ENGLISH PROJECT

THEME:

15 Mathematics’ equations that changed the world

• Done by: - Nemir douaouda Chaïma

- Dellali Fayçal
- Abella Houssam
- Hammouche Koussaila

• Supervised by: Mr. Mesnadi Khaled

MARCH 202
 Introduction:
Mathematic surrounds us all the time, a bit as if we were constantly living in
Neo’s matrix (film Matrix). When we look at our house, the layout of streets in a
neighborhood, when we start our car or when we run our dishwasher, when we
do crafts, when we paint a picture or play the piano, math is really everywhere!
‘‘There is not an object which is not the culmination of mathematical
reflection’’
Complex equations with many unknowns, trigonometric calculus, theoretical
physics, linear algebra, relative numbers, differential equations, mathematical
theorems that go back to antiquity, until the last discoveries of the 20 th century
have shaped our world forever.
With each new mathematical equation, a flood of equations and new answers
about our physical world appear.
Doing Maths… is somehow a way to give oneself the possibility to change the
world.
A collection of mathematical equations that marked they are time and profoundly
change the view of Math, Science and sometimes even the world. Here are 15
totally revolutionary formulas that have changed the world!

1. The Pythagoren theorem: basic mathematical formula:

This theorem dated to 530C is probably one of the best known. It remains today
one of the pillars of modern mathematics and has long contributed to the
development of the disciplines and the history of mathematics.
Even after years without math lessons, the name of this theorem and all that it
implies always trots in a corner of our memory. Even if it brings back bad
memories to some, it is difficult to forget its ingredients. Try to record the
definition:
‘’ in a right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse (ie Side opposite of the
right angle) is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the other two
sides’’

The converse of this theorem tries to prove that a triangle is a right-angled,

starting from this postulate:’’ in a triangle, if the square of one side is equal to the
do the sum of the squares of the two other sides, then this triangle is a rectangle’’
The theorem, its converse and the famous linked equation allowed us to take a
fresh look at geometry, which is usually plane. We say that we are moving from
Euclidean geometry to no Euclidean geometry.

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Since then, thanks to Pythagoras and his famous equation, it is not easy to
calculate lengths, angles and pro and prove that a triangle is a right or not.
The Pythagorean theorem is still usedin very concrete fields such as construction,
architecture, carpentry, gardening… this are just a few examples among many!

2. Thales’s theorem: the other fundamental mathematical formula!

Here we touch on a second pillar of our college mathematics: Thales’s famous
theorem!
Did you know that this theorem is not from Thales but from Euclid?
It is by following the legend of the measurement of the pyramid that it was
attributed to Thales, we will come back to this later. Let us dwell for a few
seconds on this theorem thst has made more than one nightmarish!
Definition: ‘’ in a plane, a line parallel to one of the side of a triangle divides
the latter into a similar triangle’’. The converse seeks to prove whether two
lines are parallel.

But then, in what way the theorem of Thales upsets mathematics? How did he
provide a real mathematical solution to concrete problems?
In geometry, Thales’s theorem as well as its reciprocal can be used to highlight
and establish conditions of alignment or parallelism.
Legend says that request of King Amasis, Thales went to Egypt to assess the
height of the pyramids and more precisely that of Cheops. By planting his cane in
the ground at noon, he said to the king:’’ relationship that I maintain with my
shadow is the same that which the pyramid maintains with his’’
Thus, in other words, if the length of the Canes as well as its shadow are known, it
is possible by applying the same proportions to determine the height of the
pyramids, after having measured their shadow.

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 3. Logarithms:
Logarithms, popularized by John Napier in 1610, Grouped together inverse
functions, opposites and exponential functions. Until the development of the
computer, calculation with logarithms was the most usual way to multiply a large
number together, which made it possible to calculate faster but above all to make
giant leaps in the field of mathematics, physics, or even engineering and
astronomy.
‘’ log xy = log x + log y ‘’
There are 3 types of logarithms:
i) The natural logarithm is the fundamental basic in mathematical analysis.
ii) The decimal logarithm is used in mathematical calculations.
iii) The binary logarithm is used in computer theory and four applied
calculations.
‘’ the logarithm of a number is the power to which it is necessary to rise its
base to get that number’’
For example, regarding the base of 10, the logarithm(log) is : log(1)=0 , log(10)=1,
log(100)=2 .

