Fundamental Principles of Radar Solution Manual
Fundamental Principles of Radar Solution Manual
Solutions Manual
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF
RADAR
Solutions
2.1 The distance of the moon from the radar transmitter located on the surface of the
8
earth is 3.84×10 m. Calculate the elapsed round trip time of a radar signal
transmitted from radar the antenna.
Solution:
2 R 2(3.84 108 )
td 2.56 s
c 3 108
2.2 Consider a low PRF pulsed radar with a PRF of 1500 pps and a bandwidth of 0.5
MHz. Calculate the maximum unambiguous range, pulse width, range resolution,
and the duty factor.
Solution:
c 3 108
Ru 100 km
2 f r 2 1500
1 1
5 μs
B .2 106
c (3 108 )(2 10 6)
R 300 m
2 2
d t f r (2 106 )(1500) 3 10 3
2.3 A C-band radar transmits a peak power of 1 MW at a frequency of 5.5 GHz with
the pulse length of 1 μs and the PRF of 200 Hz.
(a) Find the average transmitted power.
(b) Find the bandwidth and the range resolution of the radar.
Solution:
(a)
Pav Pt Pt f r (106 )(106) )(200) 200 W
T
(b)
1 1
B 6 1 MHz
10
c (3 108 )(106 )
R 150 m
2 2
1
2.4 A pulsed radar has a PRF of 1500 pps and transmit rectangular pulse train of
duration 15 s . (a) What maximum range can a target have if no part of its first
time around returned echo is to overlap any part of the transmitted pulse? (b)What
is the minimum distance of separation so that targets can be identified?
Solution:
(a)
cT c 3 108
Ru 100 km
2 2 f r (2)(1500)
(b)
c (3 108 )(15 10 6 )
R 2250 m
2 2
2.5 The speed of a missile toward a radar is 300 m/s. Assume an X-band radar
operating at a frequency of 12 GHz.
(a) Calculate the exact Doppler frequency at the receiver.
(b) Calculate the receiver Doppler frequency assuming vr c .
Solution:
(a)
cv 2vf 0
f 0 f0 f d f 0 f 0
cv cv
(2)(300)(12 109)
fd 24000.024 Hz
3 108 300
(b)
2vf 0 (2)(300)(12 109 )
fd 24000 Hz
c 3 108
2.6 Assuming that the target is receding (opening), derive the expression for the
Doppler shift
Follow the article 2.4 by assuming that the target is receding and thereby changing the
polarity of v .
2.7 For an approaching (closing) target whose radial velocity is 300 m/s, find the
Doppler shift and the unambiguous range when the PRF is 8000 pps and the
transmitting frequency is 15 GHz.
Solution:
2
2vf 0 (2)(300)(15 109 )
fd 30 kHz
c 3 108
c 3 108
Ru 18.75 km
2 f r (2)(800)
2.8 Consider an S-band pulsed radar transmitting 250 kW of peak power with a pulse
width of 1.5 s and a PRF of 500 pps. The radar is transmitting at a frequency of
3000 MHz
(a) Calculate the maximum unambiguous range of this radar, range resolution, and
duty factor
(b) Calculate the average transmitted power and the energy radiated in first 10 ms.
(c) Calculate the Doppler shift for a target approaching the radar with a radial
velocity of 30 m/s.
Solutions:
(a) The maximum unambiguous range, range resolution, and duty factor are
calculated as follows:
cT c 3 108
Ru 300 km
2 2 f r (2)(500)
c (3 108 )(1.5 10 6 )
R 2 225 m
2 2
(b) The average transmitted power and the energy radiated in first 10 ms.
4
Pav Pd
t t (250 10 )(7.5 10 ) 187.5 W
3
2.9 Find an expression for the Doppler shift when the radial velocity of the approaching
target is in km. Plot the Doppler frequency as a function of radial velocity of the
target for various transmitted frequencies.
3
Solution: Starting with Eq. (2.18), obtain the desired Doppler shift and plot the resulting
expression.
2.10 An L-band radar capable of transmitting a peak power of 500 W at 1000 MHz is
designed to provide an unambiguous range of 100 km and range resolution of at
least 100 m.
a) Find the maximum required pulse width and the PRF.
b) Find the average transmitted power.
Solution:
(a)
c 2 R (2)(100)
R .6667 μs
2 c 3 108
c c 3 108
Ru fr 1.5 kHz
2 fr 2 Ru (2)(100 103 )
(b)
Pav Pt f r (500)(.6667 106 )(1.5 103 ) .5 W
2.11 An L-band radar operates at a frequency of 1500 MHz. Find the Doppler shift
associated with an outbound target moving at the velocity of 100 m/s when the
o o
target velocity vector makes angle of 45 , and 90 with the radar line of sight. In
each case, calculate the time dilation factor.
Solution: For 45
o
and for 90
o
_____________________________________________________________________
_
4
Chapter 3: Radar Equations
Solutions
3.1 Calculate the maximum gain of an X-band antenna operating at 8 GHz and having
a diameter of 1 m. Repeat this problem with the diameter changed to 1.5, 2.0 m.
Assume Ae a A with a 1 in each case.
Solution: We have
4 Ae
G
2
D 1m:
3 108 8 109 0.0375 m, A e ( D 2) 2 (1 2) 2 0.785 m 2
4 Ae (4 )(0.785)
Gmax 7014.55 38.46 dB
min
2
(0.0375) 2
D 1.5 m :
3 108 8 109 0.0375 m, A e ( D 2) 2 (1.5 2) 2 1.767 m 2
4 Ae (4 )(1.767)
Gmax 41.98 dB
min
2
(0.0375) 2
D 2 m:
3 108 8 109 0.0375 m, A e ( D 2) 2 (2 2) 2 3.1416 m 2
4 Ae (4 )(3.1416)
Gmax 44.48 dB
min
2
(0.0375) 2
3.2 Calculate the maximum gain of 2 m radius antenna operating in the L-, S-, and C-
bands. Assume Ae a A with a 1 in each case.
5
4 Ae 4 Ae 4 A 2
Gmax 2 e f max Hf max
2
min ( c f max ) c
2 2
4 A (4 )( (2 1)
2
H 2 e 4.3865 1016
c (3 10 )
8 2
L-band:
f max 2 GHz Gmax Hf max
2
(4.3865 1016 )(2 109 ) 2 32.44 dB
S-band:
f max 4 GHz Gmax Hf max
2
(4.3865 1016 )(4 109 ) 2 38.46 dB
C-band:
f max 8 GHz Gmax Hf max
2
(4.3865 1016 )(8 109 ) 2 44.48 dB
3.3 Find the size of a circular aperture antenna of X-band radar operating at
f 0 10 GHz to attain G 30, 40, 50 dBs . Assume Ae a A with a 0.7 in each
case.
