See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/330902244

Comparative review on the use of sandcrete blocks and laterite-cement bricks

in Nigeria

Article · March 2016

CITATIONS READS

3 341

3 authors, including:

Uwemedimo Wilson Jonathan Alomaja

Nigerian Defence Academy Adeleke University
24 PUBLICATIONS   15 CITATIONS    13 PUBLICATIONS   8 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Material View project

Material View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Uwemedimo Wilson on 20 May 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Ethiopian International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research
2016; 3(3): 32 – 44.
www.eijmr.org ISSN: 2349- 5715 (Online)
ISSN: 2349- 5707 (Print)

Comparative review on the use of sandcrete blocks and laterite-cement bricks in Nigeria
Wilson U.N.,1 Raji S.A.,2 Alomaja J.A.3
1
Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of Ilorin, P.M.B. 1515, Ilorin, Nigeria
2
Senior Lecturer, Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of Ilorin, P.M.B. 1515, Ilorin, Nigeria
3
Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of Ilorin, P.M.B. 1515, Ilorin, Nigeria
* Corresponding author:Wilson U.N.
ABSTRACT: This paper reviews different journals on sandcrete and laterite-cement blocks in Nigeria. Up to eleven
different journals reviewed show that from four different geo-political zones in the country, sandcrete blocks have fallen
short of the NIS (Nigerian Industrial Standard),the NNBC (Nigerian National Building Code 2006 which specifies a
minimum strength of 1.75N/mm2) and the international British Standard which specifies a minimum of 2.0N/mm 2.Also,
laterite-cement bricks can yield a compressive strength that satisfy the requirement by the NIS and NNBCwith 5% cement
content and3N/mm2 pressure provided by a brick- moulding machine after 28 days curing. The use of laterite-cement bricks
can greatly reduce the cost of construction by up to 30% savings when compared to the use of sandcrete blocks. Apart from
the addition of cement, lime can be used to further increase the strength of laterite-cement blocks. Hence, the laterite-cement
brick can be a good substitute for the sandcrete blocks in meeting the requirements and also for low cost building.
Keyword:Sandcrete, Laterite-Cement, Compressive Strength, Lime, Building.

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Observation has shown that many ancient buildings in Nigeria are made of clay works, presently still in existence and
usable while a number of sandcrete block- made buildings have collapsed even before attaining their limit states. The fact
remains that besides other factors that contribute to collapse of structures, material is a very key one that cannot be
discountenanced. Sandcrete blocks seem to be an improvement over the clay bricks by cost and other factors, but does it
really perfectly substitute the gradually fading clay block? Also the frequent failure of buildings in Nigeria is a concern to all
stakeholders. In the past, incessant building failures have been reported resulting in the loss of lives and properties in
Nigeria (Fakereet al, 2012; Oyekan& M., 2008). With this horrendous occurrence comes the need to review building
materials (basically building blocks). Cost also is one of the major factors in construction that make people resign to use of
spurious materials if at all they are determined to build. It therefore means that the review of materials such that a low-cost
one be prescribed for users even without compromising standards is going to be a resourceful venture. Also, the need for
locally manufactured building materials has been emphasized in many countries of the world. There is imbalance between
the expensive conventional building materials coupled with depletion of traditional building materials. To address this
situation, attention has been focused on low-cost alternative building materials (Agbede and Manasseh, 2008).The
composition of a sandcrete block is usually (1:6) mix of cement and sand moistened with water and allowed to dry naturally
(Anosike andOyebande, 2012). It is a composite material made up of cement, sand and water, moulded into different sizes
(NIS 87, 2000). Sandcrete blocks are the commonest and most popular masonry walling units in Nigeria. The most essential
and expensive constituent of the block is cement; to minimize cost and maximize profit, commercial producers of these
blocks reduce the quantity of cement needed to give acceptable quality required by various standards. (Okafor andEwa,
2012), Sandcrete blocks are the most widely used walling unit in Nigeria; accounting for 90% of houses (Baidenand Tuili,
2004). The Nigerian Industrial Standard (NIS 87, 2000), provide the range of minimum compressive strength of sandcrete
blocks between 2.5N/mm2 and 3.45N/mm2. The objective of the Nigerian Industrial Standard (NIS 87:2007) is that all

32
 Ethiopian International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research
2016; 3(3): 32 – 44.

blocks manufacturers meet the minimum standard. Improper use of these blocks leads to micro cracks on the wall after
construction (Anosike and Oyebande, 2012; Baidenand Tuili, 2004). Clients in Nigeria who engage in building either buy
their blocks in commercial quantity or mould the blocks themselves. This is because of the fear of the poor quality of
sandcrete blocks that has taken over the Nigerian building- material markets.

