Hydrology Note

Engineering Hydrology
110401454
Introduction
Instructor: Dr. Zeyad Tarawneh
Course Contents
Introduction, watershed and flow:
Definition, hydrologic cycle, water balance, watersheds,
statistical methods in hydrology, IDF curves, the
rational method and water harvesting.
Hydrologic parameters:
Rainfall, evaporation, infiltration, storage, excess
rainfall.
Hydrograph and flow:

Hydrograph component, direct and baseflow, UH,
synthetic hydrographs.
1
Course Contents
Groundwater flow:
Aquifers, Darcy law, flow from confined and
unconfined aquifers, water table drop, well influence
distance, multiple wells system, groundwater recharge.
Introduction to water resources:

Potential water sources, surface and ground storage,
reservoir sizing.
Introduction
What do you observe in the image?
What can the civil engineer do?
Amman Jan 8, 2013. (Source: The Jordan Times Jan 8, 2013).
2
Introduction
What do you observe in the image?
Amman - Zarqa highway near Ain Ghazal intersection Jan 8, 2013.
Introduction
Hydrological useful statements:
Zarqa town resident said: the rain has stopped 1 hour ago, but the
flood continued coming from higher areas. Manholes in the streets
were flooded by the heavy rain causing damage to his mini-
market. The last time I saw such heavy rain was in the 1970s.
Zarqa city (Source: The

Jordan Times 25/11/2012)
3
Introduction
The word Hydrology came from the Latin combination
of Hydro that means water and logy that means science.
Compared to the hydrology, the course fluid mechanics
studies the physics of fluids (water) like: viscosity, shear
stress, buoyancy, pressure and force, momentum
conservation, energy conservation, mass conservation,
etc...
Compared to the hydrology, the course hydraulics
studies the behavior of the water like: flow velocity and
depth, specific energy, hydraulic jump, hydraulic
sections design, flow in pipes, flow under varying head,
etc...
Introduction
In general the hydrology is defined as the water science
that studies the water formation (precipitation), the
water cycle and balance, the variation in precipitation
and flow amounts, the land that receives precipitation,
the surface and groundwater flow amounts, distribution
of the flow with the time.
Applications of the hydrology in CE:

- Storm water sewer design,
- Water harvesting,
- Culvert design.
4
Introduction
Ancient hydrology in Jordan!
Introduction
5
Hydrologic cycle
The hydrologic cycle represents the water cycle and
mass balance of water amounts over a specified region
or the whole earth.
Precipitation (P)
Transpiration (T)
Runoff (R)
Evaporation (E)
Infiltration (I)
Water table
Ocean
Ground flow (G)
Hydrologic cycle
Water is distributed in the hydrologic cycle as follows:
97.5% as seawater and 2.5% as freshwater (including
glaciers and ice caps).
Components of the cycle are:

• Precipitation (P),
• Evaporation (E),
• Transpiration (T),
• Infiltration (I),
• Surface runoff (R), and
• Groundwater flow (G)
6
Hydrologic cycle
For given water system, the mass balance of water
volumes over time controls the change in the storage
(∆S):
∆S = Vin – Vout
Vin: total water volume inters the system

Vout: total water volume leaves the system
Hydrologic cycle
Ex: water balance application
A dam of 40km2 lake receives average water flow of 0.56m3/s for
January while delivers 0.48m3/s as outflow. The cumulative
precipitation for January is 45mm. The cumulative evaporation
from the lake surface is 125mm and the cumulative infiltration
from the lake bottom is 25mm. Calculate the change in the lake
water level during January?
Soln:
Rain volume in Evap. volume out
Runoff volume in Runoff volume out
Lake
Infiltration volume out
7
Hydrologic cycle
Volume in:
VR-in = 0.56×60×60×24×31 = 1,499,904m3
VP = 0.045×40,000,000 = 1,800,000m3
Volume out:
VR-out = 0.48×60×60×24×31 = 1,285,632m3
VE = 0.125×40,000,000 = 5,000,000m3
VI = 0.025×40,000,000 = 1,000,000m3
∆S = Vin – Vout
= (1,499,904+1,800,000) – (1,285,632+5,000,000+1,000,000)
= - 3,985,728m3
The change in the lake water level is a drop =
= 3,985,728 / 40,000,000 = 0.1m = 10cm.
Watershed definition
The watershed is defined as the land area that
contributes surface flow. The catchment is the land area
that receives precipitation. The basin is usually large and
contributes flow from surface and subsurface
(groundwater) sources.
Precipitation
Watershed
divide
Stream channel
Runoff
8
Watershed delineation
Watershed delineation means to mark the watershed
boundaries where surface runoff from precipitation will
occur.
Rules:
1- Locate the major stream,
2- Mark the peaks of surrounding hilltops
3- Mark flow directions from peaks of hilltops to cross
contour lines at right angle.
4- Connect the marks at peaks to include the flow
direction arrows towards the major stream.
Watershed delineation
Example:
The resulted
watershed
9
Watershed delineation using GIS
Watershed characteristics
Watershed slope:
The watershed slope can be estimated from topographic
maps as follows
S = ∆E/H
∆E : elevation difference along the main stream channel,
H : main stream length, map projected distance.
Lower contour line
Upper contour line

H
Runoff
10
Watershed shape:
The watershed shape highly affects the flow amount
(m3/s) and the time needed to reach the peak flow. The
watershed shape is a result of the watershed slope.
In general, two types of watershed shapes are
recognized:
1- Elongated watersheds: results from steep slopes.
2- Equant watersheds: results from gentle slopes.
Example: watershed shape effect on the flow.
Flow
Flow
Flow
11
Watershed contributing area:
Large areas contribute large flow (runoff).
Flow
Flow
Flow
Flow Flow
Time Time
Case A Case B
Steep watershed discharges flow like case …..
Watershed of rough surface discharges flow like case ….
12
Drainage density:
The drainage density (D) is the ratio of the total length
of all streams formed to the watershed area. The
drainage density reflects the response of the watershed
to the rainfall. It can be used to classify watersheds.
Usually high D values means high and quick response
(flow) of the watershed to rainfall.
L2
∑L
L1
L3
D= L4
A
Runoff
Ex:
Watershed A of 4.1km2 area has streams of 11.2km total
length and watershed B of 0.58km2 area has streams of
1.55km total length. If watershed A discharged peak
flow of 1m3/s from 30 minutes storm, estimate the peak
flow resulted from watershed B when subjected to the
same storm?
Soln:
DA = 11.2 / 4.10 = 2.73
DB = 1.55 / 0.58 = 2.67
Conclusion: DA ≈ DB (similar watersheds)
13
Soln:
Since DA ≈ DB, then the flow Q is proportion to area A,
or the ratio k = Q/A is constant.
kA ≈ kB
QA QB
=
AA AB
QB = (0.58×1)/4.1 = 0.141m3/s.
Watershed Bifurcation
Stream order and Horton laws:
The stream order is used to classify watersheds. The
order 1 is assigned to the smallest stream in the
watershed, the order 2 is assigned to the next larger
stream, and so on. The Horton laws can be used for
computational purposes.
1 1
Runoff
14
Stream ordering rules:
When 2 streams of the same order (order i) are joined,
the stream formed has the order of i + 1.
1
1
When a stream of order i meets a stream of order i + 1,