4. The Law of gravity:

The law of gravity or law of universal attraction, discovered by Ishak Newton!

Who has never heard of ishak Newton’s law of gravity? You know, the story of the
Apple that the scientist receives on his head while he admires the moon in the
sky? It was in 1687.
It is by making the connection between these two bodies (the moon and the
Apple) that Newton then asks himself: why is the moon does not fall?
The answer is obviously it is ‘held’ by a gravitational force. Thus, was born the
famous formula of Newton’s law of gravitation:’’ the stars attract each other in
a proportional way to the product of their mass which is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance that separates them’’
mathematically, this is expressed by:

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 F= G × (mA ×mB)/d2 where: mA,mB in Kg and G= 6,67× 𝟏𝟎-11 N.m2.kg2
F I here represents the force, G represent the gravitational constant,m A ans mB are
respectively the mass of the body A and body B, d is a distance expressed in
meters. This formula tends to prove the value of the force exerted by the body A
on B and vice versa. 200 years after Newton, Einstein replace the theory of gravity
with his theory of relativity.

5. The theory of relativity:

E = m×c2
E represents energy, m the mess of a body and c the speed of the light.
Whether you are lulled into mathematics and physics oh no nothing about much
vocabulary, everyone knows the famous formula of Albert Einstein (E=m×c2).
Formula which illustrated the theory of relativity upset all the codes of physics
known until then. It remains capital today because it shows that matter can be
converted into energy and vice versa.
Special relativity brought the idea that the speed of light was a universal constant
that did not change, and that the passage of time was not the same for people
who moved to a different speed. Einstein’s general relativity describes gravity
where space and time are curved and folded: this was a major change from
Newton’s law of gravity.
Even today, Einstein’s theory of relativity remains essential for understanding the
origin, structure and fate of our universe.

6. The Chaos theory:

(Chaos Theory Studies the behavior of dynamic systems)
What is very interesting about Chaos theory is that one could not predict with
determinism what was to become, it describes a process that is constantly
evolving overtime. This theory proves that there is no real process that can be
predicted.
Robert May’s theory is very recent since it dates from 1975, although we already
find under the pen of Poincaré at the end of the 19th century, the phenomenon of
sensitivity to initial conditions, one of the two fundamental characteristics of the
theory of Chaos (the second being the principal of recurrence). In her formula,
May wanted to explain that Chaotic behavior (such as as the weather which
experienced many climatic changes regularly, even tiny ones) can lead to another
completely different system a few days later.

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The most famous illustration is the one called the ‘’butterfly effect’’ which say’’
that a flapping of the wings of a butterfly in Brazil can cause a hurricane or
a tornado in Asia’’ in other words, the most insignificant things can have and
unsuspected impact on nearby environment as well as one much further away. In
algebra, they also find this idea when we make an approximation. For example, if
we perform a truncatipn of Pi 22 decimal places (3.14 in this case), the repeated
use of this approximation will generate results more and more distant from the
reality that we want to show.
In Chaos theory, it is precisely the multiplicity of factors that makes any event
unpredictable.

7. The infinitesimal calculus:

How do you fight between algebra and geometry, calculus is a branch of
mathematics in itself. Infinitesimal calculus is interested in integrals, series or
infinite sequences, function by treating their derivative and their limits.
If we were to summarize the infinitesimal calculus in a single idea, we would
speak of the study of variations.
There are many concrete applications in mechanics, physics or more surprisingly
in economics.Indeed, the study of variation makes it possible to study the
evolution of a company by taking into account a lot of various data and possibly
predict or give an idea of its financial health and future years.
8. The Euler’s identity:
Euler’s identity is considered to be ‘’ the most beautiful of equations’’ of maths
because it features an improbable combination 5 mathematical constants. We
find its trace under Euler who highlight it in ‘Introdutio In Analyzin infinitorum
‘(introduction to the analysis of the infinitely Small), a true Coran of the
mathematics analysis.
Why do we admired this equation? Because it uses 3 of the fundamental
operations in arithmetic, addition, multiplication and exponentiation.