2.0 REVIEW STUDIES

In Calabar, ten blocks moulding sites were visited and twelve sandcrete blocks were randomly selected from each site, and
cured for 3, 7, 14 and 28 days respectively. The aggregates used for the moulding of the blocks were also collected and their
particle sizes analysed. Below arethe table and the graph showing the result of the experiment:
Table 1: Compressive strength of Blocks in Calabar

Source: (Ewa and Ukpata, 2013)

Figure 1: Compressive Strength of Calabar Blocks (Ewa and Ukpata, 2013)

The results show that the 28-day compressive strengths of sandcrete blocks produced in Calabarcommercial block industries
fall below acceptable national(Nigerian National Building Code 2006 which specifies a minimum strength of 1.75N/mm 2)
and international (British Standard which specifies a minimum of 2.0N/mm 2) standards; having compressive strengths
ranging between 0.23N/mm2 and 0.58N/mm2. The findings from this study also agree with similar studies in other parts of
Nigeria. As sandcrete blocks account for virtually all wall construction in the Nigerian building industry, there may be great
danger in using these blocks especially for bungalows where heavy loads of the buildings such as roofs are left to be entirely
supported by block walls. This is a possible reason for most building collapses recorded in Nigeria. There is therefore the
need for the various arms of government and professional bodies to take urgent actions in regulating the production of
commercial blocks in Nigeria. This will ensure that blocks which do not meet minimum requirements are destroyed before
being sold to the public (Ewa and Ukpata 2013). (Abdullahi, 2005) investigated the strength characteristics of sandcrete
blocks in Bosso and Shiroro areas in Minna, Nigeria. Five commercial sandcrete blocks were randomly selected and soil
samples were also obtained from each manufacturer for a period of three weeks,. Compressive strength tests were conducted