then the stream formed has the order i + 1.
1
1 1
2
Ex:
For the following watershed, order all streams and
estimate the principal stream order.
Runoff
15
Soln:
The first streams are labeled by the order 1, finish the
solution using the rules mentioned previously. The
principal order (k) = the largest order resulted.
k=3
1
1
1 1 1
2 1
2
2
3 2 1
3
Runoff Principal order
Changes in stream properties in the watershed versus the
order.
16
Watershed classification
Horton laws of streams:
Law of stream number (Bifurcation ratio):
Ni
= Rn N i = Rnk −i
N i +1
where k is the principal stream order.
Law of stream length

Li +1
= RL Li = L1 RLi −1
Li
Exercise:
A watershed of 5.71km2 area has principal stream order
of 4. If streams of orders 3 and 4 have 1.23km and
0.45km total length respectively, compute the watershed
drainage density?
What is the length of streams of order 6?
17
Statistical methods in hydrology
The design of surface water systems depends on natural
hydrologic variable parameters like: precipitation,
runoff, humidity, wind speed, etc. Such parameters are
random variables.
To deal with hydrologic random variables, statistical

methods including the expectation, the variance,
probability distribution functions, and frequency
analysis are used. Such useful statistical methods will
enable us to obtain the exceedance probabilities and
return periods for design tasks, constructing IDF curves
for computing peak flows for sewer sizing.

The expected value:
Given a historical record of hydrologic variable (X), for
example the precipitation over n years, then the expected
value (mean or average) of the variable is estimated as:
Expected value = mean

1 n
x = ∑ xi
Precipitation, x
n i =1
time
18
The variance and standard deviation:
Given a historical record of hydrologic variable (X), for
example the precipitation over n years, then the variance
is the squared deviation of the variable about its
expected value (mean or average):
Mean
Precipitation, x
1 n
V= ∑
n − 1 i =1
(xi − x )2
time
The standard deviation S = V

Example:
Given a historical record of rainfall depths (x) for years
1995 – 2010 at gauging station in Jordan. Estimate the
mean and the standard deviation of the rainfall depth?
Year Rainfall (mm) Year Rainfall (mm)

1995 212 2003 188
1996 123 2004 141
1997 156 2005 197
1998 225 2006 180
1999 134 2007 96
2000 175 2008 150
2001 237 2009 207
2002 249 2010 167
19
Soln: n = 16
Year xi (xi − x )2 Year xi (xi − x )2

1995 212 1203.2 2003 188 114.2
1996 123 2949.8 2004 141 1318.6
1997 156 454.2 2005 197 387.6
1998 225 2274.1 2006 180 7.2
1999 134 1876 2007 96 6611.7
2000 175 5.3 2008 150 746
2001 237 3562.6 2009 207 881.3
2002 249 5139.1 2010 167 106.3

The rainfall expected or mean value =
1 n 1
x= ∑
n i =1
xi = × 2837 = 177.3 mm
16
The standard deviation S = V
1 n
S= V = ∑
n − 1 i =1
(xi − x )2 = 42.9 mm
20
Frequency analysis of hydrologic variables:
For design of water systems, given the exceedance
probability of rainfall or flow as random variables, the
design rainfall or flow amount can be obtained. The
exceedance probability can be estimated by plotting the
cumulative probability distribution.
Examples from CE applications:

- Design flow for culverts,
- Design rain for collection systems (Sewers).

Obtaining the design value:
After drawing the cumulative probability and given the
exceedance probability (failure occurrence 5% or 10% of
time that is provided by the project owner), the design
value can be obtained.
Cumulative probability (100%)
Exceedance Prob
Non-exceedance Prob
Design value Variable
21
The computation of cumulative probability:
The exceedance probability can be estimated by plotting
the cumulative probability distribution of the variable
(rainfall or flow). Since the exact probability distribution
function of the variable is hard to know, the plotting
position equations can be used to plot the empirical
cumulative distribution for the variable.
One of the most common equations to plot the empirical

distribution is the Weibull plotting position equation.

The Weibull plotting position equation gives the non-
exceedance probability P(X ≤ x) as:
m
P( X ≤ x ) =
n +1
P(X ≤ x): probability of observing variable ≤ specified value x.
m: is data rank (lowest to highest).
n: record length.
The probability P(X > x) = 1 - P(X ≤ x) is called the

exceedance probability.
22
Given the exceedance probability P(X > x), the return
period T of the hydrologic variable that exceeds
specified value (x) is:
1
T=
P( X > x )
The return period defines on average how frequent or
often the variable X will take time to exceed the value
x.
x

Ex:
Annual rainfall at gauging station is recorded for years 1995 –
2010. Plot the distribution of the rainfall. Assuming that the
design storm is 210mm, how frequent such rainfall storm will
occur?
Year Rainfall (mm) Year Rainfall (mm)

1995 212 2003 188
1996 123 2004 141
1997 156 2005 197
1998 225 2006 180
1999 134 2007 96
2000 175 2008 150
2001 237 2009 207
2002 249 2010 167
23
Soln: Arrange data from the lowest to highest. Rank the
arranged data, and use the Weibull equation to calculate
probability. n = 16.
Sample calculation: for x = 96, m = 1, then P(X ≤ x) = 1/(16+1)
= 0.059.
Rank (m) Rainfall (x) P(X ≤ x) Rank (m) Rainfall (x) P(X ≤ x)
1 96 0.059 9 180 0.529
2 123 0.118 10 188 0.588
3 134 0.176 11 197 0.647
4 141 0.235 12 207 0.706
5 150 0.294 13 212 0.765
6 156 0.353 14 225 0.824
7 167 0.412 15 237 0.882
8 175 0.471 16 249 0.941

The probability distribution of the annual rainfall.
1
0.9
≤ x)
0.8
Probability P(X≤
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Rainfall (mm)
24
To find T for the design storm (210mm), then
P(X > x) = 1 – 0.74 = 0.26 and T = 1/0.26 = 3.86 ≈ 4years.
1
0.9
0.8 P(X ≤ 210) = 0.74
0.7
Probability
≤ x)
0.6
P(X≤
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Rainfall (mm)
Question: estimate the design storm that being exceeded 40%

of time?

