop propulsion engine are depicted in
figure 2.4. All components of simple turboprop engines are shown. Turboprop
engines find application in large size aircrafts due to their very large power-to
engine mass ratio. For operational turboprop engines, this ratio is of the order
of 4 to 10 kW/kg. This value is 2-10 times that of a typical reciprocating
engine. Similarly deliver power-to-volume ratio of turbo props are 8 times
higher than that of reciprocating engines.
Radial
Compressor

Starting
system
Propeller Burner Turbine Nozzle

Fig. 2.4: A Simple Turboprop with Radial Compressor

In this case, partitioning of power of turbine is carried out. Some part of

output power from the turbine is utilized for running compressor and other
auxiliary units. Rest is utilized for generating thrust. The propeller employed
develops propulsive thrust. Since turbine operates at high rotational speeds, a
gear reduction is needed to power the propellers, which cannot be rotated at
such high speeds. The gear box is employed for this operation.
Another variation of turboprop engine is turbo shaft engines, where all the
delivered power is shaft power and no thrust is obtained because of expansion
of outgoing air-jet. This is other extreme of power extracted from turbine of
turbojets. This type of engine is used in helicopters and it does not need any
runway for lift-off.
Turboprop engines have high propulsive efficiency. Contrary of turbojet
engines, it has high thrust at low speed. As a result thrust specific fuel
consumption is also low. One major advantage of this method of propulsion is
automatic braking provision by thrust reversal. By changing blade angle, thrust
reversal and reduction in speed of the aircraft is possible. It has high thrust per
unit frontal area. It has high propulsive efficiency as compared to turbofan
engines.
2.20 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

However, this system has several disadvantages also. It works well at low
altitude and at low speeds, and operation at high altitude and high speeds are
not very efficient. Chances of shock, vibration, and flow separation are
observed in turboprop engines. The propeller is attached with a gear box,
which adds weight to the unit. It has higher weight per unit thrust produced.
This leads to reduction in payload capacity of the engine. One major
disadvantage of this engine over turbojet engine is speed of operation. Although
turbojets can be operated at both subsonic and supersonic speeds, but
turboprop engines can be operated at subsonic speeds only. Turbines in
turboprops generates more power, as in addition to turbine (as in turbojets), it
has to run a propeller also. Propeller is much bigger in size than main body of
the engine. Air flow through main engine is much smaller and ratio of air flow
through propeller and main engine is 25 to 50. It acts at very high bypass ratio.

Sonic velocity in air can be given, C = √γ

√γ.R.T, where, γ = ratio of specific
heats, R = Gas constant for air, T = temperature at point of interest.
Mach number is ratio of flow velocity to local sonic velocity.
Mach number, M = U/C, where U is flow velocity, C = Sonic velocity.

Two specific heats of ideal gases are related to each other as depicted
below.

Cp – Cv = R
Cp /Cv = γ
So, Cp = γ . R /(γγ – 1)
Cv = R /(γγ – 1)

For flow of air through diffuser or compressor, the flow is generally

assumed to occur in isentropic manner ideally. Incoming jet has certain higher
velocity and compared to this outlet velocities are negligible. The incoming jet
velocity is converted to pressure and stagnation pressure after passage
through the devices is higher than pressure of high velocity incoming air. Inlet
and outlet conditions are depicted by subscripts 1 and 2, respectively. Change
in enthalpy through a system undergoing isentropic change (compression)
from state 1 to state 2, can be equated to change in velocity air through the
system.

H1 – H2 = (U22 – U12 )/2

Cp (T1 – T2) = 0 – U12/2 : Neglect inlet velocity
1 – T2 /T1 = – U12/2 .Cp . T1
= – [(γγ – 1)/2] [U12/(γγ . R . T1)] : Put value of Cp
= – [(γγ – 1)/2] [U12/C12] : Put sonic velocity
= – [(γγ – 1)/2] M12 : Put Mach number
T2 /T1 = 1 + [(γγ – 1) M12/2].
 AIRCRAFT POWER PLANTS 2.21

Air standard efficiency of a cycle operating between two constant

pressures can be calculated from pressure ratio. This resembles air standard
efficiency of an Otto cycle, which is calculated from compression ratio. In
case of constant pressure processes, air standard efficiency depends on
pressure ratio (final pressure to initial pressure), only. Compression ratio (r) is
ratio of volumes, whereas pressure ratio (rp) is ratio of pressures. The process
is generally assumed to occur in isentropic manner and both ratios are inter-
related.

Compression ratio, r = (V1/V2) = (p2/p1)1/γγ = (rp)1/γγ

Air standard efficiency, η = 1 – 1/rγ-1 = 1 – 1/rp(γγ-1)/γγ.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 2.6
A turboprop engine operates at an altitude of 3000 m where pressure = 70 kPa,
temperature = 265 K and air density = 0.909 kg/m3. Air craft speed is 150 m/s
and velocity of air at compressor entry is 90 m/s. Ideal temperature rise in
compressor is 230 K. find (i) Sonic velocity and Mach number at inlet (ii)
temperature and pressure at compressor inlet (iii) pressure ratio in compressor
and diffuser (iv) pressure rise in compressor and diffuser (v) power needed by
compressor (vi) air standard efficiency. Assume γ = 1.4, Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg/K.

SOLUTION
Refer figure 2.1
Nomenclature of processes
1-2: Actual diffuser operation
1-2′: Ideal diffuser operation
2-3: Actual compressor operation
2-3′: Ideal compressor operation
Given data
P1 = 70 kPa, T1 = 265 K, ρ1 = 0.909 kg/m3, u1 = 150 m/s
u2 = 90 m/s, T3 – T2 = 230 K.
γ = 1.4, Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg/K
Calculation
Gas constant, R = Cp – Cv = Cp ( 1 – 1/γ) = 0.287 kJ/kg/K
Sonic velocity at inlet = √γ.R.T
= √1.4 × 287 × 265 = 326.31 m/s
Mach number at inlet = aircraft speed/sonic velocity at inlet
= 150/326.31 = 0.4597
2.22 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Stagnation temperature at diffuser exit = T1 × {1 + [(γ – 1)M12/2]}

= 276.2 K.
Since there is certain residual velocity at diffuser exit, stagnation condition
does not exist and actual temperature at turbine exit is lower than stagnation
temperature by the amount calculated from residual velocity
Temperature rise due to residual velocity = U2/2.Cp
= 902/(2 × 1005) = 4.03 K
Ideal temperature at diffuser exit, T2′ = 276.3 – 4.03 K
= 272.17 K.
Temperature at compressor inlet = temperature at diffuser exit
= 272.17 K.
Flow through diffuser can be assumed to be isentropic.
Pressure at diffuser exit, p2 = p1 × (T2/T1)γ/(γ–1) = 76.856 kPa
Pressure ratio in diffuser, p2/p1 = 1.0979
Pressure rise in diffuser, p2 – p1 = 6.856 kPa
Ideal temperature at the exit of compressor, T3 = T2 + 230
= 502.17 K
Pressure at compressor exit, p3 = p2 × (T3/T2)γ/(γ–1) = 655.714 kPa
Pressure ratio in compressor, p3/p2 = 8.45
Pressure rise in compressor, p3 – p2 = 578.858 kPa
Power needed by compressor = Cp (T3 – T2) = 231.15 kW/kg/s
Air standard efficiency, η = 1 – 1/rp (γ–1/γ) = 45.65%.

2.6 BYP
BYP ASS JET PR
YPA OPUL
PROPUL SION
OPULSION
Turbofans are further developments over turboprop engines to enhance flight
speeds. In this case, front section is placed inside a duct, which acts as
diffuser (velocity reduces and pressure rises). This alteration reduce speed in
the front section for a given flight speeds. Arrangements are also made to
bypass some of the incoming air through an annular duct placed outside the
core engine and supply it directly to nozzle for extraction of extra power.
These two differences may give higher thrust in same volume. This system
may be treated as bypass jet propulsion. The ratio of the air handled by the fan
to that going through the core engine is called bypass ratio, denoted by ‘∝’.
Straight turbojet has zero bypass-ratio. Typical value of bypass ratio for civil
aircraft may be 6.
 AIRCRAFT POWER PLANTS 2.23

Basically, propeller becomes a fan in presence of a duct and it has capacity

to compress incoming air. The compressed air on expansion has enhanced
velocity and enhanced thrust. The enhancement is a function of amount of air
being handled and pressure ratio developed. There are two types of engines on
the basis of mixing of bypass part of air. In non-mixing bypass engines, cold
air expansion takes place, which does not mix with air passing through core
engine. Similarly mixing bypass engines can also be designed.
Bypass ratio is single important factor affecting performance of this class
of engines. If bypass ratio is increased, velocity increment is low and higher
thrust can be achieved. However, very large increase in bypass ratio results in
higher frontal area and enhanced drag. For larger aircrafts, this drawback is
relegated to secondary status due to proportionally higher enhancement in
thrust. For supersonic aircrafts, even low bypass ratio can deliver sufficient
enhancement in thrust. For military aircrafts, the bypass ratio may lie between
0.3 and 1.0. This system has short take off roll and has low weight per unit
thrust produced. It has more efficient flow in fan. After passing through fan,
air is divided into two streams – first is primary stream which goes through
main sub-system of the power generation system and secondary stream of
inducted air passes through side channels and expands in annular nozzle as
cold air. This makes system viable for use in large jumbo jet airplanes weighing
more than 600 tons and carrying more than 250 passengers. Bypass ratio in
these units are small (of the order of 5-6). There is no requirement of gear and
fan is also placed inside covered duct or flow passage. However, this engine is
heavier and drag is also on higher side. It has low propulsive efficiency and
low weight per unit thrust. Thrust specific fuel consumption is high and it
operates at lower speeds.

2.7 RAMJET PROPULSION

If power is provided at higher flight speeds, compressors can be dispensed
with. It is observed that at speeds above Mach 2, the incoming air through air-
intake can alone give a 7-12 times rise in pressure by placement of a diffuser.
This is comparable to pressure obtained by putting compressors at low flying
speeds. So, this system of propulsion derived from turbojet, where
compressor is not used is called ramjet propulsion. This system has diffuser,
combustor and an exit nozzle.
But such systems work at high flying speeds and cannot be executed in
cold-start conditions. These systems are used in missiles, because of their
simplicity and high efficiency. They do not produce any thrust at zero speed
and an auxiliary system is needed to bring complete system to a certain
minimum velocity before ramjet propulsion is operational. This additional
propulsion system is called boosters. In missiles, boosters may be based on
2.24 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

solid or liquid propellants based rockets. A typical ramjet engine is shown in

figure 2.5.
Diffuser Burner Nozzle

Fuel injection Flame holder

Fig. 2.5 : A Simple Ramjet Propulsion System

The system does not have a moving part and has simple construction. It is
economical, has light weight and needs less maintenance. Fuel consumption is
lower at high speeds. System can be designed for a variety of fuels. At
supersonic speeds, it produces very high thrust and high efficiency. This
makes it attractive for high speed aircrafts and missiles. At high speeds and
altitude, it is better than turbojets.
However, for this system careful assessment of parameters and design of
each sub-component becomes critical. It cannot be started from stationary
condition and some auxiliary propulsion unit is needed to propel it to certain
speed for successful operation of ramjet. These systems are unstable in
subsonic flights. It has low thermal efficiency and high thrust specific fuel
consumption. As velocity of incoming air is reduced by ram compression
alone, air stream has high velocities. For efficient combustion of fuel, it needs
flame holder and flame stabilizers. It has limited altitude of operation, because
reduction in density of air affects performance adversely.

SUMMARY
SUMMARY
In this Chapter, typical aircraft and missile propulsion engines are discussed.
The turbojets are workhorse propulsion concept for aircraft propulsion.
Turboprop and bypass propulsion concepts also find application for specific
requirements. For missile propulsion, ramjet propulsion is invariably used but it
needs additional booster propulsion to fulfill initial high velocity requirements.

QUESTIONS

1. What is jet propulsion? Why they are suitable for aircraft propulsion?
2. What are different generations of aircrafts as per vintage?
3. What are different requirement of materials of selection for turbine blades?
What are common materials of construction for the turbine blades?
 AIRCRAFT POWER PLANTS 2.25

4. How is propulsive efficiency calculated for turbojets?

5. Explain various processes in operation of turbojet on a temperature
entropy plane.
6. What are main advantage and disadvantages of propeller engine?
7. Whether turbojet can be powered without supply of any fuel to the main
engine? Explain conditions for the same.
8. What are variants of turboprop engines for aircraft applications?
9. Why helicopters do not need a runway?
10. What are advantages of ramjet propulsion? What are its drawbacks?
11. Differentiate between the following:
(a) Rotary piston engine and radial engine
(b) Turboprop engine and by-pass jet engine
12. Write short notes on the following:
(a) Bypass ratio
(b) Propeller
(c) Ramjet propulsion
(d) Afterburner
❖❖❖
 CHAPTER

3
Internal Combustion Engines
STRUCTURE
‰ Introduction
‰ Objective
‰ Type and Process
‰ Working of Spark Ignition Engines
‰ Working of Compression Ignition Engines
‰ Working of 2-stroke Engines
‰ Working of 4-stroke Engines
‰ Parts of Engines and their Materials
‰ Combustion Process
‰ Abnormal Combustion
‰ Arrangements for Multi-cylinder aircraft Engines
‰ Intake and exhaust manifolds
‰ Aircraft SI Engines
‰ Ignition Systems
‰ Effect of Altitude and Speed
‰ Power required and Power Available
‰ Supercharging
‰ Types of Super Charges
‰ Summary
‰ Questions

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Internal combustion engines belongs to heat engines, where chemical energy
of fuel is transformed into thermal energy by combustion and this energy is
used to generate mechanical work. Obviously, there will be something called
external combustion engines also. In an external combustion engine, heat
generated by combustion of fuel is used to heat the main working fluid before
extracting work. Main advantages of external combustion engines are use of
3.2 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

cheaper fuel including solid fuels, high starting torque etc. An internal
combustion engine utilizes the product of combustion directly as motive fluid
or working fluid. Although internal combustion engines suffers from many
deficiencies as compared to external combustion engines, it has several
advantages over external combustion engines like simple design, lower cost,
less cooling requirement, less bulky, high overall efficiency etc. this makes it
suitable for transport vehicles. This Chapter gives a brief description of
internal combustion engine and its components. Types, process, material of
construction, components, combustion and utilization aspects are discussed.

Objective
After studying this Chapter, you should be able to understand:
z Definition of internal combustion engines.
z Operations of internal engines.
z Spark ignition and compression ignition engines.
z 2-stroke and 4-stroke engines.
z Material of construction of various components of an engine.
z Combustion process inside an internal combustion engine.
z Arrangements of multi-cylinder reciprocating engines.
z Elements of Intake and exhaust manifold.
z Aircraft SI engines.

3.2 TYPES AND PROCESS

Internal combustion engines are used mainly in transport vehicles, but have
several other applications also. As the name suggests, in internal combustion
engine, combustion of fuel takes place in the engine itself and product of
combustion forms the working fluid. If internal combustion engine exists, then
there must be another counterpart called an external combustion engine. In
case of external combustion engine, fuel is burnt outside the engine and
product of combustion heats the working fluid. The combustion gases cannot
be expanded to do work. In this case, cheap fuel can be used for combustion
and working fluid may be water. This type of system is useful for stationary
plants; coal based locomotive railway engines etc. Internal combustion engine
is more efficient, but it cannot be made self-starting and initial cranking is
needed. Contrary to this external combustion engines are self-starting. These
two types of engines can be differentiated on several grounds.
 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 3.3

Internal Combustion External Combustion

Engine (ICE) Engine (ECE)
Fuel burns in the engine cylinder. Fuel burns in separate boiler.
Combustion gases act as working fluid. Separate working fluid is employed.
Most of the time, it is water (steam).
Working fluid can be costly. Cheap fuel can be used.
Maximum temperature and pressure are Maximum temperature and pressure are
higher. Material of construction should limited. Material of construction can be
withstand the same. Generally iron alloy relatively cheaper. Generally cast iron can
with nickel and molybdenum is used. be used for the making engines.
Size is much smaller, as only fuel tank is Separate boiler to store water needs more
needed. floor space.
Efficiency is higher. Efficiency is lower.
Engine is cheap. Engine is costly.
Engine is lighter and can be used in Engine is bulky and heavy it is used in
transport vehicles. stationary plants.
Engine has less starting torque and can be Starting an engine is prolonged activity.
started quickly.
Engine cannot be made self-starting. Engines are self-starting.
Piston is directly connected to connecting Stuffing box is generally employed to
rod. prevent leakage of steam.
Used in automobiles, aircrafts etc. Used in power plants, locomotives etc.

Internal combustion engine is reciprocating in nature and piston movement

inside a cylinder result in power generation, to impart motion to transport
vehicle and do useful work. Fuel is injected along with certain quantity of air in
the engine cylinder, where they burn and produce large quantity of hot
combustion gases. Because of confinement, high pressure is generated and
expansion of high pressure gases to lower pressure gives power output from
the internal combustion engine. All these engines are means for propulsion,
which means forward pull and are based on chemical propulsion, where
combustion of fuel is responsible for creating motion in the body. The word
propulsion is derived from two Latin words: ‘pro’ meaning before or forwards
and ‘pellere’ meaning to drive. Propulsion means to push forward or drive an
object forward. A propulsion system is a machine that produces thrust to push
an object forward. On airplanes, thrust is usually generated through some
application of Newton’s third law of action and reaction. A gas, or working
fluid, is accelerated by the engine, and the reaction to this acceleration
produces a force on the engine. A general derivation of the thrust equation
shows that the amount of thrust generated depends on the mass flow through
the engine and the exit velocity of the gas. Different propulsion systems
generate thrust in slightly different ways.
3.4 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Ground propulsion is a different term than transport, because it refers to

solid bodies being propelled. The primitive and most natural type of ground
propulsion is the use of muscle power but vehicles drawn by an animal have
nearly disappeared now a days. With progress of technology, quest of higher
velocity and advent of new systems, steam engines of James Watt ruled the
ground propulsion till 1970s. Now the main focus is on (i) internal-combustion
engines (ii) electric motors (which includes linear motors being part of the
track) or combinations of those. Turbines are not used because of the small
part load efficiency. Also other types with external combustion like the Stirling
engine or without combustion like the fuel cell are only used in planes.
The propulsion requirement changes entirely, if medium changes to
waterways. In marine propulsion, propulsion systems for ships and boats vary
from the simple paddle to the largest diesel engines in the world or even nuclear
propulsion. These systems fall into three categories: human propulsion, sailing,
and mechanical propulsion. Human propulsion includes the pole, still widely
used in marshy areas, rowing which was used even on large galleys, and the
pedals, which are used for merry-drives in lakes. In modern times, human
propulsion is found mainly on small boats or as auxiliary propulsion on
sailboats. Propulsion by sail generally consists of a sail hoisted on an erect
mast, supported by stays and spars and controlled by ropes. Sail systems were
the dominant form of propulsion until the nineteenth century. They are now
generally used for recreation and racing, although experimental sail systems,
such as the kites/royals, turbo sails, rotor sails, wing sails, windmills and
Skysail’s own kite buoy-system have been used on larger modern vessels for
fuel savings.
Air propulsion is the act of moving an object through the air. The most
common types are propeller, jet engine, turboprop, ramjet, rocket propulsion,
and, experimentally, scramjet, pulse jet, and pulse detonation engine. Animals
such as birds and insects obtain propulsion by flapping their wings. This is also
being imitated in making modern flying equipments like hovercrafts. A variety
of propulsion concepts are used in air-propulsion. Basically, an airplane
propulsion system must serve two purposes. First, the thrust from the
propulsion system must balance the drag of the airplane when the airplane is
cruising, and second, the thrust from the propulsion system must exceed the
drag of the airplane for it to accelerate. In fact, the greater the difference
between the thrust and the drag, called the excess thrust, the faster the airplane
will accelerate.
Some aircraft, like airliners and cargo planes, spend most of their life in a
cruise condition (constant altitude constant velocity flying). For these
airplanes, excess thrust is not as important as high engine efficiency and low
fuel usage. Since thrust depends on both the amount of gas moved and the
 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 3.5

velocity, we can generate high thrust by accelerating a large mass of gas by a

small amount, or by accelerating a small mass of gas by a large amount.
Because of the aerodynamic efficiency of propellers and fans, it is more fuel
efficient to accelerate a large mass by a small amount. That is why we find
high bypass fans and turboprops on cargo planes and airliners. Some aircraft,
like fighter planes or experimental high speed aircraft require very high excess
thrust to accelerate quickly and to overcome the high drag associated with
high speeds. For these airplanes, engine efficiency is not as important as very
high thrust. Modern military aircraft typically employ afterburners on a low
bypass turbofan core. Future hypersonic aircraft will employ some type of
ramjet or rocket propulsion. Spacecraft propulsion is any method used to
accelerate spacecraft and artificial satellites. There are many different
methods. Each method has drawbacks and advantages, and spacecraft
propulsion is an active area of research. However, most spacecraft today are
propelled by forcing a gas from the back/rear of the vehicle at very high speed
through a supersonic de Laval nozzle. This sort of engine is called a rocket
engine.
All current spacecraft use chemical rockets (bipropellant or solid-fuel) for
launch, though some (such as the Pegasus rocket and Spaceship One) have
used air-breathing engines on their first stage. Most satellites have simple
reliable chemical thrusters (often monopropellant rockets) or resistojet rockets
for orbital station-keeping and some use momentum wheels for attitude
control. Soviet bloc satellites have used electric propulsion for decades, and
newer Western geo-orbiting spacecraft are starting to use them for north
south station keeping. Interplanetary vehicles mostly use chemical rockets as
well, although a few have used ion thrusters and Hall Effect thrusters (two
different types of electric propulsion) to great success.

Propulsion is an act of changing the motion of a body by either bringing

it to motion from rest or changing a velocity or overcoming retarding
forces during motion of a body through a media.

Invariably for propulsion, engines, motors, motion producing devices are

needed. Depending on external environment, a large variety of engines are
devised. Such engines can be classified on different parameters.
Depending on application in real world, IC engines can be classified as
automobiles, truck, locomotive, light aircraft, and marine engines. Working
principles of one or more may be same, but change of utility can give different
types of engines. It is basically medium in which these engines are operational,
makes them different from each other. Basically, all these overcome resistance
and impart acceleration to the vehicle for transportation of a given payload
(humans, cargo) from one place to other in economical way.
3.6 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Depending on power output, compactness and mode of operations, these

engines are classified in various ways. On the basis of cycle of operations, IC
engines are of two classes. First is Otto cycle engines and second is Diesel
cycle engines. Otto cycle engines are also called spark-ignition (SI) engines
because they operate on petrol, where fuel and air is fed to engine and
combustion is initiated by using a spark plug. Diesel cycle engines are called
compression ignition (CI) engine. In this case, diesel acts as fuel. Only air is
compressed in the engine and at the end of compression, fuel is injected,
which ignites due to spontaneous combustion of fuel droplet in aggressive
atmosphere (high temperature and pressure) of engine. Ignition in this case is
achieved by compression of air alone and thus nomenclature of compression
ignition is given to the system.
Depending on fuel used, SI engines are classified as gas engine or petrol
engine. Out of these two, petrol engine can be classified in several ways. On
the basis of fuel introduction in the engine cylinder, the engines are of two
varieties – (i) carbureted type and (ii) injection type. Yet another method of
classification is on the basis of ignition process. The SI engines may have
battery ignition or magneto ignition. Cooling provision can also be basis for
classification of SI engines and water-cooled or air-cooled engines are
prevalent. In fact method of arrangements for execution of various
strokes in an engine may give reciprocating engine or rotary engines. Multi
cylinder reciprocating engines are classified on the basis of cylinder
arrangements and may be opposed cylinder, inline, inclined cylinder,
V engine, H engine etc. Rotary engines are classified as single rotor or two
rotor systems.
Diesel cycle engines or CI engines are classified on the basis of fuel
system used. It may be using diesel as working fluid in some cases, while in
other cases a combination of diesel (liquid) fuel with gas-fuel is also utilized.
Another method of classification IC engines is based on application of
engines. Automotive engines are used for land transport like scooter,
motorcycles, cars, bus, truck etc. Propulsion of ship is executed by marine
engines and that of aircrafts by aircraft engines. Power generation on land uses
industrial engines. Based on application, IC engines may be classified as
automobile engine, truck engine, Locomotive engine, Light aircraft engines,
Portable power station etc.
Valve or port design and location is another basis for classification of IC
engines. Overhead valves, under-head valves, rotary valves, cross-scavenged
porting, loop-scavenged porting etc may be various types of IC engine based
on this approach. Overhead design may have an I-head, while under-head
design will be of L-type. In cross-scavenged porting, inlet and exhaust ports
are located on opposite side of cylinder at one end, while in loop-scavenged
type, they are located on same side of the cylinder.
 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 3.7

Combustion chamber design is also a criterion for classification of IC

engines. Open chamber engines, divided chamber engines and special chamber
engines are operational. In open chamber disc, wedge, hemisphere, bowl-in-
piston are popular designs. In divided chamber constructions, swirl chamber
and prechamber designs are popular.
Whatever may be the nomenclature and type of IC engine, it invariably
uses 4 operations. First stroke is called suction stroke, in which a vacuum is
created inside engine cylinder by outward movement of the piston and fuel is
sucked inside cylinder. Second stroke is compression stroke, where fluid
inside cylinder is compressed by piston movement. Third stroke is power
stroke. During this process, fuel is ignited and mechanical output is obtained
as crankshafts. Final stroke is exhaust stroke, where products of
combustion are thrown out of the cylinder and engine becomes ready for
subsequent suction of fuel. This process was first developed by Beau de
Rochas in 1862 and it became part of all subsequent engine development as
guiding principle. He advocated that maximum pressure should be achieved at
the beginning of expansion and maximum expansion ratio should be aimed
during construction of any engine. This led foundation for various
subsequently developed engines. To minimize heat losses from the engines,
largest possible cylinder volume with minimum boundary surface and rapid
working is mandatory for such engines.
The complete cycle for a general internal combustion engine is shown in
figure 3.1. First figure (a) represents a constant volume (Otto) cycle. Intake
or Suction (6-7-1) is associated with entry of certain volume of air and/or fuel
in the engine cylinder at low pressure. The low pressure is generally
atmospheric pressure. This is associated with increase in volume (from V6 to
V1) inside engine cylinder at constant pressure. Mass of charge also increases
inside engine cylinder. Next process occurs in a confined chamber and is
associated with reduction of volume (from V1 to V2). This is accompanied
with realization of high pressure and temperature. At the end of this
compression stroke, power stroke (2-3) occurs where combustion of fuel
takes place. The heat addition process may occur at constant pressure,
constant volume or a combination of both. In the figure 3.1a, it takes place (2
3) at constant volume. Work output is derived in the subsequent expansion
stroke (3-4), where expansion of combustion gases takes place and useful
work is derived from the cycle. Power generated during this stroke is stored in
the flywheels or large rotary masses attached to the crankshaft of the
reciprocating engines. Later on this stored power is utilized for execution of
other strokes. After expansion, low pressure and temperature and high volume
is realized (at condition 4). This is followed by exhaust of combustion gases
(process 4-5-6), where combustion gases are thrown out and engine is ready
for executing the cycle once again.
3.8 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

3 3 3

4 4 4
2 2 2
6 5 7 1
6,7 1,5 7 1 6 5

a. Constant Volume Cycle b. Throttled Cycle c. Supercharged cycle

Fig. 3.1 : Operation of Various Operational Cycles

In ideal situation, suction or intake and exhaust can occur at same

pressure, but this balance is generally not maintained in the engines. In a
throttled engine, pressure at the exhaust condition (5) is higher than
atmospheric pressure. This condition results in flow of combustion-gases out
of the cylinder automatically due to pressure differential. However, this gives a
loss in the capability of the combustion gases. Energy that can be extracted
from the expanding gases is not fully utilized and there is certain loss of
efficiency due to throttled engines. This is also obvious from the negative loop
created at the bottom of the cycle in figure 3.1b due to pressure mismatch.
Supercharging is one way to get rid of this efficiency loss and complete
utilization of energy from the combustion gases is observed, if engines are
supercharged (figure 3.1c). In case of supercharged engines, exhaust pressure
is lower than intake pressure. It creates a positive loop of process thus adding
to already derived power from normal cycle. However, additional attachments
and devices are needed to execute supercharging. Exhaust in this case occurs
at point ‘5’, which has pressure lower than intake pressure (point 1).
Conversely, suction of air occurs in supercharged engine unaided due to
pressure difference favoring suction thus reducing efforts in suction stroke.
This reduces extraction of power from flywheel and more efficient utilization
of combustion energy is observed in supercharged engines.
A reciprocating IC engine based on above cycle is described in figure 3.2.
In reciprocating engines, piston moves back and forth inside a cylinder and
transmits power or mechanical work to crank shaft or drive shaft through a
connecting rod. Arrangement for sealing between cylinder and piston is
ensured through provision of piston rings and cylinder liners. Internal diameter
of cylinder is called bore and extent of longitudinal movement of piston in
cylinder is called stroke. Volume traversed by the piston in traveling from one
end to other end of the cylinder is called swept volume. Cylinder has a suitably
shaped cylinder head, which closed end of the cylinder. Cylinder heads have
provisions for valves, which includes both inlet and exhaust valves. Extreme
position of the piston is described by dead centers. They are named so because
 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 3.9

at these positions reversal of direction of movement occurs for the piston and
momentarily, piston comes to a stand-still position. Dead is indicator of
stationary position of the piston at extreme positions. When piston is fully
inside the cylinder, it is called top position and in this position, piston speed is
zero. This position is also called top dead center (TDC) or inner dead center
(IDC) position of the piston. At TDC, volume in cylinder is called clearance
volume. Once piston movement starts downward from TDC, vacuum or low
pressure is created above piston.
This causes opening of inlet valve and entry of fuel starts. This is called
suction stroke and it continues till piston reaches bottom-most position called
bottom dead center (BDC) or outer dead center (ODC).

Cylinder
Head
Valve Bore
Clearance
Top Volume
Centre
Swept
Stroke Volume
Bottom
Center Piston
Cylinder

Connecting
Rod
TC
Crank Shaft

BC

Fig. 3.2 : Operation of a Reciprocating Engine

After that inlet valve closes and piston movement in upward direction
starts. This causes compression of accumulated mass above piston in the
cylinder. This is compression stroke and near end of compression stroke,
combustion process is initiated. This causes rapid rise in pressure and
temperature inside cylinder. The rapid generation of high temperature gases,
forces piston in downward direction, executing a power stroke. The work
done by expanding gases is around 4-5 times work of compression. As piston
comes in vicinity of BDC, exhaust valve opens and exhaust stroke starts. Due
to inertia of crankshaft and connecting rod, piston pushes combustion gas out
of the cylinder through exhaust valves. Again at the end of exhaust stroke,
exhaust valve closes. Movement of piston in downward direction starts with
opening of inlet valve and initiation of fresh suction stroke.
3.10 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

3.3 WORKING OF SP
WORKING ARK IGNITION ENGINES
SPARK
Spark ignition engine operates on Otto cycle. In a typical spark ignition (SI)
engine, air and fuel are mixed in intake manifold prior to their entry to the
engine cylinder using carburetor or fuel injection system. For reliable
combustion ratio of mass flow rate of air to that of fuel is maintained at around
15:1. Although cycle is explained earlier, SI engine is being described in terms
of crank angle in figure 3.3.

IVO EVC IVC Spark EVO IVO EVC

Compression Expansion
Intake Exhaust
Cylinder
pressure

V/V max

TC BC TC BC TC
Crank position or Piston location in Cylinder

Fig. 3.3 : Working Principles of SI Engine

Since crank of a reciprocating engine has a periodic motion and same

process is repeated in each cycle or period, operation of SI engine is illustrated
in terms of piston location in cylinder or crank position. If rotation speed of
crank is known, x-axis can be converted to time also. Variation of volume ratio
with crank position is obvious. Maximum volume in the cycle is obtained at the
beginning of suction stroke. This is equivalent to piston position at bottom
center (BC). Volume ratio is 1 at BC. As piston approaches top center (TC),
volume is reduced to clearance volume only and the value of volume ratio is
reciprocal of compression ratio at TC. This is depicted by cyclic periodic
variation of V/Vmax with crank position in figure 3.3.
To maintain sufficient fuel flow, inlet valve opening (IVO) takes place
slightly before top center (TC) position of the piston. This takes care of
sluggish opening of intake valve and by the time piston reaches top center
position, valve is fully open. Similarly, to take advantage of inertia of flow of
fuel, inlet valve closing (IVC) occurs substantially after bottom center (BC).
Total duration during which intake valve is open is called intake stroke. During
intake stroke, incoming mixture of fuel and air pushes combustion product out
 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 3.11

of cylinder and also mixes with them. During intake stroke pressure rise is
almost negligible.
Once inlet valve closes, compression stroke starts. Between 10° to 40°
crank angle, before TC, an electric discharge through spark plug starts the
combustion. A turbulent flame develops from the spark-discharge and
propagates across the mixture. This augments compression process by
increasing volume of mixture. This leads to rapid rise in pressure as well as
temperature. Flame starts from spark plug and terminates at the cylinder walls.
The combustion process covers around 40° to 60° crank angle. Crank-angle at
spark is ahead of TC and advancement of spark is dependent on several engine
variables. If spark advanced is high, incomplete compression occurs and if it is
less, it causes combustion related problems. However, spark advance is
generally planned for maximum torque.
Exhaust valve opening starts at around two-third of the way through
expansion. As cylinder pressure is higher than exhaust port and manifold
pressure, discharge of combustion gases starts. Energy of expansion of gases
is utilized for initial exhaust of gases and subsequently after piston reaches BC,
piston motion also forces combustion gases out of the cylinder. Exhaust valve
remains open just after TC and inlet opens just before TC.
Cycle efficiency for SI engines is discussed in chapter 1. In ideal air
standard cycle, air standard efficiency is dependent on compression ratio
alone. As compression ratio increase, air standard efficiency also increase for
Otto cycle. For actual fuel-air cycle, the equivalence ratio or amount of
available air with respect to actual air requirement also play a major role.
Equivalence ratio is amount of fuel-air used to amount of chemical correct
fuel-air ratio needed for complete combustion of fuel. As equivalence ratio is
reduced below unity (lean mixture), the efficiency for a given compression
ratio increases. This increase in efficiency by changed equivalence ratio is
achieved due to changed value of ratio of specific heat. As amount of air is less
than chemically correct quantity, burnt gas temperature realized after
combustion is lower. This reduces specific heat of burnt gas and increases
effective ratio of specific heats for the expansion stroke. For a given
compression ratio, higher value of ratio of specific heats results in larger
temperature difference over the process. For example, if compression ratio of
SI engine is 8 and expansion starts from a temperature of 1000 K, two value of
ratio of specific heats are considered – 1.35 and 1.4. Temperatures at the end
of expansion are calculated to be 482.97 K and 435.27 K respectively.
Definitely, temperature difference at the end of expansion is lower, if ratio of
specific heats increases thus giving a larger temperature difference during
expansion. As equivalent ratio is increased beyond 1, combustion mixture
become more and richer and efficiency suffers due to lack of sufficient air for
3.12 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

complete combustion. Decreased burned gas temperature and decreased

specific heats of combustion gases gives not only reduction in efficiency but
also in work output and energy released in combustion. Mean effective
pressure for an ideal gas exhibits a maximum value in the range of 1 to 1.1 of
equivalence ratio. For less than the given range of equivalent ratio, mass of fuel
inducted is less, while at higher equivalence ratio reduced combustion
efficiency (conversion efficiency) causes adverse effects on mean effective
pressure.
Since combustion in SI engine takes place by spark plug, the energy
available with arc created at spark plug point is important. The temperature in
spark discharge is of the order of 10000°C. However, this should be viewed in
conjunction with spark duration. Such high temperature leaves a thin line of
flame as is seen in sky in lightning during heavy rain and thunderstorms. This
evaporates fuel and air in the vicinity and subsequently expansion of flame
front takes place. This is called preparation phase and is actually the time-delay
between injections of fuel to creation of self-propagating flame front. It is
desirable to have lower ignition delay so that enough time is available for
combustion to complete in a fast moving engine. There are several factors
which contribute significantly to the ignition lag. If fuel has a higher ignition
temperature, ignition lag will be higher. Ignition delay is drastically reduced if
fuel air ratio is tuned to give maximum temperature by working at slightly
richer mixture. Higher temperature and pressure at the time of ignition also
reduces ignition lag. Reduction in ignition lag is also possible by increasing
compression ratio and retarding spark time. Electrode gap is important for the
ignition delay. If spark plug gap is less, generated discharge in the gap is too
small and despite giving a very high local temperature, the same is not
sufficient to propagate through the mixture. There is certain minimum air gap
needed between the spark plug points. Richer mixture to the extent up to an
equivalent ratio of 1.4 can give a stable range of minimum spark plug gap for
better combustion. Lower compression ratio needs higher spark plug gap.
Minimum spark plug gap needed for higher compression ratio needs lower
equivalente ratio. Conversely higher compression ratio works satisfactorily at
relatively lower electrode gap and equivalente ratio.
The expansion of this small nucleus results in so called flame spreads
through out the cylinder. The flame propagation is dependent on degree of
turbulence present in the engine cylinder. Higher turbulence breaks continuous
fire front into a ragged front thus increasing exposed area tremendously and
increasing flame velocity. This gives lower combustion period. Ideally
pressure in an SI engine should rise steadily during compression and when
piston reaches top center, combustion should give a sudden jump in the
pressure. This reduces isentropically during expansion stroke.
 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 3.13

3.4 WORKING OF COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINES

Compression ignition (CI) engines generally operate on Diesel Cycle. Contrary
to SI engines, where mixture of fuel and air is injected, in CI engines, air alone
is inducted into the cylinder. Fuel is injected just before the scheduled time of
combustion. Air flow in the engine is virtually invariant and engine power is
generally controlled by quantity of fuel supplied. In SI engine, quantity control
of mixture is exercised to get different powers while in CI engine, quality of
fuel-air mixture gives different loads.
Depending on type of inducted air, CI engines can be
z Naturally aspirated – induction of atmospheric air.
z Turbocharged – induction of compressed air by exhaust-driven
turbine-compressor combination.
z Supercharged – induction of compressed air from mechanically driven
pump or blower.
Turbo charging and supercharging is advantageous because it allows
induction of more mass of air in same cylinder volume. This paves way for
induction of more fuel and thereby increasing work output from the engine.
However, these methods are suitable for large engines only for giving a
compact design.
CI engines generally operate at compression ratio of 12 to 24 depending on
type of fuel, type of air induction, cylinder head, power requirements etc. The
valve timing of CI engine almost similar to that of SI engine as depicted in
figure 3.3. Induction or suction stroke involves pure air at normal atmospheric
condition. Inducted air is compressed to around 4 MPa pressure resulting in
temperature rise to 800 K. Around 15-20° ahead of TC fuel injection starts.
Because of high resistance of compressed air in the cylinder, the fuel is
atomized.
Atomization is associated with vaporization and mixing with air
simultaneously. Fuel is distributed indifferent concentration throughout the
cylinder and fuel-air ratio is different locally. As ignition temperatures is
achieved at several locations inside cylinder at the available fuel-air ratio,
spontaneous ignition or auto-ignition takes place. However, this occurs after
some delay. To compensate for this delay, fuel injection starts before TC. The
flame spreads to entire mixture. This is followed by expansion process, but
combustion continues during some part of expansion stroke also. This is
followed by exhaust stroke. At the end of exhaust stroke, fresh cycle starts
again.
CI engines are generally recognized by valves, positioned in the engines for
inlet and exhaust operations. Although there is no standard criteria for valve
3.14 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

timing, valve lift profiles and valve open areas, system design of engines are
carried out with practical consideration to carry out intended operation with
adequate efficiency. The valves may be a mechanical one or a hydraulic
mechanism. Valve timing as shown in figure 3.3 are valid in this case also. Inlet
valve opens 10° to 25° before piston reaches top center. Engine performance
is not affected by this timing. But this should occur sufficiently before top
centre, so that back flow during engine suction stroke is avoided. Inlet valve
closes at 40° to 60° after piston reaches bottom center to take advantage of
ram effect and provide more time to incoming gases to fill chamber. This
affects volumetric efficiency of the engine. As far as exhaust valves are
concerned, they are opened 50° to 60° before piston reaches bottom center in
the power stroke so that exhaust process of gas can continue with the
assistance of expanding gases. This affects expansion ratio in the engine and
affects cycle efficiency also. Exhaust valve closes after piston reaches top
center and creates larger pressure drop in the engine due to flow inertia of
outgoing gases. Comparison of SI and CI engine is tabulated below.

Spark Ignition (SI) Engine Compression Ignition (CI) Engine

It is based on Otto cycle. It is based on Diesel Cycle.

Fuel used has high self-ignition Fuel used should have low self-ignition
temperature and it should not auto-ignite temperature, because it has to ignite by
on compression. compression alone.
It needs a separate ignition system like It does not need separate ignition system.
spark plug.
A mixture of fuel and air is introduced in Fuel is injected directly in the cylinder. It
the cylinder. It needs a carburetor needs a fuel pump and injector.
The engine utilizes quantity governing. The engine utilizes quality governing.
Control on acceleration through throttle Quantity governing gives best acceleration.
valve is difficult.
To control power, quantity of charge is It is a quality control engine and amount of
controlled. fuel injected is controlled to control power
output.
Compression ratio is of the order of 6 to Compression ratio is of the order of 14 to
11. Upper limit is knocking controlled. 22. Upper limit is engine strength
Limited efficiency. controlled. Higher efficiency.
Supercharging is not very effective and is Supercharging is employed in CI engines.
limited by knocking.
It operates at less compression pressure It operates at high compression pressure
(700 - 1500 kPa). (3000 - 5000 kPa).
Higher maximum rotational speed (5000 Lower maximum rotation speed (3000
rpm). rpm).
 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 3.15

Spark Ignition (SI) Engine Compression Ignition (CI) Engine

Light weight engine due to low compression Heavy weight engine due to high operating
ratios. pressures.
High exhaust gas temperature. Low exhaust gas temperature.
Low cranking efforts in starting. Difficult in starting.
Low weight per unit power (0.4 to 3.5 kg/ High weight per unit power (2.5 to 10 kg/
hp). hp).
Higher power per unit displacement (40 Lower power per unit displacement (20
hp / liter) hp/liter).
Fuel used is petrol, which is volatile and Fuel used in diesel, which is less volatile
has high fire hazard. and has less fire hazard.
Low initial cost but high running cost. High initial cost but low running cost.
Less operating life. Higher operating life.
Less noise and vibration. More idle noise.
Emitted odour is tolerable. Objectionable odour and smoke.
Air fuel ratio limited from 10 to 17. It has Air fuel ratio may be 18-100. Higher
poor fuel economy. compression ratio gives lower specific fuel
consumption.

SI engines are generally preferred in automobiles and smaller airplanes. They

are relatively lighter in weight and have better passenger comfort. Motor cycles,
scooters, mopeds, motor boats, lawn movers, mobile generator sets, water pumps,
air compressors etc utilizes SI engine.
CI engines have better fuel economy at both part load and full loads and less
expensive fuel. It finds uses in heavy duty applications like buses, trucks, loco-
motives, bulldozers, tractors, earth moving machines etc. reduced fire hazard
from fuel makes it ideal for marine use and confined environments.

3.5 WORKING OF 2-STROKE ENGINES

One movement of piston from any center to other center for example from top
center to bottom center or bottom center to top center is called a stroke in the
operation of a reciprocating engine. In 2-stroke engines, one power stroke is
derived in 2 motions of the piston. This is equivalent to 1 revolution of the
crank-shaft. Although, 2-stroke engines are available in both CI and SI classes,
but SI engines are most preferred. It gives higher power and has simple valve
design. Operation of a simple 2-stroke engine is given in figure 3.4.
The explanation of cycle starts when both the ports are closed by piston,
required quantity of fuel is injected in the cylinder and piston is moving
towards top center (TC). This is equivalent to compression stroke. When
3.16 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

piston comes near TC, combustion is initiated depending on type of engine. In

SI engines, spark plug is activated and in CI engine, fuel is injected. This
process is also associated with suction of mixture (in SI engine) or air (in CI
engine) in the crankcase through inlet valve.
On initiation inside cylinder chamber, expansion of exhaust product takes
place and piston is forced towards bottom center (BC). This is power cum
expansion stroke and mechanical work is done to rotate the crank. As piston
moves downwards, first exhaust port opens and exhaust products are
discharged. Expansion and exhaust takes place simultaneously. Piston top is
suitably configured for proper scavenging of combustion gases. After some
movement of piston, transfer port opens and fuel and/or air is injected in
cylinder. The entry is deflected towards cylinder head and pushes combustion
products towards exhaust port, thus augmenting scavenging. After reaching
BC, upward movement of piston starts and compression stroke is executed
after both the ports are open.

