1. Who is the camera technician?

1.1. Brief job overview

1.2. How old is equipment
1.3. What can be done and why this should be done
1.3.1. Fast or necessary fixes
1.3.2. Real fixing, CLA and stuff
1.4. Importance of understanding photography
1.5. Importance of proper checking
1.5.1. What is ok
1.5.2. What is not ok, but still ok
1.5.3. What is not ok
1.6. Importance of self-learning
1.6.1. Shooting and understanding
1.6.2. Availability of any courses/repair manuals
1.7. Our daily workflow
1.8. Roles in the company, what is possible to do here
1.9. Types of cameras
1.9.1. Brief overview with examples and Evolution of cameras
1.9.2. Shutter types
1.9.3. Few words on lenses
2. General photography info
2.1. Why you need to know photography to check and fix cameras
2.2. How film works in general
2.3. Exposure triangle and general notes on exposure
2.4. How film reacts to light
2.4.1. Importance of proper exposure
2.4.2. Differences from digital photography
2.4.3. Applying to camera testing
2.5. ISO in film and digital – what changes
2.6. Bit more about exposure
2.6.1. How meters work
2.6.2. Few words on filters in b&w and color photography
2.7. Most typical mistakes made while shooting on film
3. Kamerastore check-up process
3.1. Analog bodies
3.1.1. SLR
3.1.1.1. Few words about batteries/contact cleaning
3.1.1.2. Checking all functions
3.1.1.3. Overall appearance (importance of checking camera
for hidden dents, tape, glue, DIY fixes)
3.1.1.4. Viewfinder and focusing screen
3.1.1.5. Mirror – overall appearance and functions
3.1.1.6. Light seals and few words about process
3.1.1.7. Overall exposure and importance of it
3.1.1.8. Light meter
3.1.1.9. Flash sync
3.1.1.10. Timer
3.1.1.11. Rewind (importance of checking with film)
3.1.2 Rangefinder
3.1.2.1. Testing alignment (both vertical and horizontal)
3.1.2.2. Few words about machines
3.1.2.3. Parallax correction and viewfinder frames
3.1.3. TLR
3.1.3.1. Shutter
3.1.3.2. Film advance/counter mechanism
3.1.3.3. Focusing and importance of it
3.1.4. Medium format in general
3.1.4.1. General info on the systems
3.1.4.2. Lenses with shutters
3.1.4.3. Parts of the modular systems
3.2. Lenses
3.2.1. Surfaces
3.2.1.1. Dust
3.2.1.2. Haze
3.2.1.3. Separation
3.2.1.4. Fungus
 3.2.1.5. Anti-Reflective coating
3.2.2. Aperture
3.2.2.1. Oil
3.2.2.2. Wear
3.2.2.3. Movement
3.2.3. Focusing and collimators checking
3.2.4. Zoom plus few words about dust inside zooms
3.2.5. Mount
3.2.6. Filter thread
3.2.7. Overall condition and how much repairable it is
3.2.8. Digital/autofocus lenses – image stabilizer, focus functions,
coordination with the body, computer functions
3.3. Digital bodies
3.3.1. Switching it on, few words about batteries again
3.3.2. Clearing the settings
3.3.3. Sensor condition and how to check
3.3.4. Auto focus functions
3.3.5. Screen and viewfinder condition
3.3.6. Buttons
3.3.7. Flash – built in unit and sync
3.3.8. Mirror – appearance and functioning
3.3.9. Shutter count – special software
3.4. Few words on cleaning
3.4.1. Supply we use
3.4.2. Simple demonstration, trying by themselves
1. Who is the camera technician?
1.1. Brief job overview
The study and practice of photography is widespread; indeed, it is the one of the most popular
hobbies in the world.
Yet the skilled camera and photo equipment technician is an individual rarely encountered and
constantly-sought. Why?
Training opportunities in the past was usually limited to those who were able to learn through
apprenticeship in the specialized repair shop. Supplementing this method were a few scattered, very
specialized factory training programs. To such inadequate beginnings was added a rapid increase in
quantity and complexity of photo equipment reaching the market, far exceeding the pace of training
program development. So the technician gap, instead of closing, widened by leaps and bounds
already in the past.
Then digital gear came in play and film cameras and optics were almost forgotten and
significantly lowered in prices, making repair business obsolete, which also didn’t support learning
of the new generation of technicians and mechanics. This is the basic cause of the problem you will
help to solve, and of the great opportunity for personal reward which lies ahead.
The photo technologist has been described as a fine instrument mechanic. His attention to detail
and fine workmanship is equal to the watchmaker's. But essentially the photo-technologist's field,
like these others, is unique. It demands specialized knowledge, special techniques, special
development of your individual talent.
You will learn through this training many facts and techniques related to watchmaking. Many
shutters, for example, employ an "escapement" mechanism -the same basic timing device found in
most watches. The handling of parts and certain techniques of cleaning and lubrication are much the
same as in watchmaking. The principal difference is that camera parts are generally more rugged,
and are subject to more power and less wear than clock parts.
Electricity and electronics are also important. The problems involved in understanding,
repairing and adjusting meter movements and in the tracing of faulty electrical circuits will be yours
to solve.
The equipment specialist is familiar with the science of optics. The technician is an
indispensable consultant when a substantial investment in any piece of photographic equipment is
to be made. He has that specialized knowledge of equipment function, quality, applications,
adaptability, efficiency, component parts and accessories for which the prospective buyer is
searching. He has an enthusiastic-interest in these details which makes him the confidant of all
photography-minded people.
The technician's field is highly specialized. Yet it touches many related areas and requires basic
understanding of the uses of tools and machines, electricity, optics, photographic processes and
customer needs. A comprehensive grasp of all parts of photography is the mark of the professional
service technician – the key to his value in the photographic industry.
1.2. How old is equipment
Even though Kamerastore sell and service significant amount of digital gear, main focus of the
company is still on the film photography gear. This is where how old is the gear factor comes in.