Solution: We have
D 1.14 102 G
3.4 An L-band radar operates at highest gain of 30 dB. The radar duty factor is 0.2 and
the average power transmitted is 30 kW. Find the size of the antenna and the
power density at a range of 55 km. Assume 1 .
6
Pav 300 103
Pav Pd
t t Pt 1.5 MW
dt 0.2
Therefore
PG (1.5 106 )(103 )
pˆ t t t
39.45 mW m 2
4 R 2 4 (55 103 ) 2
3.5 An L-band radar operating at frequency 1.5 MHz with an antenna of gain 36 dB is
designed to obtain a single pulse minimum signal-to-noise ratio of 20 dB. Assume
the receiver bandwidth of 4 MHz, RCS of 10 2, noise figure of 10 dB, and the
maximum range of 120 km. Find the minimum detectable signal, the peak power,
and the pulse width for this radar.
Solution: We have
3 108
G 36 dB 4000, SNR 20 dB 100, = 0.2 m, F 10 dB 10
1.5 109
Smin FKT0 B (SNR) min (10)(1.38 10 23 )(290)(4 106 )(100) 16 10 12 W
(4 )3 Rmax
4
S min (4 )3 (120 103 ) 4 (16 10 12 )
Pt 1.03 MW
G 2 2 (4000) 2 (0.2) 2 (10)
1 1
.25 μs
B 4 106
3.6 A C-band radar operating at a frequency of 6 GHz with an antenna having a gain
of 50 dB transmits a peak power of 1.5 MW. Assume the receiver bandwidth of 5
MHz, the minimum output signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) min of 20 dB, and the radar
cross section of 0.2 m2 for this radar system. Find the maximum range for the
receiver noise figure of 5 dB and overall radar loss of 0 dB.
Solution:
From (3.18) we have
1/4
PG
2 2
Rmax t
(4 ) FKT0 BL(SNR) min
3
where
3 108
G 50 dB 105 , (SNR) min 20 dB 10 2 , = 0.05 m, F 5 dB 3.1623, L 0 dB 1
6 109
Thus
7
1/4
(1.5 106 )(105 )2 (0.05)2 (0.2)
Rmax 23
2
156.33 km
(4 ) (3.1623)(1.38 10 )(290)(5 10 )(1)(10 )
3 6
3.7 Consider a C- band radar operating at a frequency of 4.6 GHz that must provide a
minimum received signal power of 10 -12 W. Assume that P t = 10 kW, the antenna
aperture area is 2.0 m2, aperture efficiency is a = 0.80, radar cross section is =
2 m2, and overall loss is L = 5 dB. Calculate the maximum range.
14
PG 2 2 PG 2 2
Pr t 3 4 Rmax t 3
(4 ) R (4 ) Smin L
14
(10 103 )(4729.71) 2 (0.0652) 2 (2.0)
Rmax 23.463 km
(4 )3 (1012 )(3.1623)
3.8 A C-band radar operating at a frequency of 4 GHz with an antenna having a gain
of 45 dB transmits a peak power of 50 kW. Assume a total system loss of 2 dB. For
a target located at a range of 100 km, find the minimum radar cross section to
12
produce an available received signal power of P r = 2 10 W.
3 108
G 45 dB 31622.78, L 2 dB 1.585, 0.075 m
Solution: Here 4 109
Again by introducing the total system loss as in Problem 3.8, we can modify (3.10) as
PG min
2 2
Pr (4 )3 R 4 L (2 10 12 )(4 ) 3 (100 103 ) 4 (1.585)
Pr t
min
(4 )3 R 4 L PGt
2 2
(50 103 )(31622.78) 2 (0.075) 2
min 2.24 m 2
3.9 An X-band radar employs the same circular aperture antenna for both transmission
and reception at 8 GHz with its diameter of 3 m, antenna efficiency of 0.8. The
14
radar is designed to produce an average received power of 3 10 W when the
8
radar cross section is 1 m2 at a maximum range of 100 km. If the total system loss
is 3 dB, what transmitter peak power is required?
Solution: We have
3 108
10
0.03 m, Ae a ( D 2) 2 0.8 (3 2) 2 5.655 m 2 L 3 dB 2
10
4 Ae 4 (5.655)
G 78958.7
2 (0.03) 2
From (3.10):
PG
2 2
Pr (4 ) 3 R 4 L (3 10 14 )(4 ) 3 (100 103 ) 4 (2)
Pr t
P
(4 ) 3 R 4 L G 2 2
t
(78958.7) 2 (0.03) 2 (1)
Pt 2.122 kW
Solution: Here
3 108 4 a ( D 2 4) a 2 0.6 2
0.0086 m, G= 80067.1, L 0 dB 1
35 109 2 2 0.00862
Therefore,
PG (650)(80067.1) 2 (.0086) 2 (10)
2 2
Pr t
2.485 1013 W
(4 ) R L
3 4
(4 ) (50 10 ) (1)
3 3 4
3.11 A C-band monostatic radar operating at a frequency of 5.4 GHz transmits a peak
power of 1 MW has the following parameters: total system loss L = 3 dB, R = 120
km, = 1.2 m2, and the antenna has a circular aperture with aperture efficiency
a 0.6 . Find the diameter of the antenna in order to produce an available
receiver power
Pr 2.0 1014 W.
Solution:
3 108
L 3 dB 2, 0.052 m
5.8 109
9
12 12
(4 )3 Pr R 4 L (4 )3 (2.0 1014 )(120 103 ) 4 (2)
G 2252.23
Pt
2
(106 )(0.052) 2 (1.2)
12 12
4 a ( D 2 4) G 2 (2252.23)(0.052) 2
G D 2 1.014 m 1 m
2 a 0.6 2
3.12 A high PRF airborne radar operating at a frequency of 10.5 GHz transmit a peak
power of 10 kW has the following parameters: pulse width 1.2 s , pulse
repetition frequency PRF = 250 kHz, antenna gain G = 35 dB, radar cross
section of the target =10 m2, receiver noise figure F = 3 dB, and the overall
system loss including the propagation path loss L = 5 dB.
(a) Find the maximum range at which the radar can detect the target if the minimum
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for detection is 15 dB.
(b) Repeat part (a) for 0 dB SNR.
Solution:
where
3 108
0.0286 m, G 35 dB 3162.27, L 5 dB 3.162,
10.5 109
1 1
F 3 dB 2, B 6 106
10
1/4
(104 )(3162.27) 2 (0.0286) 2 (10)
Rmax 26.79 km
(4 ) (2)(1.38 10 )(290)(10 (3.162)(31.62)
3 23 6)
1/4
(104 )(3162.27) 2 (0.0286) 2 (10)
Rmax 63.53 km
(4 ) (2)(1.38 10 )(290)(10 (3.162)(1)
3 23 6)
10
3.13 A Doppler radar with a 1.3 m diameter antenna transmits 1.2 kW of power at a
frequency of 3 GHz. The equivalent noise bandwidth is 1 kHz and the noise
figure is 4.4 dB, and the overall loss factor is 10 dB. Assume a radar cross
section of 10 m2
(a) Find the signal-to-noise ratio at target ranges of 32 and 160 kms.