Exhaust Deflector Transfer

ports ports

Inlet
valve

Exhaust blowdown Scavenging

Fig. 3.4 : Working Principles of 2-Stroke Engine

In 2-stroke engines, power is derived in each rotation of crank. Since

during operation, both inlet and outlet ports are opened for sometime, together;
there are chances of unburned fuel directly moving to exhaust port.
Additionally, dilution of fresh charge is always observed in the 2-stroke
engines.
 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 3.17

3.6 WORKING OF 4-STROKE ENGINES

In a 4-stroke engine, all processes are executed in well defined separate
motions. The working principles of a typical 4-stroke engine are depicted in
figure 3.5. In this case both intake and outlet ports are located near cylinder
head. The description of process in a 4-stroke engine is initiated from intake or
suction stroke. During this process, piston moves from TC to BC. When
piston moves downwards from TC, suction head is created in cylinder near
head. This causes inlet port to open and fresh charge is inducted in cylinder.
After reaching BC, piston motion in upward direction starts. This raises
pressure above piston resulting in closure of inlet port. With both the ports
closed, piston moves upwards executing compression stroke.
At the end of compression stroke, when piston is nearing TC, combustion
process is initiated. Combustion of fuel causes generation of large volume of
gases at high temperature. This process forces piston towards BC, executing a
power stroke. This is also associated with expansion of combustion gases
inside cylinder. At the end of expansion, exhaust port opens and upward
moving piston forces combustion gases out of the cylinder. To take advantage
of inertia of motion, exhaust valve remain open slightly after TC is reached.
After piston reaches TC, it moves towards BC again, resulting in execution
of suction stroke again. So in two revolution of crank or in four strokes of the
piston one power stroke is derived. This cycle is called 4-stroke cycle. It has
lower power per cycle but has high thermal efficiency.
Inlet Exhaust Inlet Exhaust Inlet Exhaust Inlet Exhaust

vr
TC
ve va

BC

(a) Intake (b) Compression (c) Expansion (d) Exhaust

Fig. 3.5 : Working Principles of 4-Stroke Engine

To measure overall effectiveness of a 4-stroke cycle engine, volumetric

efficiency (as defined in section 1.10) is used. It is equal to actual to ideal mass
3.18 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

flow rate of the air. Ideal mass flow rate of air is obtained as product of density
(at atmospheric conditions), swept volume (piston displacement) and effective
number of revolution (half of rotation per minute for 4-stroke engines). This
term is also used to measure the intake and exhaust systems as a pumping
device. In SI engines, less air flow occurs due to restriction imposed by
throttle valve. Volumetric efficiency is dependent on several parameters:
z Fuel type (chemical constituents, heat of vaporization, oxygen balance)
z Fuel: air ratio taken inside the cylinder of the engine
z Fraction of fuel vaporized in the intake system.
z Mixture temperature and engine heat transfer
z Ratio of exhaust to inlet manifold pressures
z Compression ratios
z Speed of the engines
z Design of intake and exhaust manifold
z Geometry, size, lift and timings of intake and exhaust valves.
Larger fuel-air ratio, lower exhaust pressure and larger compression ratio
give lower volumetric efficiency. If fuel vaporizes in intake manifold,
volumetric efficiency improves. During vaporization of fuel, heat is absorbed
from the mixture and in absence of heat transfer to the inlet mixture of fuel and
air, mixture temperature reduces. As fuel vaporizes partially in the inlet
manifold, the deviation in volumetric efficiency is more due to reduction in
partial pressure of air rather than due to cooling. As far as temperature is
concerned, square root relation generally holds. Compression ratio affects
clearance volume and thereby the amount of residual gases left in the cylinder
at the end of each exhaust stroke. As exhaust to inlet gas temperature
increases, volumetric efficiency reduces. Ram effect is another important
concern and due to inertia of air during suction stroke, air continues to flow
even after piston starts travel towards top dead center for compression stroke.
If inlet valve is open in the initial part of piston movement for compression
stroke, air more than cylinder volume can be sucked in the engine. This
enhances volumetric efficiency of the engine. At higher engine speeds this
effect is more pronounced. Similarly creation of pressure wave in inlet and
exhaust manifolds due to valve action also affects actual amount of air taken
inside the cylinder. In general volumetric efficiency of SI engine is lower than
that for a diesel engine due to flow losses in carburetor and throttle (air flow
not directly to engine cylinder), intake manifold heating, presence of fuel vapor
(partial pressure of air lowers), and high residual gas fraction (lower
compression ratio). With tuning diesel engines can maintain higher volumetric
efficiency for a wider range of piston speeds.
 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 3.19

For any engine, ideally volumetric efficiency should be 100%. Due to

presence of fuel vapour, partial pressure of air reduces. Additionally there are
certain other speed independent effects (quasi-static) which reduces
volumetric efficiency. However, the reduction is uniform at all engine speeds.
Another effect called charge heating in intake manifold affects volumetric
efficiency at lower engine speeds and higher speeds it becomes less effective
but measurable. At low engine speeds, longer time is available for heating and
effect becomes dominant. Further reduction in volumetric efficiency is
observed due frictional flow losses, which are less at low speeds but high with
almost stable value at higher speeds. Practically frictional losses are
proportional to square of the engine speeds. Further to this, at high engine
speed, choking occurs and further enhancement in intake volume of air is not
possible by higher pressure differential. Volume flow rate cannot be enhanced
beyond certain level and volumetric efficiency reduces drastically at higher
engine speeds. Ram effect takes advantage of inertia of flow of gases and
enhances volumetric efficiency at higher engine speeds. However, at low
engine speeds back flow reduces volumetric efficiency. If suitable tuning is
applied, volumetric efficiency for a part of engine speeds can be enhanced.
Finally, the curve for variation of volumetric efficiency with engine speed has
a peak at certain speed-ranges and on both sides, the volumetric efficiency is
lower.
2-stroke and 4-stroke engines are compared in the table below.
4-Stroke Engine 2-Stroke Engine

One power stroke in every two rotation of One power stroke per rotation of the
crankshaft. crankshaft.
Requirement of heavy flywheel to control Requirement of lighter flywheel to control
non-uniform turning moment. relatively uniform turning moment.
Power for same size of engine is less. Power from same size of engine is more.
Less cooling and lubrication requirements. Greater cooling and lubrication requirements.
Less wear and tear. More wear and tear.
It has valve and valve mechanisms. It has ports.
It has high initial cost It is cheap as valves are absent.
High volumetric efficiency due to greater Low volumetric efficiency due to lower
time of induction. time of induction.
It has higher thermal efficiency. It has lower thermal efficiency.
It has better part load efficiency. It has lower part load efficiency.
There is no fuel loss as strokes are well Some unburned fuel is directly forced out
separated. through the exhaust port.
3.20 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

3.7 PAR
PARTS OF ENGINES AND THEIR MA
ART TERIAL
MATERIALS
TERIALS
Piston and cylinder are two important parts of an IC engine. Engine cylinders
are generally contained in an engine block, which are made of grey cast iron
because of low cost and good wear resistance. Sometimes removable cylinder
sleeves are pressed into the block for replacement on wear. Aluminium is being
used for smaller SI engines blocks to reduce engine weight. However, for
sleeves or cylinder liner, iron is general employed. Cylinder head seals off the
cylinder and is made of cast iron or aluminium. The cylinder head contains
spark plug, fuel injector, overhead valves and valve mechanisms.
Crankcase is generally an integral part of cylinder block. It houses crank
shaft, crank and big and small end bearings. Crankshaft is made of steel
forging. Bearings at both ends of crank are made of steel backed precision
inserts with bronze, babbit or aluminium.
Piston is generally made of Aluminium in small engines and cast iron in
larger engines. Piston seals the cylinder and transmits the pressure to the crank
pin via connecting rod. Sealing is attained by piston rings which are made of
silicon cast iron. The connecting rod is usually made of steel or alloy forgings.
Material of construction and method of manufacturing various engine parts are
tabulated below.
Sl. Name of Material of Method of
No. the parts construction manufacturing

1. Cylinder Cast iron, Alloy steel. Casting

2. Cylinder head Cast iron, Aluminium alloy Casting, Forming
3. Piston Cast iron, Aluminium alloy Casting, Forging
4. Piston rings Silicon cast iron Casting
5. Valves Specialty alloy steel Forging
6. Connecting rod Steel Forging
7. Crank shaft Alloy steel, SG iron Forging
8. Crank case Aluminium alloy, steel, Casting
Cast iron
9. Cylinder liner Cast iron, Nickel alloy steel Casting
10. Bearing White metal, Leaded bronze Casting

It is important to understand and discuss reasons of deviation in

performance of actual engines from a fuel-air cycle. As discussed earlier, fuel-
air cycle is different from air standard cycle and for an Otto cycle, the
efficiency is dependent on equivalence ratio also, in addition to compression
ratio. Similarly some practical considerations are necessary to derive power
efficiently from actual engines. One such operation is heat transfer through
 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 3.21

cylinder walls. All valves, and contact surfaces are assumed, in the ideal
engines to be leak-proof and they allow mass transfer only when allowed.
However, in real system, a leak-proof system is difficult to make and execute.
During compression stroke, temperature levels are not very high and heat
transfer to engine cylinder are not a major concern, but during expansion
stroke after combustion process, temperature of expanding inside engine
cylinder is very high. This result in unwanted heat transfer to the walls of the
cylinder and walls inadvertently cools the engine content. This results in lower
pressure than expected at the end of expansion and pressure always lags actual
isentropic pressure at various expansion volumes. This reduces efficiency due
to heat loss. Incomplete combustion not only reduces power output but also
enhances pollution by introducing carbon monoxide and hydrogen in the
combustion products. The combustion process is assumed to occur in
infinitesimal-small time in the fuel-air cycle, but in real situation, for optimum
efficiency, spark timing is adjusted to before arrival of piston to clearance
volume level. Spark timing may be adjusted earlier to piston coming to top dead
center, to a little after it proceeds towards expansion stroke. However, giving
spark is not sufficient to ensure completion of combustion. Combustion
always takes some finite time and burning process, which starts before piston
reaches top dead center to slightly after piston retraces away from top dead
center. Last part of combustion occurs at lower pressure and is generally
sluggish. Peak pressure value in actual cycle is also smaller, but pressure
during expansion stroke will be higher than in optimum timing cycle. At the end
of expansion stroke, combustion products are sent out of cylinder.
This process also starts a little before piston arrival at bottom dead center
to give gases sufficient time to go out. So gas pressure drops below isentropic
line in exhaust stroke and work transfer during expansion stroke is further
reduced.
For a normal diesel engine, various losses contribute to reduction in actual
efficiency to around 30-40%. Combustion losses may be of the order of
20-25%, exhaust losses may be of the order of 12-18%, heat transfer losses to
the cylinder walls may vary in almost equal proportion as exhaust losses.
Aerodynamic and mechanical friction losses may account for a loss of around
5% each. In general, efficiency higher than this is never achieved from a
practical engine.

3.8 COMBUSTION PROCESS

Despite difference in mode of initiation, combustion process remains same for
SI and CI engines. Let us have a look at the combustion process in the two
types of engines one after the other.
3.22 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

In SI engines, mixture of fuel and air is injected, compressed and then

ignited by spark discharge. Under normal operating condition, at the end of
compression stroke, flame develops, propagates through the mixture and
extinguishes as soon as it reaches wall of the cylinders. The moment spark
discharge takes place, for initial duration, marked rise in pressure is not
observed because energy release from the flame is very small. As flame
continues to grow, progressive heat addition causes deviation from normal
isentropic compression curves. The pressure reaches maximum after TC, but
before total charge in the cylinder is fully burned.
It is observed that flame development and subsequent propagation do not
replicate in each cycle. The variation is observed in pressure, volume fraction,
mass fraction of burned charged, volume fraction enflamed etc. Basically
flame development depends on local mixture motion and composition, which
cannot be made same in each cycle. Total combustion process in an SI engine
can be classified under 4 heads–(i) Spark ignition (ii) Early flame development
(iii) Flame propagation (iv) Flame termination. For maximum power or
torque, combustion must be located on TC. Out of the four processes, second
and third occurs between 30 to 90° of crank angle.
Combustion generally starts before end of compression stroke and ends
after attainment of peak pressure. If start of combustion process is advanced
progressively before TC, work transfer in compression stroke increases.
Conversely, if end of combustion process is progressively delayed, the peak
cylinder pressure occurs at later stage in expansion stroke and has lower
magnitude. This may reduce work transfer from cylinder gas to piston. The
maximum power situation is arrived when both these effects nullify each
other. The optimum spark setting depends on rate of flame development and
flame propagation, length of flame travel and flame termination process. It also
depends on fuel ignitability.
Combustion process is meant for energy release and these are
characterized by different values. One is flame development angle, which can
be referred as ignition delay also. Since in SI engine, combustion is initiated by
spark, there is virtually no delay. However, flame development angle is interval
between spark discharge and the time when chemical energy of 10% fuel
(10% mass fraction) has been released. After flame development angle, rapid
burning angle is postulated. It is interval when bulk of the charge is consumed.
Combination of both the angles is called overall burning angle.
Combustion mechanism in an SI engine takes place in turbulent flow field.
The flow field is produced by high shear flows set up during the intake process
and modified during compression. Turbulence enhances flame propagation
speed and complete combustion process inside SI engine cylinder depends on
charge motion, charge composition and chamber geometry. Flame front inside
 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 3.23

cylinder of SI engine is generally irregular; however it grows in spherical

fashion with center at spark plug location. Flame front surface area is
governed by geometry of combustion chamber and the spark plug location.
Bigger flame front surface area allows entry of large quantity of mixture to
flame zone and thereby rapid combustion process is ensured.
Burning rate is affected greatly by the composition, quantity and
thermodynamic state of unburned mixture. If inlet pressure is reduced,
burning will progress slowly resulting in increase of both flame development
and rapid burning angles. Highest burning rate is achieved at slightly richer
mixture due to non-homogenous mixing. As mixture becomes leaner, both the
specified angle increases and burning rate reduces. If quantity of burned gas
remains on higher side in the cylinder, burning rate reduces and both flame
development and rapid burning angle increases. Similarly effects of chamber
geometry, gas motion, gas composition, inlet conditions, fuel type, air quantity
etc affect combustion process significantly in an SI engine.
Ignition is one of the critical requirements for initiation of flame in an SI
engine. Spark between the electrodes creates high temperature plasma kernel,
which gets transformed into self-sustaining and propagating flame front.
Spark is generally created by application of sufficiently high voltage across
electrode gap. As voltage is raised across the gap, breakdown of intervening
medium occurs and ionizing plasma passes from one electrode to the other.
The impedance of gap reduces when the plasma reaches other electrode and
current through gap increases rapidly. This stage is called breakdown phase of
discharge. This is followed by arc phase, where thin cylindrical plasma
expands largely due to heat transfer and diffusion. This leads to exothermic
reaction in the fuel-air mixture and visible glow is created. This phase is called
glow discharge phase.
Breakdown phase precedes arc and glow phase. It creates electrically
conducting path between the electrodes. It is a zero current phase. During this
phase gas in the gap is fully dissociated and ionized. The arc phase is
associated with low voltage and high current. In this phase dissociation may be
on higher side but degree of ionization is much lower. Voltage drop is
significant and current reduces gradually during the phase. As arc needs hot
cathode spot, it is invariably associated with erosion of cathode material. Gas
temperature in arc is limited to 6000 K due to heat conduction and mass
diffusion.
Conventional ignition system includes coil ignition systems, which is
battery operated and is used in automotive engines. This has reduced
maintenance, extended spark plug life, improved ignition of lean and diluted
mixture and increased reliability and life. For ignition of SI engine, if
homogenous mixture is supplied, spark energy of the order of around 1 mJ
3.24 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

only is needed and the spark should last for a few microseconds. Since air-fuel
mixture is not homogenous throughout the cylinder volume, and presence of
combustion gases may act as inhibitor to flame propagation, the energy
requirement becomes higher than ideal energy. Variations in temperature,
density, load, and engine speed also affect spark energy requirements and in
most of the systems, spark energy of the order of 50 mJ and duration of
0.5 ms are taken as reliable figure of merit. The main requirements of ignition
includes–(i) high ignition voltage to break down the gap between the plug
electrode, (ii) low impedance of source and step (not ramp) voltage rise, (iii)
high energy storage capacitor to ensure ignition, and (iv) sufficient duration of
voltage pulse to ensure ignition.
Coil ignition system fulfills these requirements adequately. It is a breaker
operated inductive ignition system. The system has a battery, switch ignition
coil, distributor and spark plug, which are connected in series by suitable
wiring. Under normal condition, when switch is on, current flows from
battery through resistor (to increase voltage) to the primary winding of ignition
coil. This sets up a magnetic field within the iron core of the coil. When
ignition is needed, breaker point is opened by action of distributor cam (for
providing spark to different cylinders). This interrupts primary current flow
and decay in magnetic flux of the coil. This reduces voltage in both primary
and secondary windings. The stepped up voltage in secondary winding is fed
to spark plugs of different cylinders in sequence as per requirement. As
primary current requires time to build up, at low speed time of contact is
sufficient to build-up the maximum current. However, at higher speeds,
current in primary winding may not reach its maximum. When circuit is open,
no current flows through the primary winding and voltage across secondary
winding comparable to battery potential is induced. If spark plug is not
connected, induced voltage has damped variation of voltage. However, when
spark plug is connected, voltage in the secondary coil will rise to breakdown
potential of spark plug and discharge between the electrodes of the spark plug
occurs. After spark, voltage reduces to lower value. This system has a major
limitation. As engine speed increases, available voltage decreases. This is in
fact limitation of current switching capability of breaker system. This
decreases time available to build up energy storage in the primary coil. If there
is some variation in the insulator of the spark plug or gap is not adequately
tuned, performance of spark plug deteriorates. Due to high voltage, point of
the spark plug is subjected to electrical wear leading to frequent maintenance.
Further improvements in the form of transistorized coil ignition (TCI) or
capacitive-discharge ignition (CDI) or magneto ignition systems are also
observed. There are certain alternative ignition approaches like plasma jet
ignition, flame jet ignition etc.
 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 3.25

Spark plug is invariably used in SI engine and is in fact identification mark

of the engine. Sometimes for better and quicker ignition of fuel inside engine
cylinder two spark plugs are used. In old days, two spark plugs were used for
redundancy purpose. If there is trouble of fouling of spark plug point, supply
can be given to second spark plug and the same becomes active spark plug.
However, with advent of digital technology, for larger vehicles, two spark
plugs are of no used for efficient combustion. It is observed that because of
very less time available for combustion of fuel in SI engine, combustion of fuel
cannot be completed with single spark plug. So, two spark plugs at different
locations in the engine are placed and ignited simultaneously. This results in
two flame front from two different sides and consumes entire mixture in much
less time. This improves engine efficiency by complete combustion of fuel in
less time. A patent for use of this technology by Bajaj is effective in the name of
Digital Twin Spark Ignition (DTSi) technology and is used in Pulsar class of
vehicles.
Compression ignition engine has slightly different combustion mechanism.
It does not have a spark plug for initiation of combustion. In this case,
combustion is initiated by achievement of auto-ignition temperature for fuel air
mixture locally, which spreads throughout the cylinder volume. In CI engine,
fuel is injected in the compressed air at the end of compression stroke. Fuel is
injected at high velocity through a small orifice, where atomization,
vapourisation and mixing with compressed high temperature air takes place. As
mixture is initiated, temperature rises and further compression of unburned
mixture takes place. This reduces auto-ignition temperature of unburned
mixture and ultimately, entire cylinder volume is ignited. In a typical CI engine,
atomization, vaporization, mixing and combustion occurs simultaneously.
Combustion in CI engine is highly complex and is affected by fuel, cylinder
design, fuel-injection system and engine operating conditions. The entire
process is three-dimensional, heterogeneous, unsteady, and transient and a
quantitative analysis of combustion in CI engine is still not possible.
As injection starts before combustion, there is no knock limit in case of CI
engine. In fact, combustion in CI engine starts at multiple points and is a
knocking action in itself. To improve combustion efficiency, higher
compression ratio can be adopted comfortably without any ignition problem.
CI engine can be operated in unthrottled condition because airflow is
unchanged and only control over fuel injection process is exercised. Part load
mechanical efficiency of CI engine is better than SI engine, whose
performance deteriorates considerably on part loads. Increase in fuel supply
beyond limit for extracting more power invariably may result in formation of
soot. So, generally lean mixture is used in CI engines due to improper mixing.
Lean mixture results in unutilized air, in substantial quantity, during each cycle.
3.26 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

This results in higher value of specific heat ratio as compared to SI engine.

Ultimately, fuel conversion efficiency is higher for the given expansion ratio in
CI engine as compared to SI engine.
Commercial diesel engines are made in large ranges of cylinder sizes.
Maximum piston speed at maximum rated power is constant over cylinder
size. So, maximum rated engine speed is inversely proportional to the stroke.
As engine size reduces, more vigorous air motion is needed because fuel
penetration length needed in compressed air is on lower side.
For initiation of combustion in CI engine, injection system can be direct
injection, where single open combustion chamber into which fuel in injected
directly is realized. In larger engines, mixing requirements are not very critical
and fuel injection is sufficient to achieve required degree of mixing and
distribution of fuel with air. Direct injection is best choice for such situations.
Combustion chamber in this case is a shallow bowl and central multi-hole
injector is installed. As engine size decreases, air swirl gradually becomes
important for better mixing. Air swirl can be achieved by forcing air towards
cylinder axis.
Indirect injection engine is another class, where fuel is first injected into
the pre-chamber which is connected to the main chamber via a nozzle. Indirect
injection engines are used in smallest engines. Here, air swirl by injection is not
sufficient to give required degree of mixing. During compression, air is forced
from the main chamber into an auxiliary chamber, which has provision for
rapid rotation. Fuel is injected into the auxiliary chamber at lower injection
system pressure than direct injection systems. Combustion starts in the
auxiliary chamber, the pressure rises and forces fluid back to main chamber,
where the jet mixes with main chamber air. This is followed by further
combustion of remaining mixture.

3.9 ABNORMAL COMBUSTION

Abnormal combustion process in engines results in loss of performance, stress
on components, premature failures and abnormal power outputs. Abnormal
combustion is generally associated with unexpected release of energy and it
invariably result in rapid heat transfer and abnormal sound. In SI engines, two
types of abnormal combustion behaviour are observed – Knock and surface
ignition.
Knock has got its name from the type of sound created by engines, when
under this abnormality. Normal flame propagation should occur from spark
plug towards wall of the cylinder. However, as combustion proceeds, volume
of gases increases, resulting in compression of unburned mixture inside
cylinder. This causes rise in pressure and temperature of the unburned
mixture. When auto ignition temperature is locally attained at any point in the
 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 3.27

unburned mixture, flame erupts at that point, before flame from spark plug
reaches there. When this happens, mixture burns very rapidly towards end of
the compression stroke resulting in high frequency oscillation inside cylinder,
causing sharp metallic noise called knock.
When engine is operating for many numbers of cycles, valve, cylinder
head and adjoining area becomes heated. Mixture in the vicinity of such heated
components gets ignited without any stimuli from spark plug. Uncontrolled
ignition is most evident but in many cases this may result in pre-ignition also.
Although spark discharge is effective but it does not have any control over
combustion process.
Knock is governed by temperature and pressure history of gas, rate of
development of flame etc. If auto-ignition occurs repeatedly, the phenomenon
is called spark-knock. It can be controlled by spark-advance. Advancing spark
results in increase in severity and intensity of knock and vice-versa. Knock can
be initiated by surface ignition and accordingly can be classified as knocking
surface ignition and non-knocking surface ignition. Several terminologies are
prevalent by combination of various effects of abnormal combustion.
Wild ping causes sharp cracking sound and is supposed to occur due to
combustion of loose deposited particles at the inner surface of the cylinder. It
disappears when particles are consumed and reappears on further deposition.
For wild ping, these particles become local source of additional energy or
flame creation and causes disturbances in the normal combustion process.
Rumble is another phenomena associated with deposit caused surface ignition
It is a relatively low- frequency noise (600 Hz – 1200 Hz) and is associated
with surface ignition in high compression ratio engines. Rumble and knock can
occur together.
Run-on is another abnormal combustion phenomenon in SI engines. This
occurs when mixture inside cylinder continues to burn even after ignition
system has been switched off. This occurs due to compression of fuel air
mixture and role of surface ignition is negligible in this process. It also emits
knock like sound. Heated spark plugs and valves may result in ignition and
causes run away surface ignition. It is destructive type of surface ignition and
can lead to severe heating and structural damage to the engine.
Amongst surface ignition pre-ignition is potentially the most damaging. If
start of combustion is advanced by any process from the conditions of
maximum torque delivery, amount of heat rejection increases. Burned gas
pressure and temperature increases. Higher heat rejection advances pre
ignition point further. Pre-ignition can also be initiated at the point of deposits
build up, which causes thermal insulation and a heat reservoir for pre-ignition
in absence of spark plug.
3.28 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

In SI engines, knocking is associated with fuel molecules characteristics.

Parrafins as fuel show knocking tendency as their chain length increases.
Addition of side chains results in decreased knocking tendency. In olefins, if
number of double bonds is more, knocking tendency reduces. Exceptions to
this rule, for olefins are acetylene, ethylene and propylene, which knock much
more readily than the corresponding saturated hydrocarbons. Napthenes have
higher knocking tendency than aromatics. Lengthening of side chain in basic
ring increases knocking tendency while branching of side chains result in
decreased knocking tendency.
In CI engine, major problem of combustion is associated with method to
achieve rapid mixing between injected fuel and compressed air. In fact mixing
rates control the fuel burning rate.

3.10 ARRANGEMENT
ARRANGEMENTSS F OR M
FOR UL
MUL TI-CYLINDER AIR
ULTI-CYLINDER CRAFT ENGINES
AIRCRAFT
In the piston engine-propeller combination, production of hot gases by
combustion and/or heat transfer takes place in separate unit and thrust
generating element is separately placed. In practice, multiple-cylinder
configurations are used. These systems utilize reciprocating engines almost
similar to engines used in automobiles on the roads. However, flight versions
of these engines are much lighter for the same delivered power. In the early
part of twentieth century, the water cooled engine developed by the Wright
Brothers delivered a power to engine mass ratio of 0.1 kW/kg. Now, most of
the operational aircraft engines of piston engine-propeller combination have
power to weight ratio in the range of 0.8 kW/kg to 1.2 kW/kg.
Another limitation put forth by such combination in reciprocating engine is
requirement of volume. For flight-compliant engines, power to volume ratio
should also be considered. Reciprocating engines becomes too long for higher
power requirements and their volume rises. Typically power-to-volume ratio
of reciprocating engines would be 0.3 to 0.5 kW/m3.
In such multi-cylinder aircraft engines, several arrangements are
envisaged. Most simple system is inline engines. All cylinder banks are
arranged linearly and transmit power to a single shaft. It is popular in
automobiles where 4 and 6 cylinder inline engines are quite common. Another
type of engine has two cylinder banks (two inline engines) inclined at an angle
to each other and with one crank shaft. Bigger automobiles use this type of
cylinder arrangement.
For the smaller aircrafts, most popular design is opposed cylinder engines.
It has two cylinder banks located in same plane on opposite sides of the
crankshaft. It is virtually two inline cylinder bank arrangements or ‘V’- engine
arrangements separated by 180° angle. It is well balanced and has the
advantage of a single crankshaft.
 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 3.29

Single row Radial Double row In-line Engine

Engine Radial Engine

V Engine Opposed Configuration H Engine

Fig. 3.6 : Arrangements of Cylinders in Multi-cylinder Reciprocating Engines

Radial engines have more than two cylinders in each row equally spaced
around the crankshaft. It is most commonly used in air-cooled aircraft engines
where three, five, seven or nine cylinders may be used in one bank and two or
three banks can be used. An odd number of cylinders per bank is necessary
with alternate cylinders firing in successive revolutions for 4-stroke cycle
radial engines, but any number of cylinders can be used for 2-stroke engines.
The radial engine presents the problem of fastening 3, 5, 7 or 9 connecting
rods to a single crank. A master rod is guided by the crank and articulated rods
are attached to the master rod. It should be noted that master rod executes the
same motion as the connecting rod in other conventional engines, while
articulated rod follows a slightly different path since the point of attachment is
not at the center of the crankpin.
Similarly horizontal-opposed configuration, H-configuration,
X-configuration or Y-configuration can also be adopted. Some of the
arrangements are shown in figure 3.6.

3.11 INTAKE AND EXHA

INTAKE US
EXHAUS
USTT MANIF OLDS
MANIFOLDS
In a reciprocating engine, flow of mixture or air through the engine is highly
pulsating, the pressure variation takes place during movement of piston and
both intake and exhaust manifold observes a time-varying fluid flow.
The Inlet Manifold carries the air-fuel mixture from the carburetor/fuel
injector to the cylinders. The shape and size of the inlet manifold must be such
that it should prohibit the formation of fuel droplets without restricting the
flow of the air-fuel mixture. The manifold must be large enough to allow for
sufficient flow for maximum power and yet it has to be small enough to
3.30 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

maintain adequate flow velocities to keep the fuel droplets suspended within
the air that flows through it. The Inlet manifold must not have any sharp bend
because they tend to increase fuel separation. Rough interior surfaces within
the manifold can increase resistance to airflow and hence must be made
smooth.
The intake manifold of an SI engine has an air-filter, a carburetor and
throttle in the intake port. During suction or induction phase of operation,
mixture passes through each of the components and there is always some
pressure loss in the flow through the system. Valves and intake ports are
further source of pressure reduction. The pressure drop in intake manifold is
dependent on engine speed, the flow resistance offered by walls of the flow
passage, the cross-sectional area of the flow and the charge density.
The exhaust manifold is the set of pipes that lead the exhaust gases out of
the combustion chamber then the upward traveling piston pushes it all out. The
gases are all led out to the exhaust system from the cylinder. The exhaust
manifold usually handles flow of gases very hot since they are coming in just
after being burnt and hence have to be built to withstand that heat. For this
reason, most of the exhaust manifolds are made of cast iron. Just like the inlet
manifolds, they have their rib/cage arrangements to give them the much
required structural rigidity. Since exhaust manifolds lead directly to the
exhaust pipes at the rear of an automobile, the exhaust manifolds have to be
designed keeping the space constraints in mind since the underside of the
vehicle is precious. The exhaust side of a typical SI engine has exhaust pipe, a
catalytic converter for emission control, a muffler or silencer.
During valve timing diagram of engine, it is observed that for some part of
the crank angle, both intake and exhaust valves are open. The overlapping
period of both the ports leads to flow of exhaust gases to the engine cylinder
and that in the engine cylinder to inlet port. However, major advantage of valve
overlap is realized in engines with high operational speeds. At high speeds,
volumetric efficiency improves and more fresh charge than swept volume is
inducted in the cylinder and effective scavenging of exhaust gases also takes
place.

3.12 AIRCRAFT SI ENGINES

Aircraft SI engines are similar in construction as compared to engines. Only
care is taken to reduce the weight of engine and reduce specific fuel
consumption. Aircraft engines are almost always either light weight piston
engines or gas turbines.
An aircraft engine must possess certain features over and above
automobile internal combustion engines. They should be :
 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 3.31

z Light weight, as a heavy engine increases the empty weight of the

aircraft and reduces its payload. Light weight makes engine flight
worthy.
z Powerful, to overcome the weight and drag of the aircraft. The engine
has to develop high acceleration and velocity on ground during take off
and maintain drag and lift combination during flight.
z Small and easily streamlined; large engines with substantial surface
area, when installed, create too much drag. Aircraft engines must be
small and should have preferably an aerodynamic shape for reduced
skin friction drag.
z Reliable, as losing power in an airplane is a substantially greater
problem than in an automobile. Aircraft engines operate at temperature,
pressure, and speed extremes, and therefore need to perform reliably
and safely under all reasonable conditions.
z Field repairable, to keep the cost of replacement down. Minor repairs
should be relatively inexpensive and possible outside of specialized
shops.
z Fuel efficient to give the aircraft the range the design requires.
z Capable of operating at sufficient altitude for the aircraft.
The design of aircraft engines tends to favor reliability over performance.
Long engine operation times and high power settings, combined with the
requirement for high-reliability mean that engines must be constructed to
support this type of operation with ease. Aircraft engines tend to use the
simplest parts possible and include two sets of anything needed for reliability.
Independence of function lessens the likelihood of a single malfunction
causing an entire engine to fail.
Aircraft spend the vast majority of their time traveling at high speed. This
allows an aircraft engine to be air-cooled, as opposed to requiring a radiator.
With the absence of a radiator, aircraft engines can boast of lower weight and
less complexity. The amount of air flow an engine receives is usually carefully
designed according to expected speed and altitude of the aircraft in order to
maintain the engine at the optimal temperature.

3.12.1 Ignition Systems

Ignition system of automobile engines relies on coil ignition system and power
is extracted from battery. Since it is difficult to arrange a battery on aircraft
because it adds extra weight on flight worthy configuration, magneto ignition
system is utilized in aircrafts. Magneto replaces all components of the coil
ignition system except spark plug. It is lighter and more compact than battery
ignition system and is preferred choice for aircrafts. A schematic magneto
3.32 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

ignition system is shown in figure 3.7. It has a magneto, breaker point’s

condenser, ignition switch, distributor and spark plug leads. Magneto replaces
battery and ignition coil.
A soft iron core is placed through an annular permanent magnet. This
magnet is rotated by engine. This causes reversal of direction of magnetic flux
through the iron core of coil due to closed breaker point. The magnetic flux
alternately builds up and breaksdown resulting in generation of current in
primary and secondary coils. Normally the voltage is not sufficient to jump
over the gap over spark plug. For generation of high voltage rapid breaker
mechanism for magnetic flux is needed. This is achieved by breaker point,
which is generally operated by cam. Bringing condenser in line causes increase
in voltage. When breaker point is open, condenser is charged. Rapid discharge
occurs almost instantaneously to produce almost instantaneous breakdown of
magnetic flux. This rapid breakdown causes very high voltage of the order of
10000 to 20000 volts in secondary winding. This high voltage is fed to spark
plug through suitable wiring to create spark. In this case, timing of various
events like breaking of primary circuit, the motion of the rotor and rotation of
distributor cam are controlled for firing of different cylinders appropriately.
When ignition switch is closed the primary circuit prevents generation of high
voltage. This earths primary circuit and engine stops.
Magneto is rotated by the engine and is capable of very high voltage and it
does not need any battery as source of external energy. In the magneto system,
spark discharge is independent of battery or generator. They are commonly
used in small 4-stroke or 2-stroke engines. In this case, a permanent magnet is
rotated, which generates current in the closed primary winding. This generates
additional flux, which interacts with the flux of the permanent magnet.

To Spark Plugs Secondary

Primary

Distributor Coil
Pole Shoe

Ignition
Switch

Breaker
Point
Condenser
Rotating
Magnet
Breaker
Arm

Fig. 3.7 : Magneto Ignition System

 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 3.33

Magneto system depends on cranking speed. Magneto system gives a

lower current at low engine speeds but at higher speeds, it gives higher current
as compared to coil igniters. So, magneto system will always be suffering
from starting difficulty and a separate battery is needed for starting. However,
at high speeds, it is very reliable. That is why; it is widely used in sports cars,
racing cars and aircraft engines. This system is costly but highly reliable. It
needs less maintenance and is lighter than coil ignition systems. Aircraft
reciprocating engines have two independent magneto ignition systems, and the
engine’s mechanical engine-driven fuel pump is always backed-up by an
electric pump.

3.12.2 Effect of Altitude and Speed

Aircraft operates at higher altitudes where the air is less dense than at ground
level. As engines need oxygen to burn fuel, a forced induction system such as
turbocharger or supercharger is especially appropriate for aircraft use. This
does bring along the usual drawbacks of additional cost, weight and
complexity.
As altitude of operation for an aircraft SI engine is higher, intake air density
reduces. So, carburetor of an SI engine designed to deliver correct ratio of fuel
to air will provide a richer mixture at higher altitudes. Fuel-air ratio (mass
based) is proportional to square root of fuel-air density ratios. For example, at
7000 meters of altitude, air density becomes half of that at ground level. So
air-fuel ratio becomes around 1/√2 i.e. 0.707 times the value at the ground
level and mixture becomes around 40% (√2 – 1) richer. So it is necessary to
place altitude mixture correction device in the aircraft carburetors. This device
progressively reduces the amount of fuel with altitude. Carburetor is a device
in SI engine, which meters and supplies fuel-air ratio as per instantaneous
requirements. However, it is dependent on air volume flow rate, which in turn
governs fuel flow. Automatic fuel richness of mixture at high altitude due to
reduction in air density is obvious. At 1500 m altitude, air pressure is around
83% of that at mean sea level. Additionally pressure variation as per weather is
also significant. Air-fuel ratio varies as square root of density of air. The curve
depicted in figure 6.2 can be modified for high altitude and entire curve will
shift towards enriched mixture.
A number of methods are prevalent for altitude correction in aircraft SI
engine. Sometimes a bypass venturi system is incorporated, which supplies
additional volume of air at higher altitudes to offset fuel richness. An auxiliary
air pressure feedback system is placed in the fuel line to reduce fuel flow at
reduced pressure of air.
As normal aircrafts operation takes place through various maneuvers
resulting in much higher tilt in the aircraft engines, simple hydrostatic float
3.34 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

system of carburetors is highly inadequate for such operations. Special

provisions are made to keep float chamber or equivalent reservoir full of fuel
during all such pitch, yaw and roll motions.
At higher altitudes formation of ice in choke tube and on throttle valve is
always observed due to low temperature of incoming air. An automatic deicing
unit is placed to take care of such eventualities.
High speed invariably depends on higher fuel requirements. It needs richer
mixture to augment power. This is effectively done by special devices, which
enriches mixture and they are mandatory part of aircraft SI engines.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 3.1
Determine the air fuel ratio supplied at 5000 meter altitude by a carburetor,
which is adjusted to give an air-fuel ratio of 14:1 at sea level where air
temperature is 27°C and pressure is 1.03 kg/cm2. The temperature of air
decreases with altitude as given by expression T = Ts – 0.0065 × h, where,
T = temperature at height h (in meters) in °C and Ts = temperature at sea level
in °C. The air pressure reduces with altitude as per relation h = 19200 × log10
(ps/p), where ps = pressure at sea level in kg/cm2, p = pressure at height ‘h’ (in
m) in kg/cm2.

SOLUTION
Given h = 5000 m, ps = 1.03 kg/cm2, Ts = 27°C = 300 K.
(A : F)s = 14.
From the temperature formula, T = – 5.5°C = 267.5 K.
From the pressure formula, p = 0.5655 kg/cm2.
It is known that fuel density does not change with altitude but air density
varies and air-fuel ratio is proportional to square root of density of air.

(A : F)/(A : F)s = √ρ / √ρ s.

Assuming behaviour of air as that of an ideal gas p/ρT = constant.

(A : F)/(A : F)s = √ p × √ Ts / √ps x √ T.

So, air-fuel ratio at given altitude, (A:F) = 10.98.

3.12.3 Power Requir

Requir ed and P
equired Poower Available
Av
Unlike automobile engines, aircraft engines are often operated at high power
settings for extended periods of time. In general, the engine runs at maximum
power for a few minutes during taking off, then power is slightly reduced for
climb and then spends the majority of its time at a cruise setting–typically 65%
to 75% of full power. In contrast, an automobile engine might spend 20% of its
 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 3.35

time at 65% power while accelerating, followed by 80% of its time at 20%
power while cruising. The power of an internal combustion reciprocating
engine is rated in units of power delivered to the propeller (typically
horsepower) which is torque multiplied by crankshaft revolutions per minute
(RPM). The propeller converts the engine power to thrust horsepower or thp
in which the thrust is a function of the blade pitch of the propeller relative to
the velocity of the aircraft.
The power output of an engine depends on amount of air intake, the degree
of utilization of air and the thermal efficiency of the engine. The air intake can
be increased by two methods. First is by increasing engine speed. If speed is
increased, inertia load on engine increases and engine becomes robust and
rigid. The engine friction and bearing load also increase. Volumetric efficiency
is also adversely affected by engine speed. So this method is seldom applied
for high power engines. Second way to enhance amount of intake air per unit
time is by supercharging. In this case, air is supplied at a higher pressure than
pressure of a naturally aspirated engine.
The power output of engine can also be increased by increasing the
thermal efficiency of engine through increased compression ratio. This is
limited by engine robustness and is invariably associated with maximum
cylinder pressure. But supercharging may offset rise of maximum cylinder
pressure by increasing rate of brake mean effective pressure. Supercharging
leads to lower maximum temperature also. This results in lower structural and
thermal loads on supercharged engines.
Output Power

Acceleration
Maximum

e
bl
i la
va
rA
we
Maximum Speed

Po

ired
rR equ
P owe

Engine Speed

Fig. 3.8 : Power available and Power Required Curves

Power requirement of an engine rises with increase in engine speed. The

rate of rise is higher at higher speeds. Contrary to this, power available also
increases with speed, but it is limited by energy available from combustion of
fuel, conversion efficiency and mechanical efficiency. The variation is shown
3.36 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

in figure 3.8. It is clear that maximum speed will be obtained where both the
curves intersect. Beyond this point, power available is less than power
requirements and further enhancement in speed is not possible. Similarly,
maximum acceleration is possible, when difference between both the curves is
highest.

3.12.4 Supercharging
Supercharging is method of inducting large quantity of air per unit time, so as
to burn more fuel in a given engine dimensions to increase power output.
Supercharging action can have three actions. It can be employed to get more
power fro a given weight and bulk of the engine. This is utilized for aircraft,
marine and automotive engines, if weight and space constraint are
predominant. Aircraft engines loose power at the rate of 1% per 100 meters
altitude. Supercharging can compensate for the loss of power due to altitude.
Lastly supercharging can help in obtaining more power from an existing
engine.
Pressure

Positive work

Exhaust Suction
Suction Exhaust
Negative work
Unsupercharged Supercharged
Volume

Fig. 3.9 : Thermodynamic Cycle for Supercharged Engines

A typical pressure-volume diagram for supercharged SI engine is shown in

figure 3.9. In naturally aspirated unsupercharged engines, exhaust occurs at
higher pressure than suction pressure resulting in negative work loop.
However, in supercharged engines, suction pressure is on higher side as
compared to exhaust pressure. This makes this loop with positive work and
extra work output is obtained due to supercharging. However, gain in output
energy is mainly due to amount of air induced for the same swept volume.
Additional amount of air is also induced due to compression of residual volume
to a higher pressure. Supercharging increases mechanical efficiency.
In SI engine, supercharging is employed for aircraft and racing car
engines only, because increase in supercharging pressure increases tendency
to detonate and pre-ignite. Increase in supercharging pressure increases intake
pressure, temperature and flame speed. All these effects result in detonation
 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 3.37

and limits supercharged SI engine to lower compression ratios, only.

Detonation in supercharged SI engine can be controlled by injection of water in
the combustion chamber. Inter-cooling of charge is another alternative method
to control detonation.
High density means higher value of specific heats and dissociation losses
at higher temperatures result in lower thermal efficiency. This leads to higher
fuel consumption of supercharged engine as compared to naturally aspirated
engines. Increasing flame speed means more sensitive engine to fuel-air ratio.
If lean mixture is supplied, engine knocking becomes an essential feature. To
offset this effect, rich mixtures are generally supplied. This further enhances
fuel consumption of supercharged engines.
In general, supercharging of SI engine is limited to 30% to 50% only.
Supercharger pressure of the pressure of 1.3 to 1.5 kg/cm2 is generally
employed.