Most of the film cameras and lenses made in the previous century, so on average this gear is 50 year
old, if not more. Eventually a “perfect” new in box never used unit will pop up but generally goods
are in bad shape. Dust, dirt, moisture, improper usage by previous owner and – the worse usually –
attempts to fix it by the user come to field.
 This “normal” wear should be considered when equipment is tested. Even completely unused
lens will gather some dust inside and outside in 50 or more years. We will return to the testing
process later today with some nice examples from our 4000 items repair queue.
1.3. What can be done and why this should be done
Because of the general condition of the used photography equipment – some minor (or major)
fixes are necessary for almost every item. Generally there are two types of fixing, one is relatively
fast and usually not even fixing but more making it nicely usable again and the second one is real
repairs with disassembling, cleaning, adjusting, lubricating, replacing the broken parts, etc.
Also spare parts are important part of fixing cameras. Since spares aren’t available new – even
the worst cameras or lenses can become a spare parts donors
1.3.1. Fast or necessary fixes
Most of the gear coming to the shop need at least a good cleaning. That’s the part that almost
every single item comes through. Removing the dust, fast cleaning of the lens outer surfaces is also
necessary.
Then it comes for slightly longer but still quite easy to do things. Most of the film cameras have
light seals inside, made from foamy plastic which is degraded through the years since camera was
produced. If not replaced – it will cause light leaks on the film, therefore ruining photos (if you’re
not a huge lomography fan). Changing of those seals will also be a part of your training on the
upcoming weeks.
Sometimes people leave batteries inside the cameras and even more often – in the flash units.
Alkaline batteries tend to leak and oxidize inside the battery compartments often making camera not
usable. Sometimes this contacts can be cleaned to almost perfect look and still be working – and
this type of cleaning will also be part of your entertainment during upcoming weeks.
Most of the used lenses need at least surface cleaning. We developed some nice techniques for
this – and also will show you how to do it during your training.
1.3.2. Real fixing, CLA and stuff
What can be done if camera do not follow our testing standards anymore? First of all, you need
to identify the problem. Then it’s the question of if it is repairable or not. Next question is how
economically based is this repair. Work of skilled mechanic cost money – so there is no good in
spending two days on camera that will cost 100 euro and not so common in the repair queue.
When problem identified and considered nice to be fixed – item go to repair queue and then got
proper service from our camera mechanics.
1.4. Importance of understanding photography
No matter what camera or lens you are testing or fixing it is necessary to understand not only
basic principles of how this equipment works but how any faults in it will actually affect the photos
taken with this product. That’s why understanding the general principles of photography and
probably taking some photos by yourself help you to get your testing and repair skill to the better
level.
Understanding of how film or digital sensors react to light, how dust inside the lens affect
pictures, what happens if the shutter speed is 30% slower than it should be is vital part of good
camera equipment service. We will have some talk about this also later today.
1.5. Importance of proper checking
This understanding of general photography principles gets us to the part of what actually
considered as working camera or lens and what is not. We developed some tolerance limits because
old photography gear is almost never working perfect. Actually even completely new units straight
from the factory had some tolerances back in the day.
1.5.1. What is ok
Shutter speeds that are within our tolerance limits (usually 20 to 30% from the speed it should
be) considered as working fine. Anyway film, especially negative film, have some pretty good
exposure latitude, so this deviations from perfect shutter speeds will not affect the photos.
Built in light meters are considered working if total exposure made to meter measuring settings
is somewhere between -0.5 and +1 EV from actual light condition. This is again because of the film
latitude and general idea of how film reacts to light
Lenses is much trickier part, since there is no actual machine to test how dusty is it, so it is more
to the testing guy opinion. Here the quality of assembly, how old and how used the unit should be
considered.
1.5.2. What is not ok, but still ok
Some examples of camera equipment are not really up to all of the standards but still in pretty
much usable condition. Some zoom lenses might have loose zoom mechanism and lots of dust
inside but still produce quite a nice image. Some cameras might have the fastest speeds bit out of
the tolerances limits we have but work nice otherwise. Sometimes fixing of one issue will not
actually add value to the product – like if you fix all the haze and dust inside on cosmetically bad
cheap zoom – it still will be half of the optimal unit price, and also will take half a day to make it
work. In this cases it’s more valuable to sell this unit as is, mentioning the condition – there will be
a buyer who will enjoy the product and even save some money.
1.5.3. What is not ok
Although sometimes condition is bad enough – like if the shutter don’t open at all on the fastest
speed, or lots of oil on aperture blades, which will not only bother product work now, but also cause
bigger problem later. This cases go to repair or spare parts queue or for unrepairable electronics – to
the e-waste recycling.
1.6. Importance of self-learning
No matter how much you already know and what skill you will get through this training – it’s
always important to learn more by yourself. This works good through many different sources but
most common ones are doing the photography by yourself and learning more about repairs while
you work here.
1.6.1. Shooting and understanding
More different equipment and various film you use – the more familiar you get with the gear
use test and service at work. That’s also interesting process, and we have a lab here to develop and
scan film, and soon we will finish the darkroom which also will be available for those who want to
use it.
1.6.2. Availability of any courses/repair manuals
On the internet some repair manuals can be found as well as good books about how to use and
repair cameras. This all is good sources of learning, plus we have lots of old service manual made
by camera companies accumulated here.
1.7. Our daily workflow
Our daily workflow as technicians is quite simple. Customers send their gear to us for the
inspection, it get added to Kortti system. Then it is carefully tested and all possible faults got
marked. Then we send customer our offer for the gear and if they accept it, gear stays in in one of
the queues we have – either cleaning, repairing or listing. Stuff that needs repair go to the camera
mechanics team usually, things for cleaning go back to the technicians, ready to be listed goods go
straight to the listing team which put it on the website where cameras finally will find new loving
home. When products got back to the technician – he clean it, do the basic maintenance and put it to
the listing queue which we are already familiar with. As simple as that.
