sustainability

Article
Entrepreneurship in an Increasingly Digital and
Global World. Evaluating the Role of Digital
Capabilities on International
Entrepreneurial Intention
Laura von Arnim 1, * and Matthias Mrozewski 2
1 Department for Entrepreneurship and Innovation Management, Technical University of Berlin,
10623 Berlin, Germany
2 ESCP Business School Berlin, 14059 Berlin, Germany; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]




Received: 4 September 2020; Accepted: 23 September 2020; Published: 26 September 2020


Abstract: Given the growing role of entrepreneurial companies in international markets, recent
research endeavors direct their attention towards understanding the role of digital technologies for the
internationalization efforts of new ventures. Thereby, existing research is mostly focused on explaining
the enabling role of digital technologies as a contextual frame, but widely neglects the role of the
individual and his/her capabilities to make use of those technologies. This paper aims at closing the
above research gap by focusing on digital capabilities and investigating their effect on the intention to
engage in international entrepreneurship. With the help of structural equation modeling, we integrate
the concept of digital capabilities into the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and empirically analyze
the complex relationship between digital capabilities, the three TPB dimensions, and international
entrepreneurial intention (IEI). Using a student sample from a major German university (n = 198),
we find evidence for the significant role of digital capabilities for IEI through its positive effects on an
individual’s attitude towards international entrepreneurship and perceived behavioral control.

Keywords: digital capabilities; international entrepreneurship; entrepreneurship; theory of planned

behavior; international entrepreneurial intention; Germany

1. Introduction
Recent entrepreneurship and innovation research agrees that digital technologies actas important
“enablers” of entrepreneurial action [1,2]. The enabling effect can be mainly attributed to the
circumstance that strategically important resources such as information and knowledge [3] are
distributed more equally thanks to the wide availability of internet and cloud technologies [4],
coming with free of charge information, communication and collaboration tools, and the necessary
infrastructure [5]. Nowadays, potential customers can be reached easily through e-commerce sales
channels, which allow for quick commercialization of newly developed products and services [6,7].
The evolution of the aforementioned technologies and tools is, moreover, significantly easing the
spontaneous creative and collective processes needed for entrepreneurship and innovation activities
(e.g., product development, etc.) by enhancing human collaboration without the need of physical
presence [8]. As a consequence, venture projects can be set up quickly without requiring huge
upfront investments, e.g., in office infrastructure. This all together significantly lowers the barriers
of market entry for small entrepreneurial companies and enables them to successfully compete with
incumbent firms.

Sustainability 2020, 12, 7984; doi:10.3390/su12197984 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2020, 12, 7984 2 of 18

The positive effects of digitization for entrepreneurship are particularly visible in the international
context as communication with international suppliers, customers, and business partners is increasingly
accessible through the means of internet technologies and digital tools [9]. As a consequence,
the high (and costly) risks typically associated with international business activity are significantly
lowered which, in turn, creates an environment in which under-resourced firms can achieve quick
internationalization [10,11]. It comes as no surprise that digitalization is seen as an important “enabler
of international entrepreneurship” (IE) [12] (p. 661) as it facilitates resource-constrained new ventures
and small firms to participate in international business activities [12–14]. Given the growing role
of entrepreneurial companies in international markets [15], recent research endeavors direct their
attention towards understanding the role of digital technologies for the internationalization efforts of
new ventures [12–14,16,17].
The above research has its strengths, showing how digital technologies enable the
internationalization of entrepreneurial firms, but widely neglects the role of the individual and
his/her capabilities to make use of those technologies. This is problematic for two reasons. First and
most importantly, the “enabling effect” of digital technologies can only be attained if individuals can
make proper use of those technologies. Second, entrepreneurial firms are particularly influenced by
the personality of the founder and are, therefore, increasingly driven by individual behavior and
vision [18–20]. Thus, in an entrepreneurial context, it is mostly the individual decision maker who is an
important antecedent of the firm’s adoption of digital capabilities [21] and the discovery of international
opportunities [22,23]. Consequently, without focusing on the capabilities and decision-making
heuristics of the individual, the role of digital technologies for internationalization efforts can be
understood only partly.
This paper aims at closing the above research gap by focusing on digital capabilities and
investigating their effect on the very early stages of entrepreneurial internationalization, namely the
intention of individuals to engage in IE (IEI). We are guided by the following research question:

How Are Digital Capabilities Affecting IEI?

Building on recent studies, which found that strategic decisions inherent in the internationalization
process of entrepreneurial firms are determined by planned behaviors of individuals which are
intentional by nature [23–25], we leverage on the theory of planned behavior (TPB) and build a
framework explaining the role of digital capabilities for entrepreneurial action with an international
focus. More precisely, we integrate digital capabilities into the TPB to explain IEI and empirically
investigate the interactions between digital capabilities and the three dimensions of the TPB, namely
attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control (PBC).
Our study contributes to research in two important ways. Firstly, it contributes to the literature
on entrepreneurial decision-making by developing our theoretical understanding of the formation of
entrepreneurial intentions driven by digital capabilities within the framework of the TPB. Through
the integration of digital capabilities into individual-level theories of cognitive psychology and more
precisely, by investigating the relationship between digital capabilities and the three cognitive variables
of the TPB, we provide a theoretical framework for explaining the process of how digital capabilities
affect IEI. Moreover, we empirically test this model and show that digital capabilities do indeed play
a role in entrepreneurial decision-making by affecting attitude towards IE and PBC. By focusing
on their individual level, we provide a differentiated view on the role of digital technologies in an
entrepreneurial context [26]. Our approach is novel as individual-level research connecting digital
technologies in the IE context is limited [27].
Secondly, we contribute to the IE literature by responding to the call of [12] (p. 674) for a better
understanding on how “behaviors of founders impact the ability of their firms to pursue international
opportunities in internet-enabled markets” [12] (p. 674). By empirically investigating the mechanisms
within and linkages between digital capabilities, cognitive characteristics, and IEI, we advance the
Sustainability 2020, 12, 7984 3 of 18