3.12.5 Types of Superchargers

Various types of superchargers are employed in SI engines. It can be
reciprocating compressor, rotary blower, roots type blower, centrifugal
compressor, turbochargers. Reciprocating compressors are generally
employed for stationary installations of internal combustion engines, because
they are heavy and bulky. Because of positive compression, it has higher
pressure ratio. Vane type rotary blower is another popular alternative for
supercharging. In a circular casing with inlet and outlet ports, an eccentric
rotor is placed. The rotor contains multiple radial vanes, which slides in recess

Outlet
Casing
Rotor

Roots Blowers

3 4 2
Pressure

Reversible Extra
Adiabatic Work
Vane Compressor
Work
Inlet
0 1

Vane Type Supercharger Volume

Fig. 3.10 : Vane type Supercharger and Roots Blower

3.38 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

in radial outward and inward direction. Air is inducted in the space between
rotor and casing. As the space changes, more air is inducted in the space. Once
vanes rotate so as to cut-off supply from inlet port, the space continues to
decrease. This causes compression and compressed gas is diverted to outlet
port, which is connected to engine cylinder. A schematic is given in figure
3.10. This supercharger gives pulsating and noisy flow and this type of
supercharger is also obsolete now.
Another variety of positive displacement rotary supercharger called
Lysholm compressor. This structure has helical rotor and the casing. The
screw action of rotor displaces the air axially. This compressor produces a
constant compression. Although it is mechanical complex but air is
compressed throughout the screw.
Roots blower (figure 3.10) is another variety, where two double dumbbells
shaped lobes rotate in opposite direction inside a common casing. Air enters
through inlet port and is carried around the rotors to the outlet port. There is no
pressure rise and the process is shown by 0-1 in figure 3.10. When discharge
port is opened, pressure rises almost instantaneously (process 1-4). When
outlet port opens, extra work is required to compress air due to back flow.
Leakage between lobe and casing creates noise. Number of lobes can be
increased to reduce noise. These types of superchargers are suitable for low
and medium speed engines for stationary and marine installations. It has low
cost, simple design, good mechanical efficiency and lubrication-free
operation. These roots blowers are suitable for pressure ratio of 1.1 to 2.0.

Compressed Air

Volute Casing
Diffuser Ring
Impeller
Rotation
Air Intake

Fig. 3.11 : Centrifugal Compressor for Supercharger

 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 3.39

For aircraft operation, centrifugal compressors are mostly used. It has an

impeller rotating in a close-fitted casing. The air enters the center of volute
casing axially and turns at right angle in radial direction.
Due to high velocity of rotating impeller, pressure rises. The centrifugal
compressor runs at very high speed of 10000 to 15000 rpm for low speed
engines and 15000 to 30000 rpm at high speed engines. This engine is simple,
small, and cheap and has a good efficiency in the pressure range of 1.5 to 3.0.
About 70-80% isentropic efficiency is obtained at a pressure ratio of 2:1. Here
pressure ratio varies with the square of the speed.
When volume flow changes, pressure ratio remains constant in the high
efficient range. Because of constant speed, it is suitable for aircraft
applications. The schematic diagram of centrifugal compressor is given in
figure 3.11.
The compressor has a volute casing where flow passage is variable. It has
a rotating impeller, which resembles vanes of vane type supercharger. Rotation
of these vanes creates suction head at the center, from where air is sucked.
Sucked air is thrown in radial outward direction through rotating impeller and
is directed towards stationary diffuser ring. During this, air is compressed.
The compression is augmented by increasing flow passage. Volute casing
directs air towards outlet port.

SUMMARY
SUMMARY
This chapter gives a brief account of operational internal combustion engines.
The chapter gives an idea about spark ignition and compression ignition
engines and explains their working principles and salient features. It compares
them also. Both 2-stroke and 4-stroke engines are explained in detail and their
differences are also highlighted. Combustion mechanism in all types of
engines are explained and combustion abnormalities like knock, wild ping,
surface ignition, auto-ignition are deliberated and methods to prevent them are
also elaborated. The chapter has a brief description of of aircraft SI engines
and their critical requirements. Altitude compensation, speed and power
requirements are deliberated. The method of feeding extra mass of air in same
cylinder volume by supercharging is explained and their utility is established in
this Chapter.

QUESTIONS
1. What are general uses of internal combustion engine? Why is it called
internal combustion engine?
2. What are various methods of classification of internal combustion engines?
3. Explain operation of a simple reciprocating internal combustion engine?
4. Explain various components of a reciprocating internal combustion engine?
3.40 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

5. Explain operation of a spark ignition engine by valve timing diagram?

6. What is turbocharging? Why is it employed?
7. Explain operation of a 2-stroke engine?
8. What is role of crankcase in 2-stroke engine?
9. What is material of construction of different parts of the reciprocating
engine?
10. Explain combustion process in a spark ignition engine?
11. How combustion takes place in compression ignition engine?
12. What are factors affecting ignition and combustion in an IC engine?
13. What is knocking? What is its dimension in SI and CI engine?
14. What are results of abnormal combustion in the internal combustion
engine?
15. Why multiple cylinders are installed in cars?
16. What is opposed cylinder engine? How is it different from opposed piston
engines?
17. What are critical requirements in an aircraft engine? How are they
addressed by internal combustion engine?
18. What are various ignition systems in an internal combustion engine?
19. What are effects of altitude on operation of an internal combustion engine?
20. What are devices installed in internal combustion engines to offsets its
limitations while operating at high altitudes?
21. Why simple float based carburetors ineffective in aircrafts? What are
arrangements made in carburetor for their effective operation in aircrafts?
22. Why is de-icing unit placed in aircraft fuel intake line?
23. What are effects of speed on operation of an aircraft running on internal
combustion engine?
24. How does balance of power required and power available made in internal
combustion engine of an aircraft?
25. What is purpose of supercharging?
26. Explain operation of a centrifugal compressor as supercharger of internal
combustion engine?
27. Explain operation of a positive displacement rotary supercharger?
28. Differentiate between the following
(a) Internal combustion engine and External combustion engine.
(b) Top dead center and Bottom dead center.
(c) Turbocharged engine and supercharged engine.
(d) 2-stroke engine and 4-stroke engine.
(e) Compression ignition engine and Spark ignition engine.
(f) Coil ignition and Magneto ignition.
 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 3.41

29. Write short notes on the following:

(a) Rotary internal combustion engine
(b) Ignition mechanism in IC engine
(c) Cylinder arrangements in reciprocating engines
(d) Radial engines
(e) Intake and exhaust manifold
(f ) Supercharging
(g) Air SI engine
❖❖❖
 CHAPTER

4
Engine Performance

STRUCTURE
‰ Introduction
‰ Objective
‰ IHP
‰ BHP or SHP
‰ FHP
‰ Corrections Factors
‰ Variable Speed and Constant Speed Test
‰ Summary
‰ Questions

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Although theories to extract mechanical work from chemical energy of fuel is
a well known fact, but making a practical engine, implementing the principles
of thermodynamic cycles is a major challenge. Once engines are developed
certain performance parameters are fixed, which are used as guiding criteria
for their comparison. For conventional two-wheelers, specific fuel
consumption or petrol consumption are specified as performance parameter
and is advertised also. On similar lines any new development is always tested
for performance. This chapter is dedicated to testing and measurement of
performance parameters of engines.
Objective:
After studying this Chapter, you should be able to understand
z Engine performance parameters.
z Indicated horse power calculation.
z Measurement methods for BHP.
4.2 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

z Various test method for comparison of engines.

z Performance parameters evaluation for internal combustion engines.

4.2 IHP
Indicated horse power (IHP) is the maximum ideal power available as
mechanical work in a cycle. It is measured by two methods. First is by using
indicator diagram and second is by measuring BHP and FHP and adding them.
Second method is an indirect method for IHP measurement. First method is
generally employed for the measurement of IHP. This is an indicator of how
effectively heat is converted to mechanical work. In addition, rate of pressure
rise, ignition lag etc are also indicated clearly on indicator diagram. Two types
of indicator diagram exist. First is pressure-volume diagram and second is
pressure-crank angle plot. Both are mutually convertible and can be traced on
paper with some scale factor.

Volume = Area x stroke

Cylinder Pressure
Pressure

Piston
Ports

Stroke
Stroke

Fig. 4.1 : Indicator Diagram for a Reciprocating Engine

On a tracing paper, pencil is placed and movement of the piston is traced

along one rectangular axis of the indicator diagram. An indicator piston
cylinder is also attached in such a way that pressure in the cylinder is
transferred to indicator cylinder. Arrangements are made to move pencil along
another rectangular axis to indicate pressure levels achieved in the cylinder.
Before actual tracing, a pressure reference line is drawn on the paper to
indicate atmospheric pressure. A sample trace for both inward and outward
motion of the piston is depicted in figure 4.1. The area inside the loop created
is proportional to work done in one cycle. Mean effective pressure (mep) for
the indicated diagram is used to calculate indicated horsepower.

IHP = mep × A × L × N, where A = bore area, L = length or stroke of piston,

N = rotational speed of the engine. The units of each of the parameters
are to be taken correctly to give output in horsepower.
 ENGINE PERFORMANCE 4.3

For generating indicator diagram for measurement of indicated horse-

power, several systems are conceived. Piston type of indicators uses a three
way cock, which can be connected to either atmosphere or cylinder. When
this is connected to cylinder, pressure forces a tension spring and movement
of a stylus parallel to drum is proportional to cylinder pressure. The drum is
rotated with the help of a card by the reduced link to depict piston
displacement motion. This piston type indicator arrangement is simple but has
several limitations. The inertia of piston, piston linkage and reducing link are
quite high and it gives a lag between cylinder pressure and movement of stylus.
This system is not accurate for smaller engines. Severe pressure pulsation at
high speed is also observed. Usage of this system for diesel engines is
restricted due to presence of carbon particles in passage. However, some of
the errors can be nullified by using stiffer springs, by lighter indicator parts
and by reduced drum travel.
Balance diaphragm type indicator is attempted to develop a low inertia
indicator. In this case a pressure pick-up device, a small disc valve and a
diaphragm is attached to the engine cylinder.
The disc valve is free to move between two seats. Diaphragm separates an
external pressure and engine pressure. When pressures are unequal, disc sits
on any one of the two seats. The movement of disc is connected to an electric
circuit, which makes and breaks on each contact and separation of the disc.
Pencil point is given motion proportional to the external balancing pressure and
the rotating drum is given motion proportional to piston displacement.
Sometimes electronic indicators are also employed for such measurements.
A simple mechanical system for drawing indicator diagram of a
reciprocating engine is shown in figure 4.2. In this case, two special
arrangements are made. Paper is placed in appropriate plane with pencil point
lying on it ready to draw lines. The location of pencil point changes with
change in the pressure as well as location of the piston. Through a level type
arrangement, a rigid rod connects cross-head and paper of the indicator. As
piston moves forward or leftwards, due to lever arrangement shown in the
figure, paper moves rightwards. Scaling of length is observed and length of the
indicator diagram (represented by movement of paper) is not same as stroke of
the piston. Length of both the hands connected to piston side and paper side
gives proper scaling factor. Arrangements are also made to transmit pressure
in front of the piston to an auxiliary cylinder, whose piston is spring loaded to
resist any upward movement. First a reference line is drawn with atmospheric
pressure. As pressure in front of the piston in main cylinder rises, it pushes
piston of the auxiliary cylinder in upward direction. This shifts pencil point
upwards as indicated in the figure 4.2. Thus both pressure and piston positions
are plotted on the paper with proper scaling. Area of the indicator diagram
4.4 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

(shown in figure 4.2 by hatches area) is equivalent to work done per cycle by
the engine. If a unit length of indicator diagram represents change in pressure
by ‘K’ units, from the figure 4.2, mean effective pressure is given by the
following expression.
Mean effective pressure (mep) = (Ai/Li) × K

Area, A1 is
Pencil equivalent to
point work done
Indicator diagram
Auxiliary
Cylinder Length, L1
Rod
Cylinder ting
Intake nec Crank
Piston Rod Con
Exhaust
Cross- Crank shaft
Piston head
Stroke, L

Fig. 4.2 : Mechanism for Generation of Indicator Diagram

The indicator diagram shown in the figure 4.2 is highly idealized. Actually,
if indicator diagram is plotted for a two stroke single acting engine, there is a
missed cycle after every power stroke, which is also plotted on the indicator
plane. During this process no power is developed and the same is represented
on the indicator diagram as negative loop. Similarly charging and discharging
loops are also represented on the indicator diagram as negative loops.

4.3 BHP OR SHP

Brake horsepower (BHP) or shaft horse power (SHP) are used interchangeably
and both are representative of power developed at the output shaft of the
engine. Measurement of BHP is one of the most sought after work in the test
schedule of an engine. It involves determination of torque and the angular
speed of the engine. BHP is given as product of torque and angular speed of the
engine. The torque measurement device of the engine is called dynamometer
and it can be classified as absorption dynamometer and transmission
dynamometer. In absorption dynamometer, power output from the engine is
resisted and resistance to this power is measured in prony brake, rope brake or
hydraulic dynamometer. In transmission dynamometer, power is delivered
after getting transmitted through a device, which indicated the transmitted
power on some scale. This type of device is also called torque meter.

Brake power = Torque × Angular Speed = T × w.

 ENGINE PERFORMANCE 4.5

In the case of absorption type dynamometer, the rotor or flywheel driven

by engine is coupled with a stator or brake. The braking power is improved by
increasing load acting on the rotor. The torque is calculated as product of force
and distance of lever arm where force acts from the center of flywheel or
rotor. The friction between stator and rotor is dissipated as heat. In prony
brake dynamometer, attempt is made to stop a flywheel attached to the engine
by increasing pressure on flywheel progressively. It is similar to braking the
wheel and power is dissipated as heat due to friction. Friction can be increased
by spring-loaded bolts. As friction at flywheel is high, this type of system
needs adequate cooling to control temperature rise. A simple prony brake
dynamometer is shown in figure 4.3. It is clear that torque output is equal to
weight multiplied by arm length as shown in the figure 4.3.

Spring Load, S
Torque Arm

Brake Block Rope

Arm Length, L
Brake drum
Diameter, D
Flywbeel

Weight W
Torque, T = W × L Torque, T = (W-S) x D/2
Rope Brake
Prony Brake Dynamometer Weight W Dynamometer

Fig. 4.3 : Mechanism for Generation of Indicator Diagram

Rope brake dynamometer is a simple device to measure BHP. In this case

rope is wound around rotating drum of the output shaft. One side of rope has
provision for putting loads and the other side of the ropes is connected to
stationary support through a spring. The power is absorbed as friction
between rope and the drum. Here also drum needs proper cooling. It is a cheap
and easy in construction device, but is not very accurate.
A rope drum dynamometer is also shown in the figure 4.3 and expression
for the torque is given by product of (W-S) with radius of brake drum.
Hydraulic dynamometer works on the principle of dissipating power in
fluid friction and provision of cooling is dispensed with in this case. The
principle of operation is similar to fluid flywheel. In this case an impeller
connected to the engine is rotated in a casing filled with fluid. The outer casing
also tend to rotate with the impeller, but is resisted by a torque arm supported
the balance weight. The frictional force between impeller and the fluid is
measured by the spring balance fitted on the casing. The heat developed due to
dissipation of power is carried away by a coolant supply.
4.6 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Similarly, electric principles are also utilized in design of dynamometers.

Eddy current dynamometers are one such device, where eddy current is
generated in stators due to rotation of rotor. The eddy current opposes rotor
motion, thus loading the engine. The load is controlled by regulating current in
the electromagnets used for creating magnetic flux. This device is easy to
handle, control and programme. It can give high hp per unit weight of the
system and gives smooth torque profile. However, this also needs cooling
devices. Similarly, swinging field dc dynamometer, which is nothing but a dc
shunt motor can also be utilized to measure torque of engines practically.
Transmission type dynamometers or torque meters has a set of strain
gauges fixed on the rotating shaft. Angular deformation of the shaft is
measured and is considered representative of torque. To avoid axial transverse
loads on strain gauges, gauges are arranged in pairs. Use of 4-arm bridges
negates effect of temperature also. Transmission dynamometers are very
accurate and are used when continuous transmission of load is mandatory.
They are essential parts of automatic units.
The way, in which indicated power is calculated from mean effective
pressure, sometimes brake power is also calculated in similar manner. In this
case, a term called brake mean effective pressure (bmep) is defined and brake
power is given by an expression similar to indicated power.

Brake power = bmep × L × A × N.

4.4 FHP
Friction horsepower (FHP) is difference of IHP and BHP. Frictional losses are
main governing criterion for selection of an engine and preference of an engine
over the other. Frictional losses are generally observed in the form of heat and
are dissipated to cooling liquids. High FHP reduces BHP or output power and
ultimately for same power fuel consumption rises. FHP is generally assumed to
be dependent on engine speed and at constant speed, FHP is found to be
constant. Although measurement of FHP is convenient by difference of BHP
and IHP, but other methods are also possible for measurement of FHP.
Direct motoring test measures frictional horse power directly without
calculation of either brake power or indicated power. In case of direct
motoring test, engine is run at desired speed by its own power and allowed to
stabilize in terms of water heating, oil consumption and temperature terms.
Power under such condition is absorbed by a swinging field type electric
dynamometer. The fuel supply is then cut-off and by electric switching device;
the dynamometer is converted into a generator to run the engine at same speed
at which it was previously running. The power supply to the motor is
measured, which is direct measurement of friction power. During motoring
 ENGINE PERFORMANCE 4.7

test water supply is also cut off to maintain actual operating temperature.
During test, first full engine is tested under motoring condition and then slowly
components are dismantled one after the other progressively to get the
frictional losses in various components.
Although this is a direct measurement of friction power, several conditions
lead to measurement errors. The temperature of motored engine is different
because in absence of fuel supply there is no power stroke or fuel combustion.
In absence of combustion, temperature inside engine cylinder may not rise
very high. The incoming air, in fact, cools cylinder during motoring. The
temperature of lubricating oil reduces, which increases its viscosity and finally
engine friction increases. In addition to this lower temperature of piston and
cylinder leads to more clearance and reduced friction. The temperature affects
pressure levels also. Expansion line during motoring is lower than compression
line on pressure volume plane due to supply of cool air. In addition to this,
during exhaust back pressure is more because during exhaust stroke gases do
not get sufficient kinetic energy to expel more gases as occurs in the firing
engines. Loads on bearings in absence of power stroke are also lower. The
special dynamometer requirement is also a major drawback of this method.
For compression ignition (CI) engine Willian’s line method is used for
determination of FHP. In this case curve is plotted at a constant speed for fuel
consumption against BHP. A representative curve is shown in figure 4.4. The
curve has an intercept at fuel consumption axis, indicting that even at zero
output power, some fuel is consumed. On extrapolating the curve in backward
direction, the curve intercepts BHP axis at some negative value. The value of
this negative BHP at zero fuel consumption is called FHP. The represents
combined effects of mechanical friction, pumping and blowby. This is a simple
method but is dependent on correctness of extrapolation.
Fuel flow rate

Engine tested at
constant speed

FHP

Engine Torque or BHP

Fig. 4.4 : Willian’s Line for an Engine

4.8 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Willian’s line method is limited to compression ignition engine only.

Generally reliable results are possible for higher loads and the range of loads
for which measurements are reliably done range from 5% to 40%. The
extrapolation from such higher loads to zero loads and further to negative side
of the BHP needs a linearity assumption, which is not so accurate. Actually
changing slope of the curve indicates different efficiencies at different part
loads. The pronounced change in the curve at full load (right side of the curve)
depicts quality of combustion and negligible role of air-fuel ratio. Slight
curvature in the curve exists even at low loads. This represents difficulty in
accurate fuel injection consistently over a range of cycles. So nature of curve
must be established only after a number of tests are conducted and linearity at
low loads is ensured. It is also observed practically that the curve is straight
for swirl chamber CI engine and linearity is compromised for direct injection
type engines.
Another method for measurement of FHP is Morse test, which is valid for
multi-cylinder engines only. The engine is to be tested at single speed. In this
case, first output with all engines operational is measured. One engine is cut-
off and output is measured. Difference of two outputs (BHPs) gives IHP of the
disconnected engine, as FHP in both the cases is same.
Similarly, IHP for all the engines can be obtained by disconnecting them
one by one. Finally, total IHP of multi-cylinder engine can be obtained and
difference of IHP and BHP gives FHP of the engine. This is an indirect method
for friction power determination.
Let us assume a four cylinder engine, with engine nomenclature as 1, 2, 3
and 4. Brake power of the engine is measured. If all four cylinders of the
engine are working, then brake power of the engine is given by P1. Indicated
power and friction power are inter-related by the relation given below.

P1 = BP1 + BP2 + BP3 + BP4 = IP1 – FP1 + IP2 – FP2 + IP3 – FP3 +
IP4 – FP4 = (IP1 + IP2 + IP3 + IP4) – (FP1 + FP2 + FP3 + FP4).

If firing of first cylinder is stopped by shunting or shorting the spark plug

of the cylinder, then first cylinder will not generate any power, but movement
of piston will cause some frictional loss as earlier situation. In absence of
firing, no indicated power is generated by the first cylinder. Under the situation
refereed, if brake power developed is given by P2, then expression for P2 is as
follows.

P2 = – FP1 + IP2 – FP2 + IP3 – FP3 + IP4 – FP4

= (IP2 + IP3 + IP4) – (FP1 + FP2 + FP3 + FP4)
Now, P1 – P2 = IP1.

Thus indicated power from the first engine is calculated by measurement

of two brake powers. Similarly, indicated power from each of the cylinder can
 ENGINE PERFORMANCE 4.9

be calculated. Summation of all the indicated power from each of the cylinders
gives total indicated power. If P1 is subtracted from the total indicated power,
total friction power from the multi-cylinder engine can be obtained.
In general four methods evolve for measurement of friction horsepower:
• Measurement of IHP and BHP from indicator diagram
• Direct motoring test
• Willian’s line method
• Morse test
However, out of the four, only first method gives direct measurement of
friction. Other three methods actually measures power and losses are derived
from that. In fact, motoring cannot be treated as actual representative of
frictional losses in actual engines. During motoring, firing does not take place
inside the engine and only four strokes are executed. This indirectly indicates
that there is no combustion stroke and thus peak pressure is not realized in the
engine. Lower gas pressure will always lead to lower rubbing friction.
Similarly, temperature realized during motoring is also lower than actual
engine. Higher temperature realized in actual operation of the engine leads to
reduction in lubrication efficiency due to thinning. Due to such lower
temperature and pressure, radial expansion of piston is also less and so fiction
is less than whatever is observed in actual engine operation. Another variation
occurs due to absence of exhaust stroke in the motoring engine. This means
gases are discharged at higher density than that in the firing engine. Pumping
friction is accordingly altered. During motoring operation, piston displacement
occurs during compression and expansion. This work is not a part of frictional
losses and should not be deducted from the total indicated horsepower.
Although brake mean effective pressure or brake horsepower for motoring and
firing engine are practically found to be same, but frictional horsepower
changes with brake power. Higher brake power has more difference between
total frictional losses of firing and motoring engine. For a firing engine, total
frictional horsepower is more or less constant. However, frictional horse
power of motoring engine drops as brake power increases. Contrary to this
rubbing power for firing engine enhances with increase in brake power but in
motoring engine rubbing friction power is more or less constant.

4.5 C ORRE
CORRE CTIONS F
ORRECTIONS ACT
FA OR
CTOR S
ORS
Based on performance curves and actual testing of engines, several general
observations and implemented facts emerge. The percentage of heat rejected
to coolant is more at lower speed and it reduces at higher speeds. So at high
speeds, more heat is carried by the exhaust. Maximum torque position matches
well with maximum air charge or maximum volumetric efficiency point. If size
4.10 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

of engine is doubled, torque will also doubled, but mep will remain constant.
For engines, performance test also include mention of certain efficiency
terms.
First type of efficiency is air-standard efficiency, which is defined in first
chapter. It is ratio of work done in a cycle to the amount of heat input. This is
also called thermodynamics efficiency and is mainly a function of compression
ratio and other ratios of thermodynamic parameters. The value of air-standard
efficiency for operational engines is within 40-60%. Second type of efficiency
is thermal efficiency. This is defined as ratio of power to amount of heat input
or thermal energy by combustion of fuel. The thermal energy by combustion
of fuel is given by product of mass flow rate and calorific value of the fuel. If
indicated power is considered, the ratio is called indicated thermal efficiency
and if brake power is taken in calculation, the ratio is called brake thermal
efficiency. The value of thermal efficiency is around 30% for most of the
operational engines. Third term is called mechanical efficiency, which is ratio
of brake power to indicated power and is a representative of friction power.
The value of mechanical efficiency is around 75-80%. Sometimes these
efficiencies are also compared. A term called relative efficiency is ratio of
brake thermal efficiency and air standard efficiency. For most of the engines,
it remains between 75% and 90%, if air supply is adequate.
Fourth type of efficiency is volumetric efficiency. It is indicator of
breathing capacity of the engine. In third chapter, it is explained that inlet valve
remains open for more than 180° crank rotation to induct more air than the
swept volume of the engine. It is very important parameter and is defined as
actual mass of air drawn inside engine during suction stroke to theoretical
mass of air that would be inducted in the same period based upon total piston
displacement. Theoretical quantity of air is calculated from speed of the
engine, density of incoming air, swept volume and number of cylinders. Actual
mass is measured by experiments. For a two stroke engine, each cycle of
crank rotation has a power stroke and speed of crank in rpm indicates number
of charging per minute. But in case of a four stroke engine, every alternate
cycle results in a charging stroke and number of charging stroke is half the
rotational speed of the crank shaft.
For 2-stroke engines, scavenging efficiency is defined. It is ratio of
amount of air or gas-air mixture, which remains inside cylinder at the
beginning of the compression stroke to the amount of air available at the
beginning of the compression stroke. Depending on design, scavenging
efficiency is of the order of 40% to as high as 95%. Another efficiency term is
combustion efficiency, which is ratio of actual heat liberated to theoretical heat
output from combustion of the fuel. It ranges from 95-97%. This indicates
efficiency of combustion and it indicates poor mixing of air-fuel, dissociation
of gases etc.
 ENGINE PERFORMANCE 4.11

In addition to these efficiency terms, engine operating parameters also

affect engine performance. The spark timing must be adjusted to give
maximum pressure at the beginning of the power stroke. As a general rule
spark timing is adjusted such that around half of the total pressure rise due to
combustion occurs before piston reaches top center. In fact combustion rate
plays a major role in adjustment of this parameter and spark timing is related to
combustion rate of the fuel. Further combustion rate is a function of
temperature, pressure and above all the air-fuel ratio. Generally air-fuel ratio is
set for best fuel economy situation. In first chapter, it is elaborated that higher
compression ratio always give higher air standard efficiency. Using anti
knocking agent in the fuel may enhance performance of SI engine, whose
performance is restricted by knocking. Higher compression ratio results in
increased friction in the cylinder components and it is generally not feasible to
increase the compression ratio beyond certain limit. At low speed heat transfer
from engine wall to the surrounding is more because of higher time available
for heat dissipation. At relatively higher speeds, the heat loss is drastically
reduced. Inducting more charge in a given cylinder volume results in more
power from the engine. Improvement in engine performance by control of heat
transfer is a suitable method employed in operational engines. This is
accompanied with induction of charge at higher pressures. Charge must be
inducted at high densities.

4.6 VARIABLE SPEED AND C

VARIABLE ONS
CONS
ONSTTANT SPEED TEST
TEST
Torque and mean effective pressure do not strongly depend on the speed of the
engine. High horsepower is derived at high speed and doubling the speed,
doubles the power. At low speed, FHP is relatively low and BHP matches well
with IHP. As engine speed increases, IHP increases continuously and FHP
increases continuously at greater rate such that BHP reaches a peak. After this,
BHP reduces despite IHP is increasing. As engine speed increases beyond
normal operating speed, FHP increases very rapidly. Parallel to this IHP also
reduces. At some point IHP equals FHP and BHP becomes zero.
Variable speed and full throttle test of petrol engine show that mechanical
efficiency reduces with rise in speed. Specific fuel consumption reduces with
increase in speed but later it increases due to higher power requirements. For
every engine, there is a normal speed range in which indicated and brake
thermal efficiency is the highest and specific fuel consumption is the lowest.
Brake torque, bmep and bsfc shows optimum value at certain speed ranges.
However, peak BHP is realized at higher speeds and it matches well with peak
IHP. FHP continuously increases with speed. The variation of various
parameters with speed of the engine is shown in figure 4.5.
4.12 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Engine tested at full throttle and variable speed.

Inducted charge

Fuel flow rate

Torque

Indicated power
Air consumption

Speed for
maximum
power
Speed for
maximum
torque
Engine Speed

Fig. 4.5 : Performance Plot of a Typical Engine

As speed of engine increases, inducted charge per cylinder per cycle

increases. It reaches a maximum after which due to small induction time at
higher speed, the inducted charge per cycle per cylinder reduces. At this speed
where inducted charge (air-fuel mixture) is maximum, torque is also maximum
for the given engine. This is represented schematically in figure 4.5.
Please note that both inducted charge and torque is shown by same curve.
These are representative curves and both the parameters are plotted at
different secondary axes. Only trend is same, which is depicted in the figure.
Although after this maximum, charge inducted in the engine reduces with
increases in speed but power output increases because of more number of
cycles per unit time. However, the rise in indicated power ceases once
reduction in inducted charge surpasses rise in number of cycle per unit time.
So, maximum power is observed at a little higher speed after which indicated
power reduces. The maximum indicated power also corresponds to maximum
air consumption. In fact higher air induction gives spare capacity to the engine
to induct more fuel and increase power output. As engine speed increases,
quantity of fuel consumed increases and brake specific fuel consumption
(bsfc) drops at lower speeds. However, as speed increases, the variation of
bsfc becomes neutral and at further higher speeds, bsfc increases with engine
speed.
At constant speed and variable load tests, performance parameters are
expressed with respect to percentage load. As load is raised, torque, exhaust
temperature, BHP and b mep all rises monotonically. Except exhaust
temperature, all three increases linearly with percentage load. Exhaust
temperature initially increases slowly, and then increases rapidly. Compared to
this, bsfc reduces continuously with load.
 ENGINE PERFORMANCE 4.13

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 4.1
A 4-cylinder 2-stroke gasoline engine has bore and stroke as 10 cm and 15 cm
respectively. It runs at 1500 rpm. Areas of positive and negative loops of the
indicator diagram are 6 sq cm and 0.5 sq cm respectively. Length of indicator
diagram is 110 mm and spring constant is 0.6 MPa/cm. Find indicated power
of the engine.

SOLUTION
Given that 55 mm on indicator diagram is equivalent to 15 cm stroke length
and 1 cm on vertical side is equivalent to 3.5 bar. Net area of the indicator
diagram = 6 – 0.5 sq cm = 5.5 sq cm. As length of indicator diagram is
110 mm, mean height of the indicator diagram is = 5.5/11 = 0.5 cm. Mean
effective pressure
= 0.5 × 0.6 MPa = 0.3 MPa.
Indicated power = 0.3 × 0.15 × (π/4) × 0.12 × 1500 × 4/60 MW
= 35.343 kW.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 4.2
A single cylinder engine runs at 1600 rpm and develops a torque of 10 Nm. If
indicated power is 2 kW, find friction horsepower and mechanical efficiency.

SOLUTION
Brake power of the engine = 2π × 1600 × 10/60 W
= 1.6755 kW.
Friction power = indicated power – brake power
= 2 – 1.6755 kW = 0.3245 kW
Mechanical efficiency = brake power/indicated power
= 1.6755/2 = 83.77%.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 4.3
A single cylinder 4-stroke engine has bore and stroke as 75 mm and 100 mm
respectively. If rating of the engine is 4 kW at 1500 rpm, find mean effective
pressure and torque.

SOLUTION
Since it is 4-stroke engine, effective rpm is half of engine rpm from power
output point of view because after two revolutions only one power stroke is
executed. Additionally indicated and brake power of the engine is taken same
for further calculation.
4.14 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Power from the engine = mean effective pressure × stroke × bore area ×
effective rps
4 = Pm (in MPa) × 1000 × 0.1 × (π/4) × 0.0752 × 1500/(2 × 60)
Mean effective pressure, Pm = 0.7243 MPa
4000 = 2π × 1500 × T (in Nm)/60, So, Torque = 25.46 Nm.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 4.4
An indicator diagram taken from a single cylinder 4-stroke CI engine has a
length of 100 mm and an area of 2045 mm2. The indicator pointer deflects a
distance of 10 mm for a pressure increment of 2 kgf/cm2 in the cylinder. If the
bore and stroke of the engine cylinder are both 100 mm and the engine speed is
900 rev per minute, calculate the mean effective pressure and the indicated
power. If the mechanical efficiency is 75%, what is brake power developed?

SOLUTION
Mean height of the indicator diagram = area/length
= 2045/100 = 20.45 mm.
Mean effective pressure = height × scale factor
= 20.45 × 2/10 kgf/cm2 = 4.09 kgf/cm2.
Since it is a 4-stroke engine, one power stroke is delivered at every
2 revolution of crankshaft. This indicates that per minute, out of
900 revolutions, only 450 revolutions will result in a power stroke. Operation is
assumed single acting and per second 450/60 = 7.5 power strokes are possible.
Indicated horsepower,
ihp = 4.09 × 0.10 × (π/4) × 102 × 7.5/75 = 3.21 hp.
Brake horsepower = ihp × mechanical efficiency = 2.40 hp.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 4.5
A four cylinder petrol engine has an output of 70 bhp at 2000 rpm. A Morse
test was carried out and the brake torque were 17.97, 17.28, 17.00 and 17.70
kgf-m respectively, when each of the engines were made inoperative one by
one. For normal running at this speed, specific fuel consumption is 0.272 kg/
bhp/hr. the calorific value of the fuel is 10500 kcal/kg, calculate the
mechanical efficiency and the brake thermal efficiency of the engine.

SOLUTION
Conversion relation used,
1 hp = 75 kgf-m/s, 1 kcal = 427 kgf-m
 ENGINE PERFORMANCE 4.15

Rotational speed = 2 × π × 2000/60 rad/seconds

= 209.44 rad/s
Brake horsepower, when cylinder 1 is not firing = torque × rotational
speed = 17.97 × 209.44/75 hp = 50.18 hp
So, ihp of cylinder 1 = 70 – 50.18 = 19.82 hp
Brake horsepower, when cylinder 2 is not firing = torque × rotational
speed = 17.28 × 209.44/75 hp = 48.25 hp
So, ihp of cylinder 2 = 70 – 48.25 = 21.75 hp
Brake horsepower, when cylinder 3 is not firing = torque × rotational
speed = 17.00 × 209.44/75 hp = 47.47 hp
So, ihp of cylinder 3 = 70 – 47.47 = 22.52 hp
Brake horsepower, when cylinder 4 is not firing = torque × rotational
speed = 17.70 × 209.44/75 hp = 49.43 hp
So, ihp of cylinder 4 = 70 – 49.43 = 20.57 hp
Total ihp of all the engines = 19.82 hp + 21.75 hp + 22.52 hp + 20.57 hp =
84.66 hp
So mechanical efficiency = bhp/ihp = 70/84.66 = 82.68% Specific fuel
consumption = 0.272 kg/bhp-hr
Energy ratio of heat input and bhp = mass of fuel/bhp-hr × calorific value
= 0.272 × 10500 = 2856 kcal /bhp-hr
= 2856 × 427/(3600 × 75) = 4.52 (made dimensionless)
Brake thermal efficiency = 1/(energy ratio of heat input and bhp) =
22.14 %.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 4.6
An engine consumes 5 grams of fuel (calorific value = 45 MJ/kg) per second
and delivers 80 kW with mechanical efficiency of 80%. Find (i) brake specific
fuel consumption, (ii) indicated specific fuel consumption (iii) brake specific
energy consumption (iv) indicated specific energy consumption.

SOLUTION
Brake specific fuel consumption = fuel consumption/brake power = 5 × 10–3
× 3600/80 kg/kW-hr = 0.225 kg/kW-hr.
Brake specific energy consumption = 0.225 × 45000/3600 = 2.8125
Indicated fuel specific consumption = Brake specific fuel consumption ×
mechanical efficiency = 0.225 × 0.80 kg/kW-hr
= 0.18 kg/kW-hr.
Indicated specific energy consumption = 0.18 × 45000/3600 = 2.25.
4.16 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 4.7
A 4-stroke gas engine running at 500 rpm has a bore and stroke of 20 cm and
30 cm respectively. If air-fuel ratio is 5:1 by volume and volumetric efficiency
is 80%, determine the volume of gas taken in per minute. If calorific value of
fuel is 6 MJ/m3 at NTP and the brake thermal efficiency is 25%, determine the
brake power of the engine.

SOLUTION
Swept volume per stroke = (π/4) × 0.22 × 0.3 m3
= 0.009425 m3.
Since volumetric efficiency is 80%, actual gas volume taken in is less than
swept volume. So, volume of charge taken in per cycle = 0.8 × 0.009425 m3 =
0.00754 m3.
Since it is a four stroke engine, charge is taken in every alternate
revolution. For a speed of 500 rpm, per minute only 250 times charge will be
taken in.
So, volume of charge taken in per minute = 0.00754 m3 × 500/2
= 1.885 m3/min.
This volume is a mixture of air and fuel both. Amount of fuel taken in is
one-sixth of the total volume of gas taken in.
So, volume of fuel taken in = 1.885/6 m3/min.
= 0.31416 m3/min.
Heat input of the system = volume of fuel × calorific value of the fuel =
0.31416 × 6 MJ/min = 1.855 MJ/min
Brake power = heat input × brake thermal efficiency = 0.47124
MJ/min = 7.854 kW.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 4.8
A gas engine working on the constant volume cycle gave the following results
during a one-hour test run - Cylinder diameter 24 cm; stroke 48 cm; effective
diameter of brake wheel 1.25 cm; net load on brake 126 kgf; average speed
226.7 rpm; average explosions per minute 77; mep of indicator card 7.5 kg/
cm2; gas used 13 m3 at 15°C and 771 mm of Hg pressure; lower calorific value
of gas 5250 kcal/m3 at NTP; Cooling water used 625 kg; inlet temperature
25°C; outlet temperature 60°C.
Determine (i) The mechanical efficiency, (ii) The gas consumption in m3
at NTP per ihp hour, (iii) The indicated thermal efficiency. Draw heat balance
sheet.
 ENGINE PERFORMANCE 4.17

SOLUTION
Given
D = 24 cm, L = 48 cm, Db = 1.25 cm, W = 126 kgf, N = 226.7 rpm, n =
77, mep = 7.5 kg/cm2, V = 13 m3, T = 15°C = 288 K, p = 771 mm Hg, CV =
5250 kcal/m3, Wc = 625 kg, t = 1 hour, Twin = 25°C = 298 K, Twout = 60°C =
333 K.
Conversion relations used
1 hp = 75 kgf-m/s; 1 kcal = 427 kgf-m.
Torque on the brake = W × Db/2 = 0.78125 kgf-m. Angular speed = 2 × π
× N/60 = 23.74 /s.
Brake horsepower. bhp = torque × angular speed = 1854.685 kgf-m/s =
24.73 hp.
Swept volume = (π/4) × D2 × L = 0.0271 m3.
Indicated horsepower, ihp = mep × swept volume × power stroke per
second = 2090.038 kgf-m/s = 27.86 hp.
Mechanical Efficiency = bhp/ihp = 88.74% Ans. (i)
Gas consumption at 15°C and 771 mm of Hg pressure is 15 m3. This is to
be converted to gas consumption at NTP using simple ideal gas equation. NTP
is given by 27°C (300 K) and 760 mm Hg.
Gas consumption at NTP, = 15 × (771/760) × (300/288)
= 15.85 m3. Ans. (ii)
Thermal energy of fuel at NTP = gas consumption × CV = 83218.5 kcal
Since test is carried out for 1 hour, the heat output is also for 1 hour.
Converting it to horsepower gives value of equivalent heat as (83218.5 × 427)/
(75 × 3600) 131.6 hp.
Indicated thermal efficiency = ihp/heat energy of fuel
= 21.17% Ans. (iii)
Since total testing is carried out for 1 hour, all heat content is converted to
per second basis. All calculations are based on NTP.
Heat supplied per second = 15.85 × 5250/3600
= 23.11 kcal/second
Heat equivalent to bhp = 24.73 × 75/427
= 4.34 kcal/second
Heat to cooling water = 625 × (60-25)/3600
= 6.07 kcal/second
Heat going to exhaust = calculated by difference
= 15.7 kcal/second
4.18 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 4.9
A 4-stroke petrol engine has 6 single acting cylinders of 7.5 cm bore and 9 cm
stroke. The engine is coupled to a brake having a torque arm radius of 38 cm,
at 3300 rpm, with all cylinders operating the net brake load is 33 kgf. When
each cylinder in turn is rendered inoperative, the average net brake load
produced at the same speed by the remaining 5 cylinders is 25 kgf. Estimate the
mean effective pressure of the engine.
With all cylinders operating, the fuel consumption is 0.3 kgf/min (calorific
value of the fuel = 10000 kcal/kg); the jacket water flow rate and temperature
rise are 65 kg/min and 12°C; On test, the engine s enclosed in a thermally and
acoustically insulated box, through which the output drive, water, fuel, air and
exhaust connections pass. Ventilation air blown up through the box at the rate
of 14 kg/min enters at 10°C and leaves at 55°C. Draw up a heat account of the
engine indicating percentage of each term.

SOLUTION
Conversion relations used
1 hp = 75 kgf-m/s; 1 kcal = 427 kgf-m.
Data used, Specific heat of water = 1 kcal/kg K
Specific heat of air = 0.24 kcal/kg K
When all the cylinders are working, bhp = 2 × π × N × T/4500 hp = 2 × π
× 3300 × 33 × 0.38/4500 = 57.78 hp
When one cylinder is cut-off, bhp = 2 × π × N × T/4500 hp = 2 × π × 3300
× 25 × 0.38 / 4500 = 43.77 hp
As it is 6-cylinder engine and Morse-test is being conducted,
Total ihp of engine = 6 × (57.78 – 43.77) = 84.06 hp.
Piston displacement or swept volume = (π/4) × D2 × L = 0.0003976 m3.
Revolution per second, = 3300/60 = 55.
As it is single acting 4-stroke engine, power stroke is executed every two
revolutions of crank. As it is a 6-cylinder engine and each cylinder delivers
power in 2 rotation, (6/2 =) 3 times power delivered in one crack case
revolution is sufficient to account for total power delivered.
Indicated mean effective pressure, (imep) = ihp/(piston displacement ×
rps)
So, imep (kg/cm2) = 84.06 × 75/(3.976 × 55 × 3)
= 9.6 kgf/cm2.
Heat input to the engine = 0.3 × 10000
 ENGINE PERFORMANCE 4.19

= 3000 kcal/min (100%).

Heat equivalent to bhp = 43.77 × 75 × 60/427
= 461.6 kcal/min (15.38%).
Heat cooling water = 65 × 12 = 780 kcal/min (26.00%).
Heat to ventilating air = 14 × 0.24 × (55 – 10)
= 151.2 kcal/min (5.04%).
Heat to exhaust gases and other losses is calculated by difference = 1607.2
kcal/min, which is 53.58%.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 4.10
A Morse-test on twelve cylinder 2-stroke CI engine of bore 38 cm and stroke 50
cm gave following readings. Speed = 200 rpm. Brake load is measured in kgf.
Condition Brakeload Condition Brakeload Condition Brakeload

All firing 204 No 1 out 183 No 2 out 185

No 3 out 185 No 4 out 183 No 5 out 184
No 6 out 185.5 No 7 out 183.5 No 8 out 186
No 9 out 182 No 10 out 184 No 11 out 185
No 12 out 183 All firing 206

The law of brake is hp = WN/13.5, where W = load in kgf, N = rpm.

Calculate the brake mean effective pressure in kgf/cm2 and mechanical
efficiency with all cylinders firing.

SOLUTION
We know that bhptotal = ihptotal – fhp and
bhpexcept 1 = ihpexcept 1 – fhp.
So, ihpleft cylinder = bhptotal – bhpexcept 1.
Since there are two values of all firing condition, average value is taken for
analysis. Calculation for each engine is tabulated below.
Engine Brakeload bhp = Cylinder ihp
cylinder (kgf) WN/13.5

All firing 205 3037.04 —

No 1 Out 183 2711.11 325.93
No 2 Out 185 2740.74 296.30
No 3 Out 185 2740.74 296.30
No 4 Out 183 2711.11 325.93
No 5 Out 184 2725.92 311.12
4.20 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Engine Brakeload bhp = Cylinder ihp

cylinder (kgf) WN/13.5

No 6 Out 185.5 2748.15 288.89

No 7 Out 183.5 2718.52 318.52
No 8 Out 186 2755.55 281.49
No 9 Out 182 2696.29 340.75
No 10 Out 184 2725.92 311.12
No 11Out 185 2740.74 296.30
No 12 Out 183 2711.11 325.93
Total ihp from all the engines 3718.58

Mechanical efficiency = bhp/ihp = 81.67%.