1.8. Roles in the company, what is possible to do here
So far we mostly need camera technicians with possibility to grow to the mechanic or making
both at the same time, but our product team is also the place for those who love the communicating
with people more than others
1.9. Types of cameras
Let’s start with some general camera types info. I got some example to showcase and will
briefly explain basic principles of how it works
1.9.1. Brief overview with examples and Evolution of cameras
Start with simple box cameras, add some Kodak old folders, to the 35mm rangefinders, to the
SLRs to spy small 16mm cameras to the medium format to large format to digital bodies. What is
different in them, what is same.
List of cameras and what to day about it
 1.9.2. Shutter types
Camera shutters can be fitted in several positions:
• Leaf shutters are usually fitted within a lens assembly (central shutter), or more rarely
immediately behind (behind-the-lens shutter) or, even more rarely, in front of a lens, and
shut off the beam of light where it is narrow.
• Focal-plane shutters are mounted near the focal plane and move to uncover the film or
sensor.
Behind-the-lens shutters were used in some cameras with limited lens interchangeability.
Shutters in front of the lens, sometimes simply a lens cap that is removed and replaced for the long
exposures required, were used in the early days of photography.
The time for which a shutter remains open (exposure time, often called "shutter speed") is
determined by a timing mechanism. These were originally pneumatic (Compound shutter) or
clockwork, but since the late twentieth century are mostly electronic. Mechanical shutters typically
had a Time setting, where the shutter opened when the button was pressed and remained open until
it was pressed again, Bulb where the shutter remained open as long as the button was pressed
(originally actuated by squeezing an actual rubber bulb), and Instantaneous exposure, with settings
ranging from 30" to 1/4000" for the best leaf shutters, faster for focal-plane shutters, and more
restricted for basic types.
Most shutters have a flash synchronization switch to trigger a flash, if connected. This was quite
a complicated matter with mechanical shutters and flashbulbs which took an appreciable time to
reach full brightness, focal-plane shutters making this even more difficult.
Cinematography uses a rotary disc shutter in movie cameras, a continuously spinning disc
which conceals the image with a reflex mirror during the intermittent motion between frame
exposure. The disc then spins to an open section that exposes the next frame of film while it is held
by the registration pin.
Focal-plane shutter
A focal-plane shutter is positioned just in front of the film, in the focal plane, and moves an
aperture across the film until the full frame has been exposed. Focal-plane shutters are usually
implemented as a pair of light-tight cloth, metal, or plastic curtains. For shutter speeds slower than a
certain point (known as the X-sync speed of the shutter), which depends on the camera, one curtain
of the shutter opens, and the other closes after the correct exposure time. At shutter speeds faster
than the X-sync speed, the top curtain of the shutter travels across the focal plane, with the second
curtain following behind, effectively moving a slit across the focal plane until each part of the film
or sensor has been exposed for the correct time. The effective exposure time can be much shorter
than for central shutters, at the cost of some distortion of fast-moving subjects.
Focal plane shutters have the advantage over central leaf shutters of allowing the use of
interchangeable lenses without requiring a separate shutter for each lens. (Leaf shutters behind the
lens also allow interchanging the lens using a single shutter.)
They have several disadvantages as well:
Distortion of fast-moving subjects: although no part of the film is exposed for longer than the
time set on the dial, one edge of the film is exposed an appreciable time after the other, so that a
horizontally moving shutter will, for example, elongate or shorten the image of a car speeding in the
same or the opposite direction to the shutter movement.
Their more complex mechanical structure causes a shorter life-span than other shutter designs.
Camera shake due to the impact of the larger curtains starting and stopping rapidly. Camera
designers have learned to overcome SLR mirror-slap by including a mirror lock-up feature in some
cameras. This removes the camera-shake from the large slapping mirror inside the camera, but does
not prevent camera-shake caused by the shutter mechanism itself.
Simple leaf shutter
A simple leaf shutter is a type of camera shutter consisting of a mechanism with one or more
pivoting metal leaves which normally does not allow light through the lens onto the film, but which
when triggered opens the shutter by moving the leaves to uncover the lens for the required time to
make an exposure, then shuts.
Diaphragm shutter
A diaphragm or leaf shutter (as distinct from the simple leaf shutter above) consists of a number
of thin blades which briefly uncover the camera aperture to make the exposure. The blades slide
over each other in a way which creates a circular aperture which enlarges as quickly as possible to
uncover the whole lens, stays open for the required time, then closes in the same way. The larger the
number of blades, the more accurately circular is the aperture. Flash synchronization is easily
achieved with a pair of contacts that close when the shutter is fully open.
Ideally the shutter opens instantaneously, remains open as long as required, and closes
instantaneously.
A few types and makers of leaf shutters became very well known. The early Compound shutter
had a pneumatic mechanism, with a piston sliding against air resistance in a cylinder. They were
quieter at slow speeds than clockwork, but potentially very inaccurate. More accurate clockwork
mechanisms then replaced the airbrake, and the German Compur, and the later Synchro-Compur,
became virtually the standard quality shutter. Later the Japanese Copal shutter was widely adopted
in quality equipment. The German Prontor and Japanese Seikosha shutters were also widely used.
The main advantages of central and behind-the-lens leaf shutters compared to a focal-plane
shutter are:
Flash synchronization is possible at all speeds because the shutter opens fully, unlike a focal-
plane shutter sliding a slit relatively slowly across the film for a short effective exposure.
Small size is possible as the shutter is placed where the bundle of rays is narrow, either inside or
just behind the lens.
Many versions have no connection between the cocking mechanism and the film advance
mechanism, making multiple exposures possible (this can be a disadvantage, as multiple exposures
can be produced accidentally if the photographer forgets to advance the film).
More realistic photographs in high speed panning—lateral focal plane shutters compress or
elongate the image in such cases.
Longer shutter life.
Some disadvantages of the central shutter are:
For an interchangeable lens system, each lens has to have a shutter built into it.
All leaf shutter speeds are limited by the speed at which the leaves can move: typically 1/500th
of a second for a high-specification diaphragm shutter and 1/125th of a second for a simple leaf
shutter.
1.9.3. Few words on lenses
A camera lens may be made from a number of elements: from one, as in the Box Brownie's
meniscus lens, to over 20 in the more complex zooms. These elements may themselves comprise a
group of lenses cemented together.