existing IE literature regarding digital technologies as a context factor [28,29] or firm resource [9,30] by
a cognitive perspective on the role of digital technologies in IE.
Finally, our research is important from a sustainability point of view as developing countries
are particularly profiting from the business opportunities associated with IE. While traditional global
industries are characterized by a domination of large western multinational companies, the global
entrepreneurship landscape is widely different. Thus, approx. 50% of so called unicorn startups
(new technology based firms valued at >USD 1 bn) can be classified as stemming from non-western
countries (such as China, India, Ukraine, etc.), which is a sign that firms from less-developed economies
are increasingly taking those chances and as a consequence, foster regional economic growth.

2. Background Literature and Theory

2.1. TPB and IEI

“Intentions are assumed to capture the motivational factors that influence a behavior” [31] (p. 181)
and are the construct of use when it comes to the investigation of decision making [32]. According to
the TPB, intention can be described as the willingness to achieve a given behavior [33] and is mainly
influenced by three determinants. The first is attitude towards the behavior, which is explained as the
“degree to which a person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of the behavior in question” [32]
(p. 454). The second determinant described in the theory is subjective norm, which captures the social
pressure to achieve the behavior [31,32]. The third factor influencing intention is PBC, which is seen as
the perceived ease of accomplishing the behavior under evaluation of the perceived abilities, resources,
and opportunities [31]. PBC is closely related to Bandura’s concept of perceived self-efficacy [34] and
conceptualized by the confidence in the ability to perform the behavior and in controllability [35].
Consistent with previous studies, the three dimensions—attitude towards the behavior, subjective
norm, and PBC—are taken to drive entrepreneurial intentions [36,37] and pose that this relationship is
also valid when considering IEI [23,38,39].
IEI, described as the willingness to actively exploit business opportunities abroad “in the race for
new markets” [39] (p. 294), has been found to be an important predictor for entrepreneurial growth and
performance [16]. Specifically, in an increasingly globalized and digitalized world, “internationalization
is not just an option that firms can choose to follow, but has become an important precondition for
economic success” [40] (p. 1014), with expected higher outcomes the earlier an entrepreneurial firm
engages in and commits to foreign markets. Thus, the analysis of the drivers of IE is a key topic in IE
research [40,41].
Based on the field of general entrepreneurship, the individual entrepreneur is seen as the key
decision-maker of strategic decisions [42], such as the decision to engage in IE [15]. This highlights
the role of the individual for the identification and exploitation of international entrepreneurial
opportunities [23] and it is sensible to understand “how entrepreneurs think and make decisions” [43]
(p. 135) to explain why some intend to engage in IE while others do not.
Thus, previous studies revealed several behavioral factors that play an important role in
the formation of IEI. In this vein, various studies have emphasized the importance of the three
behavioral determinants—innovativeness, proactiveness and risk-taking—in shaping an international
entrepreneurial orientation (for a review, see [44]). Additionally, a considerable number of studies
have highlighted a global mindset, represented by an openness for and understanding of different
national contexts and cultures [45–47], as well as a positive attitude towards IE [22,38,39], as important
factors and drivers of IEI.

2.2. Digital Capabilities and IEI

Combining the above discussion with the arguments that the internationalization of entrepreneurial
firms is attributed to the decision maker’s cognitive and behavioral antecedents [43,48] and that the
decision maker is an important antecedent of the firm’s adoption of digital capabilities [12], we argue
Sustainability 2020, 12, 7984 4 of 18

that individual-level digital capabilities are important for entrepreneurial internationalization decisions.
Individual capabilities encompass the ability to combine unique resources such as human capital,
to achieve greater firm performance and competitive advantage [26,49]. A variety of individual-related
digital capabilities such as technical, behavioral, physical, managerial, and relational have already
been subject to prior research [26], but rarely in the context of IE.
We describe digital capabilities as the decision maker’s “cognitive potential to make proper use of
ICTs” [50] (p. 50) for business purposes [51]. Thus, with the use of digital technologies, individuals can
gain important knowledge about foreign markets [52] through easy and efficient access to foreign market
data [53]. Furthermore, it allows them to communicate across borders with potential customers [21] and
suppliers [54,55], thus building relevant networks [56]. This enhances the efficiency of entrepreneurial
decision making and the evaluation of markets and customers [57], and allows for identifying
promising business ideas [58]. Glavas and Mathews [21] found that international entrepreneurs who
internationalized proactively own an elevated level of digital capabilities. They argue that “these
international entrepreneurs were seeking to identify and exploit new opportunities through the
adoption of internet capabilities” [21] (p. 242).
Based on this discussion, it is reasonable to assume that individuals coming with superior digital
capabilities are advanced when engaging in international entrepreneurial activity. However, only
individuals who are able to use the above tools effectively are expected to profit from the advantages
they provide for international business activity.