Swept volume = (π/4) × D2 × L = 0.0567 m3.
Brake mean effective pressure = bhp/(no of cylinder × swept volume ×
rpm) = 3037.04 × 75 × 60/(12 × 567 × 200) kg/cm2
= 10.04 kg/cm2.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 4.11
In a trial on four-cylinder 4-stroke petrol engine of 10.16 cm bore and 12.7 cm
stroke, the net dynamometer load was 18.67 kgf at a radius of 50.8 cm when
the speed was 2500 rpm. At this speed and throttle opening the engine required
6.285 hp to motor it with ignition off. (i) Calculate the mechanical efficiency
and the indicated mean effective pressure, (ii) During a 3 minute run at this
speed and power, the engine used 0.589 kg of petrol of calorific value 10840
kcal/kg and 22.68 kg of cooling water with a temperature rise of 55.5°C. Draw
a heat balance chart for the test in kcal/min.

SOLUTION
Conversion relations used
1 hp = 75 kgf-m/s; 1 kcal = 427 kgf-m.
Data used Specific heat of water = 1 kcal/kg K
In 4-stroke engine, power stroke is delivered at each 2 revolutions and in
2500 rpm, only 1250 revolutions per engine per minute will be giving power.
Additionally there are four cylinders, so overall 5000 power strokes per min
are possible from the given engine. This is utilized for calculation of ihp.
Friction horsepower is given as 6.285 hp.
Torque from the engine = 18.67 × 0.508 = 9.48436 kgf-m.
Rotational speed of the engine = 2 × π × 2500/60 rad/second
= 261.8 rad/s.
 ENGINE PERFORMANCE 4.21

So, bhp of the engine = torque × rotational speed

= 9.48436 × 261.8/75 hp = 33.107 hp.
Now ihp = bhp + fhp = 33.107 = 6.285 = 39.392 hp
Mechanical efficiency = bhp/ihp = 33.107/39.392 = 84.04%.
Swept volume of the given engine = (π/4) × D2 × L
= (π/4) × 10.162 × 12.7 = 0.00102963 m3.
Indicated horsepower can be given by the expression imep × 2 ×
revolutions × swept volume. From this indicated mean effective pressure can
be calculated.
So, imep = ihp/(swept volume × revolutions per seconds × 2)
= 39.392 × 75 × 60/(10.2963 × 2500 × 2) = 3.443 kgf/cm2.
Heat balance chart for the engine
Heat supplied by combustion of fuel = 0.598 × 10840/3
= 2160.77 kcal/min (100%).
Heat carried away by cooling water = 22.68 × 55.5/3
= 419.58 kcal/min (19.42%).
Heat converted to work (bhp) = 33.107 × 60 × 75/427
= 348.90 kcal/min (16.15%).
Heat going to exhaust and other losses (by difference)
= 1392.29 kcal/min (64.43%).

SUMMARY
SUMMARY
Test of internal combustion engines is necessary to compare performance of
engines and assess relative worth of various engines. Practical measurement
of performance parameters needs special set-up and measurement principles.
Using these set-ups, IHP, BHP and FHP measurement for various types of
engines can be executed. Performance parameter at constant speed and
variable speed are conducted to assess effect of speed on various engine
parameters. Numerical included at the end of the chapter establishes
importance of various test methods.

QUESTIONS

1. What is indicator diagram? How is it obtained?

2. What is Morse-test for engine performance?
3. What is William’s line? What is its utility?
4. What are various methods to measure friction horsepower?
5. What are various methods for measurement of BHP?
4.22 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

6. What is brake mean effective pressure?

7. What is meaning of constant speed and variable speed test?
8. What is normal calorific value of fuel used in IC engine?
Which engine parameters are dependent on calorific value of fuel?
9. Whether air standard efficiency is same as thermal efficiency in an engine?
Give reasons in support of your answer.
10. How is friction horsepower measured?
❖❖❖
 CHAPTER

5
Elements of Heat Transfer

STRUCTURE
‰ Introduction
‰ Objective
‰ Heat Transfer Process
‰ Heat Conduction
‰ Thermal Conductivity
‰ General Equation for Heat Conduction
‰ 1-D heat Conduction
‰ 2-D heat Conduction
‰ Convective Heat transfer Process
‰ Free Convection Heat Transfer
‰ Convection on Flat plate
‰ Convection on Planes
‰ Convection over Cylinders
‰ Convection on Spheres
‰ Thermal Radiation
‰ Emissive Power
‰ Plank’s Distributive Law
‰ Radiation Properties
‰ Summary
‰ Questions

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Heat transfer is one of the important means to understand energy transfer in
chemical propulsion. Although energy is generated in chemical propulsion by
combustion, this is excluded from the scope. However, efficient mode of heat
transfer needs thorough understanding of governing equation, heat transfer
mechanism and salient parameters. All three modes of heat transfer namely
conduction, convection and radiation are discussed in this Chapter with
intention to analyze and calculate heat losses. Heat transfer to cooling water,
5.2 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

exhaust, finned surfaces and heat sinks/sources need a deliberation on heat

transfer. This Chapter fulfills this requirement of propulsion module.
Objective
After studying this Chapter, you should be able to understand
• Various modes of heat transfer,
• Conductive heat transfer in 1-D and 2-D,
• Thermal conductivity of materials,
• Convective heat transfer at different surfaces,
• Thermal radiation heat transfer,
• Radiation properties of materials.

5.2 HE
HEAAT TRANSFER PROCESS
PROCESS
Heat transfer is a mode of energy transfer, which takes place due to
temperature difference. This is thermodynamic definition of heat transfer. Heat
generally flows from higher temperature to lower temperature. It is associated
with prediction of rate of heat transfer, where as thermodynamics is different
and it deals with systems in equilibrium. Thermodynamics cannot predict the
quickness with which heat is transferred but it concentrates only on amount of
energy needed to go from one energy state to the other. Thermodynamics deals
with amount of heat transfer, while heat transfer estimates rate of heat
transfer. In heat transfer transient and non-equilibrium states are discussed and
static equilibrium is discussed in classical thermodynamics. If a hot iron ball is
placed in cold water, thermodynamics gives us detail about final equilibrium
temperature attained by both water and the hot ball. Obvious at equilibrium,
both the temperatures are same. However, thermodynamics cannot give
variation of temperature with time. Heat transfer does so and is a rate process.
Time varying temperature and exchange of energy in the form of heat is mainly
discussed in heat transfer. Although, heat transfer takes placed as per both first
and second law of thermodynamics, second law of thermodynamics is more
relevant. As per second law, heat flows from high temperature to low
temperature. First law of thermodynamics is only building block for the heat
transfer and it simply gives equivalence of heat and work transfer. Increase in
internal energy of the system is equal to sum of heat received and work done
by the system.
There are several requirements of daily life, where heat transfer
calculations are done and then systems are devised for meeting human needs.
There are many varieties of heat transfer equipments used in industrial and
domestic arena like boiler, condenser, solar collector, radiator, heat
exchangers, air conditioners, refrigerators, insulators, stoves etc. All these
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.3

equipments are different in size, shape, need and heat transfer modes. Their
analysis is also different from each other, which is mainly dependent on mode
of heat transfer. The heat transfer takes place in three modes – conduction,
convection and radiation. All three modes of heat transfer occur as per
different mechanisms and heat transfer devices may utilize one or more modes
of heat transfer in conjunction.
Conduction is that mode of heat transfer, which occurs through a medium
from high temperature to low temperature. It needs a medium and is faster in
metallic solids. Temperature is associated with molecular motions and high
temperature means more vibration/motion of molecules about mean free
position. Each molecule transfers energy to its adjacent molecule by molecular
motion and retains their mean position. As per steady flow energy equation of
first law of thermodynamics, rate of work transfer during conduction is
generally negligible. The mechanism of conduction through solids is by
molecular interaction, while in fluids, it is due to direct impact. In solids, main
mechanism is lattice vibration, which is augmented further by drift of free
electrons in metals, resulting in good conductivity of metals. This is the reason
why good electric conductors (free electron transfer) are also good heat
conductors. This free electron interactions and molecular or lattice vibration
are well established in physics.
This is governed by Fourier’s law, who was a French mathematical
physicist. Joseph Fourier published his pioneering work in 1822 in the form of
a book, where he explained his simple law of heat conduction. As per Fourier’s
law of heat conduction, heat transfer rate per unit area is proportional to the
normal temperature gradient. Mathematically, this is given as (q/A) α (∂T/∂x),
or q = – k.A.(∂T/∂x), where q is heat transfer rate, A is heat flow area
perpendicular to the direction of heat transfer, (∂T/∂x ) is thermal gradient in
the direction of heat flow and k is constant of proportionality called thermal
conductivity of the material. This law is valid for solids, liquids and gases.
Negative sign is introduced to indicate that heat flow takes place in the
direction of negative thermal gradient.
Convection is another mode of heat transfer, where material diffusion or
flow plays a major role. The name convection is derived from the fact that in
this case heat is conveyed through a fluid by motion of its particles. In this
case, two separate media is needed, one solid and another fluid. Heat transfer
from or to solid occurs from fluid media due to movement of fluid over solid.
So convective heat transfer is very complex and role of fluid flow velocity
cannot be neglected in this case. If steady flow energy equation of first law of
thermodynamics is considered, work done by fluid pressure dominates. This is
different from mechanism explained in conduction. In convection, change in
kinetic energy and potential energy of the fluid is generally negligible as
5.4 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

compared to rate of heat transfer. If fluid flows over a solid, due to viscous
action, velocity of flow appears to be zero at contact. Since velocity of flow at
contact is zero, main mode of heat transfer is by conduction. With this
explanation, the heat transfer is simulated using heat conduction equation, but
heat transfer is governed by temperature gradient and temperature gradient is
dependent on velocity of fluid over the solid. Physical mechanism of heat
transfer at the wall is conduction but beyond that it is fluid motion and so heat
convection. This coefficient is also called film conductance and is determined
experimentally. In addition to the earlier specified parameters, like
conductivity, density and specific heat, heat convection is strongly dependent
on viscosity of fluid.
The heat convection process is governed by Newton’s law of cooling. It
states that heat transfer rate is proportional to overall temperature difference
between wall and fluid and the surface area of exposure.
In this case, q α A × (Ts – Tf), or q = h × A × (Ts – Tf), where Ts is
temperature of the surface, Tf is temperature of the fluid and h is convective
heat transfer coefficient. The unit of convective heat transfer coefficient is
W/m2.K.
Heat convection may be classified as natural or free, if movement of fluid
is energized by density gradient alone. Contrary to this, if some external means
are employed to move or blow fluid over solid, the mode of heat transfer is
called forced-convection. For a temperature difference of 30°C between solid
and fluid convective heat transfer by free convection on a cylinder for air and
water are 6.5 W/m2.K and 900 W/m2.K respectively. If forced convection with
air velocity of 50 m/s is employed, the convective heat transfer coefficient
may attain a value as high as 180 W/m2.K from 6.5 W/m2.K for free-
convection. Boiling and condensation are grouped under this mode of heat
transfer. In fact heat transfer in radiators of automobiles takes place by
convection.
The relations predicted for convection mode of heat transfer cannot give
rate of heat transfer explicitly. It require certain other parameters of the system
like geometry, material properties, fluid flow rate, surrounding temperature
fluid temperature etc. The overall heat transfer coefficient is difficult to
express universally and generally empirical relations are proposed for various
known situations. These requirements are in addition to inputs to first law of
thermodynamics. The materials properties may be density, viscosity, surface
tension, coefficient of thermal expansion, specific heat etc. the cases where
phase change are involved, latent heat of melting, vaporization an sublimation
are also required for complete analysis.
In both the above mentioned mode of heat transfer, presence of medium is
mandatory for heat transfer. Radiation is a mode of heat transfer where
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.5

intervening medium is not a facilitator for heat transfer, but it acts as an

obstruction. In fact, heat transfer by radiation occurs best in vacuum. Heat
transfer through glass or other participating gases is restricted. All the solids
are opaque to radiative mode of heat transfer. All opaque bodies above absolute
zero temperature radiate energy. A perfect or blackbody surface emits radiation
at a maximum rate and additionally, it absorbs all the incident radiation. The
nomenclature of blackbody is derived from the absorption of incident radiation
by the perfect bodies. As they do not reflect any light of visible region, it
appears black for the naked eye and nomenclature is derived from this fact.
Actually, total rate of heat flux exchange is given by difference of total emitted
and reflected energy and total absorbed energy from the surrounding. This
mode of heat transfer occurs in the form of electromagnetic waves emitted by
atomic and subatomic agitation at the surface of the body. It is surface
phenomena and not a bulk phenomenon. Since, this mode of heat transfer
occurs as electromagnetic radiation, the thermal radiation also travels at the
speed of light.
This form of heat transfer includes electromagnetic energy transfer and is
strongly dependent on temperature. Pioneering work has been carried out in
the area of radiation mode of heat transfer and the governing equation is
formulated using experiments by J. Stefan (1879) and theoretical treatment by
L. Boltzmann (1884). This mode of heat transfer is governed by Stefan-
Boltzmann Law, which states that an ideal thermal radiator or blackbody will
emit energy at a rate proportional to fourth power of the absolute temperature
of the body and is directly proportional to its surface area. In this case
constant of proportionality is called Stefan-Boltzmann Constant (σ) and it has
a value of 5.669 × 10–8 W/m2 K4. The law is given as q = σ . A . T 4. This law
is valid for thermal radiation only and it cannot be used for all types of electro-
magnetic radiations.
Any non-black body emits radiation less than blackbody maintained at
same temperature. The ratio of emission by a non-black body and a blackbody
is called emissivity. This is a dimensionless parameter and has a value between
zero and unity. Emissivity is a function of temperature and surface features like
roughness, texture, colour, coating, curvature etc. the variation of emissivity
with temperature is very rapid for some of the materials and this becomes one
of the governing parameters for heat transfer by radiation for non-black
bodies. Since emissivity of a material can vary with as high as six power of
temperature and as low as temperature raised to power 2, the heat transfer by
radiation may take place at higher than fourth power of temperature. If
emissivity effects are considered, heat transfer by radiation in selected range
for selected materials may be as high as temperature raised to power 10 to as
low as temperature raised to power 2. If emissivity of a material is constant, it
is called a gray body.
5.6 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Since radiation heat transfer varies with fourth power of temperature, this
becomes dominating heat transfer mode at high temperatures. Radiation is
dominant in combustion chambers, furnaces, incandescent filaments and other
high temperature zones. The temperature of sun is also calculated using
radiation heat transfer equation. At room temperature, radiation can be
dominant only if conduction and convection are negligible. This type of
situation may occur if heat transfer through a medium less volume is
calculated like in vacuum bottle insulator. Although air temperature is higher
than freezing point of water, but due to radiation losses from ground, ground
may reach a temperature, which is lower than freezing point of water. This is
the reason for formation of ice on ground at night despite higher atmospheric
temperature.
Although governing equations are proposed by various researchers for all
modes of heat transfer, any real life problem of heat transfer is generally solved
using empirical relations because of various reasons. The equations rely on
certain properties of matter and situation like conductivity, convective heat
transfer coefficient and so on. Exact determination of these parameters reliably
for the operating condition of the problem may not be possible. In addition to
this the heat transfer may not exactly follow the governing equations discussed
above. The effect of emissivity is illustrated above in this connection. The heat
transfer experiments are also difficult and uncertain due to measurement
inaccuracies, semi-empirical theories, boundary conditions, finite volume
effects etc. at high heat flux, all bodies’ deviates from Fourier’s law of heat
conduction. The convective heat transfer coefficient may have non-linear
variation with temperature difference and temperature levels. Some of the
materials also behave in an anomalous way in certain range of operating
conditions.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.1
One face of an aluminium plate of 5 mm thick is maintained at 400°C and the
other face is maintained at 50°C. How much heat is transferred through the
plate? Take thermal conductivity of aluminium as 202 W/m.K.

SOLUTION
Heat transfer by conduction, q/A = – k . (∂T/∂x).
Given, k = 202 W/m.K, Temperature difference = 400°C – 50°C
= 350°C = 350 K, Thickness = 5 mm.
So, q/A = 202 × 350/5 × 10–3 = 1.414 × 107 W/m2 = 14.14 MW/m2.
Heat transfer through the plate is 14.14 MW/m2.
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.7

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.2
A 150 mm brick wall has an area of 23 m2 and is made of fire brick (thermal
conductivity = 1.04 W/m.K). Inside and outside temperatrues are 525°C and
20°C. How much heat is lost through the wall? If heating value of fuel oil is
40 MJ/kg, how much fuel oil is needed to balance this loss?

SOLUTION
Heat transfer by conduction, q/A = – k . (∂T/∂x).
Given, k = 1.04 W/m.K, A = 23 m2, Temperature difference = 525°C –
20°C = 505°C = 505 K, Thickness = 150 mm.
So, q = 23 × 1.04 × 505/150 × 10–3 = 8.053 × 104 W
= 80.53 kW.
Heat loss through the wall is 80.53 kW.
Quantity of fuel required to compensate the heat loss = 80.53/40000
kg/s = 0.002013 kg/s = 0.002013 × 3600 × 24 kg/day
= 173.94 kg/day
Amount of fuel oil needed per day is 173.94 kg.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.3
A foam plastic box is 460 mm × 380 mm × 310 mm with a thickness of 15 mm.
heat loss through the box is 70 W, when inner and outside temperatures are
respectively 32°C and –6°C. Estimate thermal conductivity of the foam.

SOLUTION
Heat transfer by conduction, q/A = – k . (∂T/∂x).
Given, Temperature difference = 32°C + 6°C = 38°C = 38 K,
Thickness = 15 mm, heat transfer = 70 W.
Heat conduction area = 2 × (460 × 380 + 380 × 310 + 310 × 460) mm2 =
0.8704 m2
So, k = q × ∂x/(A × ∂T) = 70 × 0.015/(0.8704 × 38) W/m.K
= 0.03175 W/m.K.
Thermal conductivity of the foam is 0.03175 W/m.K.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.4
A sphere of diameter 3 m has 50 mm thick wall of super insulation (k = 1 ×
10-4 W/m.K). It contains liquid oxygen at 90 K. if the outside temperature is
20°C, how much liquid oxygen evaporates in g/day if heat of vaporization is
240 J/g?
5.8 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

SOLUTION
Heat transfer by conduction, q/A = – k . (∂T/∂x).
Given, k = 1 × 10–4 W/m.K, Temperature difference = 273 + 20 – 90 K =
203 K, Thickness = 50 mm.
Surface area of the sphere, A = πD2 = π × 32 m2 = 28.27 m2.
So, q = 28.27 × 1 × 10–4 × 203/0.050 = 11.479 W.
Quantity of liquid oxygen evaporated = 11.479/240 g/s = 0.04783 g/s =
0.04783 × 3600 × 24 g/day = 4132.58 g/day.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.5
Estimate internal temperature for a stainless steel sphere (thermal conductivity
= 45 W/m.K) of 15 mm thick and 1 m outer diameter, which looses heat at the
rate of 100 kW, when outside surface is maintained at 30°C.

SOLUTION
Heat transfer by conduction, q/A = – k . (∂T/∂x).
Given, k = 45 W/m.K, Thickness = 15 mm, Area for heat transfer = πD2 =
π × 12 m2 = 3.14 m2, Heat loss = 100 kW.
So, ∂T = q × ∂x/(A × k) = 100000 × 0.015/(3.14 × 45) K = 10.62 K
Since there is a heat loss, outside temperature must be lower than inside
temperature. Internal surface temperature of the sphere = 273 + 30 + 10.62 K
= 313.62 K.
Internal surface temperature of the sphere is 313.62 K.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.6
A 50 mm diameter 500 mm long cylinder originally at 60°C is to be cooled by
immersing in a cross flow stream at 10°C. If rate of cooling is 300 W, find
convective heat transfer coefficient.

SOLUTION
Heat transfer by convection, q = h × A × (Ts – Tf).
Given, q = 300 W, A = π × 0.05 × 5 = 0.7854 m2, Ts = 60°C, Tf = 10°C.
So, h = 300/[0.07854 × (60 – 10)] W/m2.K = 7.64 W/m2.K
Convective heat transfer coefficient is 7.64 W/m2.K.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.7
Air at 27°C blows over a copper flat plate of dimension 20 cm × 30 cm × 6 cm
is maintained at 250°C. The convection heat transfer coefficient is 50 W/m2.K.
Calculate the heat transfer. If 100 W of heat is lost by radiation, calculate
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.9

temperature difference across thickness of the plate. Take thermal conductivity

of copper as 385 W/m.K.

SOLUTION
Heat transfer by convection, q = h × A × (Ts – Tf).
Given, h = 50 W/m2.K, A = 0.2 × 0.3 = 0.06 m2, Ts = 250°C, Tf = 27°C.
So, q = 50 × 0.06 × (250 – 27) = 669 W.
Total heat lost by convection and radiation = 669 W + 100 W
= 769 W.
This heat loss must be compensated by conductive heat transfer through
the thickness.
Heat transfer by conduction, q/A = – k . (∂T/∂x).
So, Temperature difference = q × thickness/(A × k)
= 769 × 0.06/(0.06 × 385)
= 1.99°C.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.8
Electric current is passed through a wire 1 mm in diameter and 10 cm long,
submerged in water at atmospheric pressure and maintained at 100°C. For this
situation h = 5000 W/m2.K. How much electric power must be supplied to the
wire to maintain the wire surface at 114°C?

SOLUTION
It is a problem of heat convection and power is supplied to compensate the
heat loss taking place in wire, when submerged in relatively cooler water.
Heat transfer by convection, q = h × A × (Ts – Tf).
Given, h = 5000 W/m2.K, A = π × 0.001 × 0.1 = 0.000341 m2, Ts = 114°C,
Tf = 100°C.
Heat transfer, q = 21.99 W. This is amount of electric power required to
accomplish the given task of maintaining surface temperature of wire as 114°C
in wire submerged in water maintained at temperature of 100°C.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.9
An immersion heater coil is 4 mm in diameter and 200 mm in length. It delivers
25 W. Find surface temperature, if it is immersed in surrounding temperature
of 20°C in (a) water (convective heat transfer coefficient = 80 W/m2.K) (b) air
(convective heat transfer coefficient = 10 W/m2.K).

SOLUTION
Heat transfer by convection, q = h × A × (Ts – Tf).
5.10 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Given, q = 25W, h = 80 W/m2.K (a) and 10 W/m2.K (b), A = π × 0.004 ×

0.2 = 0.002513 m2, Tf = 20°C.
From the given equation Ts = Tf + q/Ah
For water, surface temperature = 20 + 25/(0.002513 × 80)
= 144.34°C
For air, surface temperature = 20 + 25/ (0.002513 × 10)
= 1014.72°C.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.10
A thin plate has one side insulated and other side is exposed to air flow at 20°C
(convective heat transfer coefficient = 40 W/m2.K). The plate is electrically
heated at a rate of 12000 W/m2. If radiation is neglected, find the equilibrium
temperature of the plate.

SOLUTION
Heat transfer by convection, q = h × A × (Ts – Tf).
Given, q/A = 12000 W/m2, h = 40 W/m 2.K, Tf = 20°C.
From the given equation Ts = Tf + q/Ah
Equilibrium surface temperature of the plate = 20 + 12000/40
= 320°C.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.11
If the radiant flux from a surface is 1350 W/m2, what would be its equivalent
blackbody temperature?

SOLUTION
Heat transfer by radiation, q = σ . A . T 4.
Given, q/A = 1350 W/m2, σ = 5.669 × 10-8 W/m2 K4.
So, T 4 = 1350/5.669 × 10–8 = 2.38 × 1010 and T = 392.83 K.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.12
Electric current is passed through a wire 1 mm in diameter and 500 mm long.
The electric power delivered is 20 W. If the wire is a blackbody radiating in a
cold environment, estimate temperature of the wire, neglecting conduction and
convection.

SOLUTION
Heat transfer by radiation, q = σ . A . T 4.
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.11

Given, q = 20 W, σ = 5.669 × 10–8 W/m2 K4. A = π × 0.001 × 0.5 m2 =

0.00157 m2
So, T 4 = 20/5.669 × 10–8 × 0.00157 = 2.246 × 1011, and T = 688.4 K.
Temperature of the wire is 677.4 K.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.13
Differentiate between heat transfer by conduction, convection and radiation.

SOLUTION
Parameter Conduction Convection Radiation

Requirement of media Yes Yes No

Movement of media No Yes NA
Governing law by Fourier Newton Stefan Boltzman
Physical contact Yes Yes No
Heat transfer Temperature Temperature Fourth power
proportional to difference difference of Temperature
Nature of Electronmotion Flow of fluids Electromagnetic
heat transfer and lattice over a solid radiation due to
vibration surface. temperature of
body.
Dependence on Yes Yes No
thermal gradient

In an internal combustion engine, maximum temperature of the

combustion gases may be of the order of 2000 K to 2500 K. However, engine
wall temperature is limited by several parameters – intermittent alternate high
and low temperature generation, heat transfer coefficient between combustion
gases and wall of the engine, specific heat to thermal conductivity of the
engine material, heat loss to surrounding or taken away by cooling water.
Study of heat transfer for the internal combustion engine becomes important
from the severity of temperature to which cylinder material is subjected to
while engine is operating. The temperature at the gas-side of the cylinder
surface is restricted to less than 200°C to prevent deterioration or thinning of
lubrication films. In fact high temperature may result in higher thermal stresses
in the material also. Spark plug or valves must be cool enough to avoid any
abnormal combustion phenomena. Heat transfer affects engine performance,
efficiency and emission. During engine operation, if more heat is transferred to
wall of the cylinder, average temperature of combustion gases is reduced and
ultimately works done per cycle is reduced. Friction is another factor, which is
omnipresent and is always associated with increase in temperature.
5.12 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

In the intake manifold, intake mixture is generally at lower temperature

than wall of the engine cylinder and flow velocity are also higher. During this
period, heat flows from wall to the incoming mixture or air. Sometimes
provisions are also made to heat the incoming mixture by the high temperature
exhaust for easy evaporation. During next stroke, mixture is compressed and
both temperature and pressure rises. Rise in temperature results in reversal of
heat transfer direction and now mixture or air becomes at higher temperature
then engine wall. Heat transfer occurs from gas to cylinder wall. During
combustion further heat addition occurs and the gas temperature rises further.
This results in further rise in heat transfer (loss) from gas to cylinder walls.
Next step is expansion stroke, where gases in the cylinder gain velocity and
heat transfer is enhanced. Heat transfer to the wall is highest during this period
due to higher temperature difference and higher overall heat transfer
coefficient due to higher velocity. As expansion proceeds, gas temperature
reduces and heat transfer is also restricted accordingly. During exhaust or
blow-down process, again gases gain velocity but temperatures are relatively
lower. However, exhaust gases will definitely transfer heat to all components
of exhaust manifold.
As far as mode of heat transfer is concerned, all three modes of heat
transfer are generally present in engine cylinder. Conduction is present in all
the solid components of the engine namely cylinder head, cylinder walls and
pistons etc. Convection is major mode of heat transfer inside cylinder from
combustion gases to cylinder walls. Forced convection is observed between
combustion gases and cylinder solid components coming in contact with the
hot gases. The same mode of heat transfer is present from cylinder walls to
coolant, which is generally in liquid or gaseous state. Lubrication, heat
transfers in inlet and exhaust manifolds, heat loss to environment etc are all
examples of forced convection heat transfer. Radiative heat transfer needs
presence of high temperature, which is observed during combustion stroke
(after compression stroke). Heat loss to environment through radiation is
observed in engines and heat transfer from flame or hot gases to other exposed
components always take place through radiation.
Various factors affect heat transfer process in an internal combustion
engine. Heat loss during engine operation to environment reduces work output.
It is observed that with increase in speed and load, importance of heat transfer
is reduced. This is due to the fact that at higher speeds, time available for heat
transfer reduces and actual heat transfer per cycle may be negligible during
operation. However, if heat transfer per unit time is calculated, number of
cycle increases per unit time at higher speeds and accordingly heat transfer
rises as speed increases. Similar effects are observed for increment in load
also. The effect of varying air: fuel ratio is directly taken as variation of load
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.13

and heat transfer rates can be ascertained. Similarly if compression ratio is

increased in an SI engine, heat transfer rate decreases. However the
percentage change is not very significant. As compression ratio is associated
with several other changes, other factors affect heat transfer rate from engine
rather than direct effect of compression ratio on heat transfer rates. Increasing
compression ratio increases (i) gas pressure (ii) gas temperature (iii) gas
velocity (iv) combustion rate (v) surface to volume ratio and reduces gas
temperature during exhaust stroke. These factors in combination give final
estimate of heat transfer rates.
If spark timing in an IC engine is retarded, heat transfer rate reduces.
Retarding spark timing makes fuel/air mixture burn at later instance in the
cycle (larger chamber volume). This results in lower temperature during and at
the end of combustion. Accordingly heat transfer rate is affected and mostly
temperature change in piston and spark plug are affected by such changes.
Due to turbulence inside the engine cylinder, gas velocity rise locally and heat
transfer rate increase. Contrary to this, if temperature of circulating coolant is
increased, the temperature at various components of the engine increases and
accordingly heat transfer rates are affected. Heat transfer rate rise with
increase in inlet temperature of incoming gases and knock.
One of the important factors affecting heat transfer rate is material of
construction of cylinder wall. Although by various means wall temperature is
restricted to within 200°C, but it is observed that from heat transfer point of
view and for fatigue cracking cast iron (conductivity = 54 W/m.K) can
withstand temperature up to 400°C and aluminium alloys (conductivity = 155
W/m.K) can withstand up to 300°C. To restrict heat transfer, thermal
insulation materials are applied at the inner surface of the cylinder walls to
reduce temperature rise and heat transfer. Use of silicon nitride (conductivity =
5-10 W/m.K) and zirconia spray (conductivity = 1.2 W/m.K), is reported.
Although heat transfer is an auxiliary requirement for internal combustion
engines, the design of cooling system needs thorough understanding of heat
transfer. The efficient heat removal from the engine and complications due to
elaborate cooling arrangement governs the final engine design. Other auxiliary
systems like lubrication system also affect the same. Subsequent sections
deals with these heat transfer processes in detail for understanding the actual
heat transfer process in the engine cylinder.

5.3 HE
HEAAT C ONDUCTION
CONDUCTION
The early development of heat conducting is largely due to the efforts of the
French mathematician Fourier (1822). Although process of heat flow from a
material at high temperature to that at low temperature was known, but
relevant parameters and their dependence was established as Fourier’s law.
5.14 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

As per Fourier’s law, heat transfer by conduction is proportional to

surface area and thermal gradient. A constant of proportionality ‘k’ is
introduced, which is referred as thermal conductivity. This is explained in next
section. A schematic of heat flow by conduction in a metallic rod is shown in
figure 5.1. The rod is insulated at its lateral surface and heat conduction is
taking place in its longitudinal direction depicted as ‘x’. As heat flow takes
place from higher temperature to lower temperature, direction of heat flow (q)
in the given figure (5.1) is from left to right. In a given length ‘L’ of the rod,
temperature variation from T1 to T2 is envisaged and temperature is dependent
on distance from left end of the rod. As temperature reduces as ‘x’ increases,
thermal gradient (∂T/∂x) is negative as shown in the figure. To make heat
transfer value positive, a negative sign is introduced in heat transfer
expression. The overall thermal gradient in a length ‘L’ of the rod can be given
by ratio of gross difference of temperature and length (T1 – T2/L).
1

0
–1 ¶T
Thermal Gradient
–2 ¶x

x
T1
Temperature profile
T(x)

T2
L
Insulated Surface
Heat

q Metal Rod

Insulated Surface

Heat transfer by conduction,

¶T T – T2
q = – k.A. =k.A. 1
¶x L

Fig. 5.1 : Heat Conduction through an Insulated Metal Rod

In fact the temperature profile and temperature gradient profiles are

depicting a transient situation. When heat transfer process starts by increasing
temperature of right end of the laterally insulated rod by brining it to certain
high temperature, entire rod except a very small length will experience high
temperature. Affected thickness will be small and for same temperature
difference, heat transfer rate will be high. Temperature rise percolates to more
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.15

part of the rod as time progresses. As affected thickness rises, heat transfer
rate reduces. As time progresses a constant temperature gradient sets in the
rod making heat transfer rate constant. In heat conduction work effects are
negligible.
Heat conduction is mainly governed by thermal conductivity of material
and it is explained in next section.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.14
A thermally insulated glass window 60 cm by 30 cm is made of two 8 mm thick
pieces of glass sandwiching an 8 mm thick air space. Determine the conduction
heat loss through the window, if it’s inside and outside surface temperature are
20°C and –20°C, respectively. Determine the temperature at both internal
glass-air interfaces. Neglect convective heat transfer. Thermal conductivity of
air = 0.018 W/m.K and thermal conductivity of glass = 0.78 W/m.K.

SOLUTION
Heat transfer by conduction, q = k . A . (T1 – T2)/L
Given area of cross-section = 0.6 m × 0.3 m = 018 m2.
Here same heat transfer takes place through glass and air. Here there are
two interfaces of air and glass.
Temperature at outer surface of
glass, T1 = 20°C = 293 K.
Temperature at outer air-glass T1 T3 T4 T2
interface = T3
Temperature at inner air-glass interface = T4
Temperature at inner surface of glass, T2 = – 20°C = 253 K.
For outer glass, T1 – T3 = q × 0.008/(0.18 × 0.78) = 0.05698 q
For air gap, T3 – T4 = q × 0.008/(0.18 × 0.018) = 2.4691 q
For inner glass, T4 – T2 = q × 0.008/(0.18 × 0.78) = 0.05698 q
Adding three equations, T1 – T2 = q × 2.5831.
So, heat transfer, q = (293 – 253)/2.5831 = 15.4853 W
Using equation for outer glass, T3 = 293 – 0.88235 = 292.1176
K = 19.11°C.
Using equation for inner glass, T 4 = 253 + 0.88235 = 253.88235
K = – 19.11°C.
For cross-checking, T3 – T4 = 38.22°C and 2.4691q = 38.22°C.
5.16 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

5.4 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

Thermal conductivity is a parameter to indicate the quickness of heat transfer.
A larger thermal conductivity means faster rate of heat transfer by conduction.
The unit of thermal conductivity in SI unit is watts per meter per degree Kelvin
(W/m.K). Mechanism of heat conduction is different in different phases.
In gases, thermal conduction is governed by kinetic theory of gases. As
temperature of gas rises, molecules move with higher velocity. As molecules
of gas collide randomly with each other and with wall of the container
depending of their molecular motion, higher temperature means more number
of collisions resulting in higher heat transfer. In fact molecular collisions are
elastic and are associated with energy and momentum transfer. The molecular
collision remains even in absence of temperature gradient, but heat transfer
occurs only when high velocity molecules are colliding with low velocity
molecules. Thermal conductivity of gases is dependent on temperature and for
all practical purposes, it is independent of pressure. As per kinetic theory of
gases, thermal conductivity of gas varies with square root of the absolute
temperature. Gases show higher conductivity at higher temperatures. If
density of gases is low, number of collisions of molecules will be less and
thermal conductivity will be low. Kinetic theory of gases correlates thermal
conductivity with molecular weight of gases. Thermal conductivity is
proportional to square root of the molecular weight of gases. This is reason
why helium (molecular weight = 4) has higher thermal conductivity than Argon
(molecular weight = 40). For air thermal conductivity is around 0.024 W/m.K.
Heat conduction through liquid has same physical mechanism as gases,
but molecules are not free to move that freely as gases. In liquids, molecules
are more closely packed and are not free to collide and exchange energy.
Molecular forces are predominant in these cases. The phenomena of heat
conduction in liquids are very complex. Dependence on temperature is also
very difficult to predict. Water has low thermal conductivity at room
temperature, which rises with rise in temperature till around 125°C. Water has
thermal conductivity of 0.556 W/m.K at 0°C. Raising temperature beyond this,
results in reduction in thermal conductivity of water. Glycerin and benzene
show slight reduction in thermal conductivity with certain rise in temperature
till around 50°C. Since mercury is liquid metal, it has very high thermal
conductivity (8.21 W/m.K) as compared to liquids.
In solids, heat transfer by conduction is mainly by lattice vibration and free
electrons. In good conductors, main mechanism of heat conduction is
transportation of heat by free electrons. The electron gases in conductors are
responsible for transmission of electricity also. So, thermal conductors are
invariably good electric conductors. This is the reason that copper (385 W/
m.K), aluminium (202 W/m.K) and silver (410 W/m.K) are good electric as
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.17

well as heat conductors. Iron and steel has varying thermal conductivity
depending on alloying. Pure iron has a thermal conductivity of 73 W/m.K, but
1% C Carbon steel has a value of only 43 W/m.K. Alloying generally reduces
thermal conductivity. Materials showing this mode of heat conduction have
high value of thermal conductivity. If energy is transported through solid by
lattice vibration, heat flow rate is low and these materials although solid but are
not showing high heat conduction. If heat conduction through a material is not
effective, they are called thermal insulators. Glass wool (0.038 W/m.K) and
window glass (0.78 W/m.K) are examples of such materials.
Thermal conductivity is generally a material property and it depends on
temperature. As temperature rises, thermal conductivity of gases increases.
For liquid the values are relatively more or less stable. However for benzene it
reduces and for water it attains a peak value at around 100 to 150°C and then
reduces on both sides of the temperature. Amongst solids, variation of thermal
conductivity with temperature is more or less not seen for iron and its alloys
like stainless steel and carbon steel. However, for aluminium, it increases with
temperature and for copper, it reduces with temperature. These results have
pure practical consequences and are controlling parameters for selection of
materials for various heat transfer applications.
As far as practical measurement of thermal conductivities is considered, it
has several limitations. If range of thermal conductivity for solids is
considered, copper has thermal conductivity of 385 W/m.K, while Rock wool
has thermal conductivity of 0.04 W/m.K. no doubt copper is homogenous and
value of its conductivity is reproducible. Contrary to this rock wool is a
heterogeneous mass made of fiber and air voids. In this case apparent
conductivity can only be measured, which depends on temperature, density or
compaction and partial pressure of air space. Diamond has highest known
conductivity. This makes diamond covering an ideal choice as heat sink on
sensitive electronic semiconductors.
There is another thermal property, which depicts heat storage capacity of
the material. Thermal conductivity is a measure of quickness with which heat
is transmitted through material, while a complementary property called heat
capacity depicts the amount of energy absorbed per unit volume of the material
per unit time in temperature of the material. Heat transfer is generally
associated with free expansion of material; the property is generally depicted at
constant pressure. The base property is called specific heat and when
multiplied with density of the material, it is called heat capacity. A material with
higher density exhibits low specific heat. This is the reason why heat
capacities of solids and liquids are almost in same range. Nickel and iron show
high heat capacity while water also shows heat capacity in almost same range.
The unit of heat capacity is J/m3.K.
5.18 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.15
A plane slab is 120 mm thick and has its outside temperature as 0°C. With the
inner temperature at 100°C, 200°C and 300°C, the measured heat fluxes are
15, 38 and 72 kW/m 2 respectively. Comment on variation of thermal
conductivity of slab with temperature.

SOLUTION
Heat transfer by conduction, q/A = k . (T1 – T2)/L
So, k = q × L/[A × (T1 – T2)]
For the first situation, k = 15 × 0.12/(100 – 0) W/m.k
= 0.018 W/m.K
For the second situation, k = 38 × 0.12/(200 – 0) W/m.k
= 0.0228 W/m.K
For the third situation, k = 72 × 0.12/(300 – 0) W/m.k
= 0.0288 W/m.K
The conductivity of slab rises with rise in temperature difference.

5.5 GENERAL EQU

EQU ATION F
QUA OR HE
FOR AT C
HEA ONDUCTION
CONDUCTION
If this heat conductivity has directional property, then heat conduction
equation for three dimensional Cartesian coordinate system is given below.
∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂T
⎜ kx ⎟+ ky + ⎜ kz ⎟ + q = ρc .
∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂y ⎜⎝ ∂y ⎟⎠ ∂z ⎝ ∂z ⎠ ∂t
Here q is heat generated per unit volume, ρ is density of material and c is
specific heat of the materials. If thermal conductivity of the material is
isotropic, then all three values of thermal conductivity are same (say given by
k), then above equation changes.

∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T q 1 ∂T
+ + + = .
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 k α ∂t
Here α is called thermal diffusivity of the material. This is a measure of
rate of change of temperature of the body for a given heat flux. Larger the
value of α, the faster heat will diffuse through the materials. High value of α
means either rapid energy transfer rate (high k) or low value of heat capacity
(ρ.c). A low value of heat capacity means less part of energy in the form of
transmitted heat is absorbed by the material and used to raise the temperature
of material. Metals and gases show high value of thermal diffusivity. Liquids
(liquid metals), refractories (aluminium oxides) and insulating materials have
low diffusivity. Diffusivity is one of the chief governing parameter in unsteady
heat conduction, as obvious from the above mentioned equation.
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.19

If steady state heat conduction is considered, no variation of temperature

with time is effective. Left hand side of the equation is not present and the
resulting equation is called Poisson equation.

∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T q
+ + + = 0.
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 k
For steady state conduction without heat generation, right most term of
left hand side is also not present. This gives Laplace form of equation.

∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T
+ + =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
Similarly, heat conduction equation in cylindrical and spherical coordinate
systems can also be written. For the cylindrical coordinates system, variables
are r, θ and z. These variables are related to Cartesian coordinate system
variables by the following relations.

x = r Cos θ , y = r Sin θ and z = z.

Using this relation, the equation in Cartesian coordinates can be converted

to cylindrical coordinates. The same is given below.

∂ 2T 1 ∂T 1 ∂ 2T ∂ 2T q 1 ∂T
+ + + + = .
∂r 2 r ∂r r 2 ∂φ2 ∂z 2 k α ∂t
The spherical coordinate system has a single radius R and two angles θ and
φ. They are also related to Cartesian coordinate system and the relations are
given below.

x = R Sin θ Cos φ, y = R Sin θ Sin φ and z = R Cos θ .

Using above relations, the equation of heat conduction in Cartesian

coordinates can be converted into spherical coordinates. The same is given
below.

⎡ 1 ∂ 2 (rT ) 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ 1 ∂ 2T q 1 ∂T ⎤
⎢ 2
+ 2 ⎜ sin θ ⎟ + 2 2 2
+ = ⎥
⎣ r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ ⎝ ∂θ ⎠ r sin θ ∂φ K α ∂t ⎦
The equation of heat conduction in three dimensions is of second order in
space and first order in time. For solution of this equation boundary conditions
are to be specified carefully. Temperature is represented as T(x, y, z, t), which
shows dependence of temperature (T) on spatial (x, y, z) and temporal (t)
variables. There are many forms of boundary conditions possible for such
situations. To tackle temporal variation of temperature, initial boundary
conditions are specified, which are nothing but specification of temperature in
the beginning. This is given as T(x, y, z, 0). On similar lines temperature can be
specified at any other time-step also like T(x, y, z, t1). First form of boundary
5.20 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

condition is known temperature at certain spatial coordinates. Another form of

boundary condition is expressed as exposure to fluid at certain temperature. In
this form convective heat transfer coefficient at the interface surface must be
known. The heat conduction in the body is made equal to heat convection at
the surface. Yet another type of boundary condition is present, when insulated
walls are encountered. Definitely there is no heat conduction through the wall
and first derivative of temperature with respect to spatial coordinate
perpendicular to the wall is zero. Sometimes heat flux at the boundary is also
prescribed.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.16
A slab of thickness 100 mm has conductivity of 25 W/m.K, density 2700 kg/m3
and specific heat of 510 J/kg.K. It has an instantaneous temperature
distribution, T (K) = 500 – 2500x + 6000x2, x in m and x = 0 denotes left hand
side surface. How much energy is instantaneously received by the slab in W/
m2? At what rate is the temperature at the center of the slab changing in K/s?

SOLUTION
Temperature on left side of the slab, T(0) = 500 K
Temperature on the right side of the slab, T(0.1) = 310 K
Energy received by the slab, q/A = – k (T1 – T2)/L
= – 25 × (310 – 500)/0.1 W/m2 = 47500 W/m2
Thermal diffusivity, α = k/ρ.c = 25/(2700 × 510) m2/s
= 1.815 × 10–5 m2/s
(∂2T/∂x2) = 1/α (∂T/∂t )
(∂T/∂t) = α (∂2T/∂x2)
= 1.815 × 10–5 × 12000 K/s = 0.21786 K/s.

5.6 1-D HE
HEAAT C ONDUCTION
CONDUCTION
If heat conduction is taking place predominantly in one direction, it is called
1-D heat conduction. Alternatively, if one dimension is much bigger than other
two dimensions of the body, heat transfer may be assumed to be taking place
in one direction only. The situation may be achieved by properly insulating the
material surface to restrict heat conduction. For 1-D heat conduction, concept
of thermal resistance is very important. Analogy can be derived from electrical
current flow, which needs a potential difference. It is clear that heat flow takes
place due to temperature difference, which may be considered as thermal
potential difference. For 1-D heat conduction in Cartesian coordinate, Fourier
law is depicted below.
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.21

Heat transfer, q = Thermal potential difference/

Thermal resistance = [T1 – T2]/(L/k . A)
Thermal resistance, R = L/k.A.