(b) Find the target range at unity signal-to-noise ratio.
Solution:
So PG
2 2
t
N o (4 ) R FKT0 BL
3 4
(a) Using (3.16) gives
where
3 108
0.1 m, F 4.4 dB 2.754, L 10 dB 10
3 109
(4)(3.1416)(1.3 2) 2 (3.1416)
G 1667.97
(0.1)2
PG
2 2
Ro4 t
14 14
PG
2 2
(1.2 103 )(1667.97)2 (0.1)2 (10)
R0 t
197.66 km
(4 ) FKT0 BL (4 ) (2.754)(1.38 10 )(290)(1000)(10)
3 3 23
3.14 A high PRF radar operating at 5.4 GHz transmits a peak power of 10 kW, and
has the following parameters: antenna gain G = 20 dB, overall loss L = 10 dB,
noise figure F = 3 dB, time on target T i = 2.5 s, duty factor dt = 0.25, radar cross
section σ = 0.02 m2. For target range R = 45 km, find the single pulse SNR.
Solution: We have
11
3 108
0.06 m, and Pav Pd
t t (10 10 )(0.25) 2.5 kW,
3
5 10 9
L 10 dB 10, F 3 dB 2
From (3.30) for a high PRF radar, the output SNR is given by
3.15 Consider an X-band radar operating at 10 GHz with the following parameters:
antenna gain G = 50, a
e 3o , scan time Ts 3.0 s, overall system loss L = 5
dB, noise figure F = 4.41 dB, radar cross section σ = 0.1 m2, SNR = 12 dB, and
the range R = 275 km.
(a) Find the power aperture product.
(b) Find the transmitted power corresponding to d t 0.3 .
Solution: We have
3 108 3 3
0.03 m, = 0.00274 steradian, G 50 dB 10 5
10 10 9
(57.3) 2
(b) We have
4 A G 2 (105 )(0.03) 2
G A 7.162 m 2
2
4 4
3.16 A millimeter wave (MMW) search radar has the following specifications: P t = 5 W,
8
PRF = 12 KHz, pulse width = 6 10 s, overall system loss L = 10 dB, circular
12
aperture antenna with diameter D = 0.3048 m, target RCS = 25 m2, noise
figure F = 6.17 dB, azimuth scan a
25o , elevation scan e 3o , and ts 3.5 s.
(a) Find the power aperture product.
(b) Find the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) to detect a target at a range of 10 km.
Solution: We have
D2 0.30482
A .073 m
2
4 4
Pav A ts
( SNR )
16 R FKT0 L
4
(25 25)(3)
.0457 steradian, F 6.17 dB 4.138
where (57.3) 2
(0.000263)(25)(3.5)
( SNR ) 19.00 12.79 dB
(16)(10 10 ) (4.138)(1.38 1023 )(290)(10)(0.0457)
3 4
13
3 108 (94 109 ) 0.0031 m, G 40 dB 104 , LS 10 dB 10, LI 3 dB 2,
(0.0031)(57.3)
SNR=10 dB 10, BW 0.71o , B 1 (40 10 9 ) 25 10 6 Hz
D .25
(a) The single pulse radar signal-to-noise ratio equation for this case can written
using (3.16) as
PG
2 2
PG
2 2
SNR t
R1
4
t
(4 ) R1 FKT0 BLS
3 4
(4 ) FKT0 BLS (SNR)
3
14 14
PG
2 2
(5)(104 ) 2 (0.0031) 2 (25)
R1 t
2.345 km
(4 ) R FKT0 BLS (SNR) (4 ) (2)(1.38 10 )(290)(25 10 )(10)
3 4 3 23 6
`
The angular coverage (30 30) 5 300 . Then the antenna coverage rate is
o
(b)
300
50
6 degrees/s
BW .71
Ti 14.2 ms
The time on-target or the dwell time is 50
(d) The detection range equation, for the case of n pulses integrated and integration
loss included, can be written by modifying (3.16) as
14 14 14
PG n
2 2
n 142
Rn t
R1 (2.345) 6.81 km,
(4 ) FKT0 BLS LI (SNR) 2
3
LI
c 3 108
Rmax 15 km,
2 f r (2)(10 103 )
which justifies that the detection range even with integration is below the maximum
unambiguous range.
14
3.19 A radar is subject to interference by a self-protection jammer. The radar and
jammer specifications are:
Radar transmit power 60 kW
Radar antenna gain 50 dB
Radar pulse width 2.5 μs
Radar losses 10 dB
Jammer power 180 W
Jammer antenna gain 10 dB
Jammer bandwidth 45 MHz
Jammer losses 0 dB
(a) Find the cross over range for a target of RCS σ = 5 m2.
(b) Find the detection range if the required SNR for detection is 10 dB.
Solution: We have
1
G 50 dB 105 L 10 dB 10 G j 10 dB 10 L j 0 dB 1 B 6
4 105
2.5 10
(a)
1/2 12
PG B j L j (60 103 )(105 )(5)(45 106 )(1)
( Rco ) ssj t 3.86 km
4 PjG j BL (4 )(180)(10)(4 10 )(10)
5
(b)
( Rco ) ssj 3,862.74
( Rd ) ssj 1.22 km
( S / Sssj ) min 10
3.20 The radar in problem 3.17 is now subject to stand-off jammer (SOJ) with the
following parameters: Pj = 200 W, Gj = 20 dB, Lj = 3 dB, G =10 dB, and Rj =20
km.
(a) Find the cross over range for a target of RCS σ = 5 m2.
(b) Find the detection range if the required SNR for detection is 10 dB.
G j 20 dB 100, L j 3 dB 2, G 10 dB 10,
(a) From (3.58):
1/4 1/4
PG R 2j B j L j
2
(60 103 )(105 ) (20 103 ) 2 (5)(45 106 )(2)
2
( Rco ) soj t
4 PjG j GBL (4 )(200)(100)(10)(4 105 )(10)
15
( Rco ) soj 57250
( Rd ) soj 4
32.194 km
4 ( S / S soj ) min 10
3.21 Work Example 3.7 to find the signal-to-noise ratio at the missile of the bistatic
system when the atmospheric attenuation of 0.08 dB/km during the propagation.
Solution:
3.22 In a bistatic radar the two stations use identical antennas at 40 GHz with gain of
30 dB. In this system Pt = 55 kW, F = 1.66 dB, B = 10 MHz, total loss
L Lt Lr Lp 3 dB
, and (SNR)r = 13.01 dB, and target RCS σ = 5 m2. What are
the target ranges Rt and Rr if it is found that Rt = 1.65Rr?