33
 Ethiopian International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research
2016; 3(3): 32 – 44.

on the blocks and sieve analysis was also conducted on the soil samples. The test result revealed that the aggregates used are
suitable for block making: (Tables 2 to 6). The compressive strength of the sandcrete blocks is below standard recommended
by Nigerian Industrial Standard (NIS) 87: 2000 (minimum compressive strength of sandcrete blocks between 2.5N/mm 2 and
3.45N/mm2). The compressive strength of individual blocks was between0.11 N/mm2 and 0.75 N/mm2 and the average
compressive strength of the blocks were between0.14 N/mm2 and 0.66 N/mm2. Proper curing and suitable selection of
constituent materialswas suggested to improve on the quality of sandcrete blocks.(Mahmoud et al, 2010) investigated the
strength characteristics of sandcrete blocks in Yola (8036’47” N 12019’14” E) metropolis. Two sets(150mm and 225mm) of
Five Sandcrete blocks each were randomly selected from each manufacturer and soil samples were also obtained from source
and transported to Civil engineering Laboratory, Federal University of Technology, Yola. Compressivestrength test was
carried out on the blocks at 28 days and sieve analysis was also carriedout on the soil samples: Tables 7 to 18.
The study confirmed that the quality of aggregates used weresuitable for block making. The compressive strength of the
Sandcrete blocks is belowstandard recommended by the Nigerian Industrial Standards (NIS) 87:2000. Thecompressive
strength of individual blocks ranges from 0.12N/mm2 to 1.46 N/mm2 for the150mm (6” width) and for the 225mm (9”
width) range from 0.31 N/mm2 to 1.36 N/mm2.The average compressive strength for all the blocks varied from 0.18 N/mm 2
to 1.38N/mm2. Blocks produced were also found to be unsuitable for use as load bearing walls.Proper curing and quality
control was suggested to improve on the quality.(Afolayanet al, 2008) reported on the compressive strengths and the
statistical characteristics of sandcrete blocks collected from twenty five (25) different block industries in Ondo state, Nigeria.
A total of seventy-five (75) 450 x 225 x 225mm blocks and 450 x 150 x 225mm were collected and tested. The results
showed that the 450 x 150 x 225mm blocks in circulation as at 23 rd May, 2005 hadan average strength of 0.55N/mm2 while
the 450 x 225 x 225mm blocks had an average compressive strength of 0.45N/mm 2 as at 13th November, 2005. These values
are very much lower than that stipulated by the relevant codes and standard. Although statistical analysis have shown that
the compressive strength followed a normal distribution, the overall coefficient of variation was 0.54 for the 450 x 150 x
225mm blocks and 0.75 for the 450 x 225 x 225mm.The three researchers from the South-South, North-Central and North-
Eastern parts of Nigeria respectivelyresolved that the conventional sandcrete blocks which have taken the place of the local
clay bricks have fallen short of both the Nigerian National Building Code (2006) which specifies a minimum compressive
strength of 1.75N/mm2for individual blocks as well as the British Standard which specifies 2.0N/mm 2 for non-load bearing
walls owing to reasons of curing or suitable selection of constituent material hence,the justification for the investigation of
the clay brick which is gradually going into extinction if it could salvage the failure of the sandcrete blocks. (Krishnaiah and
Reddy, 2008) in a study observed that for a given percentage of cement, there is a range of clay content in which the blocks
satisfy the strength requirement. Above and below this range the strength will be less. The soil-cement blocks with 3% of
cement satisfy the dry compressive strength requirement only, with a clay content of 9%. However in order to increase the
wet compressive strength and durability of the soil-cement blocks with 3% of cement, additional admixtures are required to
be added because the presence of finer particles of clay cause shrinkage cracks and this can be limited with quite small
quantities,i.e. small clay content, consisting of gravel and sand particles. Based on this, bricks made of lateritic soil will fit
in well since they possess some clay content. Compared to fired clay bricks, the production of laterite bricks does not
involve the firing process. To cure the laterite bricks, they are covered with tarpaulin and waterproof devices thereby making
the process to be more environmental friendly. Laterite bricks are fire resistant and bulletproof (Agbede and Manasseh,
2008). In a research conducted in Makurdi Benue State, Nigeria, (Agbede and Manasseh, 2008) discovered that Laterite
modified with 45% sand content by dry-weight and stabilized with up to 9% cement content respectively and used in
theproduction of 330 mm × 150 mm × 150 mm bricks through the application of apressure of 3 N/mm2 with a brick