Intensity Duration Frequency (IDF) curves:
Are set of curves that relate the maximum rainfall
intensity (i) of a storm versus the duration (d) and the
storm frequency (T years).
The rainfall intensity is defined as the ratio of the

rainfall depth (mm) to the duration (hr),
x(mm )
i (mm / hr ) =
d (hr )
Such curves are useful in computing the peak flow
from small watersheds using the rational method.
25
IDF curves:
Are set of curves that relate the maximum rainfall
intensity (i) of a storm versus the duration (d) and the
storm frequency (T years).
1000
100
Intensity (mm/hr)
10 50-year
10-year
2-year
1
1 10 100 1000
Duration (min)

To estimate the maximum storm intensity, we need at
first to explore the maximum rainfall depth. The
theoretical model that fits the distribution of the
maximum rainfall depth of a given duration is the
extreme value distribution type 1 (Gumbel
distribution).
   x − u  
P( X ≤ x ) = exp− exp −   
   α  
α and u are the model parameters.
6S u = x − 0.5772 α
α=
π
26
Flow quantity in relation to frequency.

Ex:
Plot the theoretical distribution for the following 15-
minute extreme rainfall depths.
Year 15-minute extreme rainfall depth (mm)

2000 12
2001 17
2002 7
2003 14
2004 27
2005 9
2006 13
2007 18
2008 8
2009 15
2010 11
27
Ex:
x = 13.72mm S = 5.64mm
6 × 5.64
α= = 4 .4
π
u = 13.72 − 0.5772 × 4.4 = 11.18
   x − u  
P( X ≤ x ) = exp− exp −   
   α  

Ex:
   7 − 11.18  
P( X ≤ 7 mm ) = exp− exp −    = 0.08
   4 .4  
x P(X ≤ x)
7 0.08
1.00
8 0.13 0.90
9 0.19 0.80
0.70
11 0.35
≤ x)
0.60
P(X≤
12 0.44 0.50
13 0.52 0.40
0.30
14 0.59
0.20
15 0.66 0.10
0.00
17 0.77
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
18 0.81
Extreme rainfall (x)
27 0.97
28
Question: what is the amount of the extreme rainfall
depth that is associated to 15 mins duration and return
period of 10 years, i.e. x15min,10 years
Answer: use the probability plot

1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
≤ x)
0.60
P(X≤
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
x15min,10 years
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Extreme rainfall (x)

The past question can be also answered using the
frequency factor (KT) of the Gumbel distribution as
follows:
xd ,T = xd + KT S d
xd,T : extreme rainfall depth for storm of duration d and

frequency T years.
xd and Sd: mean and standard deviation of extreme rainfall
depths for storm of duration d (from records).
KT: frequency factor of the Gumbel distribution.
6   T  
KT = − 0.5772 + ln ln   
π    T − 1  
29
Ex:
For the past 15-minute extreme rainfall depths,
estimate the amount of the 15-minute rainfall depth
associated to the 10-year return period
Year 15-minute extreme rainfall depth (mm)
2000 12
2001 17
2002 7
2003 14
2004 27
2005 9
2006 13
2007 18
2008 8
2009 15
2010 11

Ex:
6   10  
KT = K10 = − 0.5772 + ln ln    = 1.3
π   10 − 1 
From the historical data
xd = x15 = 13.72mm S d = S15 = 5.64mm

then the amount of 15-min rainfall at T = 10 years is
xd ,T = xd + KT S d
x15 min,10 year = x15 + K10 S15 = 13.72 + 1.3 × 5.64
x15 min,10 year = 21mm
30
Steps to construct the IDF curves:
1. From precipitation records, for each year extract the
max rainfall depths for durations: 5mins, 10, 15,
30mins, 1hr, 2, 6, and 24hrs.
2. Estimate the mean and standard deviation of max
rainfall depths at the durations listed above.
3. Using the extreme value distribution estimate the
frequency factor KT and estimate the amount of
rainfall depth (xd,T) for durations listed at return
periods of 2 years, 5, 10, 25, 50, and 100 years.
4. Correct the rainfall depths at the 2-year and 5-year
return period by multiplying with 0.88 for the 2-
year and 0.96 for the 5-year return period.

Steps to construct the IDF curves:
6. Calculate the rainfall intensity (i) in mm/hr units
as:
xd ,T
i (mm / hr ) =
d
7. Plot the IDF curves. Place storm duration (d) at

log scale on x-axis. Place the intensity (i) at log
scale on the y-axis.
31
Ex:
Construct the 5-year IDF curve for the following max
rainfall depths of 15-min and 60-min duration.
Year 15-min max rainfall 60-min max rainfall
2000 24 45
2001 30 75
2002 20 34
-----------------------------------------------------------------
Soln:
for 15-min, x15 = 24.7 mm S15 = 5mm
for 60-min, x60 = 51.3mm S60 = 21.2mm
6   5  
K5 = − 0.5772 + ln ln    = 0.72
π    5 − 1 

Ex:
Soln: xd ,T = xd + KT S d
For 15-min, x15,5 = 24.7 + 0.72×5 = 28.3mm

The corrected x15,5 = 0.96×28.3 = 27.2mm,
27.2
i= = 108.8mm / hr
(15 / 60)
For 60-min, x60,5 = 51.3 + 0.72×21.2 = 66.6mm
The corrected x60,5 = 0.96×66.6 = 64mm,
64
i= = 64mm / hr
(60 / 60)
32
Ex: Result IDF for 5 years return period.
Intensity (mm/hr) 1000
100
5-year
10
1
1 10 100
Storm duration (min)
Micro-scale basin: measuring the runoff

The surface runoff (flow) from small watersheds can
be estimated using the rational method benefiting of
the IDF curves. In urban hydrology, the rational
method is used to estimate the peak runoff for storm
sewer design. The peak flow (m3/s) is:
Q = 0.278 C i A
C : runoff coefficient,
i : storm intensity (mm/h) obtained from IDF curves,
A : watershed contributing area (km2).
33
Land Use or Type C Value
Agriculture
Bare Soil 0.20-0.60
Cultivated Fields (sandy soil) 0.20-0.40
Cultivated Fields (clay soil) 0.30-0.50
Grass
Turf, Meadows 0.10-0.40
Steep Grassed Areas 0.50-0.70
Woodland
Wooded Areas with Level Ground 0.05-0.25
Forested Areas with Steep Slopes 0.15-0.40
Bare Areas, Steep and Rocky 0.50-0.90
Roads
Asphalt Pavement 0.80-0.90
Cobblestone or Concrete Pavement 0.60-0.85
Gravel Surface 0.40-0.80
Native Soil Surface 0.30-0.80
Urban Areas
Residential, Flat 0.40-0.55
Residential, Moderately Steep 0.50-0.65
Commercial or Downtown 0.70-0.95