The front element is critical to the performance of the whole assembly. In all modern lenses the
surface is coated to reduce abrasion, flare, and surface reflectance, and to adjust color balance.
 The lens usually is focused by adjusting the distance from the lens assembly to the image plane,
or by moving elements of the lens assembly.
Glass is the most common material used to construct lens elements, due to its good optical
properties and resistance to scratching. Other materials are also used, such as quartz glass, fluorite,
plastics like acrylic. Molded plastic lenses have been used for the cheapest disposable cameras for
many years. However many modern, high performance (and high priced) lenses from popular
manufacturers include molded or hybrid aspherical elements, so it is not true that all lenses with
plastic elements are of low photographic quality.
Today, most lenses are multi-coated in order to minimize lens flare and other unwanted effects.
Some lenses have a UV coating to keep out the ultraviolet light that could taint color.
A lens will most often have an aperture adjustment mechanism, usually an iris diaphragm, to
regulate the amount of light that passes. In early camera models a rotating plate or slider with
different sized holes was used.
The two fundamental parameters of an optical lens are the focal length and the maximum
aperture. The lens focal length determines the magnification of the image projected onto the image
plane, and the aperture the light intensity of that image. For a given photographic system the focal
length determines the angle of view, short focal lengths giving a wider field of view than longer
focal length lenses. A wider aperture, identified by a smaller f-number, allows using a faster shutter
speed for the same exposure.
The maximum usable aperture of a lens is specified as the focal ratio or f-number, defined as the
lens's focal length divided by the effective aperture, a dimensionless number. The lower the f-
number, the higher light intensity at the focal plane. Larger apertures (smaller f-numbers) provide a
much shallower depth of field than smaller apertures, other conditions being equal.
2. General photography info
As I already mentioned earlier, it’s very important to know basic principles of the photography
to properly check camera equipment, especially used gear since the conditions would almost never
be close to perfect.
2.1. Why you need to know photography to check and fix cameras
When you have good understanding of what happens at the moment of taking picture and
processes behind getting the final photos you can much easier determine whether some camera or
lens mechanical or optical fault will actually be a problem or not. For example, overexposing by 1
stop is generally ok with most of the negative films, and if you only need a scans of the negative,
not going to make an optical prints – than slight overexposure is even good. Some photographers
intentionally overexpose their film to achieve a certain look of the photos.
2.2. How film works in general
Photographic film is a strip or sheet of transparent film base coated on one side with a gelatin
emulsion containing microscopically small light-sensitive silver halide crystals. The sizes and other
characteristics of the crystals determine the sensitivity, contrast, and resolution of the film.
The emulsion will gradually darken if left exposed to light, but the process is too slow and
incomplete to be of any practical use (some of you might seen solargraphies, that’s the case there).
Instead, a very short exposure to the image formed by a camera lens is used to produce only a very
slight chemical change, proportional to the amount of light absorbed by each crystal. This creates an
invisible latent image in the emulsion, which can be chemically developed into a visible
photograph. In addition to visible light, all films are sensitive to ultraviolet light, X-rays and gamma
rays, and high-energy particles. Unmodified silver halide crystals are sensitive only to the blue part
of the visible spectrum, producing unnatural-looking renditions of some colored subjects. This
problem was resolved with the discovery that certain dyes, called sensitizing dyes, when adsorbed
onto the silver halide crystals made them respond to other colors as well. First orthochromatic
(sensitive to blue and green) and finally panchromatic (sensitive to all visible colors) films were
developed. Panchromatic film renders all colors in shades of gray approximately matching their
subjective brightness.
In black-and-white photographic film, there is usually one layer of silver halide crystals. When
the exposed silver halide grains are developed, the silver halide crystals are converted to metallic
silver, which blocks light and appears as the black part of the film negative. Color film has at least
three sensitive layers, incorporating different combinations of sensitizing dyes. Typically the blue-
sensitive layer is on top, followed by a yellow filter layer to stop any remaining blue light from
affecting the layers below. Next comes a green-and-blue sensitive layer, and a red-and-blue
sensitive layer, which record the green and red images respectively. During development, the
exposed silver halide crystals are converted to metallic silver, just as with black-and-white film. But
in a color film, the by-products of the development reaction simultaneously combine with chemicals
known as color couplers that are included either in the film itself or in the developer solution to
form colored dyes. Because the by-products are created in direct proportion to the amount of
exposure and development, the dye clouds formed are also in proportion to the exposure and
development. Following development, the silver is converted back to silver halide crystals in the
bleach step. It is removed from the film during the process of fixing the image on the film with a
solution of ammonium thiosulfate or sodium thiosulfate (hypo or fixer). Fixing leaves behind only
the formed color dyes, which combine to make up the colored visible image. Silver halide
photographic paper is also similar to photographic film.
2.3. Exposure triangle and general notes on exposure
Photography is all about capturing light. In fact, the etymology of the word “photograph” is
basically “light drawing.” To make a photograph that we can see, we have to control both the
amount of light that is exposed to a photosensitive surface, be it film or a digital sensor, and also
control the sensitivity of that surface to the light. We will discuss a bit of the physics and
characteristics of light and then how a camera and lens combine to control exposure by using what
is commonly known as the “Exposure Triangle.”
Exposure Triangle
The Exposure Triangle comprises aperture, shutter speed, and ISO. These three camera and lens
controls work together to regulate the amount of light that makes it to the light-sensitive surface
(aperture and shutter speed) and the sensitivity of that surface (film or digital ISO). Not only do
those three controls affect the light of a photograph, they also have unique “side effects.” Aperture
controls depth of field, shutter speed can blur or freeze action, and ISO can add or subtract film
grain or digital noise from an image.
Each leg of the exposure triangle is important but before we analyze the three sides of this
virtual polygon, we need to establish a photographic foundation with light and exposure.
Light
Exposure can be defined as the amount of light that falls onto the camera's light-sensitive
surface. In any given scene, regardless if there is natural or artificial light being emitted, there is a
measurable amount of light that illuminates your subject.