34
 Ethiopian International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research
2016; 3(3): 32 – 44.

moulding machine. Results showed that laterite used in this study cannot be stabilized for brick production within the
economic cement content of 5% specified for use in Nigeria. However, bricks made with laterite admixed with 45% sand and
5% cement attained a compressive strength of 1.80 N/mm 2 which is greater than the specified minimum strength value of
1.65 N/mm2. Cost comparison of available walling materials in Makurdi metropolis showed that the use of bricks made from
45% sand and 5% cement resulted in a saving of 30 - 47% when compared with the use of sandcrete blocks while the use of
fired clay bricks resulted in a savings of 19% per square meter of wall. The study therefore recommends the use of laterite
bricks in Makurdi and other locations because it is more economical and environmental friendly than fired clay bricks.
Laterite bricks were made by the Nigerian Building and Road Research Institute (NBRRI) and used for the construction of a
bungalow (Madedor, 1992). From the study, NBRRI proposed the following minimum specification as requirements for
laterite bricks: bulk density of 1810 kg/m 3, water absorption of 12.5%, compressive strength of 1.65 N/mm 2 and durability of
6.9% with maximum cement content fixed at 5%.Laterite stabilized with cement was used successfully to produce bricks in
Sudan (Adam, 2001) using pressure ranges: 2 to 4 N/mm 2, 8 to 14 N/mm2 and 6 to 20 N/mm2 which were designated low,
high and hyper respectively were used in the production of bricks. With cement content of 5 to 8% and a brick size of 290 x
140 x 90 mm, compressive strength ranging from 3 to 3.5 N/mm 2 was achieved using a compactive effort that ranged from 8
to 14 N/mm2. The study showed that the strength of bricks was dependent on the pressure applied during production,
percentage of cement used, and the particle size distribution of the laterite.A study of the performance of laterite-cement
blocks as walling materials in relation to those of sandcrete was conducted, for the purpose of establishing a cheaper
building material in Minna, Niger state, Nigeria and surrounding towns, in the present ever increasing cost of building
material. An A-2-6 laterite according to the AASHTO classification system was stabilized with 0-10% cement content by
weight of the soil at a constant interval of 2% to produce 20 blocks of size 100mm × 100mm × 100mm for each mix. One
hundred laterite-cement blocks were produced, cured under laboratory conditions and subjected to compressive strength test
at 7, 14, 21, and 28-days of age, in five applications for each cement mix ratio. The average compressive strength was
determined from five blocks crushed in each mix at every age of curing and the same procedure was repeated using
sandcrete blocks (Aguwa, 2010). The result of the study is graphically shown below:

Figure 2: 7-Days Compressive Strengths for Sandcrete and Laterite-Cement Blocks (Aguwa, 2010)

Figure 3: 21-Days Compressive Strengths for Sandcrete and Laterite-Cement Blocks (Aguwa, 2010)

35
 Ethiopian International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research
2016; 3(3): 32 – 44.

Figure 4: 28-Days Compressive Strengths for Sandcrete and Laterite-Cement Blocks (Aguwa, 2010)

It can be observed that for all the samples, from 6%, there was a significant difference in the compressive strength between
the laterite-cement blockand the sandcrete block.

Figure 5: Compressive Strength-Age of Curing Relation for Sandcrete and Laterite-Cement Blocks(Aguwa, 2010)

Also,the strength increases faster with age of curing in the laterite-cement block than in the sandcrete and the former has a
higher strength at 30-days curing compared to the other ages than the sandcrete block.The study recommends the use of
laterite-cement blocks as walling materials in Minna and environs because it has better engineering properties and more
economical with a saving of 30% per square metre of wall when compared with the use of sandcrete blocks from 6% to10%,
since the compressive strengths of laterite-cement blocks were greater than those of sandcrete blocks. (Aguwa, 2010).In
Tanzania, disposing of plastic water bottles constituted a nuisance to the community coupled with the environmental
challenge posed by felling of trees to burn clay bricks and the actual burning process. (Makunza, 2006) established that by
volume, a ratio of 1:1:15 i.e. cement: lime: laterite soil and cement to water ratio of 1:4 with voids in laterite-cement bricks
caused by plastic bottles of 500ml yielded a compressive strength of 2.80N/mm 2 which is greater than the specification by
BS 5628 part 1, thus making thisa way of reducing the cost ofconstruction using burnt bricks, and conservation of the
environment. Also, it means that lime (a chemical compound of Ca +) can further increase the strength of laterite-cement
bricks.Variation of compressive strengths with cement contents for laterite-cement mix as an economical building material
was investigated (Aguwa, 2009). The aim of the study was to determine the minimum quantity of cement required to achieve
adequate strength for buildings in a mix of laterite-cement and to know the upper limit at which cement can be added to
laterite to produce high quality mix with maximum strength. Thirteen different mixes of laterite-cement at varying
percentage of cement content were produced, molded in cubes of 100mm size and cured for 7, 14, 21 and 28 days. The
variation was from 0 to 24% of the weight of laterite at a constant interval of 2%. Twenty cubes were molded for each mix,
totaling 260 cubes produced manually. Five cubes from each mix were crushed at particular curing period and the average
compressive strength of the five cubes was calculated. Curing was done inside the laboratory under atmospheric condition
with all the doors and windows opened for proper circulation of air. With the result shown below:

36
 Ethiopian International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research
2016; 3(3): 32 – 44.

Figure 6: Variation of Compressive Strengths with Cement Content for Laterite-Cement cubes at 7-days, 14-days, 21-
days and 28.days of age.(Aguwa, 2009).