The rational method is usually used conditioning to:
- the watershed area is small (< 3km2).
- the watershed is nearly flat.
- the storm duration is ≥ the time of concentration.
If the conditions mentioned above are not applicable,

then the accuracy of the rational method is
questionable. In that case the unit hydrograph,
synthetic hydrographs and SCS method are used to
estimate the peak runoff (will be discussed later).
34
The time of concentration tc:
For a given watershed, the time of concentration is
defined as the time needed such that the whole
watershed discharges flow. It is the longest time
needed for a water drop to travel through the
watershed to the final drainage point. Using the
Kerby-Kirpich method, tc in minutes:
0.828 (L × n ) 0.467
tc =
S 0.235
n: Roughness of surface
L: flow path distance (m)
S: surface slope

Ex:
For the watershed shown below, estimate the peak flow from a
storm of 2 years return period that lasts for 20mins (IDF curves
given).
C1 = 0.8, A1 = 40000 m2
S1 = 1%, n1 = 0.025, L1=220m
C2 = 0.9, A2 = 50000 m2
S2 = 1.5%, n2 = 0.03, L2=250m
35
IDF curves.
1000
100
Intensity (mm/hr)
10 50-year
10-year
2-year
1
1 10 100 1000
Duration (min)

Soln:
The time of concentration tc1 from sub-watershed 1=

= 0.828×(220×0.025)0.467/0.010.235 = 5.4 mins.
The time of concentration tc2 from sub-watershed 2=

= 0.828×(250 ×0.03)0.467/0.0150.235 = 5.7 mins.
The time of concentration from the whole watershed =
tc = 5.4 + 5.7 = 11.1 mins.
Why both times have been added?
36
Soln:
The average watershed C =
C=
(0.8 × 40000) + (0.9 × 50000) = 0.86
90000
For tc = 11.1mins < storm duration (20mins), and for T = 2

years then from the IDF-curves the storm intensity i = 11mm/h.
The peak flow Q = 0.278×0.86×11×0.09 = 0.237m3/s

Soln:
The resulted flow hydrograph (the hydrograph is defined as
flow profile over the time).
Q (m3/s)
Watershed runoff
0.237
Time
11.1min 20min 31.1min
37
Micro-scale rainwater harvesting
Rainwater falls on small catchments (surfaces) will
finally generate clean water runoff (flow) that can be
collected as potential water source. Such small
catchments can be: house rooftop, paved street or
parking lot. The quality of such collected water is
considered acceptable for drinking (give an example
from the Jordanian heritage), gardening and cleaning
purposes.
At an average rainy season, each single house rooftop

in Jordan is able to collect about 10m3 of clean water.
Just imagine that: if 50% of Jordanian house conduct
such technique, what would be the amount of water
collected? Do the simple math?

Example: micro-scale rainwater harvesting projects.
House rooftop Parking lot
38
Example: micro-scale rainwater harvesting project
(Cascade cropping area).
39
Ex:
For the watershed shown in the previous example, estimate the
maximum potential water volume that can be harvested from
the storm given.
C1 = 0.8, A1 = 40000 m2
S1 = 1%, n1 = 0.025, L1=220m
C2 = 0.9, A2 = 50000 m2
S2 = 1.5%, n2 = 0.03, L2=250m

Soln: given the hydrograph below.
Q (m3/s)
Watershed runoff
0.237
Time
11.1min 20min 31.1min
The water volume possibly harvested from such watershed is

the area under the runoff curve:
V = Q × time
= 2×(0.5×11.1×60×0.237) + (20 - 11.1)×60 ×0.237
= 284m3
40
110401454
Hydrologic parameters
Macro-scale basin: measuring the runoff

The estimation of the surface runoff generated from
large basins (Macro-scale) depends on estimating the
losses from the total precipitation. Such losses are:
evaporation, soil infiltration, surface storage and
surface interception (depends on surface roughness
and vegetation cover).
After abstracting (deducting) losses from the total

precipitation, the net rain (excess rain) will run on the
land surface forming the surface runoff.
The task is to compute the excess (net) rainfall after

deducting the losses from the total precipitation.
1
Rainfall
Evaporation
Runoff
Infiltration Depression storage
Hydrologic parameters: precipitation

The first hydrologic parameter to be considered for the
analysis is the precipitation. It is considered as the
primary input variable in the hydrologic cycle and has
the following forms: rain, snow or hail.
Precipitation is derived mainly from the atmospheric

water, therefore its form (rain, snow,..) and quantity are
being influenced by climatic variables like wind,
temperature and atmospheric pressure.
Precipitation is a random variable having spatial and

temporal (time) variability.
2
Measuring the precipitation
Precipitation is measured in gauging stations. The unit
to measure precipitation is mm depth.
Automated rainfall gauge
Traditional rainfall gauge
Estimating the precipitation

For some applications in hydrology, it is necessary to
estimate the precipitation at un-gauged site (location
without gauging station). Precipitation can be estimated
based on point or areal methodology.
The point estimation of precipitation can be made using

the weighted average distance method developed by the
National Weather Service. Given precipitation at gauged
sites and the distances between the gauged sites and un-
gauged site, the precipitation at the un-gauged site can
be obtained.
3
The point estimation of the un-gauged site precipitation
is:
Pun − gauged =
∑ P ×W
∑W
Where
P: the gauged site precipitation
W: the gauged site weighted distance, W = 1/D2,
D: distance between the gauged and un-gauged site

Ex:
Estimate the rainfall at the un-gauged site # 4 based on
the rainfall at the following gauged sites.
Site rainfall (mm)
1 14
2 21
Site 3
3 11 Site 1
D3 = 710m
Site 4
D1 = 5126m
D2 = 2109m
Site 2
4
Soln:
Site rainfall (mm) D (km) W P×W
1 14 5.126 0.038 0.533
2 21 2.109 0.225 4.721
3 11 0.710 1.984 21.821
∑W = 2.247 ∑W×P =27.075
Site 3
Site 1 Psite4 =
∑ P ×W
D3 = 710m
Site 4
∑W
D1 = 5126m
D2 = 2109m
27.075
Psite 4 = = 12.05mm
Site 2 2.247

The average precipitation over the watershed is an
important hydrologic parameter. The areal (average)
precipitation can be found using the Thiessen polygon
method:
P=
∑ P× A
∑A
Where
P: the precipitation in the thiessen polygon
A: area formed by thiessen polygons.
5
Ex:
Estimate the areal rainfall for the following watershed.
12mm
9mm
5mm
6mm

Soln:
Connect the sites and bisect the distance between sites.
12mm
9mm
5mm
6mm
6
Soln:
Calculate the area entrapped by each polygon.
Assume area are calculated as shown below.
A P×A
12mm
2.4 28.8
2.0 18.0 A=2.4km2
1.6 8.0 9mm

2.8 16.8 A=2km2
A=1.6km2
∑A = 8.8 ∑P×A = 71.6 5mm
A=2.8km2
P=
∑ P × A = 8.14mm 6mm
∑A
Hydrologic parameters: evaporation