Heat conduction through the thickness of a wall is governed by 1-D heat

conduction equation. Heat conducted is proportional to average conductivity,
wall area and the temperature difference and it is inversely proportional to the
wall thickness.
The temperature distribution across a 1-D thick wall depends on thermal
conductivity variation with temperature. If thermal conductivity of the wall is
independent of temperature, the temperature distribution across wall is linear.
Temperature becomes proportional to distance from any side of the wall. The
temperature variation across walls of such 1-D heat conduction is as follows.

T – T1/T2 – T1 = x – x1/x2 – x1.

Non-linearity in variation of temperature with distance is introduced by

variation of thermal conductivity of material of the wall with temperature. If
conductivity increases with temperature, more part of material thickness is
maintained at higher temperature and the variation of temperature with
distance from one edge is concave downward. Reverse is situation, if thermal
conductivity reduces with temperature.
Temperature Equivalent resistance
Equivalent resistance
Profile
= (L1/k1.A) + (L2/k2.A) + A1 k1 = 1/{[1/(L/k1.A1] + [1/(L/k2.A2]}
... + (Ln/kn.A)
A k2 A2 = 1/{[1/R1] + [1/R2]}
= R1 + R2 + ...Rn
q L = R1.R2/{R1 + R2}
= S(L/k.A)
L1 L2 Ln
k1 k2 kn Case 1 Case 2

Fig. 5.2 : Thermal Resistances for Heat Conduction in Cartesian Coordinate

If multiple materials are employed for heat conduction, figure 5.2 can be
referred for calculation of equivalent resistance. If materials of same cross-
section area are stacked one beside the other and heat flows by conduction
through them, they are found to act as thermal resistance in series (case 1 of
figure 5.2). In this case equivalent resistance is given by sum of individual
thermal resistances. Contrary to this if same thickness of two materials is
stacked in such a way that heat conduction is split between the given materials
(depicted in case 2 of figure 5.2), the reciprocal of equivalent thermal
resistance is given by sum of reciprocals of individual resistances.
Heat conduction in one-dimension can take place in a cylinder in radial
direction. If cylinder has a length of ‘L’, then area of cross-section, Ar = 2πr.L.
If inner surface at radius of r1 is maintained at temperature of T1 and outer
5.22 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

surface at temperature of r2 is maintained at T2, heat flows in radial direction.

In this case of heat transfer, area of cross-section, for heat conduction,
increases with increase in radius. This results in lower temperature variation at
higher radii for same radial thickness.
The Fourier equation for cylindrical coordinate in one dimension is as
follows.

πr.L.k.dT/dr. on integration, this

Heat conduction, q = – k . Ar . dT/dr = – 2π
results in equation of heat conduction in cylindrical coordinate as below.
π.L.k.(T1 – T2)/ln (r2 /r1). This clearly indicates that
Heat conduction, q = 2π
π.L.k.
Thermal resistance = ln (r2/r1)/2π
T – T1/T2 – T1 = ln (r/r1)/ln (r2/r1).

On similar lines, for spherical coordinates,

πR2.k.dT/dr.
q = – k . Ar . dT/dr = – 4π
π.k (T1 – T2)/(1/R1 – 1/R2)
Heat conduction, q = 4π
π .k).
Thermal resistance = 1/R1 – 1/R2 /(4π
T – T1/T2 – T1 = (1/R1 – 1/R)/(1/R1 – 1/R2).

The concept of thermal resistance can be used in case of convective heat

transfer also. As per Newton’s law of cooling,

q = h × A × (Ts – Tf) = (Ts – Tf)/(1/h.A).

So, thermal resistance = 1/(h.A).

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.17
Structure of a composite wall is given in the figure. If T 3 measures 450°C, find
(i) heat transfer, (ii) conductivity of central material and (iii) T2, T4, T5.

Conductivity, k (W/m.K)
Air Air
18 kB = ? 40
T1 = 650°C T2 = ? q/A = ? T3 = 450ºC T4 = ? T5 = ? T6 = 20°C
2 2
h1 = 35 W/m .K h6 = 22 W/m .K
120 mm 80 mm 45 mm

SOLUTION
Between station 1 and 3, thermal resistance, R1-3 = 1/35 + 0.12/18 m2.K/W =
0.0352 m2.K/W.
Heat transfer, q/A = [650 – 450]/0.0352 W/m2
= 5675.67 W/m2.
Between station 3 and 6, thermal resistance, R3-6 = 0.08/kB + 0.045/40 + 1/
22 m2.K/W
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.23

Heat transfer, q/A = 5675.67 = [450 – 20]/ R3-6. Solving for unknown
conductivity, kB = 2.74 W/m.k between station 1 and 2, q/A = 5675.67 = 35 ×
[650 – T2]. So, T2 = 487.84°C.
Between station 5 and 6, q/A = 5675.67 = 22 × [T5 – 20]. So, T5 =
277.98°C.
Between station 4 and 5,
q/A = 5675.67 = 40 × [T4 – 277.98]/0.045. So, T4 = 284.37°C.
The calculations can be checked for accuracy for T4 from left hand side
also.
Between station 3 and 4, q/A = 5675.67 = 2.74 × [450 – T4]/0.08. So, T4 =
284.37°C.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.18
Tleft = 200°C

1 3

Tright = 50°C
2 4

Parameters 1 2 3 4

K, W/m.K 5 8 12 3
2
A, m 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.6

L, mm 50 50 80 80
A grid of four materials is shown in figure heat transfer takes place in one
dimension in horizontal direction. Top and bottom surfaces are insulated.
Calculate heat transfer assuming (i) two series thermal resistances in parallel,
(ii) 2 parallel thermal resistances in series and (iii) explain reason in variation
and which is correct?

SOLUTION
Thermal resistances in series gets added up to get equivalent resistance, while
inverse of equivalent thermal resistance in parallel are obtained by sum of
reciprocals of individual thermal resistances.
Thermal resistance of 1, R1 = L/A.K = 0.0250 K/W
Thermal resistance of 2, R2 = L/A.K = 0.0104 K/W
Thermal resistance of 3, R3 = L/A.K = 0.0166 K/W
Thermal resistance of 4, R4 = L/A.K = 0.0444 K/W
5.24 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

(i) In first case thermal resistances of 1 and 3 are in series and so is case
with 2 and 4. Both these resistances are in parallel.
R1-3 = R1 + R3 = 0.0416 K/W and R2-4 = R2 + R4 = 0.0548 K/W
Req = R1-3 × R2-4/[R1-3 + R2-4] = 0.02367.K/W
Heat transfer, q/A = [200 – 50]/0.02367 W = 6335.016 W.
(ii) In second case thermal resistances of 1 and 2 are parallel and so is
case with 3 and 4. Both these resistances are in series.
R1-2 = R1 × R2/[R1 + R2] = 0.0073446 K/W and
R3-4 = R3 × R4/[R3 + R4] = 0.0121 K/W
Req = [R1-2 + R3-4] = 0.019427.K/W
Heat transfer, q/A = [200 – 50]/0.019427 W = 7721.11 W
(iii) Both schemes are solution of the same problem, but equivalent
thermal resistance and heat transfer are different. In my opinion,
first case depicts the situation depicted in the figure more correctly.
In second case, the interface of 1-3 and 2-4 are assumed to be at the
same temperature, which is not true. This violates 1-D heat
conduction and the expressions used are erroneous.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.19
A house wall consists of 20 mm plaster (conductivity = 0.5 W/m.K), 120 mm
glass fiber (conductivity = 0.035 W/m.K) and 40 mm of oak wood
(conductivity = 0.17 W/m.K). Inner and outer heat transfer coefficients are
10 and 25 W/m2.K and temperatures are 30°C and – 15°C. Find heat loss.

SOLUTION
The configuration has five thermal resistances – convection at inner surface +
conduction by plaster, glass fiber and oak wood in sequence + convection at
outer surface. The convective resistance is 1/h, while conductive resistance is
thickness/k, where h = convective heat transfer coefficient and k = thermal
conductivity.
Thermal resistance, R = 1/10 + 0.02/0.5 + 0.12/0.035 + 0.04/0.17 + 1/25
m2.K/W = 3.84386 m2.K/W.
Heat loss per unit area = temperature difference/thermal resistance =
[30 – (– 15)]/3.84386 W/m2 = 11.71 W/m2.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.20
A furnace is 3 m by 4m by 5 m with a composite wall of 150 mm silica brick
(conductivity = 1.1 W/m.K), 50 mm glass fiber (conductivity = 0.035 W/m.K)
and 10 mm carbon steel (conductivity = 45 W/m.K). Inner conditions are T1 =
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.25

450°C and h1 = 15 W/m2.K; Outer conditions are T2 = 20°C and h1 = 20 W/

m2.K; Find heat loss per unit area and temperature at brick glass fiber
interface.

SOLUTION
The configuration has five thermal resistances – convection at inner surface +
conduction by silica brick, glass fiber and carbon steel in sequence +
convection at outer surface. The convective resistance is 1/h, while
conductive resistance is thickness/k, where h = convective heat transfer
coefficient and k = thermal conductivity.
Thermal resistance, R = 1/15 + 0.15/1.1 + 0.05/0.035 + 0.01/45 + 1/20
m2.K/W = 1.6818 m2.K/W.
Heat loss per unit area = temperature difference / thermal resistance = [450
– 20] / 1.6818 W/m2 = 255.675 W/m2.
Resistance from inner side till silica brick glass fiber interface
= 1/15 + 0.15/1.1 m2.K/W = 0.203 m2.K/W.
Heat transfer as calculated earlier is valid here
255.675 = [450 – T]/0.203, or T = 398°C.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.21
For the problem above, maximum temperature in fiberglass is limited to
320°C. How much extra silica brick should be added?

SOLUTION
The data is taken from previous problem. But it must be considered that,
calculated heat transfer of previous problem cannot be used here. If thickness
of silica brick is increased to restrict temperature in glass fiber, the heat
transfer calculated in previous problem will not be valid. Increase in thermal
insulation leads to reduction in heat transfer. For calculation of heat transfer,
the temperature at the inner surface of fiber glass is given and thermal
resistance external to this plane is considered.
Thermal resistance, Router = 0.05/0.035 + 0.01/45 + 1/20 m 2.K/W =
1.47879 m2.K/W.
Heat transfer, q/A = [320 – 20]/Router = 202.868 W/m2.
(This heat transfer is less than value of 255. 675 W/m2 of the previous
problem)
This is heat transfer for the internal surface also. Let ‘L’ be thickness of
additional silica brick added, then thermal resistance Rinner = 1/15 + (0.15 + L)
/1.1 m2.K/W.
5.26 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

202.868 = [450 – 320]/Rinner. Or, L = 0.4815 m = 481.5 mm. Thickness of

additional silica brick is 481.5 mm.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.22
A water-heater tank is 1000 mm in diameter and 2000 mm high. It is covered
with 50 mm thick rock wool insulation (thermal conductivity = 0.04 W/m.K).
Metal wall resistance is negligible. If temperature of water is 60°C and
surrounding is at 15°C, find heat loss.

SOLUTION
Heat transfer by conduction, q = 2π.L.k.(T2 – T1)/ln (r2/r1)
Given k = 0.04 W/m.K, D = 1000 mm, L = 2000 mm, t = 50 mm, T1 =
60°C, T2 = 15°C.
Here, internal radius, r1 = 1000/2 mm = 500 mm, r2 = (1000+50)/2 mm =
525 mm
So, q = 2π.L.k.(T1 – T2)/ln (r2/r1)
= – 2π × 2000 × 0.04 × (60 – 15)/ln (525/500) W
= – 463607.1 W = – 0.4636 MW
Heat loss is 0.4636 MW.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.23
A thick walled tube of stainless steel (k = 19 W/m.K) with 2 cm inner diameter
and 4 cm outer diameter is covered with a 3 cm layer of asbestos insulation
(k = 0.2 W/m.K). If the inside temperature of the pipe is maintained at 600°C
and outside temperature is restricted to 100°C, calculate the heat loss per meter
of length.

SOLUTION
Thermal resistance of steel tube = ln (r2/r1)/2π.L.k = ln(2/1)/2π × 19 = 5.806
× 10–3 W/K.
Thermal resistance of insulation = ln (r2/r1)/2π.L.k = ln(5/2)/2π × 0.2 =
0.72916 W/K.
Since these two materials are in series, equivalent resistance is sum of
individual resistances = 0.73496 W/K.
Heat loss per meter length = temperature difference/thermal resistance =
(600 – 100)/0.73496 W = 680.3 W.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.24
A hollow cylinder with inner and outer radius as 40 mm and 60 mm
respectively is maintained at 30°C and 100°C at inner and outer surface
respectively. If is surrounded with fluid at 250°C. Find average thermal
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.27

conductivity of the cylinder of length 2000 mm, if convective heat transfer

coefficient is 50 W/m2.K.

SOLUTION
Given r1 = 40 mm, r2 = 60 mm, L = 2000 mm, T1 = 30°C, T2 = 100°C, T∞ =
250°C, h = 50 W/m2.K.
Heat transfer at the surface, q = h × A × (T∞ – T2) = h × 2πr2L × (T∞ – T2)
= 50 × 2π × 0.06 × 2 × (250 – 100) W = 5654.86 W.
Heat conducted through the tube = heat convected at the surface 5654.86
W = 2π.L.k.(T2 – T1)/ln (r2/r1) = 2π × 2x .k. (100 – 30)/ln (0.06/0.04).
So, k = 8.1887 W/m.K.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.25
A hollow stainless steel sphere has D1 = 400 mm, D2 = 600 mm, T2 = 50°C. It
is cooled by a fluid with T∞ = 15°C and h = 145 W/m2.K. What is inner
temperature?

SOLUTION
For stainless steel, thermal conductivity is taken as 45 W/m.K.
Heat convection at the outer surface, q = h × A × (T2 – T∞) = 145 × 4π ×
0.32 × (50-15) W = 5739.69 W.
Heat conducted through the sphere = heat convected at the surface
4π.k(T1 – T2)/(1/R1 – 1/R2) = 5739.69 W
Or 4π × 45 × (T1 – 50)/(1/0.2 – 1/0.3) = 5739.69
Or, T1 = 66.9°C
Inner temperature is 66.9°C.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.26
A hollow sphere of uniform conductivity has inner, mid-point and outer
temperature of 5°C, 25°C and 40°C. Outer diameter is 150 mm, find inner
diameter.

SOLUTION
Let inner, midpoint and outer conditions are depicted by subscripts 1, 2, 3
respectively.
Given, that conductivity of material is uniform and T1 = 5°C, T2 = 25°C,
T3 = 40°C, D3 = 150 mm, find D1.
Since conductivity of the material is uniform, the heat transfer between
inner and midpoint is same as that between midpoint and outer surface.
5.28 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

T2 – T1/(1/R1 – 1/R2) = T3 – T2/(1/R2 – 1/R3)

As terms are uniform, radius can be replaced with diameters on both sides.
It is given that D2 = (D1 + D3)/2, because of 2 is subscript for the mid-point.
(25 – 5)/(1/D1 – 1/D2) = (40 – 25)/(1/D2 – 1/D3)
20/(1/D1 – 1/D2) = 15/(1/D2 – 1/D3)
3/D1 – 3/D2 = 4/D2 – 4/D3
3/D1 + 4/D3 = 7/D2
3/D1 + 4/D3 =14/(D1 + D3)
(3D3 + 4D1) × (D1 + D3) = 14 D1D3
3D3D1 + 3D32 + 4D12 + 4D1D3 = 14 D1D3
4D12 – 7D1D3+ 3D32 = 0
(4D1 – 3D3) × (D1 – D3) = 0
D1 = 3D3/4 or D3
Second value is inconsistent. So, inner diameter, D1 = 3 × 150/4 = 112.5
mm.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.27
Frustum of a cone has T1 = 150°C at the base with diameter 100 mm. The top
surface at a distance of 150 mm, has diameter of 50 mm and temperature T2 =
30°C. Assume one dimensional heat flow in axial direction with lateral surface
fully insulated. If thermal conductivity of the material is 45 W/m.K, find (a)
heat transfer rate and (b) temperature at a distance of 75 mm from the bottom.

SOLUTION
This is a problem of 1-D steady state heat conduction in axial direction through
variable area of cross-section. Let lateral direction is denoted by ‘x’ and
bottom is maintained at x1 = 0. Top surface is at x2 = 150 mm. D1 = 100 mm
and D2 = 50 mm. General equation of diameter, D = 100 – x/3.
Heat conduction through the cone frustum, q = A.k. dT/dx = k. dT/[dx/A]
= k.(T1 – T2)/[4.dx/π.D2]
(integrating along length)
= 45π × (150 – 30)/[4 × 3 × (1/0.05 – 1/0.1)]
= 141.37 W.
If insulation is added on a wall, thermal resistance generally increases.
This rise in resistance results in less heat transfer and prevents reduction in
inside temperature by heat loss. Such situations are valid for Cartesian
coordinate system where surface area through which heat loss is taking place
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.29

is constant. The rise on thermal resistance is due to increase in thickness

encountered by heat flow. However, if surface area for heat transfer changes
as in the case of cylinders in radial outward direction, same situation may not
hold good. Adding insulation increases thickness encountered by heat flow, but
simultaneous increase in area may result in a lump-sum effect of reduced
thermal resistance. Such situations are seen in cylindrical and spherical
coordinate systems.
Let us consider a tubular pipe of outer diameter r1 placed in a fluid stream
at temperature of Tf. If insulation layer is placed so as to make outer diameter
r2 such that interface temperature of tube and insulation is maintained at Ti,
heat will flow from inside to outside through the thermal insulation. Heat
transfer through insulation takes place through conduction while at the outer
interface, convection is effective. Heat transfer through insulation can be
expressed by concept of thermal resistance.

π.L.k} + {1/(2π
Heat transfer, q = Ti – Tf /[{ln (r2/r1)/2π π.r2.L.h)}].

For maximization of heat transfer through the insulation, above expression

is differentiated with respect to r 2 and equated to zero. This gives an
expression as r2 = k/h. This indicates that, if outer radius of tube after
application of insulation is less than the value given by the expression, heat
transfer will increase after addition of insulation-layer. However, if outer layer
is more than critical thickness of insulation, addition of insulation layer results
in decrease of heat transfer and insulation will, in true sense will give the
insulation effect. This is called critical radius of insulation and for lower values
of r2, convective heat transfer coefficient should be high. At this critical radius
of insulation, heat loss is maximum and addition of insulation till this thickness
decreases thermal resistance and increases heat loss. However, for radii higher
than this radius, insulation layers behave in same way as they behave for
Cartesian coordinates.
From practical point of view, insulation has thermal conductivity of
around 0.04 W/m.K and lowest value of convective heat transfer coefficient is
5 W/m2.K. For such values, critical thickness of insulation is around 8 mm
obviously; industrial pipes and other fluid flow channels in heat exchangers,
condensers or other devices are larger than this thickness. So, chances of
increased heat transfer by adding insulation is not seen for such situations. But
electric wires are some times smaller than this critical radius and adding
insulation may further enhance the heat loss. So, such wires are left
uninsulated (bare) for reduced heat loss. Of course adding insulation may
change the convective heat transfer coefficient and make the system more
complex to analyze by such simple assumptions.
5.30 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Critical thickness of insulation

= k/h for cylindrical coordinate system
= 2.k/h for spherical coordinate system.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.28
Calculate the critical radius of insulation (k = 0.1 W/m.K) surrounding a pipe
and exposed to room air at 20°C with h = 2 W/m2.K. Calculate heat loss at
200°C, 5 cm diameter pipe, when covered with the critical radius of insulation
and without insulation.

SOLUTION
Given, k = 0.1 W/m.K, h = 2 W/m2.K, Tf = 20°C, Ti = 200°C, r1 = 2.5 cm =
0.025 m.
Critical radius of insulation, r2 = k/h = 0.1/2 m
= 0.05 m = 5 cm.
Heat transfer per unit length of pipe without thermal insulation, assuming
same convective heat transfer coefficient is valid for pipe and surrounding
fluid is
Given by, q = 2π.r1.h. (Ti – Tf)
= 2π × 0.025 × 2 × (200 – 20) = 56.548 W/m.
Thermal resistance per unit length of pipe with insulation layer, placed on
the outer surface of the pipe is given by [{ln (r2/r1)/2π.L.k} + {1/(2π.r2.L.h)}]
= {ln(5/2.5)/(2π × 0.1)} + {1/(2π × 0.05 × 2)} = 2.6947 K.m/W.
Heat transfer, q = (200 – 20)/2.6947 W/m = 66.797 W/m.
In this case placing insulation increases heat transfer through the pipe and
increase is of the order of 18% more in effective heat transfer by applying
insulation.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.29
An aluminium wire (conductivity = 238 W/m.K) has a diameter of 3 mm and a
surface temperature of 150°C with ambient condition T∞ = 20°C and h0 = 8 W/
m2.K. What is maximum allowable conductivity of the insulation that can be
added on this wire that will cause a reduction in heat flux? If conductivity of
the insulation is 0.035W/m.K, what are critical radius and the maximum heat
flux for that condition?

SOLUTION
The maximum allowable conductivity of the insulation that can be added to the
wire without adversely affecting the heat transfer is basically critical thickness
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.31

of insulation. The problem demands calculation of thermal conductivity for

which critical thickness of insulation is equal to wire radius. It is assumed that
convective heat transfer coefficient does not change by addition of thermal
insulation.
Required conductivity, k = r × ho = 0.0015 × 8 w/m.K
= 0.012 W/m.K.
Any thermal conductivity of insulation material higher than this will reduce
critical thickness of insulation to less than diameter of the wire and insulation
addition will reduce heat flux.
Critical radius for the given conductivity, rc = k/ho = 0.035/8 m =
0.004375 mm.
Maximum heat flux occurs, when critical thickness of insulation is applied
on the surface.
Thermal resistance, R = ln (rc/ro)/[2π.L.k] + 1/[2π.rc.ho] = ln (0.004375/
0.0015)/[2π × 0.035] + 1/[2π × 0.004375 × .8] m.K/W = 9.41488 m.K/W
Heat flux, q = [150 – 20]/9.41488 W/m = 13.81 W/m.
In automobiles, application of fins for rapid cooling is regularly employed.
This also acts on combined principle of conduction and convection. Fins are
designed to increase heat transfer, so that engines can be cooled faster. This is
opposite of thermal insulation. Fins increase heat transfer by providing
additional surface area. Electronic equipments are finned for cooling. Gas side
of the heat exchangers is also finned. They are extended surfaces from the
base surface and are also called heat transfer augmenters.
For fins, effective control is a combination of heat conduction area, heat
convection perimeter, thermal conductivity and convective heat transfer
coefficient. A combined parameter, ‘m’ is defined. Parameter, m = √(h.P/
A.k), where h = convective heat transfer coefficient, P = perimeter area
or lateral area for heat convection, A = end area for heat conduction, k =
thermal conductivity of fin. This parameter is not dimensionless. It has a
unit of per unit radius and is generally written as per unit length. End surface of
the fin protruding in fluid is considered insulated. This also means that either
surface area reduces to zero or it is physically insulated. This is to ensure
simplified calculation. Additionally, it also signifies that compared to
convective heat transfer through lateral surface is much higher than that at the
end faces. Some of the fin configurations are shown in figure 5.3.
To analyze heat transfer through fins, a rectangular projecting surface
from a plane is considered as shown in figure 5.4. Base of the projection is
maintained at certain wall temperature (Tw ) and outside atmosphere is
maintained at other temperature (T∞). The area of protruding rectangular
5.32 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

cross-section is A (= Z.t) and its thickness and width are ‘t’ and ‘Z’
respectively. Length of protruding surface is ‘L’. For the figure shown, there
are two modes of heat transfer – one is conduction through the protruded
volume and other is heat convection through lateral and end surfaces. An
infinitesimal length (dx) of the protrusion is taken for analysis. Net heat
transfer in ‘x’-direction is by conduction alone and is governed by Fourier’s
equation. Net heat transfer by conduction through the protrusion is equal to
–AK.dx.d2T/dx2.

Fig. 5.3 : Different Fin Configurations

Heat convection is also depicted in the figure 5.4. Heat balance equation
gives the following equation.

d 2T /dx2 – (hP/AK) (T – T∞ ) = 0
d 2θ /dx2 – m. θ = 0, where, θ = T – T∞ and dθ
θ = dT.

This is a simple second order differential equation and solution of the same
is given by

θ = C1.e-mx + C2.emx.

It is given that

When x = 0 (at the base of the protrusion),

T = Tw and θ0 = Tw – T∞.

Several cases of the protrusion environment can be considered from the

solution of above mentioned equation with suitable boundary conditions.
First case is considering a very long protrusion. This invariably indicates
that open end of the protrusion attains atmospheric temperature. The boundary
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.33

conditions are (i) at x = 0, θ = θ0 and (ii) at x = ∞, θ = 0. Second boundary

condition gives C2 = 0 and equation changes to θ = C1.e-mx. First boundary
condition gives C1 = θ0. This gives solution as θ = θ0 e-mx. Total heat transfer
through the protrusion is given by θ 0 x √(hPkA).

Surrounding Perimeter, P = 2.(Z + t)

temperature
T¥ dqcom = hP,dx (T – T¥)

Wall Heat transfer by

temperature conduction through
Thermal infinitesimal section
Tw conductivity
K T Left side = –AK dT/dx
A Right side = –AK dT/dx
Conduction + dx.d [–AK d T/dx]/dx
Z
L
Net heat transfer is
difference of the two =
x dx 2 2
–AK.dx.d T/dx
Area, A = Z.t

Fig. 5.4 : Heat transfer through protrusions Depicting Fins

Second situation is when protrusion length is finite, but ends of the

protrusion are insulated and there is no heat conduction through the outer
surface of the protrusion. First boundary condition remains same (at x = 0,
θ = θ0) as it was earlier, and the boundary condition gives C1 + C2 = 0.
However second boundary condition changes. At finite length ‘L’, thermal
gradient (dθ/dx) has to be zero to make zero heat conduction (– AKdθ/dx) at
θ /dx = m.[– C1.e-mx +
outer wall. This gives boundary condition differently. dθ
C2.emx) is mathematical representation of this boundary condition. The final
solution is θ = θ0 cosh [m(L– x)]/cosh mL. Total heat transfer is given by
θ 0 tan h (mL) × √(hPkA). This is most promising case observed in practical
situations.
However, a more general case is observed, which needs complicated
mathematical operations. If protrusion of finite length is considered and there
are finite heat losses from the outer ends of the protrusion is also considered,
then second boundary condition changes and solution needs more calculations.
The final result is given as

θ = θ 0 {cos h [m(L – x)] + (h/mK).sinh [m(L – x)]}/{cos h mL + (h/mK).sin

h mL}.
Total heat transfer is given by θ 0 [(h/mK).cos h mL + sin h mL]/[cos h mL
+ (h/mK).sin h mL} × √ (h PkA).

Numerical evidence for importance of fins is expressed by certain ratios.

Usefulness of heat transfer through such protrusions can be expressed by ratio
5.34 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

of actual heat transfer with fins and heat transfer through fin when entire
protrusion area is maintained at the base temperature (Tb). This term is called
fin efficiency and is a number between zero and one. It is given by following
expression for second situation (infinite fin length) depicted above.

Fin efficiency = tan h (mL)/mL.

It is observed that fin has maximum efficiency, when fin length (L = 0) is

zero (no fin situation). This is a trivial case but is true. It indicates that in
absence of fins maximum fin performance is possible. So, fin performance
cannot be improved using fin of higher length. To maximize efficiency fin
material (mass, volume, conductivity, cost, surface-roughness) is selected
judiciously. In fact sometimes heat transfer with fin and without fin is also
considered as a performance parameter of the fin. This is called fin
effectiveness.

√ (hA/kP).
Fin effectiveness = tan h (mL)/√

Since hyperbolic functions are used in expressions, their expansions are

given below for ready reference.

Sin h x = (ex – e-x)/2;

Cos h x = (ex + e-x)/2;
Tan h x = (ex – e-x)/(ex + e-x) = [2/(1+ e-2x)] – 1.

Addition of fin will increase heat transfer is the general perception but
there are several situations in which fins are not very helpful. Heat transfer rate
may not increase by addition of the fins. If convective heat transfer coefficient
is very lager as depicted in case of high fluid flow velocity or boiling liquids,
reverse situation may occur by addition of fins. In this case conduction
becomes faster and convective heat transfer is not that effective. Let us
consider a circular fin of stainless steel (conductivity = 43 W/m.K) with
diameter 10 mm and length 100 mm protruding out from a plane surface in the
atmosphere of boiling water (convective heat transfer coefficient =
5000 W/m2.K).
Ratio of area to perimeter = A/P = Diameter/4
= 0.01/4 = 0.0025 m
Fin parameter, m = √(hP/AK)
= √(5000 /0.0025 × 43)/m = 215.665/m.
Denominator of fin effectiveness = √(hA/KP)
= √5000 × 0.0025/43) = 0.53916
Fin effectiveness = tan h (mL)/√(hA/KP)
= tan h (215.665 × 0.1)/0.53916
= tan h (21.5665)/0.53916 = 1.8
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.35

So, heat transfer with fin is 1.8 times higher than heat transfer without fin.
However, if conductivity of the material is reduced to 10 W/m.K, fin
effectiveness can be calculated on similar lines as depicted above. The value of
‘m’ is 447.213 /m for the given case and fin effectiveness is 0.894. This
indicates that transmission of heat without fin is higher than transmission of
heat with fins and addition of fin does not enhances the heat transfer rate.
Hence under such situations, fins should not be added to the system.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.30
An aluminium (k = 200 W/m.K) rod 2.5 cm in diameter and 15 cm long
protrudes from a wall which is maintained at 260°C.
The rod is exposed to an environment at 16°C. The convection heat
transfer coefficient is 15 W/m2.K. Calculate heat loss by the rod.

SOLUTION
Given, d = 2.5 cm = 0.025 m, L = 15 cm = 0.15 m, Tb = 260°C, Tf = 16°C, h
= 15 W/m2.K, k = 200 W/m.K.
Assumption: Fin end is insulated in view of d << L.
Perimeter area of fin = π.d = 0.07854 m.
End-face area of the fin = (π/4).d2 = 0.000491 m2.
Parameter m = √(h.P/A.k)
= √(15 × 0.07854/0.000491 × 200) = 3.46365/m
Heat transfer, q = (Tb – Tf) × tan h (mL) × √(h.P.A.k) = (260 – 16) × tan h
(3.46365 × 0.15) × √(15 × 0.07854 × 0.000491 × 200) = 4.311 W/m.

5.7 2-D HE
HEAAT C ONDUCTION
CONDUCTION
In previous section, temperature gradient and are is expressed in term of one
space coordinate only. This may be actual situation or dimensions are such that
effective mode of heat transfer can be represented well by considering
variation of temperature in one direction only. However, in real life and for
exact calculation, multi-dimensional approach is generally adopted. Even for
the simplest case of steady state heat transfer by conduction in multiple
dimension, close form solutions are difficult to derive. Most of the time two
dimensional heat transfer is expressed and calculated analytically, numerically
or graphically.
Although analytical solution is most favoured, most of the time, analytical
solution is not possible for the given problems. With suitable boundary
conditions, differential equation in two dimensions is considered. For the
simplest case of steady state conduction in two dimensions without any heat
5.36 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

∂ 2T ∂ 2T
generation, Laplace equation + = 0 will be result. This equation can
∂ x2 ∂ y 2
be solved by variable separable method and it needs knowledge of orthogonal
functions, Fourier series, Bessel functions and series solution. Depending on
geometry, boundary conditions and thermal gradients, the solution procedure
varies.
Another way of calculation is resorting to conduction shape factor. In two
dimensional heat conduction, heat transfer can be defined as q = k.S.ΔT,
where k = thermal conductivity, S = conduction shape factor depends on
geometry and is equal to reciprocal of product of thermal resistance and
thermal conductivity, ΔT = temperature difference. Shape factor for 1-D heat
conduction in Cartesian coordinate is A/L. However, if a thin plate of width W
and Length L (W > L) is placed with one surface exposed to isothermal
medium, the conduction shape factor if given by πW/ln (4W/L). If plate is
buried inside the medium then conduction shape factor becomes double.
In the graphical approach for prediction, estimation and calculation of
temperature distribution, isothermal and heat flow lines are sketched over the
geometry after drawing several small elements on the geometry. Aggregation
of heat flow across each heat flow line is accumulated to arrive at the total heat
transfer. Most of the time heat flow is assumed to take place as per Fourier’s
law. However, this depends on skill of the individual in drawing various
isothermal and heat flow lines. This method has only historical significance
and is now replaced with advanced numerical methods. Currently finite
difference method is mostly employed for solving heat flow and temperature
distribution in the given irregular geometries.
In finite difference method, whole domain is divided into equal increments
in both the planar directions. The entire domain is mapped by array of dots or
nodes arranged in rectangular fashion. For any dot (m, n), in horizontal
direction, two adjacent nodes at locations m – 1 and m + 1 exists, similarly in
vertical direction, the node lies between nodes at n – 1 and n + 1. Temperature
at each node can be given by two subscript formulations with first subscript
showing horizontal location and second showing vertical location. The domain
mapping is shown in figure 5.5. Although nodes here are shown by single
subscript notation but temperatures can be depicted by two subscript notation
also. The finite difference formulation for each of the element represented by a
square is invoked. The grid sizes in both the directions are same. As far as
boundary conditions are concerned two significant cases are prevalent–
(i) temperature at external boundary of the structure is known and (ii) external
boundary is exposed to certain temperature. For first boundary condition,
temperatures at nodes are directly available while in second case convective
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.37

heat transfer formulation is used to ascertain temperature at external nodes.

Temperatures at internal nodes are calculated from external boundary
conditions. There are basically three types of nodes (refer figure 5.5) –
(i) internal nodes which are surrounded by four adjacent nodes (e.g. 6, 7, 10,
11), (ii) line nodes lying on any outer side and have three internal nodes in the
vicinity (e.g. 2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 12, 14, 15) and (iii) corner nodes which are
connected to only two nodes lying on sides of the structure (e.g. 1, 4, 13,16).

Side A
4,1 4,2 4,3 4,4
1 2 3 4

3,1 3,2 3,3 3,4

Side D

5 6 7 8

Side B
2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4
9 10 11 12

1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4

13 14 15 16
Side C

Fig. 5.5 : Numerical Methods for Temperature Calculation

Heat generation can be considered as ‘q’. For equidistant distribution of

nodes in both the directions, the governing equation of node of first type can
be given as follows.

Δx)2/k – 4 Tm,n = 0.
Tm +1,n + Tm –1,n + Tm,n +1 + Tm,n –1 + q (Δ

This formulation basically indicates that in absence of heat generation,

temperature at any internal node is average of adjacent 4 nodes. For other two
types of node, the coefficient of temperature in the equation is modified by a
term h Δx/k, which is important for second type of boundary condition. For
the nodes at the boundary (type 2), if convective heat transfer coefficient is
given as ‘h’, then for those nodes, mathematical formulation varies and is
given below.

2Tm, n [2 + (h Δx/k)] – 2(h Δx/k)T∞ – 2Tm–1, n – Tm, n–1 – Tm, n + 1 = 0.

The above-mentioned equation indicates that only three nodes participate

in the mathematical equation of temperature. The internal adjacent node has
coefficient 2 (e.g. Tm –1, n), which can be on vertical or horizontal grid distance
from the node under consideration. For nodes on vertical side, horizontally
spaced node has coefficient 2, while for nodes on horizontal boundary; nodes
at grid distance in vertical direction are considered with multiplier 2. Other two
adjacent nodes, which share same boundary with the node under
5.38 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

consideration, have multiplier 1. Role of atmospheric temperature is also

significant in this case.
For the corner nodes, only two adjacent nodes are available and
mathematical formulation is depicted below.

2 Tm, n [1+ (h Δx/k)] – 2 (h Δx/k) T∞ – Tm–1, n – Tm,n–1 = 0.

Once temperatures at various nodes are available, the heat transfer can be
obtained using Fourier equation of heat transfer for each of the boundaries.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.31
Calculate the temperature at various nodes of the symmetrical square array
shown in figure 5.5 at internal four nodes, where side A is maintained at 400°C
and other three sides are maintained at 100°C. Neglect heat generation terms
and take grid size as 1 m. If thermal conductivity is 20 W/m.K, find heat
transfer per unit thickness also.

SOLUTION
Since boundary condition of first type is given, temperatures at all the
boundary nodes are available and need not be calculated. For the internal nodes
6, 7, 10, 11, equations are to be written and solved simultaneously. As heat
generation is not present, temperature at any internal node is average of
temperature of the four adjacent nodes. In addition to this symmetry about a
fictitious vertical line passing through centre of the geometry is also present.
Symmetry for geometry, temperature and boundary condition exists and thus
T6 = T7 and T10 = T11. So, ultimate aim is to get only two temperatures.
Temperature equations are written for node 6.
4T6 – T2 – T5 – T10 – T7 = 0;
Or 4T6 – 400 – 100 – T10 – T6 = 0;
Or 3T6 – T10 = 500.
Similar equation for node 10 can also be derived and the equation becomes
3T10 – T6 = 200. Solving both the equations simultaneously, T6 = 212.5°C and
T10 = 137.5°C. It is clear that temperature variation is not uniform in vertical
direction. Starting from side D, it is clear that value of in first grid distance
temperature rise is only 37.5°C, while for second grid distance it is 75, which
is double of earlier temperature rise. For the next grid in vertical direction
temperature rises from 212.5°C to 400°C, resulting in a rise in temperature of
187.5°C, which is 2.5 times rise in temperature of previous grid distance.
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.39

For calculation of heat transfer, it is clear that heat flows from side ‘A’
towards other sides in the structure. Since grid is symmetrical and grid size in
both the directions are same, heat transfer per unit thickness can be calculated
directly using Fourier’s equation.
Heat transfer from side ‘A’ = – k Σ ΔT = – k [ΔT6A + ΔT7A]
= – 20 [(212.5 – 400) + (212.5 – 400)] = 7500 W/m.
Heat transfer from other sides = – k Σ ΔT
= – k [ΔT6D + ΔT10D + ΔT10C + ΔT11C + ΔT11B + ΔT7B]
= – 20 [(212.5 – 100) + (137.5 – 100) + (137.5 – 100)
+ (137.5 – 100) + (137.5 – 100) + (212.5 – 100)] =
– 7500 W/m.
Since heat transfers are same, the calculation is also validated indirectly.
For the calculation depicted above, it is clear that if one side is maintained
at certain high temperature (Th) and other three sides are at certain other
temperatures (Tc) and grids are spaced as depicted in figure 5.5, it is clear that
there is symmetry about vertical central line. The temperature rise in vertical
direction follows definite pattern. If temperature rise in first grid spacing is Tr,
it will be 2 times Tr at next step and 5 times Tr for the next step. With these
types of results, it is clear that the temperature profile can be calculated
directly by estimation of Tr. For the given conditions, Tr = (Th – Tc)/8. If
temperature at side ‘A’ is changed in the example 5.31 to 500°C, Tr is
calculated as 50°C. This gives T10 = 100 + 50 = 150°C and T6 = 100 + 50 + 100
= 250°C. The same result is obtained by mathematical formulation depicted in
example 5.31.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.32
For a simple square grid depicted in figure 5.5, side ‘A’ and side ‘B’ are
maintained at 500°C, while other two sides are maintained at 100°C. Find
temperatures at internal nodes. Neglect heat generation inside the geometry
and take equi-distance grid points in both the directions.

SOLUTION
As depicted earlier, there is symmetry of geometry and boundary conditions
about the leading diagonal joining point 4 with point 13. So temperature at node
6 is same as temperature at node 11. Now, we have only three temperature
variables (T6, T7, T10) to be solved simultaneously. Equations of the internal
nodes of the grid are written below.
5.40 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

4T6 – T10 – T7 = 600; 4T10 – 2T6 = 200; 4T7 – 2T6 = 1000. Solving them
simultaneously, T6 = T11 = 300°C, T10 = 200°C and T7 = 400°C.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.33
For the two dimensional heat transfer depicted in figure 5.5, if side ‘A’ is
maintained at 500°C, side ‘B’ and side ‘C’ are exposed to fluid at 100°C and
side ‘D’ is maintained at 100°C, find temperature at all the except those lying
on sides ‘A’ and ‘D’. Take symmetrical grids in both the directions and neglect
any heat generation. Take h = 10 W/m2.K, k = 10 W/m.k and grid separation
= 1 m.

SOLUTION
Since second boundary condition is also invoked, all the three types of
equations depicted above are important. Now, calculation is to be made for
nine nodes located at 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, and 16. Now, there is no
symmetry and nine equations are to be written and solved simultaneously by
matrix inversion.
For the internal nodes 6, 7, 10, 11 equations are written below.
4 T6 – T7 – T10 = 600
4 T7 – T6 – T11 – T8 = 500
4 T10 – T6 – T11 – T14 = 100
4 T11 – T7 – T10 – T12 – T15 = 0.
For the nodes lying on the outer boundaries where convective heat
transfer is taking place, separate equations are needed. These are nodes 8, 12,
14 and 15. For connective terms h Δx/k is to be calculated. For the present
problem, it is 1.
6T8 – 2T7 – T12 = 700
6T12 – 2T11 – T8 – T16 = 200
6T14 – 2T10 – T15 = 300
6T15 – 2T11 – T14 – T16 = 200.
For the corner node at 16, another formulation is valid and equation for the
given nodes is given below.
4 T16 – T12 – T15 = 200.
These nine equations are to be solved simultaneously by matrix inversion.
The equations are written in matrix form as shown in next page.
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.41

Nodes 6 7 8 10 11 12 14 15 16 Constants
Equation

1 4 –1 0 –1 0 0 0 0 0 600
2 –1 4 –1 0 –1 0 0 0 0 500
3 –1 0 0 4 –1 0 –1 0 0 100
4 0 –1 0 –1 4 –1 0 –1 0 0
5 0 –2 6 0 0 –1 0 0 0 700
6 0 0 –1 0 –2 6 0 0 –1 200
7 0 0 0 –2 0 0 6 –1 0 300
8 0 0 0 0 –2 0 –1 6 –1 200
9 0 0 0 0 0 –1 0 –1 4 200

After this, the matrix is inverted and temperatures at various nodes are
obtained.
Nodes 6 7 8 10 11 12 14 15 16

T (°C) 268.75 301.5625 243.75 173.4375 193.75 159.375 131.25 140.625 1 2 5

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.34
For the two-dimensional heat transfer depicted in figure 5.5, if side ‘A’ is
maintained at 500°C, Other three sides are exposed to atmosphere maintained
at 100°C, find temperature at all the except those lying on sides ‘A’. Take
symmetrical grids in both the directions and neglect any heat generation. Take
h = 10 W/m2.K, k = 10 W/m.k and grid separation = 1 m.