3. Conceptual Framework and Hypothesis Development

3.1. Digital Capabilities, Attitude towards the Behavior, and IEI

Previous research already confirmed the influence of attitudinal elements of TPB on entrepreneurial
intention in general [37,59] and specifically, in the international context [38,39]. In line with that,
we expect digital capabilities to influence IEI through their positive impact on attitude towards IE.
Attitude towards behavior is explained as the “degree to which a person has a favorable or
unfavorable evaluation of the behavior in question” [32] (p.454). The behavior in question in our
context is IE, which is defined by Oviatt and McDougall [60] (p. 540) as the “discovery, enactment,
evaluation, and exploitation of opportunities—across national borders—to create future goods and
services”. The evaluation of whether an idea is also a real opportunity which is worth considering
is dependent on the risk perception of the entrepreneur [61,62]. Previous research has shown that
risk perception is an important determinant of the attitude towards IE [39]. Thus, it may be expected
that the fewer information an individual has about the feasibility of an opportunity, the higher the
perceived uncertainty and the less favorable the evaluation of the opportunity [61,62]. Thus, without
having access to relevant information, an opportunity seems to be less attractive. This mechanism
is particularly strong in an international context, as cross-border trade and investment involve more
uncertainty and risk than local business, and are typically confronted with a lack of information [21].
Given that digital capabilities help to overcome those information asymmetries by allowing access
to information on foreign markets, the perceived risk of internationalization is reduced [63]. With a
reduced risk, opportunity feasibility increases and as a consequence, also the attitude towards acting
upon this opportunity grows.
Hence, we expect that digital capabilities increase information availability and market knowledge
and hence, lead to a favorable evaluation of IE. We, therefore, hypothesize that digital capabilities are
indirectly and positively related to IEI by affecting the attitude towards IE. We hypothesize:

Hypothesis 1a (H1a). Digital capabilities positively influence the attitude towards IE.

Hypothesis 1b (H1b). The attitude towards IE has a positive impact on IEI.

Sustainability 2020, 12, 7984 5 of 18

3.2. Digital Capabilities, Subjective Norm, and IEI

Conceptually closely related to the theory of normative conduct [64], a subjective norm refers to a
person’s perception that important people belonging to a person’s surrounding favor the behavior in
question [65]. Thus, the more positive the evaluation of a certain behavior by an individual’s social
environment, the more he or she will intend to do so [32,66].
Despite most findings of previous empirical research reporting a positive role of subjective norm
for entrepreneurial intention in a general context [36,67,68], the role of the subjective norm for IEI
is less clear and previous studies [25,38,39] could not find a positive link between subjective norm
and IEI. These contrary findings accompany the note of Ajzen [31] that the predictive strength of the
dimensions can vary across situations.
However, as it is known that other people can influence individual behavior because of their
ability to mediate behavioral outcomes [69], we assume that IE behavior may also be affected by
normative influences. Furthermore, and in line with Zapkau et al. [68], we argue that the people
referred to are often well informed about the human capital of an individual and formulate opinions
and recommendations based on the information they possess about those capabilities. It may be
expected that they will particularly encourage actions which are related to the capabilities of the
individual as they are realistic and therefore, will likely bring about desired outcomes [68]. At the
same time, they will discourage the individual to take actions which are not related to his/her set of
capabilities, as this increases the likelihood of undesired outcomes, such as failure.
Thus, it may be expected that the social environment will play an important role for an individual’s
decision of founding and running a business with all its consequences [70]. Thereby, his or her
capabilities may play an important role in shaping the beliefs of the social environment as to the
desirability of this behavior. Indeed, a subjective norm is strictly related to an individual’s social
environment, but it can be affected by the skills of the individual. Thus, family members and close
friends are often well informed about the skills and capabilities of an individual and formulate opinions
and recommendations based on the information they possess about those capabilities. It might be
expected that they will particularly encourage actions which are related to the skills of the individual
as they are realistic and hence, will likely bring about desired outcomes. At the same time, they will
discourage the individual to take actions which are not related to their skill set as this increases the
likelihood of undesired outcomes, such as failure. Thus, if they know that an individual has shown
superior digital capabilities in the past, they might be more likely to believe that the individual will be
able to use those skills to successfully compete internationally. Hence:

Hypothesis 2a (H2a). Digital capabilities positively influence subjective norm.

Hypothesis 2b (H2b). Subjective norm has a positive impact on IEI.

3.3. Digital Capabilities, PBC, and IEI

The third factor influencing intention is PBC, which is seen as the perceived ease of accomplishing
the behavior under evaluation of the perceived abilities, resources, and opportunities [35]. PBC is
found to be a strong predictor of entrepreneurial intentions in general [36] and specifically in the
international context [39].
Thereby, it is likely that PBC is increasing if an individual’s level of digital capabilities is growing.
With enhanced digital capabilities, individual actors can access different internet-based information
channels to acquire information which are hidden to individuals with fewer digital capabilities [26].
Based on that information, they can effectively assess whether their abilities are sufficient to survive in
international markets, which resources are available internationally, and which market segments bring
about the highest profitability. Based on this information, individuals can better plan potential activities,
quantify potential risks, and apply risk management techniques accordingly [71,72]. This again increases
the belief that accomplishing IE behavior is realistic and that one is prepared for different scenarios
Sustainability 2020, 12, 7984 6 of 18

Sustainability
and 2020, can
therefore, 12, x effectively
FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 18
control the internationalization process. Furthermore, in a business
surrounding which is increasingly based on digital solutions [1,73], digital capabilities should transform
[1,73],
into digital
higher capabilities should
self-confidence transform Thus,
of an individual. into higher self-confidence of an individual. Thus, it is
it is hypothesized:
hypothesized:
Hypothesis 3a (H3a). Digital capabilities positively influence the PBC.
Hypothesis 3a (H3a). Digital capabilities positively influence the PBC.
Hypothesis 3b (H3b). PBC has a positive impact on IEI.
Hypothesis 3b (H3b). PBC has a positive impact on IEI.
Combining
Combining the theabovementioned
abovementioned arguments, this study
arguments, arguesargues
this study that the that
effectthe
of digital
effect capabilities
of digital
on IEI is indirect as it is mediated by the three attitudinal variables of the TPB—namely
capabilities on IEI is indirect as it is mediated by the three attitudinal variables of the TPB—namely attitude
towards IE, subjective
attitude towards norm, and
IE, subjective PBC.and
norm, Figure
PBC.1 Figure
shows our research
1 shows model. model.
our research

Figure 1. Research Model to explain the Influence of Digital Capabilities on IEI: Own model approach
with elements
with elements from
from TPB
TPB (Ajzen,
(Ajzen, 1991).
1991).