It was found that the compressive strength of laterite-cement mix cubes increased with increase in cement content up to 20%
but decreased at cement contents above 20%. Also it was found that the minimum quantity of cement required to achieve
adequate strength was 10% of the weight of laterite. Laterite-cement mix recorded adequate compressive strength for both
load bearing and non-load bearing walls at 10% cement content even greater than the Nigerian Industrial Standard NIS: 87:
2004 recommends a minimum of 2.5N/mm 2 and 1.8N/mm2 for load bearing and non-load bearing blocks respectively. The
maximum strength of laterite-cement mix was achieved at moisture content slightly greater than or equal to the optimum
moisture content for the particular mix. The optimum moisture contents for the laterite-cement mixes at various cement
contents were found to be in the range from 11.44 to 14.83% while the maximum dry density was found to be in the range
from 2,020 to 2,155kg/m3. Since adequate strengths for buildings were achieved with less cement content, it was concluded
that this laterite-cement mix is an economical building material since the cost of blocks depends largely on the cement
content.(Aguwa, 2009).

3.0 CONCLUSION
From the study, it can be deduced that from the North-East, North Central, South-South and South-Western parts of Nigeria,
the sandcrete blocks in production have fallen short of the Nigerian National Building Code (NNBC) and the Nigerian
Industrial Standard (NIS) minimum requirements due to poor quality control.The compressive strength of laterite-cement
blocks depends on the cement content (within a range; below and above which, the strength is below requirement) and the
compaction effort. Laterite-cement blocks can yield a compressive strength greater than that of sandcrete blocks produced in
Nigeria with about 5% cement content and 3N/mm 2 pressure provided by a brick- moulding machineafter 28 days curing.
The use of it can greatly reduce the cost of construction resulting in up to 30% savings when compared with the use of
sandcrete blocks. Apart from the addition of cement, lime can be used to further increase the strength of laterite-cement
blocks.

4.0 RECOMMENDATIONS
 Since sandcrete blocks have failed by compressive strength, proper laws and regulations should be enacted to regulate the
production of these sandcrete blocks so that they can meet minimum requirements and reduce the collapse of structures due
to poor material use.

37
 Ethiopian International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research
2016; 3(3): 32 – 44.

 Laterite-cement can be a good replacement in Nigeria for sandcrete blocks since up to 30% savings is involved as compared to
sandcrete blocks and a little of cement is needed to meet the minimum requirement by NNBC and NIS.
 The use of laterite-cement with water sachets embeddedcan be a way of disposing the excess water sachets causing nuisance in
our society and this can also further reduce the cost of production since voids will be created in the blocks. This can be future
concept that can be investigated.
 Further research can be done on the incorporation of coarse aggregates in laterite-cement. This would likely make for a
concrete with higher grade (compressive strength) for same quantity of cement and consequently the introduction of
reinforcement which will be lower than the conventional area of reinforcement required thus yielding a more cost-effective
composite material.
 Since laterite-cement blocks are bullet-proof materials because of their densities (they are not hollow in nature), they will
constitute cheap materials for building modern bulwarks and bullet-proof structures.

TABLES OF RESULTS
Table 1: Compressive strength of Blocks in Calabar

Source: (Ewa and Ukpata, 2013)

Table 2: Compressive Strength of block samples A in Minna

Source:(Abdullahi, 2005)

38
 Ethiopian International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research
2016; 3(3): 32 – 44.

Table 3: Compressive Strength of block samples B in Minna

Source:(Abdullahi, 2005)
Table 4: Compressive Strength of block samples C in Minna

Source:(Abdullahi, 2005)
Table 5: Compressive Strength of block samples D in Minna

Source:(Abdullahi, 2005)
Table 6: Compressive Strength of block samples E in Minna

Source:(Abdullahi, 2005)

39
 Ethiopian International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research
2016; 3(3): 32 – 44.

Table 7: Compressive strength Results for Sandcrete blocks; industry A in Yola

Source:(Mahmoud et al, 2010)