This amount of light varies due to four basic factors: intensity, duration, distance between light
source and subject, and modifications to the light. This is not going to be a dissertation on light, but
let's touch on some basics and those four factors before talking about controlling exposure.
Let’s look at intensity, duration, distance of the light:
Intensity, the brightness of the light: A light source emits photons and, the more photons that
are emitted by a light source, or reflected by an object, the brighter it is. A brighter photograph is
created from a sensor or piece of film that has been hit by more photons than a darker photo. A
darker image was exposed to a lower number of photons than the brighter image.
Duration: The sun is a constant light source, but you can escape the light by riding the Earth as
it rotates away from the sun—or simply by going inside! Artificial light can be turned on or off and
some is emitted in a short-duration flash. If you increase the amount of time that a given light is
emitted from a light source, you can increase the number of photons that are collected by the
camera.
Distance: Photography, unfortunately for some of us, involves mathematics. This lesson on
exposure cannot escape math’s pull. The closer to the light source, the more photons you can
capture with a camera. The farther away you are, the fewer photons you can collect. Easy, right?
Well, what if you double your distance from the light source? There should be half the photons and
half the light, correct? Nope. Thanks to the Inverse Square Law, you get 1/4 of the light when you
double the distance. Why? This is because we are talking about area, not just distance. As light is
emitted from most sources, it spreads (lasers are an exception). So, a light bulb at 5 feet appears 4
times as bright as it was at 10 feet.
Measuring Light
OK, now that we know how the amount of light can be altered, we need to assign a quantitative
value to light so that we can measure its intensity, adjust our camera settings accordingly, and then
adjust them further to brighten or darken an image. It is this image adjustment that leads us to the
mathematical concept of "exposure value" or EV; sometimes referred to as "stops"
The intensity of light is its luminance, but, even with a number assigned to luminance, we really
aren't interested in quantifying that because cameras can capture images in all kinds of light, or even
in darkness. What we do care about is setting a baseline so that when we change camera settings we
are aware of how the changes will affect the exposure and how to compensate, if compensation is
desired.
Simplified, a "properly exposed" image can be given the baseline of EV 0. If we change
something on the camera to make the image darker, we venture into a minus EV. Brighter is a
positive EV. This is where the previously mentioned quantitative value comes in. EVs are given
numbers so that we can measure the change from the baseline EV.
The goal in creating an exposure is to allow a specific amount of light into your camera and lens
to capture your subject in a way that matches your artistic vision. Photography is art, and if you
want to alter the image to be brighter (overexposed) or darker (underexposed) to better express your
artistic vision, then never think that every frame you shoot needs to meet the definition of "proper
exposure." It does not.
So, what you want to do is set up your camera and lens to allow the correct (for you) amount of
light into the system to create the image you want. To control this light, you have the ability to
adjust three separate settings inside the camera—the Exposure Triangle. As we mentioned before,
there are two ways to control the amount of light that enters the camera and exposes the
photosensitive surface (aperture and shutter speed) and one way to control the sensitivity of that
surface (ISO).
Aperture is the size of the opening in the lens. This aperture is regulated by a diaphragm made
of overlapping blades that can be adjusted to vary the size of the opening through which light
passes. The size of the opening also has a secondary effect on the photograph, as the diaphragm also
changes the angle at which the light passes through the lens.
Like the pupil in your eye, the aperture diaphragm opens and constricts to control the amount of
light passing through the lens. To facilitate a properly exposed photograph, we need to quantify the
size of the opening so that we can mathematically incorporate this opening into our calculation for
exposure.
The ratio of the opening of a lens aperture when compared to the focal length of the lens—not a
measurement, but a ratio—is referred to as an f/number, f/stop, focal ratio, f/ratio, or relative
aperture. Regardless of the label you use, aperture values are spaced, for mathematical purposes, in
exposure values (EV) or stops.
The benefit of mathematically figuring out EVs is that we can apply this measurement to all
three adjustments that affect exposure—aperture, ISO, and shutter speed. With three adjustments all
speaking the same "language," we can use them simultaneously or independently as needed.
The formula used to assign a number to the lens opening is: f/stop = focal length / diameter of
effective aperture (entrance pupil) of the lens.
The smaller the number, the wider the opening. Therefore, a lens with a larger-diameter barrel
and optics will allow a larger opening represented by a smaller f/stop. Your lens/camera might allow
you to "dial up" different numbers than what is shown above; older manual lenses usually "click" at
1/2 stop increments. These numbers, seen on a digital display, like f/3.3 for instance, represent 1/2-
stop or 1/3-stop ratios.
Moving back to physics with some mathematics, here is how the f-stops change your exposure:
If you set your camera to f/8 and then widen your aperture diaphragm to f/5.6 you have doubled the
amount of light passing through the lens. Changing from f/8 to f/4 quadruples the amount of light.
Going from f/11 to f/16 halves the amount of light.
Do you notice something strange? When we go from f/8 to f/4 we are doubling the size of the
opening of the lens. Correct? Why then, is the amount of light quadrupled if the opening is only
double the size? The return of math and of the Inverse Square Law.
 When we bring this numeric data into a system for EVs, it is quite simple. A change in aperture
that results in the light being either doubled or halved means you have changed your exposure by
one EV, or stop. So, if you widen the aperture from f/16 to f/11, you have a +1 EV result, as you
have doubled the amount of light that will pass through the aperture diaphragm. f/16 to f/8 doubles
the size of the opening, quadruples the amount of light, and represents a +2 EV shift.
So, now that you know how aperture effects exposure, let us talk about those two "side effects"
of aperture that we alluded to above. The size of the aperture diaphragm not only affects the amount
of light passing through the lens, it also affects image sharpness and is one of several factors that
affect "depth of field."
Depth of field is defined as the amount of distance between the nearest and farthest objects that
appear to be sharply in focus in an image. Without depth of field, the lens's razor-thin focal plane
would cause problems for photography. Take a photo of a person and, for instance, the tip of their
nose would be in focus but the rest of them would be completely blurry. Depth of field allows that
focal plane to have a perceived depth.