The identity of Euler alone sums up a large part of mathematics.

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 3. ‘E’ is the mathematical constant (being worth approximately 2. 71828)
representing the base of the logarithm, which we find in particular in
analysis or in differential calculus.
4. ‘𝑰’ imaginary unit represents algebra (source of complex numbers found
in equations with 3 unknowns).
5. Archimedes’ constant represents the very mysterious number Pi and
therefore geometry.
6. While the integer ‘0’, the neutral element of addition and the ‘1’, the
neutral element of multiplication, represent arithmetic and mathematic
respectively.
This equation, which decorates the ‘’Palais de la Découverte’’ in Paris, paved
the way for the development of the apology, a branch of modern math.

9. The Fourier transform:

The Fourier transform cuts time into several frequencies and simple waves like
a prism deconstructs light into several colors.
Another example could be magnetic field or acoustic field that we defined as a
signal, the Fourier transform is spectrum: it destructures the acoustic or
magnetic field, it is also an extension for no-periodic functions.
+∞
TF[X(t)] = X(f) = ∫−∞ 𝑿(𝒕)𝒆−𝒋𝟐𝝅𝒇𝒕dt
This theory turned our world upside down because suddenly it was possible to
understand the structure of more complex waves like human speech.
Today, this theory, which dates back to 1822, is found at the heart of modern
signal processing and analysis as well as in data processing.

10. Maxwell’s equations:

Maxwell’s equations describe how electric charges interact but also electric
currents in magnetic fields, it is a mise in abyme the behavior and the relation
between electricity and magnetism. These are essential and fundamental laws of
physics today.
There are 4 forms of Maxwell’s equations:
• Maxwell-Gauss equation.
• Maxwell-Thomson equation.
• Maxwell-Farady equation.
• Maxwell-Ampere equation.

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 11.The Second principle of thermodynamics :
The 2nd principle of thermodynamics(also known under the name of Carnot’s
principle which started in 1824) proves irrefutably that physical phenomena
are irreversible, especially when there are thermal changes.
This principle has been revised and reformulated on various occasions and it is
Ludwing Boltzmann in 1873 with Max Planck who popularized it on large scale.
dS ≥ 𝟎 both of thermodynamics out of the main laws (principles in fact,
because they are not demonstrated)
While the 1st principle of thermodynamics establishes an equivalence of the
different forms of energy including heat and work (principle of conservation) ,
Second principle introduces another system called entropy, it is a principle of
evolution because it determines in which direction the possible energetic
transformation of the world are achievable.
Therefore, some chemical transformations are possible while others are not.
Completely, if you put an ice cube in your in your hot cup of coffee, you will see
the ice cube melting but never the coffee freezing.

12.Schrödinger’s equation:
If one were to illustrate what math and quantum mechanisms are, Schrödinger’s
equation would be the perfect example. As Einstein’s general theory of relativity
was able to explain the universe on a large scale, this equation sheds light on the
behavior of atoms and subatomic particles.
𝒅
H(t)\𝝋(𝒕) >= 𝒊ℏ 𝒅𝒕 \𝝋(𝒕) >
The Schrödinger’s equation, devised by Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger in
1925, Is a fundamental equation in quantum mechanics. The equation explains
the evolution over time of particle, it describes the states of this particle from
which it is possible to describe all the states composed of particles.
This equation poses a real philosophical question, namely:
• Does matter consist of presences of possible states (gas,solid,liquid)?
• Isn’t something else?
The application of this equation is found in modern technology such as nuclear
power, solid-state computers and lasers.