Table 8: Compressive strength Results for Sandcrete blocks; industry B in Yola

Source:(Mahmoud et al, 2010)

Table 9: Compressive strength Results for Sandcrete blocks; industry C in Yola

Source:(Mahmoud et al, 2010)

Table 10: Compressive strength Results for Sandcrete blocks; industry D in Yola

Source:(Mahmoud et al, 2010)

40
 Ethiopian International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research
2016; 3(3): 32 – 44.

Table 11: Compressive strength Results for Sandcrete blocks; industry E in Yola

Source:(Mahmoud et al, 2010)

Table 12: Compressive strength Results for Sandcrete blocks; industry F in Yola

Source:(Mahmoud et al, 2010)

Table 13: Compressive strength Results for Sandcrete blocks; industry A in Yola

Source:(Mahmoud et al, 2010)

Table 14: Compressive strength Results for Sandcrete blocks; industry B in Yola

Source:(Mahmoud et al, 2010)

41
 Ethiopian International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research
2016; 3(3): 32 – 44.

Table 15: Compressive strength Results for Sandcrete blocks; industry C in Yola

Source:(Mahmoud et al, 2010)

Table 16: Compressive strength Results for Sandcrete blocks; industry D in Yola

Source:(Mahmoud et al, 2010)

Table 17: Compressive strength Results for Sandcrete blocks; industry E in Yola

Source:(Mahmoud et al, 2010)

Table 18: Compressive strength Results for Sandcrete blocks; industry F in Yola

Source:(Mahmoud et al, 2010)