The net rain (excess) that generates surface runoff is
that part of the total precipitation after deducting the
evaporated, the intercepted, the infiltrated and the
precipitation that is stored in depressions (small holes
in the surface).
The evaporated precipitation depends on the

temperature, wind speed, relative humidity, soil
condition, and type of vegetation cover. High
evaporation rates reduces the potential runoff. The
evaporation is usually measured experimentally using
evaporation pans. The units of the evaporation is
(mm/hr).
7
Estimating the evaporation
Theoretically, the evaporated precipitation can be
estimated using the energy balance method adjusted
for the soil and the vegetation cover:
Rn
Er (m / s ) = × k s × kc
lv ρ
Where
Rn: net solar radiation (W/m2),
ρ: water density (1000kg/m3),
lv: latent heat of vaporization (J/kg),
ks: soil coefficient, usually ks = 1 for complete wet soil,
kc: vegetation cover coefficient, usually kc = 1 in arid regions.
In units (KJ/kg), the latent heat is lv = 2500 – 2.36 T
T: temperature (°C)
Estimating the evaporation

Ex:
Calculate the evaporation rate under net solar radiation of 200
W/m2 and air temperature of 25 °C. Assume completely wet
soil (ks = 1) in arid region (kc = 1).
Soln:
lv = 2500 – 2.36 T = 2500 – 2.36 (25) = 2441 KJ/kg
Rn 200
Er = × k s × kc = ×1×1 =
lv ρ 2441000 × 1000
= 8.22×10-8 m/s
= 7.1 mm/day
8
Hydrologic parameters: interception
The intercepted water is the part of precipitation that is
intercepted by plant leaves. Therefore the leave size
and the intensity of leaves highly affect the amount of
water intercepted that will evaporate eventually and
hence reducing the runoff.
The interception can be measured experimentally in

the lab. In arid regions like Jordan, the plant cover is
small while the evaporation rate is high, therefore the
intercepted water can be neglected compared to the
evaporated.
Hydrologic parameters: infiltration

The infiltrated precipitation depends on the soil type,
rainfall intensity, surface conditions, and the
vegetation cover. Horton suggested the following
model to estimate the infiltrated water:
f = f c + ( f 0 − f c ) e − kt
f : infiltration amount (mm/hr)

fc : equilibrium infiltration capacity (mm/hr)
f0 : initial infiltration capacity (mm/hr)
k : infiltration constant (1/hr)
t : time (hrs)
9
Infiltration
Time
At time t = 0, the infiltration begins with its the

initial infiltration rate f0, however as time
proceeds the infiltration rate decreases to reach
its equilibrium infiltration fc.
Consider the following cases.
Infiltration Infiltration
Time Time
Case1: Case2:
Precipitation > initial infiltration Precipitation < initial infiltration
10
Hydrologic parameters: depression storage
The precipitation stored in depressions is that part
stored in small holes in land surface. It will eventually
evaporate. Depression storage highly affects the runoff
from storms of short duration with low precipitation
intensity. The depression storage is:
(
DS = S c 1 − e − Pn / Sc )
DS: water stored (mm/hr)
Sc: total storage capacity (mm/hr)
Pn: net rainfall for storage (mm/hr)
Pn = total rainfall – evaporation – interception – infiltration
Ex:
A 2hrs rainfall storm with pattern as shown below. Given the
soil equilibrium infiltration capacity of 0.75mm/hr, an initial
infiltration of 5mm/hr, and the infiltration constant is 0.29,
what is the net rain available for runoff assuming that
depression storage is for the first hour with total storage
capacity of 2mm/hr. Assume completely wet soil in arid region
under air temperature of 10°C and solar radiation of 150W/m2.
Neglect interception losses.
Hour Total rainfall intensity (mm/hr)

1 10.3
2 12.5
11
Soln: lv = 2500 – 2.36 T = 2500 – 2.36 (10) = 2476.4 KJ/kg
Er = 150/(2476400×1000) = 0.22mm/hr
For the first hour, the infiltrated water is:

f = 0.75 + [5 – 0.75]e-0.29×1 = 3.93mm/hr
The net rain for storage Pn =

= precipitation – evaporation – interception – infiltration
= 10.3 – 0.22 – 0 – 3.93 = 6.15mm/hr
The depression storage:

DS = 2 [1 – e (- 6.15/2)] = 1.9mm/hr
The net rain available for runoff = 10.3 – 0.22 – 3.93 – 1.9
= 4.25mm/hr
The following table shows the results over the 2 hours
storm.
Hour Gross rainfall Er f (mm/hr) Pn DS Net rain

intensity (mm/hr) (mm/hr) (mm/hr) (mm/hr)
(mm/hr)
1 10.3 0.22 3.93 6.15 1.92 4.25
2 12.5 0.22 3.13 9.15 0 9.15
Note that storage = 0 for the 2nd hour
12
SCS method for deducting abstractions:
The Soil Conservation Services (SCS) developed a
method to calculate the excess rain available for runoff.
Excess rain is the total rain after deducting all
abstractions.
The SCS developed the method to calculate the excess
rain for nearly flat watersheds (slope ≤ 5%). What will
be the case for watersheds of slope > 5%? Think about
it?.
The method considers the watershed soil type, land
cover, and the antecedent moisture condition (AMC)
based on the 5-day antecedent rainfall.
Based on huge number of observations, the SCS

method resulted in many curves that relate the excess
rain available for the direct runoff versus the total
rainfall when the antecedent moisture condition is
average (AMC II). For moisture conditions rather than
the average a slight modification is needed.
13
SCS curve number for soils (AMC II).
The SCS classified the antecedent moisture condition
(AMC) as follows: AMC I for dry soil, AMC II for soil
with average moisture, and AMC III for wet soil.
The SCS classified the soil as follows:

Group A: Deep sands, silts
Group B: Sandy loam
Group C: Clay loam, shallow sandy loam
Group D: Soils that swell significantly, plastic clays.
14
The SCS method supplies a Curve Number (CN)
according to the land cover and soil group based on
AMC II condition. For example refer to the table
below.
Hydrologic soil group

Land use
A B C D
Cultivated lands 72 81 88 91
Range lands 39 61 74 80
Forest land 45 66 77 83
Desert land 63 77 85 88
Having the CN determined for the watershed, then the
maximum retention storage S (max rain can be stored)
in inches is:
1000
S= − 10
CN
The excess rain (in inches) for the direct runoff is:
2
Pe =
( P − 0.2 S )
( P + 0 .8 S )
15
SCS method for abstractions:
Given the CN at AMC II, the equivalent CN at AMC I
and at AMC III is found as:
4.2CN (II )
CN (I ) =
10 − 0.058CN (II )
23CN (II )
CN (III ) =
10 + 0.13CN (II )
Ex:
Determine the excess rain of the 3 inches total rain on
nearly flat clay loam watershed of 18km2 under dry soil
condition. Among the 18km2, 7km2 is range land, while
the rest is cultivated land.
Soln:
AMC for the whole watershed is AMC I,
Hydrologic soil group is C,
The CN of the 7km2 part = 74,
The CN of the 11km2 part = 88,
The weighted average CN = (7×74 + 11×88)/18 = 82.5
16
Soln:
The average CN = 82.5 is based on moisture condition of the
AMC II type. The CN(I) for the AMC I is:
4.2CN (II ) 4.2 × 82.5
CN (I ) = = = 66.5
10 − 0.058CN (II ) 10 − 0.058 × 82.5
The max potential retention S is:

1000 1000
S= − 10 = − 10 = 5.03 inches
CN 66.5
The excess rainfall for the direct runoff is:

2 2
Pe =
( P − 0 .2 S )
=
(3 − 0.2 × 5.03)
= 0.56 inches
(P + 0.8S ) (3 + 0.8 × 5.03)
17
110401454
Macro-scale basin: measuring the runoff
Hydrograph
The hydrograph is a graphical presentation that
describes how the surface runoff develops over the time
from the beginning of the rainfall and thereafter.
The following plot shows a typical hydrograph versus
the cause: rainfall.
rainfall
Flow
hydrograph
time
1
Hydrograph
The surface runoff (Hortonian overland flow) depends
on many factors like: the rainfall duration and intensity
(i and d ), the evaporation (Er), the infiltration (f ),
depression storage (Ds).
The saturated surface (overland) flow occurs when the

soil top layer is fully saturated due to subsurface flow
(groundwater flow). Based on that, the total surface
runoff consists of the saturated overland flow and the
base flow from under-surface.
Hydrograph
The following schematic plot defines the Hortonian
overland flow, the subsurface flow, and the saturation
overland flow.
Rainfall, i
Hortonian overland flow occurs when i > (f + Er +V)

Saturation overland flow
Er
infiltration, f (occurs when the soil is fully
saturated due to subsurface flow)
Groundwater table
Subsurface flow
(takes time to appear as surface flow) Channel
2
Hydrograph
The following schematic plot defines a typical surface
flow hydrograph from a watershed.
Hydrograph components
Section AB: baseflow recession
Section BC: rising limb
Peak flow Section CD: falling limb
C Section DE: baseflow recession
Flow
End of direct runoff

A D
B E
Beginning of direct runoff

time
Hydrograph
From the total runoff hydrograph, it can be seen that the
runoff consists of two portions. The first portion is the
baseflow (groundwater flow), and the second portion is
the direct runoff (surface runoff = overland flow).
3
Hydrograph
To study the watershed response (the direct runoff =
surface runoff = overland flow) due to the cause
(rainfall), then given the total runoff from the watershed,
the base flow must be separated (extracted).
In literature, there are several methods to separate the

baseflow (to estimate its quantity) among these are: the
straight line method, the fixed base method, and the
variable slope method.
In this course, the straight line method will be adopted

to separate the base flow from the total runoff.
Hydrograph
The straight line method: to separate the baseflow,
construct a straight horizontal line at the beginning of
the rising limb of the hydrograph.
Beginning of
direct runoff Direct runoff
Flow
End of direct runoff

Straight line
Baseflow separated
time
4
Hydrograph
Ex:
A large watershed discharges runoff to its outlet. The
measured total runoff is shown in the table below.
Estimate the direct runoff (surface runoff)?
Time (hr) Total Runoff (m3/s)

0 1.2
1 0.86
2 1.57
3 1.92
4 1.21
5 0.94
6 0.77
Hydrograph
Soln:
The following plot shows the hydrograph of the watershed total
runoff. Observe the base flow recession portion and the rising
limb. The baseflow will be at first separated using the straight line
method.
5
Hydrograph
Soln:
The direct runoff can be obtained after separating (subtracting)
the baseflow from the total runoff. The direct runoff is the
watershed response that will be used to derive the Unit
Hydrograph.
2.5 Time Total Baseflow Direct
runoff runoff
2
0 1.2 1.2 0
Flow (m /s)
1.5 1 0.86 0.86 0

3
2 1.57 0.86 0.71

1
3 1.92 0.86 1.06
0.5
Baseflow = 0.86m3/s 4 1.21 0.86 0.35
0 5 0.94 0.86 0.08
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
6 0.77 0.77 0
Time (hrs)
Hydrograph
Explain the following hydrographs resulted from storms
A and B, i.e. observe the effect of storm size.
6
Hydrograph
Explain the following hydrographs resulted from storms
A and B, i.e. observe the effect of storm shape.
Storm A Storm B
Flow from A Flow from B
time time
Unit Hydrograph (UH)

The peak flow from small watersheds (< 3km2) can be
estimated using the rational method. For large
watersheds, the resulted flow and peak flow can be
computed using the Unit Hydrograph (UH).
Total rain
Abstracted rain
Net or excess rain
UH:
watershed
processor Flow
7
Unit Hydrograph (UH)
Therefore, the UH is defined as the watershed response
through its direct runoff to an excess (net) rainfall of
1cm depth (unit depth). If the duration of the 1cm excess
rainfall is X hrs, then the produced UH is called the X-hr
UH. For example: 1-hr UH, 2-hr UH, and so on.
Assumptions:
- The excess rainfall has constant intensity,
- The excess rainfall is distributed uniformly over the
entire catchment.
Unit Hydrograph
The plot below presents the idea of the UH. The action
(pulse) is the 1cm excess rainfall. The response is the
direct runoff that has total depth of 1cm, distributed over
the time according to the water travel time to the
watershed outlet.
Action: 1cm excess rainfall
Response: UH of the 1cm excess rainfall

UH
Total depth under the UH = 1cm
time
8
Unit Hydrograph
Assume a watershed of X-hr UH is subjected to a 1 cm
net rain storm of 2X duration, then the storm has 2
pulses each of X duration and 1cm excess rain. Each
will produce its own flow and the net flow will be the
sum (super position) of the two flows.
1cm 1cm 1cm 1cm
Net flow
Flow (UH)
Flow
time time
Unit Hydrograph
Assume many pulses each of X duration and has 1cm
excess rain. The net flow is called the S-hydrograph.
1cm 1cm 1cm 1cm
Net flow: S-hydrograph

Flow (UH)
Flow
time time
9
Usefulness of Unit Hydrograph
If the watershed UH is known and given the net rainfall
(P), then the runoff Q (flow) resulted from the
watershed can be computed using the general equation:
Q = P × UH
However, if the watershed UH is unknown, then it can

be derived given P and Q from gauging stations, or
UH = Q / P
Measuring the runoff given UH