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 13. The Navier Stokes equation:
We find Navier Stockes equations in fluid mechanics. These are equation
describing the motion of Newtonian fluids(gases and certain liquids) having the
particularity of having nonlinear partial derivatives.
Although the mathematical coherence of these equations(nonlinear) has not been
demonstrated, they often allow a modeling a phenomenon relatively close to
perceived reality.
𝝏𝒗
𝝆 ( 𝝏𝒕 + 𝒗. 𝚫𝒗) = −𝚫𝐩 + 𝚫𝐓 + 𝐟
Its equations are no linear derivatives.
This equations are useful in areas such as ocean currents, meteorology with air
mass movements, the behavior of constructions (buildings, bridges) under the
impact of the wind or the behavior of object launched at high-speed, like a train
or a plane defying the wind. Therefore, the general field of application is
aerodynamics and we will even find traces of this equation in the design offices of
sports teams (motorsport or cycling for example) which seek to maximize
performance by minimizing the impact of the wind.

14. Shannon’s information theory:

This theory finds its foundations in the article A Mathematical theory of
communication published in 1948 by Claude Shannon and will be completed by
Warren Weaver thereafter. In this theory, we consider information as a
measurable variable, although it is not observable.
Popularization of this theory would consist in saying that it aims to quantify the
average content of information contained in one or a set of messages. Although
information theory is initially confined only to the analysis of the means to be
implemented to transmit information as efficiently as possible, this information
has quickly been the subject of a mathematical reappropriation, in particular
through the world of Ronald Aylmer Fisher, statistician by profession. Fisher
highlights the fact that a piece of information is equal to the mean value of the
square of the partial derivative(𝛿) of the natural logarithm of the probability law
studied. In other words, the more probable a piece of information, the less
information it conveys and vice versa. The example of a journalist presenter of the
television news illustrates the idea perfectly, when the latter begins his diary with
‘’good evening’’ the information is considered very probable and therefore results
in a relatively small amount of information. Conversely, open in the newspaper
with the famous ‘’France a fear’’ has a low probability and high quantity of
information, likely to make the viewer react.

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The principle of this theory can be found in fairly wide fields of application,
ranging from cryptography to information coding, including the measurement of
the degree of redundancy of a text or a several pieces of information.
Other more recent theories combine mathematical analysis with information
such as the algorithmic theory of information popularized by Kolmogrov, Chaitin
and Solomonov.

15. Mathematics wins the war: the case of Enigma machine!

Many of us have already learned of Enigma and its role in deciphering German
messages during the WW2.
Many historians agree that Enigma’s cryptanalysis was a major factor in the
success of the Allies and that it indirectly saved many lives as it shortened the
war.

Enigma would have made it possible to decipher the secret language of the
Germans during the second world war.
The basic principle of the Enigma machine is based on 3 elements that work in a
chain:
• The connection board: which allows the letters of the alphabet to be
exchanged two by two thanks to ‘cards’ numbering 6(we can therefore
have 12 letters swapped: the A will for example become an E and the E will
become A, D can remains D…).
• Rotors: which are also permutation but without notion of reciprocity, that
is to say that if B becomes C , C will not necessarily become B. As the
Enigma machine evolves, we will go from 3 to 6 rotors. Among these 6
rotors, only 3 are used for coding and the can be placed in any order. if the
rotor initially transforms D into B, when it is turned one notch, it will
transform C into A. The rotor has 26 notches for as many positions. After 26
letters, it returns to its initial position and the second rotor takes over. So
on until the third.

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 • Reflector: which allows a final permutation. The goal is to swap all the
letters 2 to 2 again, which are then passed through the rotors and then
through the connection board.
The combination of all these permutations reveals 1016 different interpretation
possibilities of the coding.
Synthetic:
As we can see through time and especially since the 18th and the 19th century,
mathematical equations have been able to transform the world in which we live,
they have for some changed the modes of thought and reflections they simply
give the world a different trajectory.
One thing is certain whether we like it or not, these equations are everywhere,
maths is everywhere and is useful to us everyday in our daily life,in direct or a
more less direct ways.
So what will be the next mathematical innovation? What new mathematical
revelation will once again turn our conception of life as we imagine it upside
down?!

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