Solution: We have
Gt Gr 30 dB 103 , F 1.66 dB 1.466, L 3 dB 2, SNR=13.01 dB 20,
From (3.42):
t t Gr b
2
PG
( SNR )
(4 )3 Rt2 Rr2 FKT0 BLt Lr Lp
,
We get
(55 103 )(103 )(103 )(0.0075) 2 (5)
20
(4 ) 3 (1.65Rr ) 2 ( Rr ) 2 (1.466)(1.38 10 23 )(290)(10 7 )(2)
14
(55 103 )(103 )(103 )(0.0075) 2 (5)
Rr 2
5.910 km
(4 ) (1.466)(1.38 10 )(290)(10 )(2)(20)(1.65)
3 23 7
16
Chapter 4: Targets and Interference
Solutions
3 108
0.06 m
Solution: We have 5 109
2 a 0.2
10.47
0.06 , indicating the optical region.
Thus
a 2 ( )(0.1) 2 15.02 dBsm
4.2 A hollow aluminum sphere with a diameter of 20 cm is the target at 10.5 GHz. (a)
Find the radar cross section of the target. (b) What is the minimum frequency that
makes the sphere optical?
Solution:
(a)
3 108
2.85 cm, 2 (20 2) 62.83 cm
10.5 109
2 a 62.83
Thus 22.05 5
2.85
The sphere with a diameter of 20 cm is a target in the optical region leading to the RCS
given by
2 2
D 0.2
0.0314 m 15.02 dBsm
2
2 2
(b) Using the ( 2 a = 5) criterion for the minimum value of frequency at which the
target enters the optical region, we get
2 a 62.83 10 f min
2
(5)(3 108 )
5 f 2.387 GHz
min
3 108 0.6283
17
4.3 Find the target RCS of a sphere with a diameter of 1.0 m. Find the target RCS of a
flat plate with the same projected area as the sphere for C-band radar operating at
6 GHz.
Solution:
For sphere,
3 108 D (1.0)
0.05 m 62.83 5 : optical region
6 10 (0.05)
9
D 2 (1.0) 2
1.05 dBsm
4 4
For flat plate,
4 A2 4 (1.0)2
fp 37 dBsm
2 (0.05) 2
4.4 For an X-band radar operating at 10 GHz, find the target RCS of 1.2 m 1.2 m flat
plate and of a corner reflector with 1.2 m sides.
Solution:
Te T 290
Te T0 ( F 1) Fop 1 1 0 ( F 1) 1 (10 1) 10.58 dB
Ts Ts 250
18
4.6 A low noise amplifier (LNA) is connected to radar receiver which has a noise figure
of 10 dB. The available power gain of the LNA is 40 dB, and its effective noise
temperature is 150 K. find the overall noise temperature and the noise figure
referred to the input.
Te To ( F 1) 290(10 1) 2610 K
Te 2610
Tin Ta 150 150.26 K
G 104
Tin 150.26
Fin 1 1 3.01 dB
and Ta 150 .
4.7 For the system shown in Figure 4.23, the radar receiver noise figure F = 10 dB, the
cable loss L = 3 dB, the LNA gain G 1 = 40 dB, and its equivalent noise temperature
Te1 = 170 K. The antenna noise temperature is 40 K. Find the overall noise
temperature of the radar receiver system referred to the input.
( L 1)T0 L( F 1)T0
Ts Tant Te1
G1 G1
4.8 Repeat the calculation when the system of Figure 4.23 is modified to system as
shown in Figure 4.24.
Solution:
Using (4.89):
L( F 1)T0
Ts Tant Te1 T0 ( L 1) Te1L
G1
(2)(10 1)(290)
Ts 40 170 (290)(2 1) (290)(2) 1080.52 K
104
It suggests that LNA must be placed in front of cable right at the antenna location as
shown in Figure 4.23.
19
4.9 A low noise amplifier is connected to an antenna having a noise temperature of 40
K through a lossy feeder cable having a loss of 3 dB. The LNA has a noise
temperature of 100. Find the system noise temperature referred to (a) the cable
feeder input and (b) the LNA input.
Solution: We have L = 3 dB = 2
(a) Equivalent noise temperature referred to feeder input is
Ts1 530
Ts 2 265 K
L 2
( L 1)T0 L( F 1)T0
Ts Tant Te1
G1 G1
4.11 A radar receiver consisting of RF amplifier with a noise figure of 10 dB and a gain
of 30 dB, and a combination of an IF mixer and amplifier with noise figure of 12 dB
and a gain of 50 dB.
(a) Find the overall noise figure referred to the input.
(b) If the antenna temperature is 800 K, find the operating noise figure for the
system.
Solution:
F2 1 15.85 1
F0 F1 10 10.01 10.004 dB
G1 103
20
(b) The equivalent noise temperature at the input of the radar receiver is
Ts T0 ( Fs 1) (290)(10.01 1) 2613 K
Ts 2613
Fop 1
1 4.27 6.30 dB
Ta 800
______________________________________________________________________
21
Chapter 5: Propagation of Radar Waves
Solutions
Solution: We have
3 108
0.0556 m, G 34.77 dB 3000
5.4 109
2 ht hr (2 )(50)(30)
F 4 16sin 4 16sin 4 10.0145
R (0.0556)(40 103 )
(b) Using (5.14) gives:
Pr 2.468 1010 W
4 PG 2
(ht hr )4 (4 )(106 )(3000) 2 (4)(50 30) 4
Pr t
1.176 107 W
R
2 8
(0.0556) (40 10 )
2 3 8
5.3 Find the angles corresponding to the first lobe and null for a radar-target system
described in Problem 5.1.
Solution: The angle at which the first maximum occurs with respect to the flat surface is
ht 0.0556
l1 0.000454 radians 0.026o
R 4hr (4)(30)
22
ht 0.0556
n1 0.00092367 radians 0.052 o
R 2hr (2)(30)
5.4 Referring to Figure 5.4, show that the following relationship is true:
12
(h h )2
tan 2 t r 2
1
R1 (ht hr )
( AF )2 R12 (ht hr ) 2
2
h hr
( DE ) ( DC CE ) t
2 2
tan
Then
12
( h hr )2
AF DE tan 2 t 1
2
R1 (ht hr )
5.5 Using the law of cosines to appropriate triangles in Figure 5.7 relevant to smooth
spherical surface, derive the following relationships:
12
d
L1 hr2 4re ( re hr )sin 2 2
2 re
12
d
L2 ht2 4re ( re ht )sin 2 1
2re
12
d
Rd (ht hr ) 2 4( re hr )( re ht )sin 2
2 re
Solution: Apply law cosines to triangles AOB, BOC and AOC to obtain the expressions
for L1, L2, and Rd, respectively.