42
 Ethiopian International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research
2016; 3(3): 32 – 44.

REFERENCES
 AASHTO, Standard for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing, 14th Edition, American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials, Washington, D. C. 1986.
 Abdullahi, M. 2005. Compressive strength of sandcrete blocks in Bosso and Shiroro Area of Minna Nigeria AU J.T. (9)2: 126-132.
 Adam E. A., Compressed stabilized earth blocks manufactured in Sudan, Graph O pring trance for the UNESCO. http://unesdoc.unesco.org. 2001
 Aderibigbe, D.A.; Akeju, T.A.I.; and Orangun, C.O. 1985. Optimal water/cement ratios and strength characteristics of some local clay soils stabilized with cement.
Materials and Structures 18(2): 103-8.
 Agbede I.O., Manasseh J., Use of Cement-Sand Admixture in Laterite Bricks Production for Low Cost Housing, Leonardo Electronic Journal of Prctices
andTechnologies, 2008, 12, p. 163-174.
 Aggarwal R. H., Holmes D. S., Soil for low cost housing: In Tropical soils of Nigeria in Engineering Practice, Ola S. A.A.A. Balkema, (1983) p. 244-260.
 Aguwa J.I., Sandcrete Block Mix, Thesis presented and submitted in Civil Engineering Department, Federal University of Technology Minna, Nigeria, in partial
fulfillment for the award of Masters of Engineering, 1999.
 Aguwa J.I., Study of Compressive Strengths of Laterite-Cement Mixes as Building Material, AU Journal of Technology, Assumpttion University of Thailand, 2009,
13(2) 114-120.
 ASTM, Annual book of ASTM standards, Philadelphia, 1992, vol. 04.08, 634.
 Baiden, B.K. and Tuuli, M.M. 2004. Impact of quality control practices in Sancrete Blocks production. Journal of Architectural Engineering ASCE 10(2):53-60.
 Baiden, B.K.; and Tuuli, M.M. 2004. Impact of quality control practices in sandcrete block production. J Arch.Eng. 10(2): 53-60.
 Barry, R. 1969. The Construction of Building. Vol.1. pp 54-55 & 94. Crosby Lockwood, London, England.
 British Standards Institution. 1970. BS 2028: Precast Concrete Blocks. Her Majesty Stationery Office, London, England.
 British Standards Institution. 1980. BS 3148: Methods of Test for Water for Making Concrete: British Standards Institution, London, England.
 British Standards Institution. 1990. BS 1377: Methods of Testing for Soils For Civil Engineering Purposes: British Standards Institution, London, England.
 British Standards Institution. 1992. BS 882: Specification for aggregate from Natural Sources for Concrete: British Standards Institution, London, England.
 BS 1377, Methods of Testing of Soils for Civil Engineering Purposes, British Standard Institute, London United Kingdom, 1990.
 BS 1377. 1975. Methods of test for soils for civil engineering purposes. British Standard Institution, London, England, UK.
 BS 1924, Methods of test for stabilized soils. British Standards Institute, London. United Kingdom 1990.
 BS 3148. 1980. Standard for quality of mixing water. British Standard Institution, London, England, UK.
 BS 882, Aggregates from natural Sources for concrete, British Standards Institution, 2 Park Street, London, 1983.
 BS 882, Specification for Aggregates from Natural Sources for Concrete, British Standards Institute, London. United Kingdom, 1992.
 Chowdhury, M.K. Roy; Venkatesh, V.; Anandalwar, M.A.; Paul, D.K. (May 11, 1965). Recent Concepts on the Origin of Indian Laterite (Report). Geological Survey of
India, Calcutta.
 Dalvi, Ashok D.; Bacon, W. Gordon; Osborne, Robert C. (March 7–10, 2004). The Past and the Future of Nickel Laterites (Report). PDAC 2004 International
Convention, Trade Show & Investors Exchange.
 Development Technology Unit. University of Warwick. Valenger, A. 1971. Construction Industry Handbook. Medical and Technical Publications. Aylesbury, England.
 Gidigasu, M.D. 1971. The importance of soil genesis in the engineering classification of Ghana soils. Eng. Geol. 5(2): 117-61.
 Gooding, D.E. and Thomas, T.H. 1995. The potential of cement stabilized building Blocks as an urban building material in developing countries. Working Paper No. 44.
 Helgren, David M.; Butzer, Karl W. Butzer (October 1977). "Paleosols of the Southern Cape Coast, South Africa: Implications for Laterite Definition, Genesis, and
Age". Geographical Review (American Geographical Society) 67 (4): 430.
 Hodge, J.C. 1971. Brick work. 3rd ed.. Edward Arnold, London, England.
 Hombostel C., Construction Materials: types, uses and application, John Wiley & Sons Inc., U.S.A, 1991.
 http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sandcrete&oldid=301513025
 http://www.new.dli.ernet.in/rawdataupload/upload/insa/INSA_1/20005ab9_547.pdf. Retrieved April 17, 2010.
 http://www.pdac.ca/pdac/publications/papers/2004/techprgm-dalvi-bacon.pdf. Retrieved April 17, 2010.
 Khalaf, F.M and Hendry, A.W. 2001. Masonry wall construction. SponPress.London.
 Madedor A. O. The impact of building materials research on low cost housing development in Nigeria,. Engineering Focus.April - June, Publication of the Nigerian
Society of Engineers, vol. 4, no. 2, (1992) p. 37-41.
 Madedor A.O., The impact of building materials research on low cost housing development in Nigeria, Engineering Focus April–June, publication of theNigerian Society
of Engineers, 1992, 4(2), p. 37-41.
 Madu, R.M. 1975. Contributions to the Paper “Laterite soils in road construction” by J.W.S. De Craft Johnson, Proc. 6th Regional Conference for Africa on Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Durban, South Africa, 8-12 September 1975, vol. II, p. 88.
 Madu, R.M. 1977. An investigation into the geotechnical and engineering properties of some laterites of Eastern Nigeria. Eng. Geol. 11(2): 101-25.