Depth of field is a function of lens aperture size, lens focal length, the distance between the
subject and the camera, and something called the circle of confusion. Depending on your camera
and lens, by opening your aperture to its widest settings, you will narrow the range of the focal
plane to a very small distance. This can be used in photography for creative compositions with
close-up photography and, most popularly, for making distant backgrounds blurry when taking
portraits.
It is important to note that some camera/lens combinations will not produce appreciably shallow
depths of field, so do not think that by simply opening up your aperture diaphragm to its maximum,
you will achieve extremely small depth of field. Adjusting your aperture diaphragm the other way,
to its most narrow setting, extends the depth of that focus plane and allows a large range of the
image to be in sharp focus. Deep depth-of-field techniques are used commonly in landscape images.
Not only does the aperture control the amount of light passing through the lens, it affects the
angle of the light rays as they transit the lens. To be clear, we are not talking about how the lenses
are bending light, we are talking about how light, when it passes by an object, is slightly bent by
that object—in this example, the blades of an aperture diaphragm. This bending of the light is called
"diffraction" and is a characteristic of light's wave properties.
When you constrict a lens's aperture diaphragm, you are bringing that diffraction closer to the
center of the image. Many photographers, when they are starting to understand aperture, think that
the key to maximizing sharpness is a small aperture because of the effect that aperture has on depth
of field. However, because of diffraction, this is not true. Although you are increasing your depth of
field by constricting the aperture, you are also increasing the amount of diffraction in the image and
this causes the image to lose sharpness.
When you open the aperture diaphragm to its maximum size, you allow the maximum amount
of light into the lens and, with it, the maximum number of aberrations. By "stopping the lens
down," or reducing the size of the aperture diaphragm, you reduce those aberrations and the
sharpness of the image created by the lens increases. However, as we discussed above, the
downside is that as you make the aperture diaphragm smaller, you will increase the diffraction as
the smaller opening causes more bending of the light rays. The middle ground, the region where the
aberrations are reduced and the diffraction is manageable, is known as the lens's "sweet spot"—
usually in the region between f/4 and f/11 depending on the design of the lens. This sweet spot
aperture is where you will get the maximum performance of the lens as far as sharpness and
reduced aberrations, as well as getting a middle-of-the-road depth of field.
So, in summary, aperture not only serves to control the amount of light passing through a
lens, it also affects the performance of a lens in terms of depth of field and sharpness.
 Shutter speed is a measurement of time that a camera's shutter is open—allowing light, usually
after it has passed through a lens and through the aperture diaphragm, to strike a photosensitive
surface, like film or a digital sensor.
Unlike the nuances of aperture and its relation to light and optics, shutter speed is much more of
a straightforward affair.
Shutter speed is simply a measure of time that the shutter is open, or, in the case of the
electronic shutter, the sensor is powered. The longer the shutter is open, the more light comes
through. No tricks here – if you double the amount of time that the shutter is open, you will double
the amount of light coming in.
How does this relate to exposure and the exposure values (EVs) that we discussed earlier?
Because of the linear nature of the relationship of photons entering the camera to shutter speed, we
can use shutter speed to easily and precisely change the amount of light hitting our photosensitive
surface. By slowing the shutter speed, from 1/30th of a second to 1/15th of a second, for instance,
we will double the amount of light passing through the shutter. This doubling of light is identical to
the doubling of light accomplished by opening aperture, albeit by a different mechanical function,
and represents a +1 EV shift. Changing the shutter speed from 1/2000th of a second to 1/4000th of a
second then halves the amount of light coming through the shutter and represents a -1 EV shift.
Shutter speeds are listed as whole seconds or as fractions of a second. The maximum shutter
speed for most SLR cameras is 30 seconds.
Just like with aperture and ISO, there are some "side effects" of shutter speed.
Slow shutter speeds allow movement to be imaged across the photograph. This is not just
movement of the subject or subjects, but also of the camera too. It is nearly impossible to hold a
camera perfectly steady for any length of time, especially for a few seconds. Therefore, an image
taken with a handheld camera that covers any length of time will have blur from camera shake. The
other motion the camera sees is movement in the frame. A slow shutter speed will allow moving
cars, runners, animals, etc., to change position inside the duration of the image. This movement will
show on the photograph as motion blur and can be a really great creative element in a photograph.
Fast shutter speeds are used in the opposite fashion—to freeze action versus letting it blur across
a photograph. Speeding cars, diving swimmers, racing animals, mischievous kids, and more can all
be frozen in time with a fast shutter speed.
ISO, which stands for International Organization of Standards, is a measure of the sensitivity of
film or a digital sensor to light.
There are different international standards applied to color negative film, black-and-white
negative film, and color slide film, but the numbering system remains constant.
In order to adjust ISO, film shooters have only the option of changing to a different speed film.
Once loaded, the ISO is a constant for a given roll of film.
When digital photography entered the fray, the ISO developed speed standards for digital
sensors. One huge game-changer of digital photography is that, when it comes to ISO, you can
virtually change the sensor's sensitivity while you are shooting. ISO is now an electronic function of
the camera and not a fixed value as it was with a particular roll of film.
The technical ins-and-outs of how ISO is calculated are complicated and not especially useful to
most photographers, but, what is important is how the ISO numbers relate to exposure and exposure
values. Just like with aperture and shutter speed, we want ISO to work in EVs
ISO, like shutter speed, is linear. A film with an ISO of 200 is half as sensitive to light as the
same film with an ISO rating of 400. Double the ISO, double the sensitivity. Half the ISO, half the
sensitivity.
 So, assuming all else is constant, if you change your camera's ISO from 400 to 200, or change to
a roll of 200 speed film from a roll of 400 speed film, you will introduce a -1 EV shift, as you have
just made the sensor, or film, half as sensitive to the given light. ISO 800 changed to ISO 1600;
double the sensitivity; +1 EV.