5.6 Using (5.23) for the expression of , show that the expressions for d1 and d2 are
given by
23
d 2 re ( re ) 2 2reht
1 d12
h
d1 2re
r
Similarly, corresponding to d2 is
1 d 22
hr 2 r
d2 e
d 22 2 re d 2 2 rehr 0
d 2 re ( re ) 2 2 re ht
5.7 Consider a radar is at a height of 12 m above a smooth spherical earth, and target
at a height of 450 m. Find the values of d1, d2, d, and radial range Rd when the
grazing angle is 3 degree for acceptable performance.
24
d d1 d 2 7.23 2355.76 2411.26 m 2.363 km
12
d
Rd (ht hr ) 2 4( re hr )( re ht )sin 2
2 re
12
2.41126
(0.450 0.012) 2 4((4 3)(6371) 0.012)((4 3)(6371) 0.450)sin 2
(2)(4 3)(6371)
Rd 2.45 km
5.8 Consider a radar located 50 m above a sooth spherical ocean surface and a target
at a height of 1.2 km tracked by the radar. If the grazing angle due to multipath is 2
degrees, find (a) distance to the reflection point from the radar, (b) distance to the
target over the ocean surface, and (c) the divergence factor.
Solution: We have,
2o 0.035 rad, hr 0.05 m, hr 1.2 km
(a) The distance L1 of the reflection point from the radar is found using the expression
in Problem 5.6 as
12
d
L1 hr2 4re ( re hr )sin 2 2
2 re
12
32.51
(0.05) 2 (4)(4 3)(6371) ((4 3)(6371) 0.05)sin 2 32.51 km
(2)(4 3)(6371)
where
d 2 re ( re )2 2reht
(4 3)(6371) (0.035) [(4 3)(6371) (0.035)]2 (2)(4 3)(6371) (1.2) 32.51 km
25
d 32.51 0.832 33.342 km
26
Chapter 6: Continuous Wave Radars (CW)
Solutions
6.1 Assuming a LFM-CW radar using a triangular modulation as shown in Figure 6.6
with a maximum frequency deviation of 250 kHz and a modulating frequency of 20
Hz. For a stationary target located at a range of 150 km, find the beat frequency of
the radar system.
Solution: The beat frequency of the radar system can be calculated using (6.19):
6.2 Consider an LFM-CW radar that uses the triangular modulation as shown in Figure
6.6 with F 200 kHz and f m 30 Hz, and measures a beat frequency of 12 kHz
for a stationary target. Find the range of the target.
6.3 In problem 6.2, if the target is an aircraft that is approaching the radar at a radial
velocity of 100 m/s, find the range of the aircraft.
Solution: Since the target is moving, the average frequency will contain a component of
the Doppler shift f d where
27
average beat frequency difference corresponding to a range increment of 12
meters.
4 Rf m f
fb
c
If we let f b1 and f b 2 correspond to ranges R1 and R2 , respectively, then the average beat
frequency difference is written as
4 f m f 4 f f R
f b f b 2 f b1 ( R2 R1 ) m
c c
f f
Solution: The desired beat frequencies b and b corresponding to the positive and
negative slopes of the triangular waveform can be calculated directly from (6.21) and
(6.22), respectively, as follows:
6.6 An X-band LFM-CW radar is used to measure both the range and the velocity. The
f f
beat frequencies b and b during the positive and negative slope of the frequency
excursion are measured to provide 6.667 kHz and 40 kHz, respectively. Assume
that a triangular baseband signal with a frequency of 20 Hz is frequency
modulating the radar signal of 10 GHz with a maximum frequency sweep of 250
kHz.
(a) Determine the range and velocity of the target.
(b) Determine the maximum range if the maximum time delay is selected as10%
of t0 .
(c) Determine the maximum unambiguous range.
28
Solution:
(a) Using (6.23) for a closing target:
c
R ( f b f b )
4 f
here
c 3 108
R ( f b f b ) (6.667 40)(103 ) 350 km
4 f (4)(10 106 )
0.03
R ( f b f b ) (40 6.667)(103 ) 250 m s
4 4
1 0.1
tmax 0.1t0 (0.1) 0.0025 s
2 f m (2)(20)
(c) The maximum unambiguous range will correspond to time delay of 2t0 leading to
c(2t0 ) 1 3 108
Run ct0 c 7500 km
2 2 f m (2)(20)
2 106
t0 (1 2 f m ) (1 (2 200)) 0.0025 s f 8 108 Hz s
0.0025
29
c 3 108
R ( f b f b ) (65.51 82.65)(103 ) 13.851 km
4f (4)(8 10 )
8
and
0.03
vr ( f b f b ) (82.65 65.51)(103 ) 128.55 m s
4 4
6.8 Consider a sinusoidal frequency modulated continuous wave radar that operates at
a frequency of 3 GHz, and measures the average beat frequency of 160 Hz for a
stationary target. Assume that the maximum frequency deviation is 15 kHz and the
sinusoidal modulating signal has a frequency of 50 Hz. Find the target range.
Solution: The target range of the sinusoidal CW radar can be calculated using (6.39):
c (3 108 )(160)
R fb 8 km
8 f m f (8)(50)(15 103 )
6.9 A certain radar transmitter is modulating the carrier with a sinusoidal triangular
waveform with a frequency of 250 Hz with a frequency sweep of 40 kHz. Find the
average beat frequency difference if the target is at a range of 100 km.
6.10 Consider an X-band radar operating at 10.4 GHz uses sinusoidal FM for ranging.
The modulating is a sinusoidal signal having the frequency of 100 Hz. The phase
difference between the received modulated signal and that transmitted is 3.5 o. Find
the range of the target.
( )T0 (3.5)(0.01)
t 97.22 μs
360 360
30
6.11 The unambiguous range can be increased by using multiple frequency
transmission of sinusoidal signals. Consider transmitted sinusoidal signals of
frequency f1 = 88.5 kHz and f 2 = 90 kHz. Find the maximum unambiguous range.
c c
R R , when 2 , for unambiguous range
4f 2 f
c 3 108
Run 100 km
2f (2)(90 88.5)(103 )
Solution: The maximum unambiguous range can also be found as in Problem 6.6:
c 3 108
Run
30 km
2 f (2)(105 100)(103 )
______________________________________________________________________
31
Chapter 7: MTI and Pulse Doppler Radars
Solutions
7.1 Find the maximum unambiguous range for an X-band radar operating at a
frequency of 10 GHz corresponding to a first blind speed of 500 mph.
c (3 108 )(0.03)
Run 10.068 km
4v1 (4)(223.47)
Solution: The blind speed corresponding to the maximum unambiguous range can be
obtained from
c c
Run v1
4v1 4 Run
c (3 108 )(0.1)
v1 62.5 m s 225 mph
4 Run (4)(120 103 )
7.3 A pulse Doppler radar is used to resolve the Doppler ambiguity, and employs two
different prfs to obtain a desired unambiguous range of 120 km. Determine
f r1, f r 2 , Ru1 , and Ru 2
. Assume N = 63.