4. Methodology
4. Methodology

4.1. Data
4.1. Data
To test our conceptual model, we collected data from 198 students who took entrepreneurship
To test our conceptual model, we collected data from 198 students who took entrepreneurship
courses at a major German university. We focused on this sample for two reasons. First, the TPB
courses at a major German university. We focused on this sample for two reasons. First, the TPB has
has been developed on students [32] and entrepreneurial intentions have mainly been tested on
been developed on students [32] and entrepreneurial intentions have mainly been tested on students
students [37,59,68,74–83]. In addition, in our case, entrepreneurship students seem to be an appropriate
[37,59,68,74–83]. In addition, in our case, entrepreneurship students seem to be an appropriate sample
sample due to two reasons. Firstly, regarding the antecedents of entrepreneurship, students appear to
due to two reasons. Firstly, regarding the antecedents of entrepreneurship, students appear to be an
be an appropriate sample, as individuals with entrepreneurship education are more likely to engage
appropriate sample, as individuals with entrepreneurship education are more likely to engage in
in entrepreneurship [81,84]. Secondly, as IEI is preceding IE, to isolate intention from opportunity
entrepreneurship [81,84]. Secondly, as IEI is preceding IE, to isolate intention from opportunity
exploitation, it is necessary to survey individuals who are not engaged in starting up a business yet.
exploitation, it is necessary to survey individuals who are not engaged in starting up a business yet.
We used a questionnaire to gain self-reported data, as we focused on intention measures which are
We used a questionnaire to gain self-reported data, as we focused on intention measures which
self-reported by definition [36]. However, we are confident that the self-reported information collected
are self-reported by definition [36]. However, we are confident that the self-reported information
is robust as it does not contain any sensitive information which might lead to biased results [67].
collected is robust as it does not contain any sensitive information which might lead to biased results
Overall, we asked 335 entrepreneurship students to take part in our survey and received
[67].
261 responses. After excluding cases with missing data, our sample consists of 198 self-reported
Overall, we asked 335 entrepreneurship students to take part in our survey and received 261
measures. Female participants made up 44 percent of the sample. The average age was 25 years (SD =
responses. After excluding cases with missing data, our sample consists of 198 self-reported
2.7; min = 20; max = 35).
measures. Female participants made up 44 percent of the sample. The average age was 25 years (SD
= 2.7; min = 20; max = 35).

4.2. Measures
Sustainability 2020, 12, 7984 7 of 18

4.2. Measures
To measure the dependent variable IEI, we took scales proposed by (Kautonen, van Gelderen, and
Fink 2015) [36] and adapted them to the international context. Thus, to measure the dependent variable,
we replaced “to start a business in the next 12 months” with “to start an internationally operating
business in the future”. Overall IEI was measured with three items of a participant’s perception about
taking steps to start an internationally operating business in the future.
Similarly, we used scales from Kautonen, van Gelderen, and Fink (2015) [36] to measure the three
mediating variables—namely, attitude towards the behavior, subjective norm, and PBC—suggested by
the TPB. Attitude towards the behavior covers the participants’ evaluation about taking steps to start
an internationally operating business and was measured by six items. In line with previous research
recommending direct measures [31,77], subjective norm was recorded with three items of normative
beliefs that cover an individual’s perception of the pressure which family members, best friends, and
other important people exert with respect to the decision of taking steps to start an internationally
operating business [39].
PBC comprises the individual’s perception of the degree to which they are able and have the
control over taking steps to start an internationally operating business in the future [38]. PBC was
measured with four items proposed by Kautonen, van Gelderen, and Fink (2015) [36]. All items were
ranked on a six-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 6 = strongly agree.
For digital capabilities, we applied the measurement of firm-level capabilities used by Parida
and Örtqvist (2015) [51] and adjusted the questions to the individual level by applying the approach
of Mullins and Sabherwal 2014 [85] of using a stimulus. Hence, we introduced our scales with the
situation that a new software would be available to support international activity. Hereby it does not
matter what specifically the software does [85], simply that there is a new software available to support
international activity. To capture digital capabilities specified as the readiness to use a new software,
the participant had to evaluate the extent to which he or she would rely on the new software besides
using other resources. Overall, we use nine items to measure our independent variable of digital
capabilities. All digital capabilities items were measured analogue to the TPB constructs—by the
means of six-point Likert scales ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 6 = strongly agree. Appendix A
lists the items and stimuli used to create the measures of this study.

4.3. Structural Equation Modeling

Means, standard deviations, and correlations of the variables are provided in Table 1.

Table 1. Correlations and descriptive statistics of measurement variables.

Mean SD (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

(1) IEI 3.87 1.43 1.00
Attitude towards
(2) 4.61 0.98 0.59 *** 1.00
IE
(3) Subjective Norm 3.64 1.30 0.58 *** 0.48 *** 1.00
(4) PBC 3.75 0.91 0.42 *** 0.25 ** 0.50 *** 1.00
Digital
(5) 4.16 0.92 0.26 ** 0.26 ** 0.10 0.28 ** 1.00
Capabilities
Note: n = 198, correlations are significant at p < 0.001 *** and p < 0.01 **.