SOLUTION
Since three surfaces are under convective heat transfer, temperatures lying at
nodes on these three sides are not known.
In general temperatures are not known for 12 nodes on the grid (from 5 to
16). However, the geometry and boundary conditions are symmetrical about
vertical central line and temperatures at some of the nodes are identical.
Here T5 = T8 ; T9 = T12 ; T13 = T16 ; T6 = T7 ; T10 = T11 ; T14 = T15. So,
temperature at nodes on one side of line of symmetry is to be evaluated. This
makes temperature at six nodes unknown. The six governing equations are
written below.
3 T6 – T5 – T10 = 500
3 T10 – T6 – T9 – T14 = 0
6T5 – 2T6 – T9 = 700
5.42 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

6T9 – 2T10 – T5 – T13 = 200

5T14 – 2T10 – T13 = 200
4T13 – T14 – T9 = 200.
Solving them simultaneously by matrix inversion, the temperature at six
nodes is given below.
Nodes 5 6 9 10 13 14

T (°C) 248.814 315.8864 161.1111 198.8452 120.1623 119.5381

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.35
Shown temperature at all the nodes for Side A
boundary conditions. Assume h Δx/k = 1. 3,1 3,2 3,3
Boundary conditions are given below. The 1 2 3
known temperature at nodes on a

Side D

Side B
particular side of the grid is directly 2,1 2,2 2,3
4 5 6
depicted in (°C), while sides exposed to
convective heat transfer from atmosphere, 1,1 1,2 1,3
maintained at certain temperature (°C), is 7 8 9
expressed with ‘Exposed to’. Side C

Side→ A B C D
Case
number

1 500 100 100 100

2 500 Exposed to 100 100 100
3 500 Exposed to 100 100 Exposed to 100
4 500 Exposed to 100 Exposed to 100 100
5 500 Exposed to 100 100 Exposed to 100
6 500 Exposed to 100 Exposed to 100 Exposed to 100

SOLUTION
For all the nodes lying on side ‘A’, temperatures are known for all the
situations. However, for nodes on other sides, boundary conditions govern the
temperature equations. Assuming convective heat transfer at all other sides,
general equations are written for all the other 6 nodes from number 4 to
number 9.
6T4 – 2T∞ – 2T5 – T1 – T7 = 0
4T5 – T2 – T4 – T8 – T6 = 0
6T6 – 2T∞ – 2T5 – T3 – T9 = 0
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.43

4T7 – 2T∞ – T4 – T8 = 0
6T8 – 2T∞ – 2T5 – T7 – T9 = 0
4T9 – 2T∞ – T6 – T8 = 0
Depending on case, equations are solutions will change.
Case 1
Temperature is known at all the points except that at node 5. Using second
equation from the set of 6 equations depicted above, T5 = 200°C. Please note
that although geometrically node 5 is at the center of the geometry, but
temperature is not average of the two given temperatures.
Case 2
In this case, temperatures are not known at only two nodes namely 5 and
6. The extracted equations from the set of 6 equations depicted above,
following two relations are valid.
4T5 – T6 = 700
6T6 – 2T5 = 800
Solving them simultaneously, T6 = 2300/11 ~ 209°C, T5 = 2500/11 ~
227.3°C.
Case 3
In this case, temperature is not known at 3 nodes – 4, 5 and 6. However,
since both geometry and boundary conditions are symmetrical about the
central vertical line, temperature at node 4 and that at node 6 are same. So
temperature is to be calculated at only two nodes. Equations are depicted
below for these two nodes.
6T4 – 2T5 = 800
4T5 – 2T4 = 600
Solving them simultaneously, T4 = T6 = 220°C and T5 = 260°C.
Case 4
In this case temperatures are not known at 4 nodes namely 5, 6, 8, and 9.
The relevant equations are extracted from the above-mentioned set of
equations.
4T5 – T8 – T6 = 600
6T6 – 2T5 – T9 = 700
6T8 – 2T5 – T9 = 300
4T9 – T6 – T8 = 200
Solving them simultaneously, T5 = 305.556°C, T6 = 244.44°C and T8 =
177.778°C and T9 = 155.556°C.
5.44 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Case 5
In this case temperature is not known at all the 6 nodes for which set of
equations are written and all the equations are to be used for calculation.
However, again there is symmetry of boundary condition and geometry both
about the vertical central line.
So, T4 = T6 and
The equations for the given boundary conditions are given below.
6T4 – 2T5 – T7 = 700
4T5 – T4 – T8 – T6 = 500
6T6 – 2T5 – T9 = 700
4T7 – T4 – T8 = 200
6T8 – 2T5 – T7 – T9 = 200
4T9 – T6 – T8 = 200
Solving them simultaneously, the unknown temperatures at 6 nodes are
given below.
Node 4 5 6 7 8 9

T (°C) 239.2265 290.0552 239.2265 155.2486 181.768 155.2486

5.8 CONVE CTIVE HE

CONVECTIVE HEAAT TRANSFER PROCESS
PROCESS
Convective heat transfer is another mode of heat transfer where fluid motion
over a solid surface is involved. It involves study on energy balance as well as
fluid dynamics simultaneously. During study of conduction, convection is
analyzed as a surface phenomenon for fins and for wall heating and cooling.
The main criterion is flow of fluid over a solid surface. For analysis of such
convection, energy equation (first law of thermodynamics), continuity
equation and momentum equations are applied simultaneously. Temperature
distribution is correlated with fluid motion and wall heat flux and heat transfer
coefficients are predicted or ascertained. Due to complexities, theory is not
found adequate for analysis of most of the convective heat transfer problems.
Then dimensional analysis, experimental data and empirical relations are used
for analysis. To understand convection, it is better to first understand
boundary layer and fluid motion and then apply energy balance to find out
temperature distribution in fluids. From this heat transfer rate from solid to
fluid or vice-versa can be ascertained. There are several ways for
classification of convective heat transfer process.
Depending on origin of fluid motion, convection is classified as forced
convection and free convection. If the fluid has a nonzero velocity at some
distance away from the solid surface, which is created by a pump or fan or
other driving forces, situation conform to forced convection. Flow through a
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.45

duct or bodies immersed in uniform stream of fluid are examples of forced

convection. An alternate way is free or natural convection, where fluid motion
is created entirely due to local buoyancy difference caused by presence of hot
or cold body. Due to heated surface, fluid near the solid surface gets heated
and their density reduces. The density difference is responsible for fluid
motion in a vertical plane. Although fluid velocities are generally low and
resultant heat flux at the wall is also less as compared to that in forced
convection. However, free convection heat transfer is enhanced by phase
change, if present. Boiling agitates fluid in the form of rising bubbles and
condensation disturbs fluid through falling dense liquid droplets. Of course,
there may be a situation of mixed convection, where both the forms of heat
convection are present.
Another way to classify convection is on the basis of geometry and
classification includes internal and external flow. An internal flow is bounded
by solid surface on all sides except for an inlet and an outlet. The flow may be
forced and free. Flows through nozzle, ducts, diffusers, heat exchangers fall
under this category. They are easier to analyze for convective heat transfer.
However, temperature and velocity profile has no free stream known
conditions and they are computed as average integrated values. Average
velocity is criteria for calculation of heat flux in internal flow convection.
External convection is present when flow is not bound. A free stream velocity
and temperature is known. The free stream velocity is governing parameter for
calculation of convective heat transfer coefficient in external flow heat
convection.
Fluid flow can be classified as laminar or turbulent based on non-
dimensional number called Reynolds Number (Re). This is a number which is
dependent on several parameters – geometry, surface roughness, wall
temperature, fluctuations in free stream, pressure gradients etc. The Reynolds
Number is defined as ratio of inertia force to viscous force and is
mathematically expressed as follows.
Re = u∞ x/v, where, u∞ = free stream velocity, x = distance from leading edge
in flow over flat plate, and v = kinematics viscosity = μ/ρ ρ , μ = dynamic
viscosity = shear stress in fluid / velocity gradient, ρ = density of the fluid.

Flow at low Reynolds number is laminar. Under such low velocities,

smooth streamlines exists in the flow. Hear and conduction effects are due to
molecular viscosity and conductivity. Any dye left in the flow stream at the
inlet follows a defined path, preferably in a straight line along streamlines.
However, as Reynolds number increase, transition creeps in and streamlines
gets disturbed. Random fluctuations in flow and flow reversals are also
observed. The dye follows and erratic pattern with large lateral fluctuations.
Fluctuations rise further to completely turbulent flow on further rise in
Reynolds number. Velocity, pressure and temperature show fluctuations. Flow
undergoes intense mixing. This leads to high friction and heat transfer.
5.46 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

For internal flow heat transfer, Reynolds number for laminar flow is less
than 2300, while for turbulent flow it is above 4000. The regime of Reynolds
number in the range of 2300 to 4000 is called transition region. For flow over
flat plate, if Reynolds Number is less than 5 × 105, flow is called laminar. As
Reynolds Number increases, turbulence increases and at high Reynolds
Number, flow is very vigorous. High Reynolds Number means high value of
inertia force compared to viscous force and any flow or disturbances created
will not subside that fast in the fluid. As fluid flows over flat plat, flow
development takes place from the leading edge (first edge of the solid in
contact with the fluid) of the plate. The effect of presence of flat plate is felt
by fluid due to viscosity of the fluid and flow pattern is affected. Initial length
of flow over flat plate is laminar and region of boundary layer will gradually
increase. If perpendicular to flat plate is traversed, velocity profile will acquire
a parabolic shape in laminar region. As flow progresses over flat plate,
thickness of boundary layer rises. After traversing certain distance, flow
becomes turbulent. In turbulent region also a thin boundary layer near flat plate
exists, where velocity profile is linear. However, further away from flat plate,
velocity profile is relatively flatter in comparison to laminar fluid flow regions.
For derivation of boundary layer thickness for steady flow of
incompressible fluid over flat plate, fluid viscosity is assumed independent of
temperature and pressure. Viscous forces and pressure variation in the
direction perpendicular to flat plate is neglected. Equation of motion for the
boundary layer of fluid can be obtained by making a force-and-momentum
balance. If δ = hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness, x = distance from the
leading edge, Rex = Reynolds Number at distance x from the leading edge,

Then δ/x = 5/√

√Rex.
δ) – 0.5 (y/δ
And u/u∞ = 1.5 (y/δ δ )3, where u = velocity at × distance from the
leading edge and y distance from flat plate.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.36
Air at 27°C and 1 atmospheric pressure flows over a flat plate at a speed of
2 m/s. calculate the boundary layer thickness at distance of 20 and 40 cm from
the leading edge of the plate. Calculate the boundary layer thicknesses at these
locations. The viscosity of air at 27°C is 1.85 × 10–5 kg/m.s. Assume unit depth
of the plate.

SOLUTION
Given, T = 27°C = 300 K, p = 1 atm = 1.01325 × 105 N/m2, u∞ = 2 m/s, x1 =
20 cm, x2 = 40 cm, μ = 1.85 × 10–5 kg/m.s, Rair = 287 J/kg.K.
Density of air, ρ = p/R.T = 1.01325 × 105/(287 × 300)
= 1.177 kg/m3.
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.47

Reynolds Number at ‘1’, Re1 = 1.177 × 2 × 0.2/1.85 × 10–5

= 27580.
Boundary layer thickness at ‘1’, δ1 = 5 × 0.20/√27580 m
= 6.02147 mm.
Reynolds Number at ‘2’, Re2 = 1.177 × 2 × 0.4/1.85 × 10–5
= 55160
Boundary layer thickness at ‘2’, δ2 = 5 × 0.40/√55160 m
= 8.51565 mm.
Similar to fluid flow boundary layer, an analogy can be drawn for the
thermal boundary layer also. Instead of fluid velocity, heat transfer can be
taken as relevant parameter. Thermal boundary layer is defined as that region in
which temperature gradient is present in the flow. These temperature gradients
result from a heat exchange process between the fluid and the wall. For
defining thermal boundary layer, another non-dimensional number called
Prandtl number (Pr) is used. Prandtl number is defined as ratio of kinematics
viscosity (ν) and thermal diffusivity (d). It may be interpreted as ratio of
viscous effects to conduction effects. It is a correlation between kinematics to
thermal flow properties and it indicates relative worth of fluid flow over the
other parameter. For Prandtl number greater than 0.7, ratio of hydrodynamic
to thermal boundary layer thicknesses is given by 1/(1.026 × Pr1/3). Most
gases and liquids behave in this fashion. However, liquid metals have Prandtl
number of the order of 0.01.
Kinematics viscosity is indicator of rate at which momentum may diffuse
through the fluid because of molecular motion. Thermal diffusivity is related to
diffusion of heat in the fluid. Larger diffusivity indicates that effect of flat plate
temperature is felt farther out in the flow field. Expression for Prandtl number
is as follows.

Pr = ν /α
α = (μ ρ )/(k/ρ
μ/ρ ρ . cp) = cp. μ/k.

Another non-dimensional number called Nusselt number (Nu) also gains

importance in case of convective heat transfer. It is defined as ratio of
convection heat transfer to fluid conduction heat transfer under same
condition.

Nu = h × L/K.

If Nusselt number is near unity, it indicates sluggish motion (low Reynolds

number). The heat transfer will be little more effective than simple conduction.
Such situation may arise in laminar flow through a long pipe (internal flow). A
large Nusselt number indicates efficient convection. In turbulent flow through
5.48 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

pipe, the value of Nusselt number may be of the order of 100 to 1000. This is
similar to Biot number used in conduction. In biot number, ‘k’ indicates
conductivity of the solid while in Nusselt number ‘k’ indicates fluid
conductivity.
If flat plate is heated over the entire length,

Nu = 0.332 × Pr1/3 × Re½, where Nusselt number, Nu = h × / k.

The above relation is valid for laminar heat transfer from an isothermal
surface. Instead, if heat flux is made constant, another expression for Nusselt
number is valid.

Nu = 0.453 × Pr1/3 × Re½, where Nusselt number, Nu = h × / k.

Contrary to this, if flow of fluid inside a tube is considered, laminar fluid

flow is realized till Reynolds Number reaches 2300. A transition zone exists up
to Re = 4000 and beyond this value of the Reynolds Number fluid flow is
turbulent. The definition of Reynolds Number in this case changes slightly.
Instead of using distance from the leading edge, tube-diameter (d) is taken and
Re = u∞ d/v. Under such situation velocity distribution inside the tube has
expression u/uo = 1 – (r/ro)2, where uo = maximum velocity at the center of the
tube and u is velocity at a radius of r from center of the tube. Similarly, Nusselt
number for this case is 4.364 from calculation. This expression is helpful in
calculation of convective heat transfer coefficient.

5.9 FREE CONVE

CONVE CTION HE
ONVECTION AT TRANSFER
HEA
Contrary to forced convection, where fluid is forced over the heat transfer
surface, free convection does not need any addition means to force the fluid
over solid surfaces. In this case, due to heating process, density of fluid
changes and fluid motion sets in. A hot radiator is a good example of free
convection. In fact, it is gravitational force, which is exploited to make flow in
free convection. In additional to this, centrifugal force can also generate
buoyancy force to make free convection possible.
In case of free-convection, velocities are rarely more than 1 m/s. so, heat
flux is also very small. However, it gives a very good estimate for lower limit
of heat transfer for forced convection for a given geometry. All natural
phenomena like atmospheric or oceanic motions are in fact natural for free
convection processes. In free convection, there is no free stream velocity (as
there is no external source to set fluid in motion) and governing velocity
parameter is to be calculated by some other means.
For free convection, non-dimensional number Grashof number (Gr) is of
great importance. It is defined as Gr = g.β.ρ2. Lc3.ΔT/μ2. Physically, it is ratio
of buoyancy force and viscous force. This plays same role in free convection
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.49

as Reynolds number plays in forced convection. Grashof number is used to

finalize flow characteristic as laminar, turbulent or transition. Grash of number
higher than 109 indicate flow is turbulentes and less than 108 indicates flow is
laminar.

5.9.1 Convection on Flat Plat

onv e
Plate
When a vertical plate is heated,
free convection boundary layer is
formed. Velocity of fluid at the Boundary
wall is zero because of no-slip Layer
condition. Fluid close to wall
moves up due to density reduction

Turbulent

Vertical Flat Plate at TW

and horizontal component of
velocities are negligible. Now,
streamwise direction is taken as
‘x’ and transverse direction is
taken as ‘y’ as shown in figure
5.6. A thin layer exists adjacent to T8
the hot surface of the vertical
Laminar

plate. Velocity and temperature is

x
confined in this boundary layer.
Laminar layer exist up to certain
distance up from the leading edge. y
Velocity is zero at plate as well as
in free stream and it reaches a Fig. 5.6 : Free Convection on Vertical Wall
maximum in boundary layer. As
distance from leading edge increases, turbulent eddies are formed and
transition to a turbulent boundary layer begins. Farther up boundary layer may
be fully turbulent. Temperature changes monotonically within the boundary
layer.
If constant density lines in the fluid flow field are drawn, they are
equivalent to constant temperature lines. So, once temperature field is
obtained, heat transfer from the surface can be calculated using thermal
conductivity of gases and temperature gradient at the surface.

5.9.2 Planes
Since natural convection is mainly due to density difference arising out of
temperature variation in the fluid, gravitational forces play a major role. On a
horizontal plane, the governing factor is whether direction of heat flow is same
as direction of buoyancy force. It also depends on whether surface is hot or
cold with respect to ambient fluid. If a plate is inclined from vertical, only
5.50 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

gravitational acceleration terms is changed by cosine of inclination angle and

vertical plane relations are used. If planes are inclined, transition to turbulent
region begins much earlier. Higher inclination leads to turbulence at much
lower Grashof numbers. For horizontal planes, the induced convective
currents are normal to the plane and are very effective.

5.9.3 Cylinders
Thermal gradient across a cylindrical surface is also examined by several
researchers and several empirical relations between various non-dimensional
numbers are arrived at. If a vertical cylinder of diameter D and length L is
considered, large D resembles vertical flat plate. If boundary layer thickness is
not large, compared to diameter of the cylinder, the heat transfer may be
calculated with the same relation as used for vertical plates. The general
criteria, when vertical cylinder becomes similar to vertical flat plate is when
D/L > 35/Gr¼. Here, D = diameter of the cylinder. Small D heat transfer is
enhanced due to rise in curvature. For horizontal cylinder, heat convection
depends on location on the cylinder. Bottom sides have different correlations
and as circumference of the cylinder is traversed, gravitational acceleration
changes with inclination angle again. In this case, there is no boundary layer
separation, because of negligible pressure gradient. This indicates conformity
to boundary layer theory to this present situation. Heat flux data on a horizontal
cylinder is approximated by vertical plane correlation, if plane length is
replaced by cylinder diameter.

5.9.4 Sphere
Empirical relations are developed for free-convection heat transfer from
sphere to air. It is observed that Nusselt number is a function of Grashof
number and for laminar flow Nu = 2 + 0.392 Gr¼. Sometimes Prandtl number
is also introduced in the correlation and equation comes out to be Nu = 2 +
0.43.(Pr.Gr)¼. If product of Prandtl number and Grashof number is low, the
value of Nusselt number approaches 2. This is value obtained for pure
conduction through an infinite stagnant fluid surrounding the sphere. For
higher Grashof numbers, Nu = 2 + 0.50 . (Pr . Gr)¼.

5.10 THERMAL RADIATION

RADIATION
As explained earlier, thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation emitted by a
body due to its temperature. Thermal radiation is one type of electromagnetic
radiation, which propagates at a speed of 3 × 108 m/s. The speed is equal to
product of wavelength and frequency of the radiation (c = λ.v, where λ =
wavelength, v = frequency of radiation). Thermal radiation lies in the
frequency range of 0.1 μm to 100 μm. Within this wavelength range, visible
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.51

radiation lies within 0.4 μm (Violet) to 0.7 (Red) μm. Human eyes can detect
radiation as colours of light within this wavelength band. This means eyes can
pick up radiations, form hot sources, which are at temperature of more than
800 K like sun, lamp, etc. Colours seen by naked eyes are reflected radiation
from these hot sources. Bodies, cooler than 800 K, emit radiation in infrared
region (wavelength between 1 μm and 1000 μm), which can be detected by
special optical means only. The visibility should not be confused with black or
white surfaces used in thermal radiation. Both black and white surfaces are
good emitters and absorbers in infrared regions and they should not be
separated on the basis of their performance in visible region. The propagation
of thermal radiation takes place in the form of discrete quanta and each
quantum is integral multiple of hv, where h = 6.625 × 10–35 J.s and v =
frequency of radiation. The quanta can be treated as particles having energy,
mass and momentum. So radiation can be thought to be as photon gas, which
may place from one place to another. The energy of particles can be equated to
m.c2, where m = mass of particle.
The thermal radiation is emitted by atomic excitation of any substance. It
propagates more easily through vacuum and does not need any media for
transmission. Any intervening media obstructs flow of thermal radiation. It
travels at speed of light till it strikes another body. On striking, it gets
absorbed, reflected, transmitted or scattered. Thermal radiations are different
from other forms of electromagnetic radiations on the basis of there
mechanism of creation.
• Thermal radiations are caused by temperature excitations.
• X-rays are created by electron bombardment on metals.
• γ-rays are formed by nuclear reactions.
• Radio-waves are created by excitations of crystals.
As stated in the form of Stefan-Boltzmann equation, total energy emitted is
proportional to absolute temperature to the fourth power of temperature.
Absolute temperature is used in all the calculations. Law is mathematically
expressed as Eb = σ . T4, where Eb is the energy radiated per unit time per unit
area by the ideal radiator and to be more specific blackbody. Here, σ = 5.669 ×
10-8 W/m2.K4. Materials, which obey the above-mentioned equation looks
black to naked eyes. This happens because these materials do not reflect any
radiation. Perception of blackbody is deceptive. A surface coated with
lampblack appears black to eyes and turns black for thermal-radiation
spectrum. But contrary to this snow or ice appears quite bright and white fro
the eyes, but it is black for long-wavelength thermal radiation.
Sometimes a terms emissivity (ε) is added in the Stefan-Boltzmann Law
and the relation is written as Eb = ε . σ . T4. Emissivity is a dimensionless
5.52 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

quantity. For blackbody, its value is unity and for all other surfaces, it lies
between 0 and 1. It depends on temperature, roughness, texture, colour,
material, degree of oxidation, coating etc. The definition of emissivity is related
to that of blackbody, which is considered a reference for all radiation
calculations. It is a perfect emitter and perfect absorber. Its emissivity is
independent of wavelength and temperature. It emits maximum possible
energy at a given temperature.

5.11 EMISSIVE POWER

Energy radiated by blackbody per unit time per unit area is also called emissive
power of the blackbody. Blackbody absorbs all radiation incidents upon it, but
nothing is reflected. In fact, when a radiation strikes a surface, three things
can happen – radiation gets reflected, transmitted or absorbed. If

Reflected radiant incident energy = Reflectivity = ρ

Absorbed radiant incident energy = Absorptivity = α
Transmitted radiant incident energy = Transmissivity = τ
Energy balance gives ρ + α + τ = 1.

Most of the solids do not transmit thermal radiation. So, transmissivity,

τ = 0.
Reflection can be classified under two heads. If angle of incidence is equal
to angle of reflection, the reflection is specular. Specular reflection may cause
mirror image of source. Another type of reflection is diffuse reflection, when
incident radiation reflects uniformly in all directions. No real solid surface is
either specular or diffuse. However, a rough surface is more diffuse than a
highly polished surface. Highly polished surface is more specular. Another
aspect is wavelength of radiation. Any surface may be specular for one type of
wavelength and may be diffuse for another wavelength of radiation.
As far as emissive power is concerned, if a body is enclosed in a black
enclosure, it comes in thermal equilibrium with the enclosure. At equilibrium,
energy absorbed by the body must be equal to the energy emitted. Energy
emitted by the body = E × A. energy released by black enclosure is absorbed
by the body = q × A × α, where q = energy from black enclosure incident on
per unit area of the body. If temperature of the body is not changing, then
E = q × α.
If the body is replaced by a blackbody and brought into same equilibrium
position with the black enclosure, energy emitted = Eb × A. If blackbody is
present, absorptivity is 1. Incident energy on the blackbody = q × A.
Combining both situations, E/Eb = α. So, ratio of emissive power of a
blackbody at the same temperature is equal to absorptivity of the body. Ratio of
energy emitted by a body to that from a blackbody is known as emissivity (ε).
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.53

So α = ε. This is called Kirchoff’s identity. This is derived by Gustav Kirchoff

in 1860 using thermodynamic principals. This equation is valid only when
emitted and received radiations are at different temperatures. Both the
properties namely absorptivity and emissivity are valid for all the wavelengths.
Real substances emit less radiation than an ideal black surface. However, in
reality emissivity of a material is dependent on wavelength and temperature of
the radiation.

5.12 PLANK’S DISTRIBUTIVE LA

DISTRIBUTIVE W
LAW
The dependence of emissivity over various parameters defines a new type of
body called gray body. For this definition of monochromatic emissivity is
essential. It is defined as ratio of monochromatic power of the body to
monochromatic emissive power of the blackbody at the same temperature and
wavelength. If monochromatic emissivity of the body is independent of
wavelength, the body is called Gray Body. For real bodies, emissivity varies
widely with wavelength, temperature and surface conditions.
Plank’s introduced the quantum concept to electromagnetic radiation and
used statistical thermodynamics to derive, what is called Plank’s distribution
law for monochromatic emissive power of blackbody. Plank presented his
paper on blackbody radiation in 1901. He modeled blackbody as a set of dipole
oscillators whose energy at a given frequency could be a multiple of discrete or
quantum energy level hí. After statistical averaging, Plank arrived at his final
equation in the form of Planck’s blackbody spectral energy distribution.

As per Plank’s law,

λ T] – 1), where λ = Wavelength in μm,
Ebλλ = dEb /dλ = (C1 × λ –5)/(exp[C2/λ
T = Temperature in K, C1 = 3.743 × 108 W μm4/m2, C2 = 1.4387 × 104 μm.K.
If monochromatic emissive power of blackbody is plotted against
wavelength of radiation at constant temperature, it rises, reaches a maximum
and then reduces (figure 5.7). Many characteristics of the curves can be
pointed out.
The blackbody spectrum is continuous and is not symmetrically
distributed. It is skewed towards right and majority of the energy is emitter at
lower wavelength.
At all the wavelengths, the emissive power increases with increasing
temperature. A high temperature always gives higher emission, which conform
to the definition of radiation, which is electromagnetic radiation in given
wavelength due to temperature of the body.
As temperature increases, the emissive power becomes concentrated at
shorter and shorter wavelengths.
5.54 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

The maximum emissive power increases as T5. However the total emitted
radiation (area under the curves) increases only as T4. This is not clear from
the curves, but Planck’s law is in line with Stefan-Boltzmann law. It is
observed that solar radiation (T ~ 5800 K) has its peak in the visible region of
wavelength, while for temperature lower than 700 K, the emissive power is
infrared and is totally outside the visible range. The maximum occurs at a given
wavelength for a given temperature. It is found that when temperature
increases, maximum of emissive power shifts to shorter wavelengths.
Maximum points in the radiation curves are related by Wein’s displacement
law.
For a given temperature, maximum of the plotted curve can be obtained by
differentiated Planck’s equation with respect to wavelength λ and then setting
it to zero. The locus of such peaks is governs by Wein’s displacement law,
whose expression is given below.

λmax . T = 2897.6 μm.K.

W. Wein derived these results using classical thermodynamics in 1894,

seven years before Planck’s laws were published. If expression of Wein’s
displacement law is substituted in Planck’s distribution law, maximum
blackbody emissive power can be calculated as below.

Ebλλ,max = 1.2865 × 10-5 T5 W/m3.

The naked eyes can detect colour from radiating bodies at an emissive
power of about 106 W/m3. For red wavelengths, λ = 0.7 μm, this occurs at
temperature of 950 K for which a blackbody will glow as dull red. For violet
wavelengths, λ = 0.4 μm, this occurs at temperature of 1500 K, which is
enough for eye to see as white. The emissive power peak of such white hot
objects will be in far infrared region.
Monochromatic Emissive Power (W/m μm)

1400000
Visible Range of wavelength
2

1200000
Variation of Monochromatic emissive power with
1000000 wavelength as per Plank's Dispalcement Law.

800000
Plot of Wien's Displacement Law,
600000 lmax T = 2897.6 m.K
2500 K
400000 1500 K

200000

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Wavelength (mm)

Fig. 5.7 : Variation of Monochromatic Emissive Power with Wavelength

 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.55

This shift in the maximum point of the radiation curve explains the change
in the colour of a body as it is heated. A very small portion of the radiant
energy spectrum at low temperature is detected by eyes due to small band of
visible wavelength. As body is heated, maximum intensity is shifted to shorter
wavelengths and the first visible sign of increase in temperature of the body is
dark red colour. With further increase in temperature, the colour appears bright
red, then bright yellow and finally to white. The material appears much
brighter at higher temperatures because a larger portion of the total radiation
falls within the visible range. The variations are shown in figure 5.7.
A real body behaves differently than a blackbody, for which some of the
governing rules or equations are available. For a real surface, it is important to
know blackbody energy contained within a given wavelength band. Each
wavelength band is characterized by two wavelengths and blackbody
radiations are given by Planck’s law. The components of blackbody radiation
(given by Stefan-Boltzmann law) are obtained by integrating this blackbody
radiation obtained from Planck’s law over the two wavelengths. This integral
is cannot be solved in closed form for all wavelength band. Fraction form of
this quantity is obtained by dividing the blackbody radiation from the body in
the given wavelength band by energy calculated by Stefan-Boltzman law at the
body temperature. For this tables are developed and sometimes a series
solution with adequate number of terms can be of some use. Lower limit is
generally taken as wavelength of zero and since this property is additive, for
two different wavelength bands, the values are obtained by simple subtraction
of fractional energy for two wavelengths. A term w = C2/λT is defined and
series solution has the form given below.
F (λT) = F(C2/w) = 0∫λT Ebλ (λ, T) dλ/σT4 = (15/π4) × λT∫∞ w3 dw/
(ew – 1) = (15/π4) xi=1Σ∞ i-4 e-iw [(iw)3 + 3 (iw)2 + 6 (iw) + 6].

5.13 RADIATION PR
RADIATION OPER
PROPER TIES
OPERTIES
Any opaque surface can be classified on the basis of dependence of
absorptivity on wavelength. For the first type of surface called flat absorbers,
absorptivity is maintained at high level in the entire wavelength band. It
captures or absorbs all the incoming radiation. Surfaces coated with black
paints fall in this category. Second variety of surface has low absorptivity over
the entire spectrum. They are called flat reflector, as they reflects all the
incoming radiation. Polished surfaces, aluminium foils etc fall under this
category. Solar absorber is another class of surface. It absorbs lower
wavelength spectrum, which is in low wavelength band of solar radiation.
Contrary to this, for higher wavelength band in the infrared region, this surface
has low absorptivity and it reflects all the incoming radiation in those
wavelength levels. Contrary to this reverse is true for surface called solar
5.56 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

reflectors. They reflect in low wavelength region and absorbs at high

wavelength radiations. Sometimes transparent or semitransparent materials are
also encountered. For example glass windows behave as solar reflectors and
are a solar transmitter also. These glasses have low absorptivity in solar region
(low wavelength). Reflectivity of the surface is also low. Thus transmissibility
of glass is high in solar region. However, in infrared region (high wavelength
and low temperature), it has high absorptivity. It absorbs most of the infrared
radiation and does not allow it to transmit. As a result, solar radiation can enter
through glass unhindered, but heat from inside cannot escape window glass.
This results in heating. This is the region why car with closed window kept in
sun becomes warm from inside. This effect is also called greenhouse effect
and is used for farming and keeping rooms warm during winter.
Net radiation heat exchange between two surfaces is computed using
radiation shape factor. The most important term used to understand radiation
heat transfer is called radiation shape factor. This is purely a geometrical
quantity. It is also known as view factor, angle factor and configuration factor.
To understand this term, a term emissive power is already defined earlier. Eb is
defined as energy emitted per unit area from a blackbody. If two blackbodies
are in vicinity, then energy emitted from first blackbody is Eb1 × A1. The
radiation shape factor F1-2 is defined as energy emitted from body ‘1’ and
intercepted by body ‘2’. So, energy released from body ‘1’ and intercepted or
received by body ‘2’ is Eb1 × A1 × F1-2. Similarly, energy released from body
‘2’ and received by body ‘1’ is given by Eb2 × A2 × F2-1. If both the bodies ‘1’
and ‘2’ are at different temperatures, some energy exchange may take place. If
both the bodies are at same temperature, then

Eb1 = Eb2 and

A1 × F1-2 = A2 × F2-1.

Radiation shape factor has additive properties and a relation can be

derived.

F1-2,3 = F1-2 + F1-3.

If two bodies do not see each other, shape factor is zero. For a surface, if
all the energy released or emitted by a surface is accounted for, sum of fraction
of total energy leaving a surface, which arrives at other surfaces, will be 1.

Σi = 1,n F1i = 1.0.

This is also calculated from geometry of the surfaces. For simple two-
dimensional geometry, some of the relations for shape factor are derived. The
structure may be seen as having infinite length and cross-sectional area is
depicted below.
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.57

For cross-section in the form of two equal lines of length ‘L’ each,
forming an angle A with each other – F1-2 = F2-1 = 1 – Sin(A/2). Shape factor
is independent of length. The open are is depicted by ‘e’, then F1-e = F2-e =
Sin(A/2).
For a cross-sectional area in the form of two perpendicular lines, one of
length ‘L’ (surface 1) and other of length ‘w’ (surface 2) – F1-2 = 0.5 × [1 +
w/L – √(1 + w2/L2)].
For cross-section in the form of a triangle with lengths ‘L’ (surface 1), ‘w’
(surface 2) and ‘h’ (surface 3) – F1-2 = (L + w – h)/2L.
For cross-section in the form of two parallel lines of equal length ‘L’ and
separated by distance ‘w’ – F1-2 = F2-1 = √(1 + w2/L2) – w/L.
For cross-section in the form of two circle of diameter ‘D’ each,
separated by a center distance of ‘L + D’ – F1-2 = F2-1 = 1/π × [√(Z2 – 1) +
Sin–1 (1/Z) – Z], where Z = 1 + L/D.
For three dimensional configurations, the value of shape factor is very
complex. For example, if center of two discs of radii ‘R1’ and ‘R2’ are
separated by a distance L, The shaped factor F1-2 = 0.5 × [A – √(A2 – 4C2/B2)],
where A = 1 + (1 + C2)/B2, B = R1/L, C = R2/L. Other shapes are having more
complex formulations, which are not perused in this book.
For blackbodies, such calculations are easy, but real and non-black bodies,
all the energy striking a surface is to be absorbed, but some are reflected also.
Reflection may be to the original surface or to other surrounding surfaces. To
understand such heat transfers by radiations, two more terms are defined.
First is irradiation, G, defined as total radiation incident upon a surface per unit
time and per unit area. Second is radiosity, J, defined as total radiation which
leaves a surface per unit time and per unit area. If bodies are under thermal
equilibrium, no radiative heat exchange takes place. Energy leaving a surface
may be divided into two parts. One is emitted energy and other is reflected part
of the incident energy. For a real body total energy emitted is product of
emissivity and blackbody emission.

Radiosity, J = ε × Eb + ρ × G.

For solids, transmissivity is zero. So, ρ + α = 1. As Kirchoff’s law states

that α = ε, ρ = 1 – ε.

So, J = ε × Eb (1 – ε ) × G.

Net energy leaving a surface is the difference between the radiosity and
irradiation. q/A = J – G = J – [J – x Eb]/(1 – ε) ,

So, q = (Eb – J)/[(1 – ε )/εε.A].

5.58 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

If two surfaces ‘1’ and ‘2’ are exchanging heat, then total radiation leaving
surface 1 and reaching surface 2 is J1 . A1 . F1 – 2. Similarly total radiation
leaving surface 2 and reaching surface 1 is given by J2 . A2 . F2-1. Net
interchange between the two surfaces is q1-2 = J1 . A1 . F1-2 – J2 . A2 . F2-1. As
per definition of radiation shape factor A1 . F1-2 = A2 . F2-1.

So, heat exchange, q1-2 = (J1 – J2)/(1/A1 . F1-2).

For calculation of net heat exchange between two bodies can be simulated
using above mentioned concept. It is observed that the bodies can be treated
black bodies, whose net radiation heat exchange is given by Stefan Boltzmann
law. However, the radiant thermal resistance will have two terms containing
radiocity on both side and a shaped factor term in between. For radiation heat
exchange between two bodies 1 and 2, three heat exchanges takes place.
First between Eb1 to J1, where thermal resistance is [(1 – ε1)/ε1 . A1)].
Second between J1 to J2, where thermal resistance is 1/A1 . F1-2 or
1/A2 . F2-1.
Third between J2 to Eb2, where thermal resistance is [(1 – ε2)/ε2 . A2)].
Sun is a source of thermal radiation and its radiation is dependent on
atmospheric conditions, time of year and angles of incidence fro the sun rays.
The total solar irradiation at the outer limit of atmosphere at mean distance of
the Earth is 1395 W/m2. This number is called solar constant. Some part of this
energy is absorbed by carbon dioxide and water vapour present in the Earth’s
atmosphere. More movement through atmosphere is observed, if sun-rays are
inclined. During this inclined incidence, less part of solar radiation reaches the
earth. Outside atmosphere, solar radiation follows gray body behaviour.
Maximum is observed at a wavelength range of 0.5 μm and using Wien’s
displacement law, equivalent solar temperature fro thermal radiation is obtained
as around 5800 K.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.37
Calculate maximum emissive power in W/m3 and the wavelength at which it
occurs in microns by a blackbody surface at (i) 300 K and (ii) 3000 K.

SOLUTION
Maximum emissive power, Ebλ,max = 1.2865 × 10–5 T5 W/m3.
Wein’s displacement law, λmax . T = 2897.6 μm.K.
(i) At 300 K, Ebλ,max = 1.2865 × 10–5 T5 W/m3
= 1.2865 × 10–5 × 3005 W/m3 = 31.2619 × 106 W/m3
The wavelength is given by Wein’s displacement law.
λmax = 2897.6/T μm = 9.6586 μm.
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.59

(ii) At 3000 K, Ebλ,max = 1.2865 × 10-5 T5 W/m3

= 1.2865 × 10–5 × 30005 W/m3 = 3.12619 × 1012 W/m3
The wavelength is given by Wein’s displacement law.
λmax = 2897.6/T μm = 0.96586 μm.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.38
The yellow lines in the visible spectrum have an approximate wavelength of
0.58 μm. estimate (i) frequency of yellow waves (ii) the temperature at which it
radiates maximum blackbody emissive power.

SOLUTION
All electromagnetic radiations travel at a speed of light, which are 3 × 108 m/s.
As, Velocity = frequency × wavelength,
So, frequency = velocity/wavelength = 3 × 108/0.58 × 10–6 Hz
= 517.241 × 1012 Hz.
Temperature at which maximum blackbody emissive power occurs is
given by Wein’s displacement law, λmax . T = 2897.6 μm.K.
T = 2897.6/λmax K = 4995.86 K.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.39
At wavelength of 0.7 μm, for what temperature will a blackbody have spectral
emissive power of 106 W/m3.

SOLUTION
The problem is based on Planck’s distribution law. Ebλ = dEb/dλ = (C1 × λ–5)/
(exp [C2/λT] – 1), where λ = wavelength in μm, T = temperature in K, C1 =
3.743 × 108 W μm4/m2, C2 = 1.4387 × 104 μm.K.
eC2/λT = 1 + (C1/Ebλ × λ5) = 1 + [3.743 × 108 × 106/(106 × 0.75)]
= 2.22704 × 109
C2/λT = 21.5239
T = C2/(21.5230 × λ) = 1.4387 × 104/(21.5230 × 0.7) K
= 954.88 K.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.40
At wavelength of 0.4 μm, for what temperature will a blackbody have spectral
emissive power of 109 W/m3.
5.60 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

SOLUTION
The problem is based on Planck’s distribution law. Ebλ = dEb/dλ = (C1 × λ–5)/
(exp [C2/λT] – 1), where λ = wavelength in μm, T = temperature in K,
C1 = 3.743 × 108 W μm4/m2, C2 = 1.4387 × 104 μm.K.
eC2/λT = 1 + (C1/Ebλ × λ5) = 36538087.0
C2/λT = 17.4138
T = C2/(17.4138 × λ) = 2065.6 K.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.41
What percentage of emissive power is in the wavelength range 0 to 1.2 μm for
a blackbody at temperature 5000 K?

SOLUTION
F (λT) = F(C2/w) = 0∫λT Ebλ (λ , T) dλ/σT4 = (15/π4) × λT∫∞ w3 dw/(ew – 1)
= (15/π4) × ∞ i–4 e–iw [(iw)3 + 3 (iw)2 + 6 (iw) + 6]
i=1 Σ
for the problem, w = C2/λT = 1.4387 × 104/(1.2 × 5000)
= 2.3978333
First term of expansion = e–w [(w)3 + 3 (w)2 + 6 (w) + 6] = e–w × [6 + w (6
+ w (3 + w))] = 4.675.
Second term of expansion = (1/16) × e–2w [(2w)3 + 3 (2w)2 + 6 (2w) + 6]
= e–2w × [6 + w (12 + w (12 + 8w))]/16 = 0.11058.
Third term of expansion = (1/81) e–3w [(3w)3 + 3 (3w)2 + 6 (3w) + 6] =
e–3w × [6 + w (18 + w (27 + 27w))]/81 = 0.00535.
Further terms are not considered, as terms are becoming smaller as
compared to first term.
F (λT) = (15/π4) × (4.675 + 0.11058 + 0.00535…) = 0.7377
= 73.77%.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.42
Consider a 1 cm OD sphere located in a 2 cm ID sphere. Find all shape factors.

SOLUTION
Let smaller body is designated as body ‘1’ and bigger sphere is body ‘2’. There
are 4 radiation shape factors possible namely F1-1, F1-2, F2-1 and F2-2.
Sphere is a concave surface and no part of smaller sphere can see any
other part of the smaller sphere. So, F1-1 = 0.
As F1-1 + F1-2 = 1.0,
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.61

F1-2 = 1.
This indicates that all energy emitted by body ‘1’ (smaller sphere) is
intercepted by body ‘2’ (bigger sphere inner surface).
It is derived that A1 . F1-2 = A2 . F2-1,

So F2-1 = (A1/A2) × F1-2 = 1 = 0.25.

4

As F2-1 + F2-2 = 1.0,

F2-2 = 1 – 0.25 = 0.75.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.43
For a long semicircular duct ( ) of radius ‘R’, diameter is represented as
surface 1 and curved surface as surface 2. Compute F1-2, F2-1, and F2-2.

SOLUTION
In this case, surface 1 is convex, so F1-1 = 0.
From properties of shape factor,
F1-2 = 1 – F1-1 = 1.
F2-1 = A1 F1-2/A2 = 2R × 1/πR = 2/π.
F2-2 = 1 – F2-1 = 1 – 2/π.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.44
A long circular duct is in the form of a triangle, geometry is specified. Surface
1 – 30 cm, surface 2 – 20 cm. What should be angle between both these
surfaces so that only 40% of the radiant energy from surface 1 is captured by
surface 3?

SOLUTION
Given, L1 = 30 cm, L2 = 20 cm, F1-3 = 0.4
For the geometry, F1-3 = (L1 + L3 – L2)/2L1
= (30 + L3 – 20)/60.
L3 = 14 cm.
There is an alternate way to find L3. Since radiation emitted by surface 1 is
captured either by surface 2 or surface 3, F1-2 + F1-3 = 1. So F1-2 = 0.6.
F1-2 = (L1 + L2 – L3)/2L1 = (30 + 20 – L3)/60
L3 = 14 cm.
Angle between surface 1 and 2 can be calculated using cosine law, as all
three sides are known.
5.62 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Cos (1 – 2) = (L12 + L22 – L32 )/2L1L2 = 0.92.

Required angle = Cos–1 (0.92) = 23.074°

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.45
For the figure shown find all shape factors, where e is environment and 1,2,3
are plane surfaces.

1 e
2m

45°
2 3
2m 3m

SOLUTION
This problem also resembles previous problem of triangle.
Some of the identities of the problems are – F1-1 = 0 = F2-2 = F3-3 = F2-3 =
F3-2
F1-2 = F2-1 = 1 – Sin (45/2) = 0.6173.
F1-3,e = 1 – F1-2 = 0.3827
F2-e = 1 – F2-1 – F2-2 – F2-3 = 1 – 0.6173 – 0 – 0 = 0.3827.
Let us join end of surface 1 and 3, so as to make a triangle. The
unknown side of the triangle may represent environment. Length of this
third side may be calculated from trigonometry.
Le = √[22 +52 – 2 × 2 × 5 × Cos 45] = 3.8546 m
F 1-2,3 = (L1 + L2,3 – Le)/2L1 = 0.7863
F1-3 = F1-2,3 – F1-2 = 0.169
F1-e = F1-3,e – F1-3 = 0.2137
F3-1 = L1 F1-3/L3 = 0.1127
F3-e = 1 – F3-1 – F3-2 – F3-3 = 1 – 0.1127 – 0 – 0
= 0.8873.

Surfaces 1 2 3 e
1 0.0000 0.6173 0.1690 0.2137
2 0.6173 0.0000 0.0000 0.3827
3 0.1127 0.0000 0.0000 0.8873

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.46
Find all shape factors for a rectangular long duct with sides ‘a’ and ‘b’.
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.63

SOLUTION
Let surface represented by dimension ‘a’ is 1 and opposite to it lays surface 3.
Surface with dimension ‘b’ are called 2 and 4.
Shape factor for surfaces 3 and 4 behave in exactly same manner as that
for surfaces 1 and 2 respectively. So calculation for surface 3 and 4 are not
needed.
Let us merge surface 3 and 4 into a single surface ‘h’ and constitute a
triangle with sides ‘a’, ‘b’ and √(a2 + b2). The third side is calculated using
Pythagorus theorem and may be designated as ‘c’ [= √(a2 + b2)] for this
triangle 1-2-h.
F1-2 = (a + b – c)/2a = [a + b – √(a2 + b2)]/2a.
This shape factor is valid for the rectangular duct also for the adjacent
surface.
For surface 1,
F1-1 = 0.
F1-2 = (a + b – c)/2a = [a + b – √(a2 + b2)]/2a.
F1-3 = 1 – F1-1 – F1-2 – F1-4 = 1 – 2F1-2 = (c – b)/a = [√(a2 +
b2) – b]/a.
F1-4 = F1-2 = [a + b – √(a2 + b2)]/2a.
For surface 2,
F2-1 = A1F1-2/A2 = (a/b) × F1-2 = [a + b – √(a2 + b2)]/2b.
F2-2 = 0.
F2-3 = F2-1 = [a + b – √(a2 + b2)]/2b.
F2-4 = 1 – F2-1 – F2-2 – F2-3 = 1 – 2F2-1 = (c – a)/b = [√(a2 +
b2) – a]/b.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.47
A 50 mm diameter sphere is maintained at 600°C and is near an infinite wall
maintained at 100°C. Both the surfaces are black. Find net radiant heat
transfer between the two.