Solution: The desired basic prf corresponding to the desired unambiguous range is
c 3 108
fB 1.250 kHz
2 Ru (2)(120 103 )
The two prfs that must be chosen with the assumed integer N = 63 are
32
f r 2 ( N 1) f B (63 1)(1250) 80.00 kHz
c 3 108
Ru1 2.034 km
2 f r1 (2)(73.75 103 )
c 3 108
Ru 2 1.875 km
2 f r 2 (2)(80.00 103 )
7.4 Consider a pulse Doppler radar that uses two prfs to resolve range ambiguity. If
the desired unambiguous range is 200 km, find the unambiguous ranges for the
two prfs. Select the integer N = 7.
Solution: The desired basic prf that corresponds to Ru = 200 km is obtained from
c c 3 108
Ru fB 750 Hz
2 fB 2 Ru (2)(200 103 )
With the selection of N = 7, we can easily calculate the two prfs as follows:
It follows that
c 3 108
Ru1 28.57 km
2 f r1 (2)(5.25 103 )
c 3 108
Ru 2 25 km
2 f r 2 (2)(6.0 103 )
Solution: The desired basic prf corresponding to the desired unambiguous range is
33
c 3 108
fB 1.5 kHz
2 Ru (2)(100 103 )
In order to design the three-prfs MTI system for the desired unambiguous range of 100
km, select N = 59. Then
It follows that
c 3 108
Ru1 89.13 m
2 f r1 (2)(1683.00 103 )
c 3 108
Ru 2 86.58 m
2 f r 2 (2)(1732.50 103 )
c 3 108
Ru 3 84.03 m
2 f r 3 (2)(1785.00 103 )
Solution:
(a) The Doppler frequency for the target that is approaching the radar at a radial
velocity of 600 m/s is
2vr (2)(540)
fd 36 kHz
(3 108 10 109 )
From (7.31):
34
f d ni f ri f di , i 1, 2, 3
we can write the desired Doppler frequency as a function of each set of prf and
corresponding Doppler frequency as
where all frequencies are in kHz. In order to satisfy that the Doppler frequency cannot
be greater than the corresponding prf, we can write the above relations as
From (D) we can easily show that f d 1 = 8 kHz for n1 = 2. Similarly (E) and (F), we can
find that f d 2 = 2 kHz for n = 2, and f d 3 = 16 kHz for n = 2.
2 3
(b) Again the Doppler frequency for another closing target appearing at 8 kHz, 16 kHz,
and 10 kHz for each prf can be obtained by using (7.13):
f d ni f ri f di , i 1, 2, 3
This generates the following expressions for the given Doppler frequencies:
f d for
where all frequencies are in kHz. From (G) we can obtain a series of
n1 0, 1, 2, 3, as
35
f d 10, 30, 50, 70, kHz, for n3 0, 1, 2, 3,
By inspection of the above 3 expressions for f d , it reveals that f d = 50 kHz is the true
target Doppler frequency for n1 =3, and n2 = n3 = 2.
(c) It follows that the radial velocity of the target corresponding to f d = 50 kHz is
f d (0.03)(50 103 )
vr 750 m s
2 2
______________________________________________________________________
36
Chapter 8: Pulse Compression Radar
Problems
( , d (0, 0 1
Proof: We can write the expression for the ambiguity function from (8.23) as
2
g (t ) g (t ) exp( j t )dt
2
( , d ) d
g (t ) dt g (t ) exp( jd t ) dt
2 2 2
( , d )
= g ( t ) dt g ( t ) dt
2 2
Each of the two integrals on the right hand side represents unit energy yielding
2
( , d ) 1 ( , d ) 1
X (0,0) 1
For 0 and d 0 , .
1
2
( , d d d d 1
2
Solution: We have
2
g (t ) g (t ) exp( j t )dt
2
( , d ) d
This relation can be modified, by replacing d , and omitting the magnitude square
symbols, to
37
( , ) g (t ) g (t ) exp( jt )dt F x( , t)
F x ( , t )
Here is the Fourier transform of x ( , t ) , where x ( , t ) g (t ) g (t ) .
1
2 2
x ( , t ) d dt ( , ) d d
2
2 2
x ( , t ) d dt g (t1 ) g (t2 ) J (t1 , t2 ) dt1dt2
J (t1 , t2 )
where the Jacobian is equal to 1.
Therefore, we find
1
2
( , ) d d 1
2
( , d ( , d
Solution: The relation of the uncertainty function is modified by setting and d to
( , d ) g (t ) g (t ) exp( jt )dt
Let
t1 t
Then
( , d ) exp( jd ) g (t1 ) g (t1 ) exp( jd t1 )dt1 exp( jd ) ( , d )
38
( , d ( , d
if g(t ) ( , d )
then g(t ) exp( j kt 2 ) ( , d k )
Then
1 ( , ) g (t ) g
1 1 ( t ) exp( jd t )dt
Then
1 ( , ) g (t ) exp( j kt ) g (t ) exp[ j k ( t ) 2 ]exp( jd t )dt
2
Then it follows
1 ( , ) exp( j k 2 ) g (t ) g (t ) exp[ j 2 (d k )t ]dt
exp( j k ) ( , d k )
2
1 ( , d ) ( , d k )
It follows then
g(t ) exp( j kt 2 ) ( , d k )
8.5 Consider an LFM pulse compression radar operating at K u-band using a 200 ns
pulse which is compressed with a compression ratio of 100. Find the chirp
bandwidth and the range resolutions due to uncompressed and compressed
pulses.
39
The chirp bandwidth is
B 1 (2 109 ) 500 MHz
c (3 108 )(2 10 9 )
Rc 30 cm
2 2
8.6 A certain LFM pulse compression radar with a very large bandwidth of 500 MHz
performs stretch processing over 1500 m. Find the minimum FFT size of the
processor.
2 Rrec (2)(1500)
Trec 10 μs
c 3 108
8.7 Consider a certain radar that uses stretch processor to process a bandwidth of 600
MHz and transmits a pulse of length 40 s with a range receive window of 600 m.
(a) Find the frequency tones corresponding to two targets if the minimum range is
10 km.
(b) Find the minimum FFT size.