All the correlations of the variables are below 0.7 and the variation inflation factors are below the
value of 1, with a tolerance greater 0.1 indicating that multicollinearity is not problematic [86–88].
Digital capabilities correlate significantly with IEI (r = 0.26; p < 0.001), which indicates that there is
a positive relationship between an individual’s digital capabilities and his or her intention to become an
internationally active entrepreneur. Similarly, the three TPB dimensions are significantly and positively
related to IEI (Attitude: r = 0.59, p < 0.001; subjective norm: r = 0.58, p < 0.001; PBC: r = 0.42, p < 0.001.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 7984 8 of 18

Another important insight from correlation analysis is the fact that digital capabilities and PBC
correlate relatively weakly (r = 0.28 p < 0.01). This shows that from a statistical point of view, they are
distinct concepts (Theoretically, it might be questioned whether PBC and digital capabilities are distinct
concepts as PBC encompasses, among others, the evaluation of the perceived abilities to accomplish a
certain behavior, while digital capabilities mirror the perceived ability to deal with digital technologies.
However, at this point, it is worth noting that in our research context, the behavior in question is not
founding an IT-based business but founding an internationally operating venture. Hence, PBC in
our research context is related to the evaluation of the ability to run an international business and
is, therefore, theoretically distinct from digital capabilities, which is also proven by the results of the
correlation analysis).
Our research hypotheses require the testing of whether attitude towards IE, subjective norm,
and PBC mediate the impact of digital capabilities on IEI.
Following frequent recommendations that structural equation modeling (SEM) is a superior approach
for testing mediation effects [89,90], compared to traditional approaches like Baron and Kenny 1986 [91],
we apply SEM to test our proposed hypotheses (However, due to the small sample size and for robustness
purposes, we additionally conducted the traditional Baron and Kenny method [91] and a Preacher and
Hayes bootstrapping approach [92] to check if the results remain stable). Therefore, we operationalize
our measured items into reflective variables, which help us to control for measurement error [93].
Before estimating the SEM, we checked the robustness of our measurement construct. To check
common method variance, we conducted Harman’s single factor test [94]. Hence, five variables were
extracted in one factor with an eigenvalue greater than one. Common method bias is suggested if one
factor contributes to more than 50 percent of the total variance [94]. Our extracted factor explained
29.34 percent of the total variance and confirms that one factor did not account for the majority of the
variance. Our exploratory factor analysis indicates that all items load on their theoretically assigned
factors (Table 2); therefore, we proceeded with a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The results of the
CFA and Cronbach’s alpha are provided in Table 3.

Table 2. Results of exploratory factor analysis.

Digital Attitude Subjective

IEI PBC
Capabilities towards IE Norm
Item 1 0.052 0.287 0.748 0.262 0.205
Item 2 0.143 0.248 0.851 0.262 0.123
Item 3 0.137 0.278 0.795 0.233 0.125
Item 4 0.100 0.594 0.495 0.100 −0.022
Item 5 0.094 0.724 0.242 0.155 0.115
Item 6 0.016 0.776 −0.042 0.118 0.201
Item 7 0.097 0.849 0.247 0.009 0.030
Item 8 0.124 0.758 0.140 0.206 0.051
Item 9 0.129 0.712 0.129 0.159 −0.100
Item 10 −0.021 0.217 0.119 0.823 0.196
Item 11 −0.012 0.231 0.315 0.760 0.165
Item 12 0.027 0.243 0.282 0.827 0.098
Item 13 0.220 −0.003 0.124 0.366 0.474
Item 14 0.074 0.129 0.014 0.298 0.690
Item 15 0.138 0.010 0.106 0.285 0.766
Item 16 0.004 0.075 0.145 −0.171 0.764
Item 17 0.762 0.006 −0.055 0.098 0.051
Item 18 0.754 0.062 −0.032 0.106 0.073
Item 19 0.754 0.154 −0.219 0.048 0.099
Item 20 0.672 0.081 0.035 0.024 0.014
Item 21 0.722 0.058 0.091 0.022 0.048
Item 22 0.743 −0.046 0.290 −0.051 0.039
Item 23 0.746 0.070 0.093 0.031 0.067
Item 24 0.738 0.050 0.145 −0.059 0.113
Item 25 0.751 0.187 0.150 −0.085 −0.045
Note: Principal component analysis with varimax rotation and Kaiser normalization.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 7984 9 of 18

Table 3. Results of the confirmatory factor analysis.

Standardized Factor Cronbach’s

Construct Item Mean SD
Loadings Alpha
Item 1 3.70 1.583 0.827 0.91
Item 2 3.91 1.495 0.965
IEI
Item 3 3.98 1.572 0.876
Item 4 4.65 1.293 0.708
Item 5 4.75 1.219 0.733 0.87
Item 6 4.39 1.199 0.661
Attitude towards IE Item 7 4.70 1.191 0.848
Item 8 4.40 1.286 0.763
Item 9 4.74 1.295 0.696
Item 10 3.39 1.452 0.768 0.89
Subjective Norm Item 11 3.80 1.471 0.887
Item 12 3.73 1.380 0.927
Item 13 4.57 1.176 0.583 0.70
Item 14 4.08 1.150 0.661
PBC
Item 15 3.18 1.304 0.782
Item 16 3.19 1.344 0.460
Item 17 4.24 1.167 0.713 0.90
Item 18 3.94 1.150 0.71
Item 19 4.23 1.155 0.708
Item 20 3.86 1.203 0.629
Digital Capabilities Item 21 4.02 1.264 0.692
Item 22 4.45 1.256 0.728
Item 23 4.36 1.329 0.727
Item 24 3.98 1.290 0.722
Item 25 4.32 1.285 0.742

All items load significantly on their variable and the standardized factor loadings of the CFA
are above 0.66, except for one item of the PBC variable, which shows a loading of 0.46. Furthermore,
the reliability of variables is satisfying, as Cronbach’s alpha reaches 0.7 at minimum [86]. Taking the
results into account, our measurements’ construct shows a good internal consistency.
Following Williams, Vandenberg, and Edwards (2009) [93] and Iacobucci (2010) [95], we assess
the model fit of the measurements by applying widely used fit indices of Chi-square χ2 , standardized
root mean square residual (SRMR), the comparative fit index (CFI), and the root mean square error
approximation (RMSEA) as recommended fit indices. As our χ2 adjusted by its df does not exceed a
recommended minimum of 3.0 [95], our SRMR is below the recommended threshold of 0.08, our CFI is
close to 0.95 [96], and our RMSEA is lower than 0.08 [94], we suggest an acceptable measurement fit of
our model (χ2 = 556.4/df = 265 ≤ 3, SRMR = 0.06; CFI = 0.89; RMSEA = 0.0075).