SOLUTION
Assume sphere and wall as surfaces 1 and 2 respectively.
Net radiant heat transfer = A1 F1-2 . (Eb1 – Eb2) = A1 F1-2 . σ . (T14 – T24)
If infinite walls are placed on either side of the sphere, all the emitted
radiation from sphere will be irradiating the infinite wall. Since only one infinite
wall is present, only half the radiation is seen by wall and F1-2 = 0.5. T1 = 500
+ 273 K = 773 K, T2 = 100 + 273 = 373 K.
5.64 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Net heat transfer = (π × 0.052) × 0.5 × 5.669 × 10-8 × (7734 – 3734)

W = 75.17 W.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.48
Calculate the emissive power of a blackbody at (a) 0°C (b) 70°C (c) 200°C
(d) 6000°C.

SOLUTION
Use Stefan-Boltzmann’s Law, Eb = 5.669 × 10-8 × T4 W/m2
(a) 314.8 W/m2 (b) 784.66 W/m2 (c) 2837.6 W/m2 (d) 8.778 × 107 W/m2.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 5.49
Two very large plates are maintained at uniform temperatures T1 = 800 K and
T2 = 500 K and have emissivity ε1 = 0.2 and ε2 = 0.7, respectively. Determine
net radiation heat transfer between the two surfaces per unit surface area of
the plate.

SOLUTION
Neat radiant heat transfer
= σ × (T14 – T24)/[(1 – ε1)/ε1 + 1/F1-2 + (1 – ε2)/ε2]
= 5.669 × 10 –8 × (800 4 – 500 4 )/[(1 – 0.2)/0.2 + 1/1 +
(1 – 0.7)/0.7 ] W/m2
= 3624.73 W/m2

SUMMARY
SUMMARY
This unit gives a brief outline of heat transfer and starts with difference of heat
transfer and thermodynamic treatment of energy exchange. First, three modes
of heat transfer namely conduction; convection and radiation are introduced
along with their governing equations. Conduction for 1-D and 2-D are
explained. Heat transfer in fins used for cooling internal combustion engine is
also explained. Convection mode of heat transfer and various non-dimensional
numbers to explain convection is introduced. Natural/Free convection on
various surfaces are explained and empirical relations are produced.
Radiation is explained as extension of electromagnetic radiations. Defining
terms and radiation heat transfer mechanism are also explained. Numerical
examples are given to understand the mode of heat transfers.

QUESTIONS
1. What are various modes of heat transfer? How each mode is different from
one another?
2. Why heat transfer is important for engine performance?
 ELEMENTS OF HEAT TRANSFER 5.65

3. What are factors affecting heat transfer in the engine?

4. What is thermal conductivity? What is its effect on heat transfer in the
operation of an engine?
5. What is mechanism of heat conduction in solids, liquids and gases?
6. What is mechanism of heat transfer through fins? What is fin effectiveness?
7. Derive expression for heat transfer through an infinite fin.
8. What is Reynold’s number? What is its significance in convective heat
transfer process?
9. How does thermal conductivity of different materials change?
10. What are various methods for calculation of heat transfer in two dimensions?
11. Explain numerical method of heat transfer in two dimensions?
12. Why thermal radiation does not need any media for heat transfer?
13. What is Stefan-Boltzman law? How does it help in deriving heat transfer
through radiation?
14. What is Planck’s law? Derive Wein’s displacement law from Plank’s law.
15. What is shape factor for radiation? Which parameters affect it?
16. Give reasons for the following
(a) Conductivity of metals is high.
(b) Good electric conductors are good heat conductors also.
(c) Gases at high temperature and pressure have high thermal conductivity.
(d) Thermal diffusivity of metals and gases are high but they are low for
liquids.
(e) Ice forms on ground at night even if air temperature is higher than
freezing point of water.
(f) Blackbodies are called so.
(g) Radiation is dominant at high temperature.
(h) Transmission electrical wires are uninsulated (bare).
17. Differentiate between the following :
(a) Free convention and Forced convection
(b) Hydrodynamic boundary layer and Thermal boundary layer.
(c) Emissivity and Absorptivity.
(d) Blackbody and Gray body.
(e) Radiocity and Irradiation.
(f) Fin efficiency and Fin effectiveness.
(g) Biot number and Nusselt number.
18. Write short notes on the following :
(a) Thermal resistance.
(b) Thermal diffusivity.
(c) Critical thickness of insulation.
(d) Cooling by fins.
(e) Prandtl number.
(f) Nusselt number.
(g) Greenhouse effect.
❖❖❖
 CHAPTER

6
Carburetion

STRUCTURE
‰ Introduction
‰ Objective
‰ Fuel-air Ratio Requirements
‰ Typical Carburetor Elements
‰ Calculation of Venturi and Fuel Orifice Size
‰ Summary
‰ Questions

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Carburetion is process of preparation of fuel-air mixture in a typical SI engine.
In such engines, the mixture is prepared outside the engine cylinder. This
chapter gives a brief idea about requirements of fuel-air mixture and it’s
criticality for power generation by SI engines. This also explores design
calculation for sizing vent holes for flow of fuel through air streams. Various
elements of carburetor are also discussed in this Chapter.
Carburetor is a device which atomizes the fuel and mixes it with air outside
engine cylinder. It is a part of intake manifold of the engines. Some of the
atomized fuel vapourises due to suction created in intake manifold during
suction stroke and remaining droplets of bigger sizes do the same in engine
cylinder before ignition by electric spark. Carburetion is basically a process,
which is governed by (i) the time for preparation of mixture (ii) the
temperature of incoming air (ii) the quality of fuel supplied (iv) design of
combustion chamber and induction system.
Objective
After studying this Chapter, you should be able to understand:
6.2 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Requirements of carburetion in SI engines,

• Critical requirements of carburetion,
• Properties of fuel-air mixtures,
• Governing principles for calculation of venturi and fuel orifice,
• Design of various types of carburetors.

6.2 FUEL-AIR RATIO RE

RATIO QUIREMENT
REQUIREMENT S
QUIREMENTS
SI engine works on petrol and invariably, carburetion is concerned with petrol-
air mixture requirements. Carburetion is combination of atomization, mixing
and vaporization processes. In high speed engines, time available for mixture
formation is very small (of the order of 10-50 ms). This requirement of
efficient, complete and distributed mixing makes design of carburetors very
critical. Temperature of incoming air dictates rate of vaporization of fuel and
high temperature means higher rate of vaporization. It is not temperature alone,
but volatility of fuel also decides the rate of vaporization. Finally, design of
carburetor, intake manifold becomes a complicated task.
The most important parameter in carburetor design is requirement of
optimum fuel-air ratio at all places in the engine cylinders. In SI engines, there
is a limited range of fuel-air ratio for which mixture can be ignited.
Stoichiometric fuel-air ratio is 1:15. On richer side, the ratio is limited to 1:7,
while on lean side; fuel-air ratio must be limited to 1:22. The mixture cannot be
ignited, if fuel-air ratio lies beyond this range.
For a very rich mixture ratio of the order of 1:9 to 1:11, low power
accompanied with high fuel consumption, incomplete combustion and carbon
deposits on exhaust line is observed. For a rich mixture of the range 1:12 to
1:14, good condition for maximum power exists. Exhaust is free from oxygen
and maximum temperature is realized giving a high flame propagation speed.
On the other side, for a very lean mixture of fuel-air ratio 1:18 to 1:22,
minimum power is realized, burning process slow down and erratic running
with overheating is observed. Back-fire and popping in carburetor is observed
for this condition of fuel-air ratio. For a slightly lean mixture in the range of
1:15 to 1:18, condition for most economical mixture is realized.
Depending on operating conditions of throttle, speed, power and fuel
consumption, different fuel-air ratios are preferred. Maximum energy from
fuel is released, if slightly excess fuel is introduced in the cylinder, so as to
utilize all the oxygen present in the cylinder. Maximum power is realized, if the
fuel-air ratio is 1:12.5. At conditions of maximum power, mechanical
efficiency is optimum. If more fuel than this condition is supplied, smaller
energy per unit mass of fuel is released due to incomplete combustion and
formation of carbon monoxide. Minimum specific fuel consumption is
 CARBURETION 6.3

realized, if all the supplied fuel undergoes complete combustion. Although,

Stoichiometric fuel-air ratio in ideal condition is considered synonym of
complete combustion, but under such conditions, some of fuel portion remain
without air and at other locations, excess oxygen is observed. Some extra air is
supplied to ensure that fuel available at each location inside the engine cylinder
gets air. At full throttle, minimum specific fuel consumption occurs at fuel-air
ratio of around 1:17. Making fuel-air mixture leaner, results in reduction of
flame speed, increase in time. The conditions for a typical engine are shown in
figure 6.1.
Specific Fuel Consumption

Over-rich
Mixture
(1:10)
Weakest

Maximum power
Mixture
(1:20) Chemically
Weak Stoichiometric
Mixture Mixture (1:15)
(1:17)
Rich
Mixture
Minimum sfc
Indicated Power

Fig. 6.1 : Fuel Consumption and Indicated Power Curves for SI Engine

Practical conditions are different from ideal working conditions.

Depending on load requirements, fuel-air ratio varies. From no loads to around
20% of rated power, the engine is said to be under idling condition and needs
rich mixture. At idling condition, air supply is restricted by nearly closed
throttle and the suction pressure is very low. The condition of low pressure
gives backflow of exhaust gases as well as leakage of air from other intake
systems. Under such conditions, dilution of incoming fuel occurs. This leads
to erratic combustion with very poor combustion efficiency.
Another factor, which is predominant for idling condition is reduction in
exhaust gas temperature at low loads. This increase density and mass of
residual gases in engine cylinder. So, during idling condition, fuel-air mixture
should be slight rich.
Fuel economy is not important during this period, as amount of fuel
burned is very small. Supply of fuel-rich mixture increases probability of
contact between fuel and air particles and thus improves combustion.
During normal operating conditions depicted by 20% to around 80% of full
load, dilution by exhaust gases and intake manifold leakage, both reduces. The
attention is also diverted to fuel economy during this power ranges and fuel
6.4 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

lean mixture with fuel-air ratio of around 1:17 is sufficient during normal
operation of the engine.

10.0

12.5

15.0
Air-fuel ratio

17.5

20.0

22.5

25.0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Load as fraction of full load

Fig. 6.2 : Operational Ranges of SI Engines

During maximum power range defined by 80% to full load, again rich
mixture is needed. In addition to providing maximum power, this condition
also prevents exhaust valves from overheating and prevents detonation. In
aircraft engines, special provisions are made for enrichment of mixture. All
three operational ranges of loads for a typical SI engine are depicted in
figure 6.2.

6.3 TYPICAL CARBURETOR ELEMENTS

From construction point of view, carburetors have to facilitate supply of air-
fuel mixture to the engine cylinder for cruising speeds or normal loads (20% to
80% of rated power). Further mechanisms to perform other duties like
starting, idling, variable loads, variable speeds and acceleration are added to the
simple carburetor. Figure 6.3 shows sketch of a simple carburetor.
The most important system in carburetor is float chamber, which is mainly
responsible for governing quantity of fuel, supplied to the engine-cylinder.
From the inlet fuel flow line, fuel is received from fuel-tanks. It passes through
a strainer, which filters incoming fuel. A needle valve attached to a float
maintains level of fuel in float chamber. If more fuel is available in the float
chamber, needle valve lifts up and stops fuel supply. Level of fuel in float
chamber is maintained at same level as the nozzle for discharging jet of fuel is
placed in main air-flow line. Float chamber is vented to atmosphere. During
suction stroke, air is drawn through the venturi, which resembles a nozzle in
construction. It has a variable cross-sectional area, which decreases to
 CARBURETION 6.5

minimum at throat. This venturi tube is also known as choke tube. The curved
surface of nozzle is maintained for minimum resistance to air flow. As velocity
of air moving in venturi increases, pressure at the venturi reduces. The
pressure at the fully open throat condition is around 40-50 mm Hg. To avoid
wastage of fuel, the level of liquid in the jet is adjusted by the float chamber
needle valve to maintain the level a short distance below the tip of the discharge
jet. If this condition is not maintained, fuel flow will continue at no-throttle
also. As pressure in the float chamber is atmospheric due to venting, a pressure
difference called carburetor depression is created and fuel is discharged into
air stream. Size of smallest section in the fuel passage controls or meters the
rate of flow of fuel. Size of discharge jet is empirically fixed for a definite
engine performance.

Air-fuel Mixture to
Engine Cylinder

Throttle
Valve

Fuel from
Vent Pump
Ventural
Strainer
Throat Needle Valve

Nozzle
Float Float Chamber
(Discharge Jet)
(to maintain constant fuel supply)

Air
Inlet

Fig. 6.3 : Sketch of a Simple or Elementary Carburetor

Control on carburetor depression is key parameter to fuel metering. This is

controlled by a butterfly valve called throttle valve. As throttle is closed, less
quantity of air flows through the venturi and flow velocity of air-stream is also
smaller. This gives lower carburetor depression and less quantity of fuel-
supply to maintain air-fuel ratio properly. So, carburetor is quantity-governed
device. When more power is needed, throttle is opened and more quantity of
both air and fuel is sucked-in. However, as throttle is opened more and more,
carburetor depression increases and more fuel are inducted in venturi tube. At
higher air flow velocity and lower pressure, density of air reduces, resulting in
reduction in mass of air for same volume flow rate. This leads to increase in
fuel-richness of air-fuel mixture at higher throttle openings. Similarly, for
6.6 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

closed throttle or low load condition, lean mixture is supplied to engine, which
is contrary to the requirements of fuel-air ratio, depicted in figure 6.2. To
overcome these problems, certain other devices are added to simple
carburetors. To compensate for the variable fuel-air ratio and supply nearly
constant fuel-air ratio to engine at a wide range of speeds and loads,
compensating devices are incorporated in the main metering system to correct
the anomalies in fuel supply. To control fuel richness at full/higher throttle,
devices to supply additional air to venturi tube is attached. In nutshell, a simple
carburetor has following deficiencies.
• Engine requires rich mixtures at low loads, but simple carburetor gives
leaner mixture. As introduction of fuel depends on venturi depression,
which is a function of engines speed, at low loads, low venture
depression gives lower venturi depression and less suction of fuel.
• At intermediate loads, equivalence ratio of mixture should be more or
less constant. Actually a simple carburetor gives richer mixture at high
loads.
• After throttle of the simple carburetor is fully opened, upper limit of
equivalence ratio is achieved and it cannot be increased further.
However, for maximum power equivalence ratio of 1.1 or above should
be achieved.
• During engine start and warm up, rich mixture is needed. A simple
carburetor cannot give this.
• An elementary carburetor cannot compensate disturbances, due to
Transient flow of fuel-air mixture in the intake manifold of the engine.
• Provision of altitude correction is not present in simple carburetor,
which considers reduction in density of air at high altitude.
In an elementary carburetor, as airflow increase, larger vacuum is created
at the throat. Actual purpose of venturi is two fold – first is enhancement in
flow velocity and second is venturi depression. Higher vacuum or depression
is always accompanied with higher airflow. Increasing air velocity without
increasing pressure loss significantly multiple nozzles is used as depicted in
figure 6.4 (top right corner). An auxiliary boost venturi is placed upstream in
the choke tube, such that discharge from additional venturi takes place at the
main venturi. Only a fraction of total air flows through annular space available
with main venturi. No doubt main venturi pressure depression augments the
boost venturi vacuum and more pressure drop is observed at the venturi of the
auxiliary venturi. Use of multiple venturi increases airflow velocity, but fuel is
inserted at the throat of main venturi only, venturi depression is controlled.
This results in supply of more homogenous mixture through the carburetor.
Triple venturi systems can be implemented but diameter of main venturi should
 CARBURETION 6.7

increase to accommodate discharge from many auxiliary boost venturies.

Additionally overall discharge coefficient of multiple venturi system is also
lower. Another way to get similar results is by splitting a single carburetor into
several choke tubes of lower diameters operating in parallel. This gives better
part-load metering, high volumetric efficiency and maximum air flow velocity.
Provision for compensating jet is one such device (depicted in figure 6.4).
A compensating well is attached to float chamber through an orifice for supply
of fuel and is connected to a compensating jet, opening in the venturi-tube.
Compensating jet is open to atmosphere. As carburetor depression increases
due to higher reduction in venturi pressure, level of fuel in the compensating
well reduces, resulting in reduced fuel supply from the compensating jet. This
leads to control of fuel-richness at higher throttle opening. Additionally, it
supplies rich mixture in initial conditions of low throttle.
In modern carburetors, the mixture is controlled by emulsion tube or air-
bleeding. In this case, main metering jet is fitted around 25 mm below the
petrol level and above this a well with provision of direct air-entry is attached.
At normal operating conditions, discharge of fuel is normal. However, at
higher throttle with more pressure reduction, air is sucked in the well through
holes open to atmosphere. The supply becomes a mixture of air and fuel rather
than pure fuel. This emulsification of fuel causes leanness to mixture at higher
throttle. Similarly, provision of back-suction control, auxiliary valves and
auxiliary ports are also helpful in reducing fuel-richness of supplied mixture at
fully open throttle.
Another concern is requirement of fuel-rich mixture for idling conditions,
which is otherwise not possible with simple carburetors. In fact, at closed
throttle, no suction is created in the venturi and no supply of fuel is possible by
main metering device. So, idling condition needs a separate idling jet in the
main metering system. Additionally, this separate supply line of fuel must
become gradually ineffective once throttling starts. Idling jet consist of a direct
connection pipe from float chamber to a little downstream in the venturi tube
towards engine side (figure 6.4). The opening is generally placed immediately
after the throttle valve and the piping is open to atmosphere for supply of air.
When throttle is close, there is no flow of air through main pipe and no suction
exists for supply of any fuel to the engine. However, due to suction stroke of
engine, lower pressure acts directly on the idling jet and lifts the fuel. As
throttle is opened gradually, suction created at idling jet inlet reduces and main
jet gradually takes over and slowly idling jet becomes ineffective. In
automobiles, needle valve with air bleed called idle adjust is provided to
regulate air-fuel ratio for idling jet.
Another attachment for all the carburetor devices is called choke, which
supports cold start of the engine. At low cranking speed before engine warm
6.8 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

up, fuel vaporization is poor and so a mixture 5-10 time more rich than normal
is desired. To get such high richness of mixture, choke is placed upstream in
venturi tube before the throat section (figure 6.4). Choke is a butterfly valve,
which closes air supply completely through the main supply line. Once choke
is operated, entire suction of suction stroke acts near throat resulting in higher
carburetor depression. This results in drawing higher quantity of fuel and
restricting quantity of air. Sufficiently rich mixture is supplied to engine for
cold start. However for normal operation, choke has to be closed. Sometimes
spring loaded choke is provided in SI engines. Using thermostat or sensor for
monitoring condition of engine, operation of choke can be automated also.
In automobiles, carburetors are provided with atmospheric pressure
conditions in mind. However, for aircraft operations, atmospheric pressure
becomes another variable. As altitude of aircraft rises, density of air reduces
and supply of mixture by carburetor at higher altitude for same throttle opening
becomes fuel rich. To compensate this fuel richness, earlier explained devices
like air bleeding, back-suction control or metering pin are provided. The float
system also becomes ineffective in aircrafts because of tilt-conditions of the
engine during banking. Special types of devices are mandatory to ensure
supply of fuel at all points of aerobatic or banking operations. As temperature
reduces with altitude, formation of ice on choke tube is another burning
problem due to supply of cold air in suction of an aircraft-carburetor. To
overcome this obstacle, de-icing units or hot engine oil supply is resorted to.

Air-fuel Mixture to
Engine Cylinder

Air Bleed
Double
Throttle Venturl
Valve Idling Provisions System

Air Bleed Fuel from

Idle Pump
Venturi
adjust Strainer
Throat Needle Valve

Nozzle
(Discharge Float Chamber
Jet) (To maintain constant
fuel supply)

Choke
Compensating Well

Air
Inlet

Fig. 6.4 : Modifications to an Elementary Carburetor

 CARBURETION 6.9

Throttle valve can be made hollow and hot engine oil can be re-circulated
around to maintain temperature at higher levels.

6.4 CAL CULA

CALCULA TION OF VENTURI AND FUEL ORIFICE SIZE
CULATION
For calculation of venturi and orifice sizes in a carburetor, energy equation is
used. Since there is no work or heat transfer and flow through choke tube
considered isentropic. Inlet condition is considered to have zero velocity of
flow for idealized condition. Suction head is ‘h’, which is distance to which
fuel can be lifted by suction head to get fuel from float chamber.
Comparison of two conditions as depicted by figure 6.5 can give
calculation strategy for venturi as well as orifice size. If pressure is denoted by
‘p’, volume by ‘V’, velocity of flow by ‘C’, temperature by ‘T’, area of cross-
section by ‘A’, then for the air supply calculation, following approach is
adopted.

p2, v2
Condition 2

Float Chamber

p1, v1 Zero Velocity

Condition 1

Fig. 6.5 : Principles of a Simple Carburetor

Since air is assumed to be an ideal gas with ratio of specific heats as γ and
difference of specific heats as R, a relation exists between these conditions
(refer chapter 2).

Cp = γ . R/(γγ – 1)
Cv = R/(γγ –1).

Considering isentropic flow between conditions ‘1’ and ‘2’, following

relations are valid.
6.10 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

p1/p2 = (V2/V1)γ = (T1/T2) γ/(γγ–1).

The ideal gas equations given below are always applicable to the air flow.

p1 . V1/T1 = p2 . V2/T2.

Using energy equation between ‘1’ and ‘2’ following equation can be
written.

Cp T1 = Cp T2 + C22/2g.

Mass is conserved between conditions ‘1’ and ‘2’ and mass flow rate of
air (ma) is given by equation given below.

ma = A1 . C1/V1 = A2 . C2/V2.

Fuel is incompressible and there is no change in its density. Applying

energy equation again, following equation is valid for fuel.

ρf = p2/ρ
p1/ρ ρf + Cf2/2g
Mass of fuel, mf = Af Cf ρ f.

Using above relations, design of orifice and venturi can be executed.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 6.1
A simple carburetor supplies mixture at Stoichiometric fuel-air ratio of 1:12.5.
Fuel density is 740 k/m3 and inlet conditions are depicted by pressure and
temperature values of 1.03 kg/cm2 and 27°C respectively. Calculate throat
diameter of the choke for a flow velocity of 100 m/s and air flow rate of 6 kg/
min. Velocity coefficient (Cd) is 0.8. If pressure drop across the fuel metering
orifice is 0.75 of that at the choke, calculate orifice diameter assuming
discharge coefficient as 0.6. Take γ = 1.4, R = 29.27 kgf-m/kg K.

SOLUTION
Refer figure 6.5.
Given data, F:A = 1:12.5, ρf = 740 kg/m3, p1 = 1.03 kg/cm2, T1 = 27°C =
300 K, C2 = 100 m/s, ma = 6 kg/min, Cd = 0.8, Cdf = 0.6, γ = 1.4, R = 29.27
kgf-m/kg K.
Cp = γ . R/(γ – 1) = 102.445 kgf-m/kg K.
Cv = R/(γ – 1) = 73.175 kgf-m/kg K.
For air flow through choke tube, C22 = 2 . R . g. (T1 – T2) . Cd
So, T2 = T1 – C22/(2 . R . g . Cd) = 278.23 K.
Pressure at venturi, p2 = p1 × (T2/T1)γ/(γ–1) = 0.79127 kg/cm2.
Volume at inlet condition, V1 = R . T1/p1 = 0.8525 m3/kg.
 CARBURETION 6.11

Volume at venturi, V2 = V1 × (p1/p2)1/γ = 0.9758 m3/kg.

From mass balance equation, ma = A2 . C2/V2
So, area of cross-section at venturi, A2 = ma × V2/C2
= 7.58 cm2.
Diameter at venturi = √4 × A2/π = 3.1 cm.
Pressure drop across venturi = p1 – p2 = 0.2387 kg/cm 2.
Pressure drop across fuel metering orifice = 0.75 × 0.2387 kg/cm 2 =
0.179 kg/cm2.
Mass flow rate of fuel, mf = ma/F : A = 0.48 kg/min = 0.008 kg/s

Flow velocity of fuel, Cf = 2.g .( p1 − p2 ) /ρ f = 7.956 m/s

From the equation, mf = Af × Cf × Cdf × ρf

So, Area of orifice, Af = mf/(Cf × Cdf × ρf) = 0.0226 cm2

Diameter of orifice, df = 4 × A f /π = 0.1698 cm = 1.698 mm.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 6.2
Determine the sizes of fuel orifice to give a 13.5 : 1 air-fuel ratio, if venturi
throat is 3 cm diameter and the vacuum in the venturi is 6.5 cm Hg. The air
temperature and pressure at carburetor entrance are 1.03 kgf/cm2 and 27°C.
The fuel orifice is at the same level as that of the float chamber. Take specific
gravity of petrol as 0.74 and discharge coefficient as unity.

SOLUTION
Refer figure 6.5.
Given data, F:A = 1: 13.5, d2 = 3 cm, pressure drop in venturi = 6.5 cm Hg,
p2 = 0.9448 kg/cm2, p1 = 1.03 kg/cm2, T1 = 27°C = 300 K, ρf = 740 kg/m3,
Cd = Cdf = 1, γ = 1.4, R = 29.27 kgf-m/kg K.
Volume of air, V1 = R . T1/p1 = 0.8525 m3/kg.
Volume at venturi, V2 = V1 × (p1/p2)1/γ = 0.9067 m3/kg.
Temperature at venturi, T2 = T1 × (p2/p1)(γ–1)/γ = 292.69 K.
For air flow through choke tube, C22 = 2 . R . g. (T1 – T2)
= 4197.97 m2/s2.
So, flow velocity of air, C2 = 64.79 m/s.
Mass flow rate of air, ma = A2 × C2/V2 = 0.05051 kg/s.
Mass flow rate of fuel, mf = 0.00374 kg/s.
6.12 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Fuel flow velocity, Cf = 2.h. ( p1 − p2 ) ρ f = 4.753 m/s.

So, Area of orifice, Af = mf/(Cf × Cdf × ρf) = 0.01064 cm2

Diameter of orifice, df = √4 × Af / π = 1.16 mm.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 6.3
A 100 mm × 120 mm four cylinder 4-stroke engine has carburetor venturi
throat of 30 mm. if engine has a volumetric efficiency of 70% and is running
at 2500 rpm, find venture depression. Assume density of air as 1.2 kg/m3 and
coefficient of air flow as 0.8.

SOLUTION
Refer figure 6.5.
Given data, bore, d = 100 mm, Stroke, l = 120 mm, number of cylinder,
n = 4, venture throat d2 = 30 mm, engine rpm, N = 2500, density of air,
ρa = 1.2 kg/m3, flow coefficient, Cd = 0.8.
Area of bore = (π/4) × 0.12 = 0.007854 m2
Swept volume per cylinder = 0.007854 × 0.12 m3
= 0.00094277 m3.
Total stroke volume = 4 × 0.00094277 m3 = 0.00377 m3
Actual volume sucked by engine per stroke = 0.7 × 0.00377 m3
= 0.02639 m3.
Actual volume sucked per second = 0.002639 × 2500/(60 × 2)
= 0.05497 m3/s.
Calculating mass flow rate of air = ma ρa = Cd × A2 × √(2gρa Δp) 0.05497
× 1.2 = 0.8 × (π/4) × 0.032 × 100 × √(2 × 9.81 × 1.2 × Δp).
Venturi depression, Δp = 0.05779 kg/cm 2.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 6.4
The diameter of jet tip of a simple carburetor is 1 mm. The venture depression
is 0.01 MPa and density of fuel is 770 kg/m3. If mass discharge coefficient is
0.7, calculate weight of fuel discharged per second.

SOLUTION
Mass discharge of fuel = 0.7 × (π/4) × 0.0012 × √(2 × 9.81 × 770 × 0.01 ×
106) kg/s = 6.757 × 10–3 kg/s = 6.7574 kg/s.
 CARBURETION 6.13

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 6.5
A petrol engine consumes 7 kg of petrol (density 770 kg/m3) per hour through
a carburetor having venturi tube diameter at throat equal to 20 mm. Level of
petrol in float chamber is maintained 5 mm below the jet tip. If air supply is
maintained at 27°C and fuel air ratio is maintained as 1:15, find diameter of
the single jet of the carburetor.

SOLUTION
Given air temperature = 27°C = 300 K.
Assume atmospheric pressure = 101 kPa
Gas constant for air = 29.27 kgf-m/kg.K
Density of air = p/RT = 101/(29.27 × 300) = 1.1725 kg/m3
Air flow rate = petrol flow rate × air-fuel ratio = 7 × 15 /3600 = 0.029167
kg/s.
Assuming discharge coefficient as 1, flow of air through choke tube can
be simulated.
Air flow rate = 1 × (π/4) × 0.022 × √(2 × 9.81 × 1.1725 × Δp (in MPa) ×
106) kg/s.
So, Venturi depression, Δp (in MPa) = 3.7468 × 10–4 MPa.
Petrol is to be lifted up by 5 mm and venture depression at throat is
reduced by this amount. 5 mm.
5 mm depression = 0.005 × 770 kg/m2 = 3.85 kg/m2 = 3.7756 × 10–5 MPa
Flow rate of petrol = 7/3600 = 0.0019444 kg/s
Assuming discharge coefficient as 1, flow of fuel through jet tip can be
simulated.
Petrol flow rate = 1 × A jet tip × √(2 × 9.81 × 770 × (0.00037468
– 0.000037756) × 106) kg/s.
So, area of jet tip, Ajet tip = 8.6185 × 10–7 m2
Diameter of jet = √(4 × 8.6185 × 10–7/π) m = 1.0475 × 10–3 m
= 1.047 mm.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 6.6
A simple jet carburetor has petrol (density = 770 kg/m3) consumption of 0.408
kg/min with fuel-air ratio by weight of 1:15. Air pressure and temperature are
101 kPa and 27°C. If velocity coefficient (Cv) for air flow is 0.85 and speed of
air is 100 m/s, find throat diameter of choke tube. If pressure drop across fuel
metering orifice is 0.8 times pressure drop in choke tube and coefficient of
discharge is 0.7, find jet tip diameter. Take γ = 1.4, R = 29.27 kgf-m/kg K.
6.14 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

SOLUTION
When air is sucked in, velocity rises at the cost of pressure drop. From steady
flow energy equation, gain in kinetic energy is equal to loss of enthalpy.
Initial temperature, T1 = 300 K.
(V/Cv)2/2g = Cp ΔT = [γ R/ (γ – 1)] × (T1 – T2).
Note that here Cv is velocity coefficient and not specific heat at constant
volume.
So, T2 = 293.11 K
Pressure at the choke = 101 × (T2/T1)γ/(γ–1) = 93.11 kPa.
Density of air at the throat, ρa = 93.11/(29.27 × 293.11)
= 1.106 kg/m3.
Mass flow rate of air = 0.408 × 15 kg/min = 0.102 kg/s.
Area of choke tube at throat,
A choke tube at throat = 0.102/(1.106 × 100) = 9.222 × 10–4 m2.
Diameter of the choke tube at throat = 3.426 cm.
Fuel flow rate,
0.408/60 = 0.7 × Af × √(2 × 770 × (101 – 93.11) × 103)
Diameter of jet tip = 1.88 mm.

SUMMARY
SUMMARY
In this chapter, a brief idea about carburetion is explained. This chapter starts
with assessment of fuel-air ratio for various operational as well as ideal
requirements. Essentially, the concept of maintaining desired fuel-air ratio in a
typical SI engine is elaborated in this unit. Design of a simple carburetor is
illustrated and approach to overcome various specific deficiencies in simple
system is discussed. At the end, method of calculation of venturi and orifice size
is elaborated with a numerical example.

QUESTIONS
1. What is a carburetor?
2. Why is carburetor needed in SI engine?
3. Explain fuel-air ratio requirements in SI engine?
4. Explain principles of a simple carburetor?
5. What are essential components of a carburetor?
6. What arrangements are made in the carburetor to supply rich mixture
during idling?
7. How carburetor accomplishes atomization, mixing and vaporization?
 CARBURETION 6.15

8. Write short notes on the following:

(a) Carburetor depression.
(b) Fuel metering.
(c) Choke tube.
(d) Float chamber.
(e) Throttle valve.
(f) Carburetor setting.
9. Give reasons for the following:
(a) Idling needs rich mixture.
(b) Choke helps in cold start of engines.
(c) Mixture becomes rich at high loads in normal carburetor.
(d) Fuel-air requirements for maximum power condition and maximum
fuel efficiency conditions in simple SI engine do not coincide.
(e) Fuel level in float chamber is lower than discharge nozzle tip in
venturi.
(f) Normal carburetor cannot be employed in aircrafts.
(g) Orifice size is made smaller.
❖❖❖
 CHAPTER

7
Lubrication and Cooling Systems

STRUCTURE
‰ Introduction
‰ Objective
‰ Type of Lubrication Systems
‰ Petrol Lubrication System
‰ Splash Lubrication System
‰ Semi-pressure Lubrication System
‰ Pressure Lubrication System
‰ Dry-sump Lubrication System
‰ Properties of Engine Lubricants
‰ Properties of Lubricant Additives
‰ Types of Cooling Systems
‰ Air Cooling
‰ Pressure Cooling
‰ Steam Cooling
‰ Summary
‰ Questions

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Lubrication and cooling systems are auxiliary but essential systems for engine
operations and are normally called part of the basic engine. These systems also
consume some power and so power delivered by a fully equipped engine is
lower than power of a basic engine. This chapter gives idea about systems
necessary for control of temperature generated during action of an engine.
Lubrication systems are needed to reduce friction and thereby control
temperature rise. Additionally, cooling system is required to take away heat
from the engines to reduce chances of overheating different components. This
chapter gives complete details about lubrication and cooling systems used in
various internal combustion engines.
7.2 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Objective
After studying this Chapter, you should be able to understand :
• Requirements of lubrication in engines.
• Different types of lubrication systems.
• Salient properties of lubricants and its additives.
• Engine cooling requirements.
• Method to achieve engine cooling.

7.2 TYPE OF LUBRICA

LUBRICA TION SSY
UBRICATION YSTEMS
Engine friction is one of the prime concerns for performance of engines. It has
dissipative effect and is directly associated with heat loss from the engine. It is
represented by friction horse power, which is generally 10% of indicated horse
power at full load and is 100% at ideal or no-load. This single parameter
reduces maximum brake torque and minimum brake fuel consumption.
Frictional losses are used as indicator of good and average engine design and
are the critical parameter for an engine design and engine performance. It is
not performance alone, but size of cooling system is also affected by
consideration and effectiveness of friction management in the engine.
In an engine, pumping is an important exercise. Both intake and expulsion
of working fluid needs pumping activity. This is essentially associated with
pumping losses. This forms a single important factor for both SI and CI
engine. In SI engines, it is significant and with rise in load, this reduces.
However increase in speed has relatively less effect on frictional losses due to
pumping. For CI engine, pumping account for less part in total frictional losses
and the contribution enhances with rise in speed of the engine. Friction occurs
at the interface of all moving parts including piston, cylinder, bearings, valves,
gears etc. They form major part of total friction loss in both types of engines.
Load does not affect it in case of SI engine, but in CI engines, it reduces with
load. However speed of engine enhanced these interface frictional losses in
both the types of engine. Frictional losses to drive auxiliary systems, like
secondary air pump, power steering, air conditioning etc. They also needs
power and are invariably associated with transmission losses. In fact overall
frictional losses reduced if load on the engine is increased and speed enhances
total frictional loss significantly. So frictional losses are present in the engine
and lubrication system is needed for all types of engines for following
operations.
• Reduce frictional resistance and maximize mechanical efficiency.
• Protect against engine wear.
• Contribute for engine cooling.
 LUBRICATION AND COOLING SYSTEMS 7.3

• Remove impurities in lubricated regions.

• Hold gas and liquid leakage to minimum levels.
Type of lubrication system depends on choice of lubricants and also on
functional requirements. Lubricants should have low viscosity for good
pumping and flow within rubbing parts. However, viscosity should be high at
high temperature to get good lubrication and it must have lower volatility.
Protection against wear needs anti-corrosive action, degradation-resistance,
decomposition-control, dissolution of deposits and detergent action. Good
thermal stability and oxidation resistance are other major properties of good
lubricants.

7.2.1 Petr
Petr ol Lubrication SSy
etrol yst em
stem
In 2-stroke SI engines, which are normally crank charged, lubricant is added
in fuel oil itself. The quantity of lubricating oil is 2-3%. This type of lubrication
is called mist lubrication system. Oil and fuel mixture is inducted in carburetor.
Fuel vaporizes and oil in the form of mist (air entrapped) goes via crankcase
into the cylinder. The oil lubricates main and connecting rod bearing when in
crankcase. When oil reaches cylinder, it lubricates piston, piston ring and
cylinder. Since lubricating oil is directly added to fuel oil, performance of
engine is also affected by lubricating oil. Selection of lubricating oil becomes
an important requirement and selection criteria must include exhaust smoke,
internal corrosion, bearing life, ring and cylinder bore wear, ring sticking,
deposits in exhaust and chamber, spark plug fouling. So, specially prepared
ash less oil must be used as lubricant, if addition directly to petrol is applied.
Fuel to lubricating oil ratio should be within 40:1 to 50:1 for good performance.
Higher ratio increases rate of wear and lower results in spark plug fouling.
This system is very simple and it does not need any separate oil-pump. It
has low cost. However, several problems may be encountered, which restrict
usage of this system to smaller engines only. Some lubricating oil burns in
cylinder resulting in heavy exhaust emission, formation of deposits and
interference with normal and smooth engine operation. The anti-corrosion
properties of lubricating oil are lost the moment it comes in contact with
exhaust products which are acidic in nature.
Another problem with this system is lubrication is effective only when fuel
supply is continuing. If throttle is closed (downward movement on a hill)
lubrication stops. This may cause overheating and piston seizure due to oil
starvation. As there is no need based control after addition of oil to fuel, most
of the petrol engines are over-oiled.

7.2.2 Splash Lubrication SSy

yst em
stem
This system is also useful for small engines. This is a wet sump lubrication
system, where bottom part of the crank case, called sump is filled with
7.4 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

lubricating oil. The level of oil is maintained in such a way that while on BC, the
dripper of connecting rod strikes the oil. This splashes oil over engine parts
like crank bearing, piston skirts and rings, piston pins etc. excess oil drips
back to sump. This system also does not use any separate pump for lubricating
oil. This system is not suitable at high bearing loads.

7.2.3 Semi-Pressure Lubrication System

For high bearing loads, modified splash wet sump lubricating system is used.
In this case a separate oil pump is used for supply of lubricants. The main and
camshaft bearings are lubricated by oil from the pump. However other engine
parts are lubricated by splash system only.

7.2.4 Pressure Lubrication System

In pressure lubrication system, all engine parts are lubricated by lubricating oil
supplied from an oil pump. Drilled passages are used to lubricate connecting
rod bearings. The cylinder walls and piston rings are lubricated by the spray
thrown from crankshaft and connecting rod. This is most practical and
operational system used in automobiles, including Ambassador, Fiat, Jeep and
Ashok Leyland vehicles.

7.2.5 Dry-sump Lubrication System

All the lubricating system described above belong to wet sump lubrication
system, where crank case itself is used as lubricating oil holder. Contrary to
this, in a dry sump uses a secondary external reservoir for oil. It is a lubricating
motor oil management method for 4-stroke and large 2-stroke piston internal
combustion engines, mainly. In a dry sump, the oil falls to the base of the
engine after oiling relevant parts, but rather than being collected into an oil
sump, it is pumped into another external reservoir by one or more scavenge
pumps, run by belts from the front or back of the crankshaft. Oil is then
pumped from this reservoir to the bearings of the engine by the pressure
pump. Typical dry sump systems have the pressure pump and scavenger
pumps “stacked up”, so that one pulley at the front of the system can run as
many pumps as desired, just by adding another to the back of the stack.
A dry sump offers many advantages, namely increased oil capacity and a
lower center of gravity for the engine. Because the reservoir is external, the oil
pan can be much smaller in a dry sump system, allowing the engine to be
placed lower in the vehicle; in addition, the external reservoir can be as large as
desired, whereas a larger oil pan raises the engine even further. Increased oil
capacity by using a larger external reservoir leads to cooler oil. Furthermore,
dry sump designs are not susceptible to the oil starvation problems wet sump
systems suffer from if the oil sloshes in the oil pan, temporarily uncovering the
 LUBRICATION AND COOLING SYSTEMS 7.5

oil pump pickup tube. Having the pumps external to the engine allows them to
be maintained or replaced more easily, as well. Dry sumps are common on
larger diesel engines such as those used for ship propulsion. Many racing cars,
high performance sports cars, and aerobatic aircraft also utilize dry-sump
equipped engines because they prevent oil-starvation at high ‘g’ loads, and
because their lower center of gravity positively affects performance. Dry
sump systems add cost and complexity, and the extra pumps and lines require
more oil, so maintenance costs may rise accordingly.