Now let us talk about the "side effects" of ISO. With film, the higher ISO films had larger grains
that were impacted by greater numbers of photons. The larger the grains, the "grainier" the image
would be. Depending on the type of photo and film, the grain of the film could be a real benefit to
the texture and feel of an image. It was something that you had to deal with when shooting film and
you could make the grain work in your artistic favor.
The unfortunate side effect of increased ISO is called digital noise. The higher the ISO, the
more digital noise is introduced into your image. Camera manufacturers, while seemingly always
adding megapixels to their new cameras, are constantly trying to reduce the amount of noise at a
given ISO.
In the digital realm, there are three types of ISO: native, amplified, and simulated. Native ISO is
the ISO setting that does not require the camera to increase the voltage to the sensor. The camera's
native ISO is not usually published by the manufacturer in the specifications for a given camera, but
a quick Internet search may show you what your particular camera's native ISO is—it is not always
the lowest ISO available on the camera. Amplified ISO is an ISO that requires an increase in
voltage to the sensor to achieve. This is when noise starts to creep into your images: the higher the
ISO, the greater the noise. And, finally, simulated ISO is when the camera uses a software algorithm
to simulate even higher (or lower) ISOs. Regardless of whether the increased ISO is amplified or
simulated, you will see an increase in noise over the native ISO setting. And, regardless of the type
of ISO, the numbers still adhere to the same linear relationship with EVs.
In the three segments, we discussed how, in order to control the amount of light striking a piece
of film or digital sensor, we have two physical controls that we can utilize inside the camera—
aperture and shutter speed. We can further control the sensitivity of the sensor by adjusting the ISO
on a digital camera (or by getting a roll of film of a different ISO).
We also discussed how each of these three adjustments can be quantified into EVs and that by
doubling or halving the amount of light (aperture and shutter speed) and by doubling or halving the
sensitivity of the photosensitive surface (ISO) we can adjust EVs up or down.
2.4. How film reacts to light
2.4.1. Importance of proper exposure
Film can be exposed differently, and not all the time your meter will give you just proper
reading for the exact situation, which lead us to the “how to read meter” part which we will discuss
later. Also latitude of film should be considered, some film stocks such as HP5 for example will
forgive much more than than the slide film like the Ektachrome.
2.4.2. Differences from digital photography
While digital sensors react better to underexposing photos producing deeper shadows, film
tends to work better being slightly overexposed. Most of the negative films react nice to 1 stop
overexposure, and can hold up to 5 stops over, but only one or two stops underexposure without
images being really bad looking.
2.4.3. Applying to camera testing
The fact of how film react to light is generally making guidelines of how we test cameras. As
you seen it’s ok to overexpose quite a bit and to underexpose a little. Especially this is applying to
compact camera testing since this ones usually don’t have any kind of controls on it. While most of
the cameras still can be used without working light meter or don’t even have one – compacts fully
relying on the built-in meter.
 2.5. ISO in film and digital – what changes
Film speed describes a film's threshold sensitivity to light. The international standard for rating
film speed is the ISO scale, which combines both the ASA speed and the DIN speed in the format
ASA/DIN.
Common film speeds include ISO 25, 50, 64, 100, 160, 200, 400, 800, 1600, 3200, and 6400.
Consumer print films are usually in the ISO 100 to ISO 800 range. ISO 25 film is very "slow", as it
requires much more exposure to produce a usable image than "fast" ISO 800 film. Films of ISO 800
and greater are thus better suited to low-light situations and action shots (where the short exposure
time limits the total light received).
The benefit of slower film is that it usually has finer grain and better color rendition than fast
film. Professional photographers of static subjects such as portraits or landscapes usually seek these
qualities, and therefore require a tripod to stabilize the camera for a longer exposure. A professional
photographing subjects such as rapidly moving sports or in low-light conditions will inevitably
choose a faster film.
A film with a particular ISO rating can be push-processed, or "pushed", to behave like a film
with a higher ISO, by developing for a longer amount of time or at a higher temperature than usual.
More rarely, a film can be "pulled" to behave like a "slower" film. Pushing generally coarsens grain
and increases contrast, reducing dynamic range, to the detriment of overall quality. Nevertheless, it
can be a useful tradeoff in difficult shooting environments, if the alternative is no usable shot at all.
For digital photo cameras, an exposure index (EI) rating—commonly called ISO setting—is
specified by the manufacturer such that the sRGB image files produced by the camera will have a
lightness similar to what would be obtained with film of the same EI rating at the same exposure.
The usual design is that the camera's parameters for interpreting the sensor data values into sRGB
values are fixed, and a number of different EI choices are accommodated by varying the sensor's
signal gain in the analog realm, prior to conversion to digital. Some camera designs provide at least
some EI choices by adjusting the sensor's signal gain in the digital realm ("expanded ISO"). A few
camera designs also provide EI adjustment through a choice of lightness parameters for the
interpretation of sensor data values into sRGB; this variation allows different tradeoffs between the
range of highlights that can be captured and the amount of noise introduced into the shadow areas
of the photo.
2.6. Bit more about exposure
2.6.1. How meters work
Your camera is programmed to expose your images to according to ‘middle gray’. In other
words, it wants the reflected light in your picture to have a tonality of 18% gray – and this causes all
kinds of exposure problems.
For example, when your frame is filled with a bride in a white wedding dress, a lot of light is
reflected at the camera (far more than 18% gray). So a camera's reflective meter reading thinks that
your image is too bright, and tells you to massively underexpose the photograph. And when your
frame is filled with a groom in a black suit, it tells you to massively overexpose for the exact
opposite reason – even though the light hasn't actually changed. And if the light hasn't changed,
why do you need to change your exposure?
The answer is that you don't. An incident meter doesn’t measure reflected light, and it doesn’t
care what percentage of gray is in the frame – it only measures the light that is actually hitting your
subject. And so, it always gives an accurate reading!
So what is this 18% ‘middle’ gray, and why does your camera want your pictures to conform to
it? In the 1930s, Kodak wanted to put ‘Electric Eye’ light meters in its cameras, starting with the
Super Six-20. To determine what the "correct" exposure should be, the company's physicists took a
thousand prints from a print run, cut them into inches square and measured them with a
densitometer.