5. Results
After having achieved a good fit in the measurement model, we added the structural path.
The results of our structural model also indicate an acceptable fit (χ2 = 558.48/df = 266 ≤ 3, SRMR =
0.0056; CFI = 0.89; RMSEA = 0.0075). Figure 2 displays the results.
 Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 18
Sustainability 2020, 12, 7984 10 of 18

Figure 2. Note: *** p < 0.001; n.s. = non-significant.

Figure 2. Note: *** p < 0.001; n.s. = non-significant.
The standardized regression weights show that all attitudinal variables of the TPB display a
The standardized regression
significant and positive effectweights
(attitude: show
0.40, p <that allsubjective
0.001; attitudinal
norm:variables of the
0.30, p < 0.001; TPB
PBC: display
0.17, p< a
significant0.01)
and on the outcome
positive effect variable
(attitude:IEI,0.40,
whichp <confirms Hypothesesnorm:
0.001; subjective H1b, H2b, p <H3b.
0.30,and 0.001; < 0.01)
PBC: 0.17, pthe
Furthermore,
capturevariable
on the outcome of digital capabilities
IEI, positivelyHypotheses
which confirms and highly significantly
H1b, H2b, and (p < 0.001) influences the attitude
H3b. Furthermore, the capture
towards IE (0.27) and PBC (0.28), which confirms Hypothesis H1a and Hypothesis H3a. However,
of digital capabilities positively and highly significantly (p < 0.001) influences the attitude towards IE
we could not find a significant effect of digital capabilities on subjective norm, which rejects
(0.27) and Hypothesis
PBC (0.28), which confirms Hypothesis H1a and Hypothesis H3a. However, we could not
H2a.
find a significant effect of digital capabilities on subjective norm, which rejects Hypothesis H2a.
6. Discussion
6. Discussion
Applying the TPB as intention-based, we argue that the link between digital capabilities and IEI
is complex
Applying the TPBand that cognitive dimensions
as intention-based, weplay an important
argue that the role
linkinbetween
explaining this relationship.
digital capabilities In and
accordance with prior studies [23,38,39], we found empirical support for
IEI is complex and that cognitive dimensions play an important role in explaining this relationship. the application of the TPB
to explain IEI. This provides empirical support for the crucial role of attitude, subjective norm, and
In accordance with prior studies [23,38,39], we found empirical support for the application of the TPB
PBC for the development of entrepreneurial intentions at an international level. This adds to the
to explain growing
IEI. Thisstream
provides empirical support
of entrepreneurship for the
research crucialon
leveraging role
TPBofto
attitude, subjective norm,
explain entrepreneurial and PBC
activity
for the development
[36,37,70] and of entrepreneurial
provide empiricalintentions
evidence that at anthe
international
predictions of level.
TPBThis
alsoadds
hold to the growing
when the
stream of international
entrepreneurship contextresearch leveraging
is considered [23,39]. on TPB to explain
Furthermore, entrepreneurial
this strengthens activity
the growing body[36,37,70]
that
and provideargues for a cognitive
empirical evidence and individual
that level of the
the predictions of entrepreneur
TPB also hold to investigate the formation of
when the international IEI
context is
[25,43].
considered [23,39]. Furthermore, this strengthens the growing body that argues for a cognitive and
Furthermore, we found empirical evidence for the role of digital capabilities for IEI in general.
individualThus,
levelweof find
the entrepreneur to investigate the formation of IEI [25,43].
that digital capabilities are a significant predictor of IEI, which extends findings of
Furthermore, we found
previous research thatempirical evidence
already highlight for the
the role role of digital
of demographic capabilities
characteristics for IEI
as e.g., in general.
migration
Thus, we background
find that digital
[22], capabilities
institutional are a significant
environments [97],predictor of IEI,
attitudinal whichlike
elements extends findings of
international
entrepreneurial
previous research orientation
that already and a global
highlight themindset
role of [44,97], as well ascharacteristics
demographic human capital and as experiences
e.g., migration
[40] for IE.
background [22], institutional environments [97], attitudinal elements like international entrepreneurial
More precisely, our empirical results show that two of the three dimensions of the TPB—namely,
orientation and a global mindset [44,97], as well as human capital and experiences [40] for IE.
attitude towards the behavior and PBC—mediate the influence of digital capabilities on IEI. This
Morefinding
precisely, our empirical
confirms results
previous studies show
[67,68] thatthat twoinfluences—such
exogen of the three dimensions of the TPB—namely,
as digital capabilities—on IEI
attitude towards the behavior
are mediated by the TPB.and PBC—mediate the influence of digital capabilities on IEI. This finding
confirms previousHence,studies [67,68] that
digital capabilities exogen
positively influences—such
influence as digital
the attitude towards capabilities—on
IE. This can be explained by IEI are
the fact
mediated by the TPB.that digital capabilities provide individuals with superior access to international information,
Hence, digital capabilities positively influence the attitude towards IE. This can be explained by the
fact that digital capabilities provide individuals with superior access to international information, hence
reducing uncertainty related to international activities and allowing for a more effective identification
of promising international opportunities [72].
Furthermore, we have shown that digital capabilities positively affect PBC, which is seen as the
perceived ease of accomplishing the behavior under evaluation of controllability and self-efficacy [35].
Thus, we assume that individuals coming with superior digital skills are more self-confident to survive
in the international context, which can be explained by better market information as well as efficient
Sustainability 2020, 12, 7984 11 of 18