7.3 PROPER
PROPER TIES OF ENGINE L
OPERTIES UBRICANT
LUBRICANT S
UBRICANTS
Engines use lubricating oil for lubrication, noise control, cleaning, cooling and
sealing purposes. To work effectively, these fluid must possess certain salient
property. These property requirements of lubricants are explained in this
section. Viscosity is one of the important properties of lubricants. It is
resistance to flow of a fluid. However, there are some contradictions in the
properties requirements. Thin oils are good for cooling but bad for sealing,
while reverse is true for thick oils. Oils must possess scavenging and cleaning
capacity, but at the same time it should be cleaning to impart good lubrication.
For lubricants viscosity index is assigned, which is an arbitrary figure
compared at different temperatures. Viscosity index indicates change in
viscosity under influence of temperature. If viscosity change with temperature
is small, oil has high viscosity index. Lubricating oil should maintain sufficient
viscosity at high temperatures and should not be too viscous at cold
temperatures. So, lubricating oil should have high viscosity index. Parrafin
base oil is assigned a value of zero, while naphthenic base oil is assigned
viscosity index of 100. With this nomenclature, high viscosity index lubricating
oil should have the value lying above 90. Sometimes, long chain paraffins are
added to improve viscosity index of the oil. Oiliness is another property, which
is similar in nature to viscosity, but has entirely different meaning. Viscosity
may be treated as stickiness, but oiliness indicates properties of oil to cling to
the metal surface by molecular action. This creates a thin oil film on the metal
surfaces under boundary lubrication conditions. This is measured by
coefficient of friction under extreme conditions of operations. This is
important at high pressures and small clearances because it governs the
squeezing out of oil.
Amongst physical parameters, specific gravity of lubricating oils is
monitored only to control weight and volume requirement of lubricating
systems. This property has no bearing on performance of lubricants. This
generally lies between 0.85 and 0.96. Naphthenic base oils have higher specific
gravity than paraffinic base oils.
7.6 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Thermal stability of oil is another criterion for lubricating oil. Since oil
experiences a very high range of temperatures, temperature based data of oils
are also importants. Cloud point of oil is that temperature at which it starts
solidifying. But more than cloud point, another temperature called pour point is
more important for lubricants. Pour point is that temperature below which
lubricants will not flow under given condition. Pour point is generally governed
by wax content of the oil and wax at reduced temperatures result in
honeycomb type of structure due to crystallization. Generally oils derived from
paraffinic crude have higher pour point than those derived from naphthenic
crude. Pout point can be lowered by adding pour point depressant. Popular
pour point depressants are polymerized phenol, esters etc. In general pour
point should be at least 8-10°C lower than operating temperature to ensure
maximum circulation.
Another thermal property of lubricating oil is flash point. This is
temperature at which oil vapour flash when exposed to naked flame. Flash
point can be determined in a closed (sealed) or open container and accordingly
prefixed in attached in the nomenclature. Contrary to this, fire point is that
temperature at which oil, lit by a flame burns for at least 5 seconds steadily.
This varies from 190 to 290°C for lubricants. Fire and flash points are
indicators of flammability of oil and are monitored for safety against fire
hazards. They are very god indicators of crank case dilution also.
Under chemical properties of lubricating oils, carbon residue and oxidation
stability are two important criteria. Carbon reside is quantity of the known
mass sample of oil, which on evaporation under certain condition remains as
carbonaceous residue. This is although a rough indicator of expected deposits
from lubricants, but gives a fair idea about lubricants suitability for a purpose.
Paraffin base oils have high carbon residue than asphaltic base oils. Oxidation
stability is resistance of oil to oxidation at operating temperature and pressure
conditions prevailing in the engine. On oxidation, oils may form deposits and
loose lubrication capacity. To enhance this complex compounds of sulphur,
phosphorus or amine and phenol derivatives are generally added to lubricants.
Low acid content is also an important requirement for lubricating oils. The
neutralization number is a major of acidity or alkalinity of lubricating oils. New
oil has low neutralization number. Neutralization number increases as oil is
used in engine. Neutralization number is quantity of acid or alkaline solution
needed to make the oil neutral.
In addition to this, absence of water and sediments is ensured in
lubricating oil. Water, if present may promote corrosion and reduce capacity to
lubricate. Transparent lubricating oil indicates good pure and fresh oil, while
used oil should be thicker and grayish in colour. Colour has no role except as
indicator for degree of use of oil.
 LUBRICATION AND COOLING SYSTEMS 7.7

7.4 PROPER
PROPER TIES OF L
OPERTIES UBRICANT ADDITIVES
LUBRICANT
Although simple mineral oil contains most of the essential characteristics
needed from lubricating oil. However, to meet al the requirements, certain
additives are always added to lubricants. These additives may give or affect
one or more of the above-mentioned properties and sometimes add certain
specific features to lubricating oils.
Viscosity index improvers reduce sensitivity of oil-viscosity to tempera-
ture and thereby make oil useful for a very wide of operating temperatures.
Anti-wear additives reduce wear and prevent scoring galling and seizure and
marks of other tribological interactions. Anti-rust additives prevent rusting by
formation of thin film over exposed heated metallic surfaces. Pour point
depressants interfere with crystallization of wax in lubricating oil and prevent
both growth and agglomeration of wax crystals. This maintains flow
properties of oil even at low temperatures.
To improve chemical properties, oxidation inhibitors are critical. Although
they prevent or resist oxidation of lubricating oils but they are ineffective
against control of carbonaceous residue and deposits. They cannot prevent
sludge formation in engines. To take care of deposits and sludge, detergents
and dispersants are used as additives in lubricating oils. Detergents are added
to control high temperature deposits by keeping them in suspension and
preventing their agglomeration. It can also act as effective acid neutralizer.
Dispersant does same as detergent but they act on low temperature sludge and
varnish deposits. In addition to these, anti-foam additives are used to reduce oil
foaming. This is achieved by collapsing of bubbles formed due to air
entrapment.
In addition to above-mentioned chemicals, corrosion preventives, rust
preventives, metal deactivators, water repellants, colour, stabilizer, foam
inhibitors, emulsifiers, dyes and odour control agents are also added on
requirement basis to lubricating oils.

❚ ❚ EXAMPLE 7.1
A diesel engine is used in a truck requiring 120 bhp. The mechanical efficiency
of the engine is 80%. The brake specific fuel consumption of the engine is
200 gm per bhp-hr. A design improvement is made, which reduced engine
friction by 5 hp. assuming the indicated thermal efficiency remains same,
calculate (a) the new mechanical efficiency (b) the new bsfc and (c) the saving
in fuel per hour.

SOLUTION
Indicated hp = bhp/mechanical efficiency = 150 hp.
7.8 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Friction hp = ihp – bhp = 30 hp.

After improvement, new fhp = 30 hp – 5 hp = 25 hp
Since bhp is invariant, new ihp = bhp + new fhp = 145 hp. So, new
mechanical efficiency = new bhp/new ihp
= 82.75 %. Ans. (a)
As indicated thermal efficiency remains constant, so isfc is same. This
indicates that bsfc is inversely proportional to mechanical efficiency.
So, new bsfc = old bsfc × (ratio of mechanical efficiencies)
= 193.35 gm per bhp-hr. Ans. (b)
Saving in fuel = bhp × (difference of bsfc)
= 1330 gm/hr. Ans. (c)

7.5 TYPES OF COOLING SYSTEMS

In the internal combustion engines, very small amount of heat is only utilized or
derived as useful power. A large part of energy is either taken away by exhaust
gases or is lost to coolants. Figure 7.1 gives a brief balance-sheet of heat
extracted from fuel combustion for various types of engines. For
completeness, gas turbine engines are also included where there is no heat lost
to coolants. However they have lower work output. Invariably, whether
2-stroke or 4-stroke, SI engine or CI engine, around one-third energy is taken
away by coolants. The requirement of coolant for an internal combustion
engine can be enumerated.
In previous section about lubricant, it is stated that lubricant should have
high viscosity index to offset effects of temperature rise. Another method to
reduce viscosity variation of lubricant is to keep the operating temperature on
lower side by providing proper cooling arrangement so as to restrict
temperature rise to maximum 150 to 200°C. From structural point of view,
material of construction of engines looses their strength at high temperatures
and most of the time temperature rise is governing criteria for assessing
structural margin of safety in the engine. Lowering temperature in the cycle
results in lower thermal stresses due to uneven expansion of various engine
parts. Operational point of view also needs control over temperature. High
temperatures result in very hot exhaust valves. This may act as local source of
ignition and give rise to pre-ignition, surface ignition and sometimes even
detonation. Maintaining cylinder head at higher temperature reduces
volumetric efficiency by reduction of air density with rise in temperature. This
affects power output from the engine adversely.
 LUBRICATION AND COOLING SYSTEMS 7.9

12 12

26
26
Useful power Useful power
Coolant Coolant
Exhaust Exhaust
32
Radiation 37 Radiation

30 21

4-Stroke SI Engine 2-Stroke CI Engine

13 15 26

26 0
Useful power Useful power
Coolant Coolant

30 Exhaust Exhaust
Radiation Radiation

26
70

4-Stroke CI Engine Gas Turbine Engine

Fig. 7.1 : Heat Balance of Various Internal Combustion Engine

The cooling system is designed based on engine type, area of heat flow
available, predominant mode of heat transfer, peak temperature and pressures
in the cycle, heat transfer coefficients and combustion system, engine loads,
operating conditions, material of construction of heat transfer surfaces, etc.
Based on engine cooling provisions, internal combustion engines are classified
under two heads namely air cooled engines and water cooled engines. Air is
omnipresent and ultimate heat sink. However it has lower thermal
conductivity. Water cooling system needs separate water storage, pumping,
circulation and refurbishment mechanism and are generally bulky in nature.

7.5.1 Air Cooling

Air cooling is good for small engines. In additional to this for aircraft engines,
where weight reduction of engines is major requirements, air cooling is
employed. In some industrial or agricultural engines, uses of water are
objectionable due to corrosion or solvent related problems. In those cases also
air cooling is preferred. For air cooling heat transfer area is increased by
7.10 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

arrangement of fins and air is passed over these fins for cooling. Since heat is
directly transferred to air, very large temperature gradient exists and surface
requirement can be reduced.
Stationary air has lower overall heat transfer coefficient. To effectively
execute heat transfer, air is given velocity for distribution around the cylinder
and coverage of entire finned area. As far as fins are concerned, their design is
important for effective heat transfer and cooling. Fin shape, spacing,
projection, orientation and width are decided as a compromise between several
competing factors.
When inter-fin spacing is increased, fins offer larger volume for cooling
air flow with reduced surface area available for heat transfer. This leads to
higher requirements of cooling air. If interspacing is reduced, reverse action
takes places, air between fins gets heated up more. This needs higher flow
velocity of air through fins and leads to higher pressure drop for flow. If
distance between two fins is kept very low, boundary layers of adjoining fins
overlap and efficiency of fins reduces. So, fin separation is never kept below
2.5 mm. height of fins is governed by space available between two engines.
Usually fin height is kept 15 to 25 mm.
Parts which are more stressed thermally, like exhaust valve, exhaust
manifold must be adequately finned. Air cooled results in higher engine
temperature and engine parts with air cooling must have higher clearance.
Since temperature of engine is higher, strength of parts reduces and clamping
must be placed to avoid distortion. Higher specific outputs are possible if
material of construction is light alloy.

7.5.2 Pressure Cooling

Engine cylinder and cylinder head is submerged as enclosed by water jacket in
water cooled engines. The water jacket is connected to radiator, where major
mode of heat transfer is convection. Water flows through the jacket and cools
the engine. Water gets heated up in this process and it releases heat to air in the
radiator and gets re-circulated. The most critical control parameter is local
velocity of water and bulk rate of water passed through the jacket. Generally
3 to 4 m/s local velocity is used for reasonable heat transfer. For better heat
transfer, surface in contact with water is properly machined. Drilled coolant
passages are also incorporated to ensure cooling of highly stressed parts.
For facilitating in cold starting, anti-freeze solutions are added to water.
Anti-freeze agents are kerosene, wood alcohol, denatured alcohol, glycerin,
sugar solution, calcium or magnesium chloride, ethylene glycol and propylene
glycol. Many methods of water cooling arrangements are possible. Thermo-
siphon cooling is one such water cooling system. Water becomes lighter on
heating is the basic principle used for thermo-siphon cooling arrangement. The
 LUBRICATION AND COOLING SYSTEMS 7.11

top of the radiator is connected to top of the water jacket and bottom to the
bottom of the radiator. Air, while passing through radiator cools the water and
sets water in motion in downward direction in the radiator. The flow of air is
due to vehicle motion or a fan can be used for this purpose. However this
system depends on temperature rise and is independent of the engine speed.
The rate of circulation is slow and insufficient. Circulation of water is
effective only when engine is hot.
Forced or pump circulation is a modification to thermo-siphon cooling,
where water is circulated by a pump. This ensures positive circulation and
power is derived from engine for running the pump. It works on all conditions
and is independent of temperature. However, this system may result in
overcooling. This system has one major limitation. While moving uphill, more
fuel is burned, and cooling requirement increases, but pump circulation leads
to reduced coolant circulation. This leads to engine overheating. Since power
is derived from engine, as soon as engine stops, cooling also stops. This is also
undesirable because temperature of engine parts has to be brought to normal
values.
If cylinder barrel temperature is low, sever corrosion damage due to
condensation of acids on barrel wall may result. To stop coolant flow, after
achievement of pre-set temperature, thermostat cooling may be used. This is
just a control device and can be applied in both the above class of cooling
arrangements. However, there is no method to control overheated engine, as
extra cooling cannot be arranged on will. Another method of cooling
arrangement uses pressurized water cooling. At normal atmospheric pressure,
boiling point is 100°C, but as pressure rises, boiling point of water also raises.
At pressure levels of 2 kg/cm2, 5 kg/cm2, 10 kg/cm2, boiling point of water are
121°C, 153°C and 180°C respectively. Use of pressurized water gives larger
heat transfer coefficient and it can have a better cooling. Pressurized water
needs an additional valve called vacuum valve to avoid formation of vacuum,
when water is cooled after stoppage of engine. A safety relieve valve is also
placed to release pressure. Water pressurized to around 2 kg/cm2 so that water
remains liquid even above 100°C to absorb heat from engine cylinder.

7.5.3 Steam C
Steam ooling
Cooling
Steam cooling is one of the latest cooling arrangements for engine cylinder.
This employs steam as cooling agent and is also called vapour cooling or
evaporative cooling. It is well known fact that latent heat of vaporization is
higher than sensible heat. This indirectly conveys that with less quantity of
water, latent heat can give same heat transfer effectiveness. Water is stored in
radiator and heated to 100°C to form steam. In fact in radiator, both water and
steam remains in equilibrium in the radiator. Coolant always remains in liquid
phase and is pumped to water jacket around the cylinder block. From heat of
7.12 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

engine cylinder, water flashes to steam absorbing large quantity of heat from
engine cylinder. Steam is returned back to radiator, where it condenses and
becomes make-up water for cooling.
This system of cooling is used in many industrial engines. Schematic of
steam cooling is shown in figure 7.2.

Radiator

Water
Jacket in
Cylinder
Block

Steam

Water at 100°C
Pump

Fig. 7.2 : Steam Cooling System Schematic

SUMMARY
SUMMARY
This chapter is meant to give idea about auxiliary but important system of
international combustion engines. Both lubrication and cooling systems take
care of engine temperature and reduces thermal stresses in engine parts.
Lubricants have several additives for specific function and it must be effective
to realize cleaning, noise reduction, corrosion prevention also. Many systems
are prevalent for effectively carrying out these operations. Cooling of engine
components is another prime requirement for trouble-free operation of an
engine. Although only two media air and water are used for cooling, but several
systems are designed for cooling of engine cylinder heads and heated parts.

QUESTIONS

1. What is main purpose of using lubricants in internal combustion engines?

2. What is lubrication methods followed in petrol engines?
What are advantages and limitations of the petrol lubrication system?
3. What is splash lubrication system? Whether it needs separate pump for
lubrication?
4. What is difference between pressure and semi-pressure lubrication
system?
 LUBRICATION AND COOLING SYSTEMS 7.13

5. What is dry-sump lubrication? What are its advantages?

6. What are salient properties needed by engine lubricants?
7. What are additives in lubricant? What are purposes of using additives?
8. Why are cooling systems needed for engines?
9. How does air cooling helps in engines?
10. What is pressure cooling? Can pressurization helps in increasing heat
transfer?
11. What is steam cooling? How it operates?
12. How does lubrication and cooling systems help in improvement of
performance of an engine?
 Further Reading

• Internal Combustion engine Fundamentals by John B. Heywood, McGraw Hill

Book Company.
• Internal Combustion Engine by H.B. Keshwani, Standard Book House.
• Internal Combustion Engine by V.L. Maleev, International Students Edition.
• A Course in Internal Combustion Engines by M.L. Mathur and R.P. Sharma,
Dhanpat Rai and Sons.
• Understanding Aerospace Propulsion by H.S. Mukunda, Interline Publishing.
• Heat Transfer by J.P. Holman and P.R.S. White, McGraw Hill Book Company.

❖❖❖
 Appendix

SAMPLE QUESTIONS—FIRST-MID SEMESTER

Duration : 90 minutes Full marks : 35

Answer any 5 questions

All questions carry equal marks.
Use of calculator and steam table is permitted.
Assume data suitably, if data given in problem is insufficient.

1. Explain diesel cycle and derive expression for its thermal efficiency.
2. What is mean effective pressure for a cycle? Derive expression for
mean effective pressure of an Otto cycle.
3. A dual combustion cycle has an adiabatic compression volume ratio
of 15:1. The conditions at the commencement of compression are
1 kg/cm2, 25°C and 0.15 m3. The maximum pressure of the cycle is
60 kg/cm2 and the maximum temperature of the cycle is 1500°C. If
γ = 1.4, calculate the pressure, volume and temperature at the five
corners of the cycle.
4. Write short notes on any 3 topics.
(a) Specific fuel consumption
(b) Supercharging
(c) Detonation in Petrol engines
(d) Two stroke compression ignition engine
5. What are different parts of an internal combustion engine?
What are their use and common material of construction?
6. Give reasons for any 2 of the following:
(a) For a given compression ratio and heat rejection, Otto cycle is
more efficient than diesel cycle.
(b) Brake thermal efficiency is lower than indicated thermal efficiency
of an engine.
(c) Detonation is undesirable in a petrol engine but desirable in diesel
engine.
7. Explain different components of a turbojet engine. Demonstrate the
processes involved in turbojet propulsion on a thermodynamic plane?
A.2 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

SAMPLE QUESTIONS—FIRST-MID SEMESTER

Duration : 90 minutes Full marks : 35

Answer any 5 questions

All questions carry equal marks.
Use of calculator and steam table is permitted.
Assume data suitably, if data given in problem is insufficient.

1. A cycle consisting of three processes namely isobaric compression (1-

2), isochoric heat addition (2-3) and isentropic expansion (3-1) is
depicted in the figure beside on a pressure-volume thermodynamic plane.
Find work done (in J or kJ) for the cycle 1-2-3-1 depicted in the figure.

Pressure (MPa)
0.5 3
Isentropic Process,
g = 1.4

0.1 1
2
3
Volume (m )
0.1

2. Bore and stroke of a diesel engine is 10 cm and 15 cm respectively. If

clearance volume and cut-off ratio are 0.0001 m3 and 1.3 respectively, find
air standard efficiency of the cycle. Take ratio of specific heats as 1.4.
3. Air flow through a turbojet engine is 40 kg/s and it propels aircraft
at a velocity of 250 m/s. If isentropic enthalpy drop in the nozzle is
250 kJ/kg, find (i) thrust produced, (ii) thrust power, (iii) Propulsive
power and (iv) Propulsive efficiency.
4. Explain working principles of an SI engine using valve timing diagram.
5. Write short notes on any three of the following:
(a) Ramjet engine
(b) Cut-off ratio
(c) Friction power
(d) Knocking
6. Give reasons for any three of the following:
(a) Pressure and volume are called conjugate properties.
(b) Slope of isobaric line on temperature-entropy plane is lower than
that for isochoric line.
 APPENDIX A.3

(c) Reciprocating engines are unsuitable for aircraft propulsion.

(d) Spark plug fires before piston reaches TDC in SI engine.
7. An engine consumes 5 grams of fuel (calorific value = 45 MJ/kg) per
second and delivers 80kW power with a mechanical efficiency of 80%.
Find (i) Brake specific fuel consumption, (ii) Indicated specific fuel
consumption, (iii) Brake thermal efficiency and (iv) Indicated thermal
efficiency.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS—SECOND-MID SEMESTER

Duration : 90 minutes Full marks : 35

All questions carry equal marks.

Use of calculator is permitted.
Attempt maximum five questions.
Assume data suitably.

1. Give reasons for any 2 of the following:

(a) Thermal conductivity of gases increase with increase in
temperature.
(b) Choke helps in cold start of engines.
(c) Water cooling is not employed in two-wheelers.
2. For 2-D heat transfer through the grid
shown beside, nodes on upper boundary
are maintained at 100°C, while nodes on
left and right boundaries are maintained at
a temperature of 200°C. If fluid at
temperature 500°C is flowing through
bottom boundary and (h.Δx/k) for the grid
is 2, find temperature at all the nodes of
the grid.
3. What is Fourier law of heat conduction? Write down 3-D equation of
heat conduction in Cartesian coordinates and enlist condition for the
derivation of Laplace equation from this. Differentiate between
conduction and radiation.
4. The dimension of jet tip of a simple carburetor is 1 mm. The venturi
depression is 0.01 MPa and density of fuel is 770 kg/m3. If mass
discharge coefficient is 0.7, calculate weight of fuel discharge per
second.
5. What is purpose of fins on engine cylinder? How it improves cooling of
the engine?
A.4 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

6. What are requirements of engine lubricants? How they are met by

additives?
7. What is pressure cooling? How it helps in cooling of engine?

SAMPLE QUESTIONS—ASSIGNMENT

1. Compare Otto Cycle and Diesel cycle. Comment on their air standard
efficiency for identical (i) compression ratio and heat input (ii) heat
input and maximum pressure (iii) maximum pressure and work output
2. For a dual cycle, air is taken in at 101 kPa and 25°C. Compression ratio
is 16 and maximum pressure in the cycle is 6000 kPa. The heat transfer
to air at constant pressure and constant volume are the same. If Cp =
1.008 kJ/ Kg-K, γ = 1.4. Find (i) pressure and temperature at all the
corners of the cycle (ii) cut-off ratio and pressure ratio (iii) air
standard efficiency (iv) work output (v) swept volume (vi) mean
effective pressure.
3. Why is jet propulsion employed as aircraft power plant? Explain
working of a turbojet engine.
4. Differentiate between 4-stroke and 2-stroke engines used in automobiles.
5. What are effects of altitude and speed on the performance of aircraft
SI engine? How adverse effects are neutralized in aircraft SI engine?
6. What is purpose of fins in engine heads? Derive expression for fin
efficiency.
7. Explain Plank’s law of radiation. Derive Wien’s displacement law from
Plank’s law of radiation
8. Explain purpose of lubrication in engines. What are various types of
engine lubrication methods?
9. Explain a simple carburetor. Derive expression for orifice and venture
sizes for the same.
10. What are various cooling systems employed in SI engines?

SAMPLE QUESTIONS—ASSIGNMENT

1. Derive expression for air standard efficiency of standard Diesel cycle.

Define compression ratio and cut-off ratio. Take ratio of specific heat
as 1.3 to numerically show the effects of compression ratio and cut-
off ratio on air standard efficiency of Diesel cycle.
2. A turbojet engine has a compressor, combustor, turbine and nozzle.
Compressor, turbine and nozzle have an efficiency of 95%. If overall
 APPENDIX A.5

pressure ratio is 4, mechanical efficiency is 98%, find (i) Effective jet

velocity (ii) Thrust and specific thrust. Mass flow rate of air = 20 kg/s,
Maximum temperature = 1000 K, Inlet temperature = 300 K, Inlet
pressure = 101 kPa, γ = 1.4, Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg/K.
3. Explain working of a 2-stroke engine with sketches. Compare it with
4-stroke engine.
4. Explain abnormal combustion processes in an internal combustion
engine.
5. What are uses of Superchargers? Why they are essential in Aircrafts?
What are various means to get supercharging?
6. Explain various methods for measuring friction horsepower of an
engine. Enlist merits and demerits of methods. Give suitable numerical
examples.
7. What is fuel-air ratio requirements in an SI engine at different loads and
speeds? How these needs are accomplished in modern carburetors?
8. What is purpose of lubricants in IC engine? What are expectations
from lubricants and how they are accomplished?
9. Derive expressions for fin efficiency for various boundary conditions?
10. For the grid shown beside, side A and side B are maintained at 100°C
and other sides are exposed to temperature of 500°C. If (hΔx/k) for the
grid is 1, find temperature at all the nodes of the shown grid.
Side A
3,1 3,2 3,3
1 2 3
Side D

Side B

2,1 2,2 2,3

4 5 6

1,1 1,2 1,3

7 8 9
Side C
 Index

A BHP, 1.38, 4.9, 4.11, 4.12

Bipropellant, 3.5
Absorber, 5.51, 5.52, 5.55
Absorptivity, 5.52, 5.53, 5.56, 5.65 Blackbody, 5.5, 5.10, 5.52, 5.60
Acceleration, 2.3, 3.3, 5.50, 6.4 Blade, 2.10, 2.11, 2.12, 3.35
Additives, 1.21, 7.2, 7.7, 7.12, 7.13 Bleeding, 6.8
Afterburner, 2.11, 2.15, 2.25, 3.5 Blowby, 4.7
Agglomeration, 7.7 Boiler, 1.18, 3.3
Air, 1.1, 1.2, 1.23, 1.24 Boltzmann, 5.5, 5.51, 5.54, 5.64
Air cooled, 3.6, 3.29, 7.9, 7.10 Boost, 6.6, 6.7
Air filter, 3.30 Booster, 2.23, 2.24
Air standard cycle, 1.1, 1.2, 3.11, 3.20 Boundary, 1.3, 1.4, 3.7, 5.35, 7.5, 7.10
Air swirl, 3.26 BP, 1.38
Air-breathing, 2.2, 2.3, 2.13, 3.5 Breakdown, 3.23, 3.24
Aircraft, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.10 Breaker, 3.24, 3.32
Altitude, 2.2, 2.15, 2.17, 3.33, 3.34 Buoyancy, 5.45, 5.48, 5.49
Aluminium, 3.20, 5.6, 5.35, 5.55 Burner, 2.11, 2.19
Angle factor, 5.56 Burning rate, 3.23, 3.28
Annular, 2.22, 2.23, 3.32, 6.6 Bypass, 2.11, 2.20, 2.24, 3.5
Anti-freeze, 7.10
C
Anti-rust, 7.7
Calorific, 1.38, 2.7, 4.10, 4.22
Arc, 3.12, 3.23
Atmosphere, 1.7, 2.2, 2.3, 6.4, 6.7 Calorific value, 1.38, 2.7, 4.16, A.3
Atomization, 3.13, 3.25, 6.2, 6.14 Car, 3.33
Attitude, 3.5 Carbon, 1.22, 3.21, 5.24, 7.6
Auxiliary, 1.6, 1.21, 2.19, 6.6, 7.12 Carbureted, 3.6
Auxiliary chamber, 3.26 Carburetor, 3.10, 3.29, 6.1, 6.4
Availability, 1.12 Cargo, 2.12, 3.4, 3.5
Aviation, 2.2 Centrifugal, 2.11, 3.37, 3.38, 3.39
Axial, 2.11, 2.13, 2.14, 4.6, 5.28 Centrifugal compressor, 2.13, 2.14, 3.37,
3.38
B Charge, 1.19, 3.14, 3.30, 4.9, 7.3
Balance, 3.4, 3.8, 5.7, 6.11, 7.9 Charging, 3.13, 3.40, 4.4
Battery, 3.6, 3.23, 3.32, 3.33 Chemical bond, 2.2
Bearing, 2.12, 3.20, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5 Chemical energy, 1.1, 2.3, 2.7, 3.1, 3.22
I.2 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Choke tube, 3.34, 6.5, 6.6, 6.15 Cylinder, 1.1, 3.3, 3.41, 5.12, 6.1, 7.3
Choking, 3.19 Cylinder head, 3.8, 5.12, 7.8, 7.10
Circulation, 7.6, 7.9, 7.11
D
Closed system, 1.4
Cloud point, 7.6 Dead centers, 3.8
Coating, 2.11, 5.52 Degradation of energy, 1.12
Coefficient, 5.4, 5.6, 5.27, 6.7 Density, 1.4, 3.30, 4.9, 6.6, A.3
Coil ignition, 3.23, 3.31, 3.33, 3.40 Depression, 6.5, 6.6, 6.15, A.3
Collision, 1.11 Design, 1.21, 2.1, 3.7, 5.63, 6.1
Colour, 5.5, 5.52, 5.55, 7.6, 7.7 Detergents, 7.7
Combustion, 1.1, 1.21, 3.2, 4.2, 7.1 Device, 1.11, 3.18, 3.40, 6.1, 7.11
Combustor, 2.3, 2.15, 2.23, A.4 Diameter, 1.22, 3.8, 4.5, 5.26
Compensating, 6.6, 6.7, 6.8 Diaphragm, 4.3
Compressibility, 1.13 Diathermal, 1.3, 1.5
Compression, 1.1, 1.18, 1.35, 3.10 Diesel, 1.1, 1.28, 3.4
Compression ratio, 1.20, 1.33, 2.21, 5.13 Diffuser, 2.2, 2.15, 2.22
Compressor, 2.2, 2.15, 3.37, 3.40 Diffusion, 3.23, 5.3, 5.47
Condenser, 1.18, 3.32, 5.2, 5.29 Discharging, 4.4, 6.4
Conductance, 5.4 Dispersants, 7.7
Conduction, 3.23, 5.1, 5.17, 5.64 Displacement, 1.3, 3.40, 4.3, 5.54
Conductivity, 5.2, 5.13, 5.26, 5.65 Dissipative, 1.18, 7.2
Conductor, 5.3, 5.16, 5.65 Dissociation, 3.23, 3.37, 4.10
Configuration factor, 5.56 Double bonds, 3.28
Conjugate properties, 1.43, A.2 Drag, 2.10, 2.23, 3.31
Connecting rod, 1.38, 3.3, 3.9, 7.3 Drift, 5.3
Constant, 1.3, 1.14, 1.17, 3.26, 5.5 Dry sump, 7.4, 7.5, 7.13
Constant pressure, 1.8, 1.25, 1.28, 2.4 Duct, 2.3, 2.22
Constant temperature, 1.11, 1.12, 5.15, Dynamics, 5.44
5.49, 5.53 Dynamometer, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.20
Constant volume, 1.3, 1.14, 1.16, 6.14
Contact, 1.19, 3.21, 5.4, 6.3 E
Convection, 5.1, 5.25, 5.44, 7.10 Economical, 2.24, 3.5, 6.2
Cooling, 1.17, 2.10, 3.18, 5.22, 7.2 Economy, 3.15, 4.11, 6.3
Copper, 5.8, 5.16, 5.17 Eddy current, 4.6
Crank, 3.8, 3.10, 4.2 Effectiveness, 3.17, 5.34, 7.2, 7.11
Cranking, 3.2, 3.33, 6.7 Efficiency, 1.21, 1.25, 2.5, 3.5
Crankshaft, 1.38, 3.7, 4.14, 7.4 Efficient, 1.35, 2.20, 3.20, 5.6, 6.7
Creep, 2.12, 5.45 Ejection, 1.1, 1.19, 1.34, 3.27
Critical, 2.1, 2.12, 5.29, 6.1, 7.7 Electromagnetic radiation, 5.5, 5.50, 5.53,
Critical radius, 5.29, 5.31 5.59
Cruise, 3.4, 3.34 Electron, 2.13, 5.3, 5.51
Crystals, 5.51, 7.7 Emission, 3.30, 5.5, 5.11, 7.3
Cycle, 1.1, 1.27, 2.12, 3.8 Emulsification, 6.7
 INDEX I.3

Energy, 1.1, 1.13, 3.24, 4.17 G

Engine, 1.1, 1.39, 2.3, 3.2, 3.7
Galling, 7.7
Engine block, 3.20
Gap, 3.12, 3.23, 3.24, 3.32
Engine size, 3.26
Gas, 1.7, 1.34, 2.6, 3.4, 4.9, 5.47
Enthalpy, 1.3, 1.13, 2.7, 2.20, 6.14
Gasoline, 4.13
Entropy, 1.3, 1.14, 2.4, 2.8
Gear box, 2.19, 2.20
Equilibrium, 1.2, 5.2, 7.11 Generation, 2.3, 3.3, 3.17, 5.36
Equivalent ratio, 3.11, 3.12 Geometry, 1.7, 3.18, 5.36, 5.56
Exhaust, 1.19, 1.38, 3.2, 3.41, 5.12 Gibb’s free energy, 1.5
Exothermic, 3.23 Glow discharge, 3.23
Expansion, 1.18, 1.32, 3.11, 5.34 Glycerin, 5.16, 7.10
Experimentally, 3.4, 5.4 Governed, 1.39, 2.10, 5.3, 6.5, 7.10
Expulsion, 7.2 Gradient, 5.3, 5.33, 5.50, 7.10
External combustion engine, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, Grashof, 5.48, 5.50
3.40 Gray, 5.5, 5.53, 5.65, 7.6
Extrinsic properties, 1.4, 1.44 Ground, 2.11, 3.4, 5.6, 5.65
F H
Failure, 2.12, 3.26 Hall effect thruster, 3.5
Fan, 2.22, 2.23, 5.44, 7.11 Hardened, 2.12
Fatigue, 2.12, 5.13 Heat, 1.1, 1.5, 3.7, 4.5
FHP, 4.2, 4.6, 7.8 Heat capacity, 1.12, 5.18
Fin, 5.31, 5.32, 5.64, 7.10 Heat energy, 1.13, 1.38, 4.17
Fire point, 7.6 Heat flux, 5.5, 5.6, 5.45, 5.48
Flame, 2.3, 3.11 Heat reservoir, 1.11, 1.12, 3.27
Flame front, 3.12, 3.22, 3.25 Heating, 1.18, 1.25, 3.19, 5.7, 6.4, 7.1
Flame spread, 3.12, 3.13 Helmholtz function, 1.5
Flame velocity, 3.12 H-engine, 3.6
Flash point, 7.6 Heterogeneous, 3.25, 5.17
Float, 3.33, 6.4, 6.5, 6.15 High frequency oscillation, 3.27
Fluctuations, 5.45 Homogenous, 1.14, 3.23, 5.17, 6.6
Fluid, 1.1, 1.21, 5.4, 7.5 Human, 3.4, 5.2, 5.51
Flywheel, 1.2, 3.7, 4.5 Hydraulic, 1.6, 3.14, 4.4, 4.5
Force, 1.2, 2.17, 4.5, 5.48 Hydrostatic, 3.33
Forced convection, 5.4, 5.12, 5.44, 5.48 I
Fourier, 5.3, 5.6, 5.11, 5.13, 5.20
Idling, 6.3, 6.4, 6.8, 6.15
FP, 1.38, 4.8
Ignition, 1.25, 3.2, 4.8, 6.1
Free convention, 5.65
Ignition lag, 3.12, 4.2
Frequency, 3.27, 5.50, 5.59
Ignition temperature, 1.25, 3.12, 3.25, 3.26
Friction, 1.18, 1.43, 4.5, 4.22 IHP, 4.2, 4.21
Fuel, 1.1, 1.21, 1.42, 3.7, 3.25, 4.17 Incident, 5.5, 5.52, 5.57
Fuel air ratio, 1.39, 3.12, 6.2, A.5 Indicator, 1.11, 1.40, 2.5, 4.2, 5.47
I.4 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Inductive, 3.24 M
Inhibitors, 7.7
Macroscopic, 1.3, 1.5
Inject, 1.26, 1.29, 2.2, 3.3, 4.8
Magnetic flux, 3.24, 3.32, 4.6
Injection, 1.26, 3.6, 4.8
Magneto, 3.6, 3.24, 3.32
Inlet, 1.41, 2.5, 3.11, 5.13, 6.9
Manifold, 3.2, 3.19, 5.12, 7.10
Inline engine, 2.10
Marine, 2.13, 3.4, 3.36
Insulator, 3.24, 5.2, 5.17
Mass, 1.2, 2.17, 3.5, 5.34
Intensity, 3.27, 5.55
Maximum pressure, 1.23, 1.43, 3.7
Interaction, 1.2, 5.3, 7.7
Mechanical, 1.2, 2.13, 3.1, 4.2, 7.8
Internal combustion engine, 1.1, 3.1, 3.39,
5.11, 7.1 Mechanical efficiency, 1.38, 1.42, 3.38, 7.8
Internal energy, 1.4, 5.2 Mechanism, 3.14, 3.41, 5.1, 7.9
Intrinsic properties, 1.4, 1.14 Mercury, 1.7, 1.11, 1.18, 5.16
IP, 1.38 Metering, 6.5, 6.6, 6.15
Iron, 2.13, 3.3, 5.13 Military, 2.10, 2.23, 3.5
Irradiation, 5.57, 5.58, 5.65 Mist, 7.3
Isentropic, 1.14, 1.19, 2.3, 3.22, 6.9 Mixing, 2.23, 3.26, 3.28, 6.2
Isobaric, 1.14, 1.43 Modern, 2.11, 6.7, A.5
Isochoric, 1.14, 1.43, A.2 Molecular weight, 5.16
Isolated system, 1.4, 1.12 Momentum thrust, 2.5
Isothermal, 1.14, 1.43, 5.36, 5.48 Morse test, 4.8, 4.18, 4.19, 4.21
Muffler, 3.30
J Multilayer, 2.12
Jacket, 4.18, 7.10, 7.11
Jet, 2.2, 2.5, 2.16, 2.25, 6.5
N
Jet fighters, 2.11 Needle valve, 6.4, 6.7, 6.8
Kernel, 3.23 Neutralization, 7.6
Kinematics, 5.45, 5.47 Newton, 2.2, 3.3, 5.4, 5.11
Kinetic energy, 1.11, 2.3, 4.7, 6.14 Nickel, 2.12, 3.3, 3.20, 5.17
Kirchoff, 5.53, 5.57 Noise, 3.15, 3.27, 7.5, 7.12
Laminar, 5.45, 5.46, 5.47 Non-ideal, 2.4
Latent heat, 5.4, 7.11 Nozzle, 2.2, 2.6, 6.4, 6.8
Lattice, 5.3, 5.16, 5.17 Nuclear, 3.4, 5.51
Launch, 2.12, 3.5 Nusselt, 5.47, 5.50, 5.65
Lean mixture, 3.11, 3.25, 6.4, 6.6
O
Lift, 3.14, 3.18, 3.31, 6.4
Olefins, 3.28
Liquid, 2.2, 2.24, 5.7, 5.18, 7.3
Lobes, 3.38 Opaque, 5.5, 5.55
Locomotive, 3.2, 3.3, 3.6 Open system, 1.4, 1.44
Loss, 1.7, 2.4, 3.8, 4.6, 6.14 Orbital, 3.5
Lubricant, 7.2, 7.3, 7.6, 7.12 Orifice, 3.25, 6.2, 6.10
Lubrication, 3.19, 4.9, 5.12, 7.1 Otto cycle, 1.19, 1.35, 3.11
 INDEX I.5

Outlet, 2.4, 3.16, 4.16, 5.45 R

Overhead, 3.6, 3.20
Radial engine, 2.10, 2.25, 3.29, 3.41
Oxygen, 2.2, 3.18, 5.7, 6.3
Radiation, 5.1, 5.2, 5.6
P Radiosity, 5.57
Paraffins, 7.5 Ramjet, 2.11, 2.24, 2.25, 3.5
Part load, 3.4, 3.19, 4.8, 6.7 Rate, 1.2, 1.31, 2.5, 4.2
Performance, 1.34, 2.5, 3.14, 4.10 Reciprocating, 1.1, 1.38, 2.17, 3.6
Petrol, 1.1, 3.6, 4.1, 6.2 Reflectivity, 5.52, 5.56
Physical, 1.2, 5.4, 5.11, 7.5 Reflector, 5.55, 5.56
Physics, 1.3, 5.3 Reservoir, 1.11, 3.27
Piston, 1.1, 2.9, 2.25, 3.9 Residue, 7.6, 7.7
Piston ring, 3.8, 7.3, 7.4 Resistance, 1.6, 3.13, 5.20, 6.5
Piston speed, 1.39, 3.9, 3.18, 3.26 Resistojet, 3.5
Plank, 1.11, 1.44, 5.53 Reversible, 1.12, 3.37
Plasma, 1.7, 3.23, 3.24 Reynolds, 5.45, 5.46, 5.49
Platinum, 2.12 Richer mixture, 3.12, 3.23, 6.6

Plot, 1.35, 1.43, 4.2 Rigidity, 3.30

Popping, 6.2 Ratio of specific heats, 1.14, 1.20, 1.31

Rocket, 2.2, 2.10, 3.5
Ports, 3.6, 3.15, 6.7, 7.5
Rotary blower, 3.37
Potential, 1.12, 1.13, 5.20, 5.21
Rotary engine, 2.10, 3.6
Potential energy, 5.3
Rotation, 1.39, 3.14, 3.19, 4.2
Pour point, 7.6, 7.7
Rotor, 2.10, 3.6, 4.5
Power, 1.2, 1.38, 2.1, 3.13
RPM, 1.39, 2.18, 3.35, 4.16
Prandtl, 5.47, 5.50, 5.65
Run on, 3.27
Pressure, 1.2, 1.41, 2.4, 4.4
Pressure thrust, 2.5 S
Primary, 2.23, 3.24, 3.32 Sail, 3.4
Product, 1.3, 2.12, 3.16, 5.57 Scavenged, 3.6
Propagation, 3.12, 3.22, 5.51 Scavenging, 3.16, 3.30, 7.5
Propeller, 2.10, 3.4, 3.35 Science, 1.2, 1.3, 2.13
Property, 1.2, 1.7, 2.16, 7.6 Scooter, 3.6, 3.15

Proportionality, 1.12, 5.5, 5.14 Sealing, 3.8, 3.20, 7.5

Secondary, 2.10, 2.23, 4.12, 7.4
Propulsion, 2.1, 2.11, 2.25, 5.1
Self starting, 3.2, 3.3
Propulsive efficiency, 2.6, 2.16, 2.17
Shaft, 2.11, 2.12, 3.8, 4.4
Protrusion, 5.32, 5.33
Shape factor, 5.36, 5.56, 5.57, 5.65
Pumping, 1.38, 4.7, 7.2, 7.3
Shock wave, 2.11
Q Silencer, 3.30
Quasi-static process, 1.13, 1.17 Solid, 1.7, 1.8, 3.4
I.6 AIRCRAFT AND AUTOMOBILE PROPULSION

Soviet, 3.5 Thermal radiation, 5.2, 5.5, 5.51, 5.52

Spacecraft, 3.5 Thermodynamics, 1.2, 4.10, 5.2
Spark, 1.25, 3.2, 3.15 Thickness, 5.6, 5.9, 5.30
Spark plug, 1.25, 3.6, 5.13, 7.3 Throttle, 3.8, 3.18, 4.12, 6.3
Spark timing, 3.21, 4.11, 5.13 Thrust, 1.6, 2.3, 2.22, 3.5
Specific fuel consumption, 1.2, 1.40, Thrust power, 2.6, 2.7, 2.17, 2.18
1.43, 4.1
Thrust specific fuel consumption, 2.7,
Specific heat, 1.13, 3.12, 4.18, 5.4
2.17, 2.24
Specific thrust, 2.6, 2.18
Thruster, 3.5
Specular, 5.52
Titanium, 2.12
Speed, 1.39, 2.6, 2.7, 3.18
Torque, 1.2, 3.2, 4.5, 7.2
Speed of light, 5.5, 5.51, 5.59
Speed ratio, 2.6, 2.15, 2.17 Total energy, 1.12, 1.13, 5.51, 5.56
Splash, 7.3, 7.4, 7.12 Transient, 3.25, 5.2, 5.14, 6.6
Stabilizers, 2.24 Transmission, 1.38, 4.4, 5.16, 5.51
Stage, 1.39, 2.12, 3.5 Transmissivity, 5.52, 5.57
Stagnation, 2.20, 2.22 Tribological, 7.7
State, 1.2, 2.3, 3.23, 5.2 Turbine, 1.18, 2.4, 3.4, 7.9
Station, 3.5, 3.6, 3.39, 5.23 Turbine entry temperature, 2.13
Stationary, 2.6, 3.2, 3.9, 7.10 Turbofan, 2.11, 2.19, 2.22
Steady, 5.3, 5.19, 6.14 Turbojet engine, 2.4, 2.7, 2.10, 2.14
Steam, 1.18, 3.3, 7.11, 7.12 Turboprop, 2.18, 2.19, 3.4
Steel, 2.12, 3.20, 5.8, 5.27 Turbulent, 3.11, 3.22, 5.45, 5.50
Stefan, 5.5, 5.54, 5.65
U
Stirling, 3.4
Uncoated, 2.13
Strainer, 6.4, 6.5, 6.8
Universal gas constant, 1.15
Stream, 2.3, 2.13, 5.29, 6.1
Streamlines, 5.45 V
Strength, 2.12, 7.10 Vacuum, 2.2, 3.7, 5.5, 6.6, 7.11
Stress, 1.6, 1.44, 7.10, 7.12 Valve timing, 3.13, 3.30, 3.40
Stroke, 1.1, 1.23, 3.2, 3.11 Valves, 3.6, 6.4, 6.7, 7.8
Suction, 1.19, 1.39, 3.7, 6.1 Vaporization, 3.13, 5.7, 6.2, 7.11
Supercharging, 3.8, 3.41 Vehicles, 2.18, 3.2, 7.4
Surface, 1.6, 3.23, 5.2, 5.20 Velocity, 2.2, 2.3, 3.3, 5.3
Surrounding, 1.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.33 V-engine, 3.6
System, 1.2, 2.2, 3.2, 4.3
Venturi, 3.33, 6.2, 6.6
T Vibration, 2.20, 3.15, 5.3, 5.17
Take off, 2.15, 3.31 View factor, 5.56
Temperature, 1.2, 1.14, 2.2, 3.34 Viscosity, 4.7, 5.4, 5.46, 7.3
Texture, 5.5, 5.52 Visible, 3.23, 5.5, 5.59
Thermal efficiency, 1.27, 1.31, 2.17, 7.7 Volatility, 6.2, 7.3
 INDEX I.7

Volume, 1.3, 2.3, 2.5, 3.35 Weight, 1.3, 2.10, 3.28, 5.17
Volumetric efficiency, 1.39, 1.43, 3.17, 7.8 Wein, 5.54, 5.59, 5.65
Wild ping, 3.27, 3.39
W
Willian, 4.7, 4.8, 4.9
Water, 1.6, 3.3, 4.7, 5.26
Work, 1.2, 1.12, 3.1, 5.3
Water cooled, 3.6, 3.28, 7.9, 7.10
Work reservoir, 1.12,
Wavelength, 5.50, 5.52, 5.54, 5.55
Wax, 7.6, 7.7 Working fluid, 1.1, 1.25, 3.1, 7.2
Wrought iron, 2.13