Solution: R1 Rmin 10 km , R2 Rmax Rmin Rrec 10,000 600 10,600 m . The receive
window in seconds is then
2 Rrec (2)(600)
Trec 4 μs
c 3 108
(a) The frequency tones corresponding to the targets are obtained from (8.77):
40
c 2B
Rn fn fn Rn
2B c
It follows then
2B (2)(600 106 )
f1 R
1 6
(10 103 ) (105 )(10 103 ) 1.00 GHz
c (3 10 )(40 10 )
8
2B (2)(600 106 )
f2 R
2 6
(10.6 103 ) (105 )(10.6 103 ) 1.060 GHz
c (3 10 )(40 10 )
8
Solution: The possible Barker codes are B3,13 or B13,3 which are
Solution: The possible Barker codes are B5,11 or B11,5 which are
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 2 2 0 2 4 0 2 4
3 3 3
0 2 4 0 4 8 0 4 2
The resulting matrix above can be written by replacing the elements where phase
exceeds by 2 by their equivalent values of modulo 2 . The phases of these elements
41
are obtained by multiplying each by 3 . Then it follows that the Frank code of length 9
is written as
F9 { 0 0 0 ; 0 2 4 ; 0 4 2} .
Note that the first three code word elements are from row 1 where the semicolon
represents the end of row 1. With this convention the next six elements follow from rows
2 and 3 in order.
______________________________________________________________________
42
Chapter 9: Synthetic Aperture Radars (SAR)
Problems
9.1 An airborne coherent SAR operating at 10 GHz is flown with a depression angle of
90o at a constant speed of 300 m/s. The Doppler frequency change
measured is 30 Hz from two separate targets at a constant range of 2 km.
Determine the distance of separation between the two targets and the
corresponding synthetic aperture length.
Solution: The distance of separation between the two targets can be found, using
(9.22), as
9.2 An airborne SAR moving at a constant speed of 300 m/s operates at 10 GHz and
has the following parameters as depicted in figure 9.4: y0 0 , R0 2 km, L 30 m.
Find the cross-range resolution and the maximum length of the actual antenna.
3 108 0
0.03 m, 0 cos 1 3
90o
10 10 9
5 10
Then
R0 (0.03)(2 103 )
dX 1.0 m
2 L sin 0 (2)(30)sin 90o
9.3 For an SAR depicted in Figure 9.4 with y0 0 , derive the expression of the range
difference at the two edges of synthetic aperture length given by
43
L2
R .
8R0
v 2t 2 2 v 2t 2
R(t ) R0 vt cos 0 sin 0 R(t ) R0
2 R0 2 R0
Then
Rmin R(t ) t 0 R0
and
v 2 (T 2)2
Rmax R(t ) t T 2 R0
2 R0
( vT )2 L2
R Rmax Rmin
8 8
9.4 Consider an airborne SAR flown in an aircraft with the ground point geometry, as
depicted in Figure 9.4, has the following parameters: L 400 , R0 20 km, and
y0 0 . Determine the range difference at the two edges of the synthetic aperture.
Solution: The range difference can be determined directly using expression derived in
Problem 9.4 as
L2 (400)2
R 1m
8 R0 (8)(20 103 )
9.5 Work Problem 9.4 in case of a spaceborne SAR with the following parameters:
L 12 km, R0 850 km, and y0 0 .
Solution: Exactly the same way as in Problem in 9.4, we can determine the range
difference as
L2 (12 103 )2
R 21.17 m
8 R0 (8)(850 103 )
44
9.6 Consider an airborne SAR system transmitting an average power of 10 W at 10.0
GHz operating frequency has the following parameters: G 35 dB , d R 0.2 m,
d X 2 m, 1 m2, F 3 dB , v 210 m/s, R 12 km. Find the signal-to-noise ratio
for this radar.
9.7 Work Problem 9.6 to calculate the clutter-to-noise ratio for the same radar but the
target is distributed, which is described by the following parameters: the
depression angle 0
30o , the normalized RCS of the ground per unit area
illuminated 20 dB .
0
Solution: Now for this radar, 20 dB = 0.01. Using (9.37) gives
0
______________________________________________________________________
45
Chapter 10: Tracking Radars
Problems
10.1 A monostatic radar system measures the delay time of 0.12 ms caused by a
return echo from a target. Find the distance of the target.
10.2 A target range measured from a monostatic radar is 30 km. Find the
corresponding delay time.
2 R0 (2)(30 103 )
td 0.2 ms
c (3 108 )
10.3 A radar measures the target range with a mean-squared error of 100 m 2. Find the
corresponding mean-squared error in measuring delay due to noise.
R2ˆ
22 2
tˆd 8
(100) 0.004 1012 s2
c 0
3 10
10.4 A monostatic radar measures a target’s delay with mean-squared error due to
12
noise of 0.01 10 s2. What is the corresponding rms error in measuring range?
2 2
c 3 108
2
Rˆ0
tˆ2 (0.01 1012 ) 225 m 2
2 d
2
Rˆ0 15 m
which gives the rms error in measuring range as .
10.5 Consider a monostatic radar that measures the angular position of a target at a
distance of 60 km to an rms error of 0.6 mrad. Find the distance in an off-axis
direction form the boresight axis corresponding to this error.
46
3
Solution: For this problem, 0.6 mrad (0.6 10 57.3) 0.0344 corresponds to 60 km.
o
Hence, the distance in the off-axis direction form the boresight axis corresponding to
this angular error is
10.6 For the monostatic radar of Problem 10.6, if the delay measurement system
provides an rms range error due to noise of half the off-axis error, calculate the
target’s rms delay error.
Rˆ0 36 2 18
Solution: The rms range error is half of the off-axis error, that is, m.
It follows that the target’s rms delay error is
2 2
R2ˆ
2 2 2
tˆd 8
(18) 2 0.0144 1012 s 2
c 0
3 10
That is
tˆd 0.12 μs
10.7 Work Example 10.2 when the range is determined by observing the target range
for 2 ms.
1 1 tˆ 0.08
tˆ d1 0.016 μs
d 2 B f r t0 SNR 2 B nSNR n 24
c 3 108
Rˆ tˆd 6
(0.016 10 ) 2.4 m.
2 2
10.8 A conical scan tracking radar uses a pulse train with prf of 100 kHz. Calculate the
maximum scan rate so that at least 10 pulses are emitted in one scan to be able
to track the target.
Solution: The maximum scan rate is (100 10 10) 10 10 cycles per second.
3 3
10.9 For the α-β filter with same specifications as in Example 10.6, estimate the
desired smoothed values corresponding to the predicted values of a target at 12
km with a velocity of 340 m/s.
47
Solution: Using (10.36) gives
s ( k ) p ( k ) ( x0 ( k ) p ( k ))
where
12 103 x
p , s s ,
340 vs
α 0.75
β T 1.5
1 0 .