use of online channels for communication, collaboration, and sales [13,98]. This perception translates
into an increased self-efficacy which, in turn, increases IEI [39]. Therefore, it may be assumed that
digital capabilities give individuals the impression of being able to effectively control and handle the
complicated process of internationalization.
In line with our expectations but contrary to previous research (for example [25,38,39]), we indeed
could find a positive effect of subjective norm on IEI, though we did not find a positive effect of digital
capability on subjective norm. Hence, our hypothesis that digital capabilities are impacting IEI through
subjective norm must be neglected. This finding may be explained by the fact that in contrast to
attitude and PBC, subjective norm is not strictly related to the individual and his/her psychological
characteristics but is rather shaped by the social environment. Bearing in mind that the likelihood
of normative social influence depends on the visibility of the behavior to the social surrounding [69],
it may be assumed that digital capabilities, however, are individual-specific and other people do not
have full information on this aspect. Therefore, digital capabilities have an influence on the individual’s
attitude and PBC, but not on the way his/her social environment perceives the abilities of an individual
and how he or she is fulfilling the expectations of affiliated persons.
Our findings can be interpreted as a first indication that cognitive dimensions are influenced
by information availability and by the use of digital technologies. As we have shown, digital
capabilities help individuals to build their IEI by increasing attitudes toward IE and PBC and hence,
encourage them to engage in IE. Consequently, international markets are not anymore reserved for
the resource-endowed but are increasingly open to individuals with superior digital capabilities.
This notion becomes apparent when reflecting that the most successful international companies such
as Amazon, Facebook, or Google were not founded by experienced managers but by (former) IT
students. Taking into account that the importance of digital technologies in international business and
entrepreneurship is growing, it might be expected that the interplay between digital capabilities and
cognitive dimensions will be responsible for the appearance of further international new ventures in
the future.

7. Conclusions
This study investigates the effect of digital capabilities on IEI to gain a better knowledge on
how digital capabilities affect the decision of becoming an international entrepreneur in the future.
Herewith, we extend the current IE literature by proving a cognitive perspective on the link between
digital capabilities and IE.
Our results show that attitude towards IE, and PBC in regard to IEI are better predictors of IE
compared to the direct effects of digital capabilities. Thereby, we confirm previous research stating
that the link between digital capabilities and its outcome is complex and cannot be fully explained by
direct effects [26,49]. Additionally, we provide insights about the role of digital capabilities besides
being a firm resource [26] and thus, contribute to recent calls for a better understanding of how
digital capabilities advance cognitive entrepreneurial characteristics on the individual level that favor
IE [12,27].
Second, we advance IE research and more specifically, the literature on IEI (for example, [22,23,25,38,39])
by underlining the effect of individual-level factors, including digital capabilities in internationalization
decisions. Thus, using the TPB, we explain the mechanism leading to the formulation of the intention to
create an internationally operating business and empirically show that digital capabilities play a major role
here by positively affecting the attitude towards IE and PBC, which are important determinants of IEI.
Taking into account that in entrepreneurial firms, strategic decisions such as internationalization are driven
by individuals, we hence provide an answer to the question of how IEI are formed.
Our results are important from a practice perspective as they show that digital capabilities should
not be reduced to the role of helpful tools facilitating operative day-to-day tasks but should be regarded
as strategically important determinants of entrepreneurial decision-making [49]. Hence fostering
digital capabilities results not only in a higher supply of IT experts needed in today’s digitally shaped
Sustainability 2020, 12, 7984 12 of 18

world, but also increases the likelihood of the appearance of a new Apple, Facebook, or Google.
This should also be considered by venture capitalists who are usually interested in a rapid growth
of the startup they invest in. Hence, to assess the scalability and growth potential of a new venture,
it is not enough to consider the idea itself and the market prospects but increasingly focus on the
digital capabilities of the founding team to assess their intentions, motivation, and hence, international
growth perspectives. We furthermore show that entrepreneurship can be fostered not only through
entrepreneurship-specific measures but also through the enhancement of digital capabilities. This has
not only implications for entrepreneurship practitioners but also for managers aiming at fostering
corporate entrepreneurship. Furthermore, our findings also have implications for managers when they
are interested in strengthening entrepreneurial attitudes and global orientation of their employees,
whereas it could be shown that increasing digital capabilities can be regarded as an effective way to do
this. Thus, digital technologies open “internal boundaries and hierarchical barriers” [28] (p. 224) within
a firm, which results in easy access to important information and knowledge about foreign markets.
Finally, our findings have implications for public decision makers. We have shown that digital
capabilities should no longer be regarded only as a resource for firm advantage but also for shaping
IEI and thus, helping individuals to internationalize their entrepreneurial firms. Thus, whenever IE is
a desired outcome of public policy, the portfolio of instruments should include measures that foster
digital capabilities. We conclude that traditional internationalization support like institutional support
should be extended by IT education, which helps individuals to efficiently evaluate IE outcomes and
positively affect their resources, abilities, and consequently, PBC to engage in IE.