43
 Ethiopian International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research
2016; 3(3): 32 – 44.

 Madu, R.M. 1984. The influence of soil chemical composition on cement treated laterites. Proc. 8th Regional Conference for Africa on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering, Harare, Zimbabwe, 4-7 June 1984, pp. 391-402.
 Makanjuola, F.J. 1976. Design & construction of laterite concrete mixer. Unpublished B. Eng. Project.Civil Engineering Dept. Univ. of Ife, Ife, Nigeria.
 Metcalfe J.B., A laboratory investigation of strength/age relations of five soils stabilized with white hydrated lime and Ordinary Portland Cement, RN/3435/JBM, DSIR,
RRI, 1977.
 Millard R. S., Cement and lime stabilization, Road building in the tropics. Trans Res Lab, State of the Art Review no. 9, 1993, p. 183-185.
 Neville, A.M. 2000. Properties of Aggregates. Pearson Education Asia, London, England.
 Neville, A.M. 2000. Properties of concrete. 4th ed., Pearson Education Asia Ltd., Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, pp. 120-143.
 NIS 2000. NIS 87: 2000. Nigerian Industrial Standard: Standard for Sandcrete Blocks. Standards Organisation of Nigeria, Lagos, Nigeria.
 NIS 444. 2003. Quality standard for ordinary Portland cement. Standard Organization of Nigeria, Lagos, Nigeria.
 NIS 87. 2004. Standards for sandcrete blocks. Standard Organization of Nigeria, Lagos, Nigeria.
 Okpalla, D.C. and Ihaza, J.O. 1987. Quality of Sandcrete blocks produced in Benin City. In proceedings of the first Uniben Conference on Engineering and
Technological Developments. University of Benin. Nigeria. University of Benin Press, Benin City, Nigeria. Nigerian Compass News paper. 19thAugust,2010.
Available at www.compassnewspaper.com.
 Okupe T. A., Sourcing and utilization of local building materials to provide affordable houses for Nigerians: in Sourcing and utilization of local raw materials for
housing development in Nigeria, ATTCON proceedings of the National Workshop held at Central Hotel, Kano, October 16-20, 1989, www.housingcorpsahcn.org.
 Ola S. A., Need for estimated cement requirements for stabilization of laterite soils, Journal Transportation Engineering Division, ASCE, 1974, 100(2) 379-388.
 Olabiran O. E., Asaolu O. E., Etuka R. C., Innovative local materials for use in housing: in Sourcing and utilization of local raw materials for housing development in
Nigeria, ATTCON proceedings of the National Workshop held at Central Hotel, Kano, October 16-20, 1989, p. 149-165. www.housingcorpsahcn.org.
 Omoregie, A. and Alutu, O.E. 2006. The influence of fine aggregate combinations on particle size distribution, grading parameters, and compressive Strength of
Sandcrete blocks. Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering.
 Osinubi K. J., Eberemu A. O., Aliu O. S., Stabilization of laterite with cement and bagasse ash admixture, Paper presented at the First Int. Conf. on Environmental
Research, Technology and Policy, July 16- 19 2007, Accra, Ghana, J1.15, p. 11.
 Osula D. O. A., A comparative evaluation of cement and lime modification of laterite soil, Engineering Geology, 1996, vol. 42., p. 71-81.
 Osula D. O. A., Evaluation of admixture stabilization for problem laterite, Journal Transportation Engineering Division, ASCE, 1989, 115(6), p. 674-687.
 Oyetola, E.B. and Abdullahi, M. 2006. The use of Rice Hask Ash in low-cost Sandcrete block production. Leonardo Electronic Journal of practices and Technologies.
 Oyininuola, G.M. and Olalusi, O.O. 2004. Assessment of building failure in Nigeria. Lagos and Ibadan Case Study. African Journal of Science and Technology . Science
and Engineering Series. 5(1): 75-78.
 Solanke O., Sa’ad T. H., Arayela T. O., Brick industry and its impact on the housing sector in Nigeria (1975-1985): in Sourcing and utilization of local raw materials for
housing development in Nigeria, ATTCON proceedings of the National Workshop held at Central Hotel, Kano, October 16-20, 1989, p. 104-110.
www.housingcorpsahcn.org.
 Sparky, A.; and Lloyd, H.F. 1967. Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Vol.1. Balkema Publ. Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
 Tardy, Yves (1997). Petrology of Laterites and Tropical Soils. ISBN 90-5410-678-6. Retrieved April 17, 2010.
 Thurston, Edgar (1913). The Madras Presidency, With Mysore, Coorg and the Associated States, Provincial Geographies of India. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved
April 6, 2010.

44

View publication stats