10.10 For the α-β-γ filter with same specifications as in Example 10.7, estimate the
desired smoothed values corresponding to the predicted values of a target at 12
km with a velocity of 330 m/s and acceleration of 36 m 2.
s ( k ) p ( k ) ( x0 ( k ) p ( k ))
where
12 103 xs
p 330 , s vs ,
36 as
α 1.5
β T 375
2γ T 2.5 10
2 6
48
and the output matrix is represented by
1 0 0 .
49
Chapter 11: Aperture and Phased array antennas
Problems
11.1 Find the total radiate power if the radiated power density of an antenna is given
ˆ ˆ
by P R (10sin R ), W m , where R̂ is the unit vector in the direction of R .
2 2
2 2
Prad Pˆ ( , )Rds
ˆ
ˆ sin R 2 )RR
( RA0
ˆ 2 sin sin d d 10 2
0 0 0 0
11.2 Repeat Problem 11.1 to find the radiation intensity and hence the total radiated
power of the antenna.
2 2
Prad P ( , )d P ( , )sin d d
0 0 0 0
2
(10sin )sin d d 10 2
0 0
The maximum radiation is directed along 2 , and is given by Pmax 10 W . The total
radiated power is
2 2
Prad P ( , )d P ( , )sin d d
0 0 0 0
2
(10sin )sin d d 10 2
0 0
50
4 P ( , ) max (4 )(10)
GD 1.27
Prad 10 2
Solution: The maximum radiation pattern of the antenna is Pmax 15 W along the
2 . The total radiated power is then
2 2
Prad P ( , )d P ( , )sin d d
0 0 0 0
2
(15sin 3 )sin d d 11.25 2
0 0
Thus
Pmax 15
GD 4 4 1.70
Pard 11.25 2
11.5 Consider a 2.4 m diameter reflector antenna with a focal length to diameter ratio
L D
of f = 0.6 operating at a frequency of 6 GHz. Find the aperture efficiency.
(1 2)( f d ) 1 (0.5)(0.6)
0 tan 1 tan 45.29 o
(0.6) (0.063)
2
( f d ) (1 16)
2
2
ap 24 sin 2 0 ln cos 0 cot 2 0
2 2 2
24 sin 2 (22.64o ) ln[cos(22.64 o )] cot 2 (22.64 o ) 0.64 64%.
2
11.6 For the reflector antenna of Problem 11.5, find the distance from the focal point
to the edge of the rim.
Solution: The distance from the focal point to the edge of the rim is calculated using the
relation, for
0 45.29o , as
51
2L f (2)(1.44)
r0 1.7 m,
(1 cos 0 ) (1 cos(45.29 o ))
11.7 For the reflector antenna of Problem 11.5, find the overall directivity of the
antenna.
2 2
D (2.4)
D ap (0.64) 9
14,553.32 41.62 dB.
8
3 10 (6 10 )
ap
Solution: The aperture efficiency can calculated as
2 2
D D
D ap 35 dB 3162.27 ap 3162.27
3 108
0.5 m
where 600 106 , and D 10 0.5 20 . It follows then
3162.27
ap 0.80 80%
(20 )2 .
11.9 Consider Example 11.4 except for the sources with equal amplitudes and
opposite phases, and show that the normalized array factor is given by
f ( ) sin cos .
2
Solution: We can obtain the normalized array factor following exactly the same steps as
in Example 11.4. The array factor in this case is
52
AF Ae j 2 e j ( d 2)cos Ae j ( d 2)cos Ae j ( d 2) cos Ae j ( d 2) cos
d
j 2 A sin cos
2
f ( ) sin cos .
2
11.10 Consider Example 11.4 except for the sources with equal amplitudes and 90 o out
of phase, and show that the normalized array factor is given by
f ( ) cos (cos 1) .
4
f ( ) cos (cos 1) .
4
11.11 Consider Example 11.4 except for the spacing between the elements is one
wavelength, and show that the normalized array factor is given by
f ( ) cos( cos ).
d
AF Ae j ( d 2) cos Ae j ( d 2) cos 2 A cos cos
2
53
2
d 2
where , which gives
AF ( ) 2 A cos cos
.
f ( ) cos( cos ).
Solution: The desired parameters can be obtained using (11.87) and the equations
listed in Table 11.1. We have for the broadside array,
n 1
n cos 1 cos , for n 1
Nd Nd
1 4
n cos 1 1
cos cos (1 3)
Nd 12
70.52 o
n o
FNBW (109.47 70.52) 38.85o
109.47
1.39 1 (1.39)(4)
h cos1 cos
1
cos ( 0.147)
Nd 12
81.51o
h o
HPBW (98.49 81.51) 16.98o
98.49
The position of the maximum of the first minor lobe is obtained using (11.80)
3 3
s cos 1 cos 1 2 cos1 ( 0.5)
2d N 12
60o
s o both are feasible solutions
120
54
This indicates that first minor lobe maximum occurs at 60 o as well as 120o as expected.
The position of the maximum value is obtained using
m
max cos1 1
cos (0) 90 for m 0
o
d : verified.
Solution: The parameters can be obtained using (11.87) and the equations listed in
Table 11.2. We have for the broadside array,
2
( d cos ) 0o d cos 0o 0 d
4 2
n
n cos1 1 , for n 1
Nd
1 4 1 2
n cos1 1 cos 1 cos 48.19
o
Nd 12 3
1.39 1 (1.39)(4)
h cos1 1 cos 1
1
cos (0.8525) 31.51
o
Nd 12
The position of the maximum of the first minor lobe is obtained using
(3) 1 (3)(4)
s cos 1 1 cos 1
1
cos (0.5) 60
o
2 Nd (2)(12)
o
This indicates that first minor lobe maximum occurs at 60 . The position of the
maximum value is obtained using
55
m
max cos 1 1 1
cos (1) 0 for m 0
o
d : verified.
11.14 Find the HPBW, FNBW and the position of the maximum of the first minor lobe of
a 10-element uniform phased array consisting of isotropic sources placed the z-
axis. The spacing between the elements is 3 and the main beam is steered at
75o from the z-axis.
It follows
2 2
cos 75o (0.259) 0.54 radian 30.94 o
3 3
2 1 3 2
n cos 1 cos 0.54
2 d N 2 10
1
cos [0.477(0.54 0.628)]
56.14 o
n o
FNBW (92.94 56.14) 36.8o
92.94
2.782 1 3 2.782
n cos 1 cos 0.54
2 d N 2 10
1
cos [0.477(0.54 0.278)]
67.02o
h o
HPBW (82.82 67.02) 15.8o
82.82
The position of the maximum of the first minor lobe is obtained using (11.80)
3 1 3 3
s cos1 cos 0.54
2 d N 2 10
3
cos 1 (0.54 0.9.43) cos 1 0.477 0.54 0.943
2
56
45o
s o
101
o
This indicates that first minor lobe maximum occurs at 45 o as well as 101 as expected.
______________________________________________________________________
57