8. Limitations and Future Research

As with every study, our research is confronted with potential limitations. Firstly, as intention is
self-reported by definition [36], our dataset also comes with the threat of a response bias. Respondents
could overestimate their cognitive characteristics such as PBC. However, having in mind that the bias
is mostly related to the query of sensitive data [67], we are confident that our results are not biased.
Secondly, we focused on the earlier stage of TPB and neglected the relationship between intention
and actual behavior. However, using theoretical arguments of TPB stating intention as a predictor of
behavior [33] and empirical findings in a general entrepreneurial context [36,37], we are convinced
that our results are relevant for international entrepreneurial behavior as well. Nevertheless, future
research could extend our findings and concentrate on the later stages of the TPB by empirically
showing that the intention–behavior link is also valid in the IE context. According to Zapkau et
al. (2015) [68] and Davidsson and Honig (2003) [99], we postulate that longitudinal studies of our
investigation would allow for direct observation of if the independent variables influence intention
and at a later stage, behavior as well—more specifically, if the individuals coming with superior
digital capabilities are subsequently also more often engaged in international entrepreneurial activity
than their fellows coming with lower levels of digital capabilities. Thirdly, our sample consists of
students enrolled in an entrepreneurship course, which on the one hand shows that they are already
showing some entrepreneurial intention by taking the course, but on the other hand, this also does
not make them entrepreneurs. Therefore, we encourage further research to compare our results with
non-entrepreneurship students or individuals who already founded a business to account for the
generalization of our results.
Furthermore, we applied the TPB to investigate IEI in the IE context. Further studies could check if
our results remain stable when using alternative theoretical frameworks to investigate entrepreneurial
intentions, such as Shapero’s Model [100]. Finally, to provide a more differentiated view on the
relationship between digital capabilities and IE, further studies could assess more types of digital
capabilities (like, for example, digital capabilities of employees or technical IT capabilities) and other
IE outcomes like, for example, scope and speed of internationalization.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 7984 13 of 18

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, L.v.A.; Data curation, L.v.A.; M.M.; Formal analysis, L.v.A.;
Methodology, L.v.A.; M.M.; Writing—original draft, L.v.A. and M.M. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: We acknowledge support by the German Research Foundation and the Open Access Publication Fund
of TU Berlin.
Acknowledgments: We would like to thank Jan Kratzer for his overall support on our research project.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A

Table A1. Questionnaire variables: items, Cronbach’s alpha, and references.

Variables, Items and Cronbach’s Alpha Reference

IEI (3 items, α = 0.91)
Scale: Strongly disagree (= 1)/Strongly agree (= 6)
How well do the following statements describe you? Adapted from (Kautonen,
I plan to take steps to start an internationally operating business in the future. van Gelderen, and Fink 2015)
I intend to take steps to start an internationally operating business in the future.
I will try to take steps to start an internationally operating business in the future.
Attitude towards IE (6 items, α = 0.87)
Scale: Strongly disagree (= 1)/Strongly agree (= 6)
Please rate the following statement based on the word pairs provided: “For me,
taking steps to start an internationally operating business would be . . . ”
. . . unpleasant/attractive Adapted from Kautonen,
. . . useless/useful van Gelderen, and Fink (2015)
. . . foolish/wise
. . . negative/positive
. . . insignificant/important
. . . tiresome/inspiring
Subjective Norm (3 items, α = 0.89)
Scale: Strongly disagree (= 1)/Strongly agree (= 6)
How well do the following statements describe your situation?
Adapted from Kautonen,
My closest family members think that I should take steps to start an internationally
van Gelderen, and Fink (2015)
operating business in the future.
My best friends think that I should take steps to start an internationally operating
business in the future.
PBC (4 items, α = 0.70)
Scale: Strongly disagree (= 1)/Strongly agree (= 6)
Please indicate your opinion on the following statements.
If I wanted to, I could take steps to start an internationally operating business in the
future.
Adapted from Kautonen,
If I took steps to start an internationally operating business in the future, I would be
van Gelderen, and Fink (2015)
able to control the progress of the process to a great degree myself.
It would be easy for me to take steps to start an internationally operating business in
the future.
If I wanted to take steps to start an internationally operating business in the future,
no external factor, independent of myself, would hinder me in taking such action.
Stimulus Applied for Individual Digital Capabilities:
You are the founder of a startup which you would like to internationalize. As you
have limited financial and personal resources, you are relying on your network and
their knowledge to enter a foreign market. Your network looks like as followed:
You have your individual network with your family, friends and
co-founder/employees who are going to help you with their individual knowledge
and for example business contacts they have in the foreign market. Stimulus adapted from Mullins
You also have a business network with other startups, business angels, local and Sabherwal (2014)
suppliers and customers.
Additionally, you also have a big institutional network based on supporting
organizations like the Center for Entrepreneurship, Government agencies and
business incubators. You are satisfied with the support you get from your network.
Then you are told about a new software to support your market entry. You have
never worked with that software before.
Sustainability 2020, 12, 7984 14 of 18

Table A1. Cont.

Variables, Items and Cronbach’s Alpha Reference

Digital Capabilities (9 items, α = 0.90)
Scale: Very low extent (= 1)/Very high extent (= 6)
Please mark the extent to which you would rely on the new software.
To which extent would you rely on the new software to access information about
foreign markets and customer needs?
To which extent would you rely on the new software to enable strategic planning (for
example, market entry strategy, resources needed)?
To which extent would you rely on the new software to enable cost savings?
To which extent would you rely on the new software to enable competence/skills
Adapted from Parida and Örtqvist
development for international engagement?
(2015)One item was excluded for
To which extent would you rely on the new software to collaborate with business
context reasons
partners (for example, suppliers)?
To which extent would you rely on the new software to enable work flexibility (for
example, work outside the office)?
To which extent would you rely on the new software to handle communication
within the business (with co-founder, employees)?
To which extent would you rely on the new software to handle external
communication with the business stakeholder?
To which extent would you rely on the new software to promote your product
and service?

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