They surmised that, to get an average picture of an average subject, taken at an average location
under average lighting conditions, on an average day by an average photographer using average
equipment, 18% grey will get you in the best result. This is what your camera is programmed to
meter for.
2.6.2. Few words on filters in b&w and color photography
A filter provides a technique for changing the color sensitivity of the film. One type of filter is a
colored piece of glass that mounts to the front of the lens. Here, it "filters" the light passing through
the lens to the film.
The filter transmits light of its own color. It absorbs light of a complementary color. For
example, a red filter transmits red. A red color in the scene then appears darker in the negative-and
lighter in the print. What color will appear darker in the print? The complement of red-cyan, or
blue-green.
There are two basic reasons you might want to change the color response of the film: you might
want to correct the response of the film to more closely match that of the human eye. A filter used to
match the film's sensitivity to the eye's sensitivity is a correction filter or you might want to provide
more contrast between certain colors for effect. Rather than correcting color sensitivity, you're
actually changing the brightness values to make certain colors appear darker or lighter than reality.
Filters designed for this purpose are called contrast filters.
Here's an example. Suppose that you're photographing an outdoor scenic that includes blue sky
and white fleecy clouds. To your eye, the sky appears blue and the clouds appear white; there's a
definite distinction between the sky and the clouds. But B&W film is oversensitive to the blue end
of the spectrum. It even responds to the ultraviolet light in the sky.
As a result, the sky records darker than it should on the negative. On the print, the sky appears
washed out-nearly the same shade of gray as the clouds. You've lost the separation between the
clouds and the sky. A medium-yellow filter blocks out enough of the blue to make the sky appear
normal. The filter darkens the sky (in the print) just enough to provide separation between the sky
and the clouds. A red filter darkens the sky even more, for a dramatic effect.
2.7. Most typical mistakes made while shooting on film
• Shooting on the wrong sync setting. Most people use electronic flash. Yet some cameras also
have sync settings or separate sync terminals for flashbulbs. For proper sync with electronic
flash, use the "X" setting. Using the "M" or "FP" setting results in no flash exposure to the
film. Any image on the film depends on available light.
• Shooting on too fast a shutter-speed setting with electronic flash and a focal-plane shutter.
As you've seen, the focal-plane shutter cuts off part of the flash exposure at too fast a speed.
• Subject blur from using too slow a shutter speed – or complete-picture blur from camera
movement. If the subject moved during the exposure, the rest of the picture may be
relatively sharp-only the moving subject appears blurred. But if the camera moved, the
entire picture appears blurred. Generally, you shouldn't try to hand-hold the camera at a
shutter speed slower than 1/30. Use a tripod or some other type of camera support.
• Underexposure with electronic flash. People frequently expect too much out of their
compact electronic-flash units. The small units may not be able to cover distances greater
than 2 to 5 meters. Yet people will try to shoot flash pictures of the football field from the
top seats in the stadium.
• Burned up subject from standing too close with an electronic flash.
• Reflections in windows, mirrors, or eyeglasses with electronic flash. With the flash at an
angle to the reflective surface, you can usually avoid flash reflections.
• Underexposure of the subject with an automatic camera. Quite often, a bright sky tricks the
camera into setting too fast a shutter speed or too small an aperture for the subject. The sky
seems properly exposed. But the foreground, including the subject, is too dark.
• Shadows obscuring the subject's face in outdoor shots. The harsh light during the day throws
dark shadows. A fill flash or a reflector can fill those shadow areas.
• Reflections in store windows, partially obscuring the window display. A polarizing screen
may offer the only solution here.
• Lens flare outdoors. Shooting into the sun may cause light patterns on the film from flare.
The pattern sometimes takes the shape of the lens diaphragm. Use a lens hood.
3. Kamerastore check-up process
3.1. Analog bodies
3.1.1. SLR
3.1.1.1. Few words about batteries/contact cleaning
3.1.1.2. Checking all functions
3.1.1.3. Overall appearance (importance of checking camera
for hidden dents, tape, glue, DIY fixes)
3.1.1.4. Viewfinder and focusing screen
3.1.1.5. Mirror – overall appearance and functions
3.1.1.6. Light seals and few words about process
3.1.1.7. Overall exposure and importance of it
3.1.1.8. Light meter
3.1.1.9. Flash sync
3.1.1.10. Timer
3.1.1.11. Rewind (importance of checking with film)
3.1.2 Rangefinder
3.1.2.1. Testing alignment (both vertical and horizontal)
3.1.2.2. Few words about machines
3.1.2.3. Parallax correction and viewfinder frames
3.1.3. TLR
3.1.3.1. Shutter
3.1.3.2. Film advance/counter mechanism
3.1.3.3. Focusing and importance of it
3.1.4. Medium format in general
3.1.4.1. General info on the systems
3.1.4.2. Lenses with shutters
3.1.4.3. Parts of the modular systems
3.2. Lenses
3.2.1. Surfaces
3.2.1.1. Dust
3.2.1.2. Haze
3.2.1.3. Separation
3.2.1.4. Fungus
 3.2.1.5. Anti-Reflective coating
3.2.2. Aperture
3.2.2.1. Oil
3.2.2.2. Wear
3.2.2.3. Movement
3.2.3. Focusing and collimators checking
3.2.4. Zoom plus few words about dust inside zooms
3.2.5. Mount
3.2.6. Filter thread
3.2.7. Overall condition and how much repairable it is
3.2.8. Digital/autofocus lenses – image stabilizer, focus functions,
coordination with the body, computer functions
3.3. Digital bodies
3.3.1. Switching it on, few words about batteries again
3.3.2. Clearing the settings
3.3.3. Sensor condition and how to check
3.3.4. Auto focus functions
3.3.5. Screen and viewfinder condition
3.3.6. Buttons
3.3.7. Flash – built in unit and sync
3.3.8. Mirror – appearance and functioning
3.3.9. Shutter count – special software
3.4. Few words on cleaning
3.4.1. Supply we use
3.4.2. Simple demonstration, trying by themselves