Given the UH and the excess rainfall (Pm), the resulted
direct runoff (Qn) from the watershed is computed as
follows:
n≤ M
Qn = ∑P U
m =1
m n − m +1
where M=2
m=1 m=2
n: runoff time step (usually hr)
M: total # of rainfall pulses
m: rainfall pulse #
Flow
Un-m+1: is the unit hydrograph value

at time n – m + 1.
time
10
Measuring the runoff given UH
n≤ M
Qn = ∑ Pm U n−m+1
m =1
The runoff equation above can be re-written as follows:
Qn = P1 U n + P2 U n −1 + P3 U n −2 + .... + Pn U1
Question:
Assume storm of 2 pulses (P1 and P2), write the
equation above?
Deriving the UH
Given the direct runoff (flow) Q over N time steps and
the excess rainfall P over M time steps, then the UH as
watershed response extends over n time steps.
n= N – M + 1.
M
1 cm
Direct Runoff
UH
N time n time
11
Deriving the UH
Qn = P1 U n + P2 U n −1 + P3 U n −2 + .... + Pn U1
From the equation above it can be seen that:
Q1 = P1 U1 Q1
at n = 1, U1 =
P1
Q2 − P2U1
at n = 2, Q2 = P1 U 2 + P2 U1 U2 =
P1
and so on……
Deriving the UH
Ex:
Watershed of 6.23 km2 area discharges flow from 2-hr
storm with excess rainfall as shown in the table. Derive
the 1-hr UH.
Time (hr) Excess rainfall (mm) Direct runoff (m3/s)

1 20 2.3
2 15 12.1
3 26.7
4 17.2
5 2.3
12
Deriving the UH
Soln:
From the table, N = 5, M = 2, then n = N – M + 1, so n = 4.
n≤ M
Qn = ∑ Pm U n−m+1 = P1 U n + P2 U n −1 + P3 U n − 2 + .... + Pn U1
m =1
1
for n = 1, Q1 = ∑ Pm U1−m +1 = P1U1
m =1
2
for n = 2, Q2 = ∑ Pm U 2−m +1 = P1U 2 +P2U1
m =1
for n = 3, Q3 = ∑ Pm U 3− m +1 = P1U 3 +P2U 2 and so on ….

m =1
Deriving the UH
Soln:
Results are shown below.
Excess
Time rainfall Direct runoff Equation UH
(hr) (cm) (m3/s) (m3/s/cm)
1 P1 = 2.0 Q1 = 2.3 Q1 = P1U1 U1 = 1.15
2 P2 = 1.5 Q2 = 12.1 Q2 = P1U2 + P2U1 U2 = 5.19
3 Q3 = 26.7 Q3 = P1U3 + P2U2 U3 = 9.46
4 Q4 = 17.2 Q4 = P1U4 + P2U3 U4 = 1.51
5 Q5 = 2.3
Cause Response Response to 1cm
13
Deriving the UH
Each 1-hr storm of 1cm excess rainfall will have the
following UH.
10
9 1cm excess
8 rainfall
7
6
UH
5
4 9.46
3
5.19
2
1 1.51
1.15
0
time
0 1 2 3 4 5
Application on the UH
Ex:
For the watershed of 6.23 km2 area and given the UH
from the previous example, draw the direct runoff
hydrograph and find the peak runoff from 3-hrs storm of
excess rainfall as shown below.
Time (hr) Excess rainfall (mm)

1 8
2 10
3 5
14
Measuring the surface runoff
Soln:
Given the UH derived in the previous example, the runoff amount
of the 3-hr storm can be obtained as follows:
n≤ M
Qn = ∑ Pm U n−m+1 = P1 U n + P2 U n −1 + P3 U n − 2 + .... + Pn U1
m =1
1
at n = 1, Q1 = ∑ Pm U1− m+1 = P1U1 = 0.8×1.15 = 0.92m3/s
m =1
2
at n = 2, Q2 = ∑ Pm U 2−m +1 = P1U 2 + P2U1
m =1
= 0.8×5.19 + 1×1.15 = 5.3m3/s.
3
at n = 3, Q3 = ∑ Pm U 3− m+1 = P1U 3 + P2U 2 + P3U1
m =1
= 0.8×9.46 + 1×5.19 + 0.5×1.15= 13.33m3/s

Why 3 ??
3
at n = 4, Q4 = ∑ Pm U 4−m +1 = P1U 4 + P2U 3 + P3U 2
m =1
= 0.8×1.51 + 1×9.46 + 0.5×5.19 = 13.26m3/s.

and so on……
15
Result:
The watershed response as a runoff hydrograph due to the 3-hr
storm.
Time Flow
(hrs) (m3/s)
16 Peak direct runoff = 14.3m3/s
0 0 14
1 0.92 12
Flow (m /s)
2 5.30 10
3
3 13.33 8
6
4 13.26
4
5 6.24 2
6 0.76 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
7 0 Time (hrs)

Synthetic Unit Hydrograph:
When the watershed has gauging stations to measure the
actual Q resulted from given excess rainfall P, then the
UH can be derived as shown previously. However, most
of watersheds may not have gauging stations, therefore
synthetic hydrographs is used to estimate the peak
discharge.
Based on field observations, Snyder developed a

methodology to derive the synthetic unit hydrograph
based on the watershed characteristics like area, slope
and the land cover.
16
Snyder’s synthetic Unit Hydrograph:
To develop the Snyder’s synthetic unit hydrograph, five
inputs are required: watershed area (A), the length of the
main stream from outlet to divide (L), the length to the
centroid of the basin (Lc), and two coefficients (Ct and
Cp).
Watershed centroid
+
Lc m
t rea
in s
Ma
L
Q

Snyder’s synthetic Unit Hydrograph:
Snuder developed equations (models) to measure the
time and peak flow based on observations and such
models need corrections. The coefficients Ct and Cp are
corrections for the time and the amount of peak flow.
Generally, typical values for Ct ranges from 0.3 – 6,

while for Cp ranges from 0.31 – 0.93.
In practice: think how can you estimate Ct and Cp for

a given watershed ??????
17
Snyder’s synthetic Unit Hydrograph: definitions.
TL: basin lag time

Tb: base time
Qp: peak flow
TL
Qp
UH
Tb time

Procedure to derive the Snyder’s UH:
The basin lag: time from the centroid of the excess
rainfall to the centroid of the hydrograph is:
0.3
TL = Ct (L × Lc ) TL (hr), L & Lc (km)
The duration of the excess rainfall is:

TL
D= D (hr)
5.5
18
TL
0.3
TL = Ct (L × Lc )
L × Lc
D
TL
D=
5.5
TL

Adjusting the basin lag to correspond the desired rainfall
time (D'):
TL′ = TL + 0.25(D′ − D )
The UH base time is:
TL′
Tb = 3 + Tb (day), TL (hr)
8
the equation above is used for relatively large basins, for
small basins, use Tb (hr) = 4TL.
19
The peak direct runoff is:
2.78C p A
Qp = Qp (m3/s), TL (hr)
TL′
The time to peak flow occurrence is:

D′
Tp = + TL′
2

To assist in drawing the UH, compute W50 and W75
that are hydrograph time widths at 50 and 75% of the
peak flow.
W 50 = 5.87(Q p / A)
−1.08
Qp
W 50
W 75 = 0.75Qp
1.75
0.5Qp
Time
20
On the UH seven points will be available.
TP
(Tp, Qp)
Qp
(Tp-1/3W75, 0.75Qp) (Tp+2/3W75, 0.75Qp)

0.75Qp 2/3W75
(Tp+2/3W50, 0.5Qp)
0.5Qp 1/3W50 2/3W50
(Tp-1/3W50, 0.5Qp)
(0,0) (Tb,0) Time (hr)

Ex on Snyder’s UH:
Develop a 2-hr unit hydrograph for the watershed
shown. The basin area is 280km2, and the distance along
the main stream to the basin centroid nearest point is
20km. Use Ct of 1.5, and Cp of 0.8 as of the nearest
gauged basin.
km
35
=
m
ea Basin centroid
str
n
ai
M
21
Soln:
0 .3 0 .3
The basin lag is TL = Ct (L × Lc ) = 1.5(35 × 20 ) = 10.7 hrs
TL 10.7
The excess rainfall duration D = = = 1.95 hrs
5.5 5.5
The desired UH is the 2-hr, so the excess rainfall is set at D' = 2
hrs, consequently the adjusted basin lag is:
TL′ = TL + 0.25(D′ − D ) = 10.7 + 0.25(2 − 1.95) = 10.72 hrs
and the UH base time is
TL′ 10.72
Tb = 3 + = 3+ = 4.34 days =104 hrs
8 8

Soln:
The peak runoff is
2.78C p A 2.78 × 0.8 × 280

Qp = = = 58.1 m3/s/cm
TL′ 10.72
The rise time (time to peak flow)
D′ 2
Tp = + TL′ = + 10.72 = 11.72 hrs
2 2
( )
and W 50 = 5.87 Q p / A −1.08 = 5.87(58.1 / 280)−1.08 = 32.1 hrs
W 50 32.1
W 75 = = = 18.3 hrs
1.75 1.75
22
Soln:
the 1/3 of W50 = 10.7hrs, and the 2/3 of W50 = 21.4hrs
the 1/3 of W 75 = 6.1hrs, and the 2/3 of W 75 = 12.2hrs
Tp = 11.72 hrs.
Time (hrs) Runoff (m3/s/cm)

0.00 0
1.02 29.05
5.62 43.57
11.72 58.1
23.92 43.57
33.12 29.05
104.20 0

The Snyder’s synthetic 2-hr unit hydrograph:
80
70
60
(m/s/cm
/s)
50
33
Flowm
40
Flow
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (hrs)
23
110401454
Groundwater Hydrology
Groundwater hydrology
Groundwater is part of the total water that is entrapped
by impermeable layers called aquicludes. Such
aquicludes form the shape of the groundwater container
(aquifer). While part of the groundwater may be
rechargeable due to infiltration, other part is un-
rechargeable.
The groundwater hydrology cares generally about

studying the aquifers properties, groundwater
movements, groundwater flow amount, and the drop in
the groundwater table (drop in storage).
1
Groundwater aquifers are geological formations with
sufficient permeability to allow the groundwater
extraction (pumping out). In nature, such aquifers are
either confined or unconfined.
The confined aquifer is geological layer that is

entrapped by two less permeable layers (two
aquicludes) and the water flows as in closed conduits
(pressurized pipes), while the unconfined aquifer has
an upper saturated permeable layer with defined water
table. The flow regime in such aquifer is similar to flow
in open channels.
Types of aquifers
2
The groundwater flow:
The groundwater flow characteristics depend on the
permeability of the conveyance medium, and the
hydraulic gradient (water head difference). The
groundwater flow velocity is directly related to the
hydraulic gradient within the aquifer. Darcy expressed
the velocity as:
∂h
V = −k = −k s
∂r
k: constant called the hydraulic conductivity,
∂h: drop in hydraulic grade line between 2 observation points,
∂r: horizontal distance between 2 observation points,
s: the hydraulic gradient.
Equilibrium analysis of the groundwater flow:
The equilibrium analysis to solve the Darcy equation
assumes that:
- the flow rate from the aquifer is constant (steady),
- the well is screened through the entire aquifer depth,
- the aquifer is uniform of infinite extent (Isotropic),
- the water is released immediately in response to a
drop in the head.
Q (steady)
Infinite Infinite
extent extent
Aquifer
3
Observation wells:
To study the flow from the main groundwater well, an
observation wells are introduced. The purpose of the
observation well is to control the operation of the main
well through supplying groundwater measurements.
Observation Observation
Q
well 1 well 2
Main well
h1
h2
The groundwater is assumed to move towards the main
well from all horizontal directions (steady radial flow).
Main well
4
Steady radial flow:
r
r1 dh
r2
V =k
Q
dr
dh
Q=k A
dr
D Main well
h2
h1 dh
Q=k (2πrD )
dr
OW1 OW2
Steady radial flow:
r
r1 dh
r2 Q=k (2πrD )
Q dr
dr 2πDk
= dh
r Q
D Main well
h2
h1 r2 h
dr 2πDk 2
∫ r = Q ∫ dh
r1 h1
OW1 OW2
5
Steady radial flow:
r2 h Check what will happen if the

dr 2πDk 2
∫ r = Q ∫ dh equilibrium analysis
assumptions are not applicable
r1 h1
2πDk
ln (r2 ) − ln (r1 ) = (h2 − h1 )
Q
Steady flow from the confined aquifer:
Solving the Darcy equation and using the
simplifications stated through the assumptions of the
equilibrium analysis, the groundwater flow rate from
the confined aquifer of constant thickness D is:
2π k D (h2 − h1 )
Q=
ln(r2 / r1 )
The term kD is called the aquifer transmissivity (T)
h1 and h2: the hydraulic water head at the observation wells 1
and 2,
r1 and r2: the radial distances to observation wells 1 and 2.
6
Steady flow from the confined aquifer :
2π k D(h2 − h1 )
Q=
ln (r2 / r1 )
The distance r measured from the center line of the observation
well to the centre line of the main well.
Observation well 1 Observation well 2 Q (steady)
h1 D
h2
r2
r1
Steady flow from the unconfined aquifer:
In unconfined aquifers, the aquifer thickness D varies
(not constant). If the thickness D is expressed in terms
of the water head (h) that is measured from the
underlying aquiclude (bottom layer), in that case the
flow rate under the assumption of an equilibrium
analysis is:
Q=
(
2π k h22 − h12 )
ln(r2 / r1 )
7
Ex:
The flow from a main well in a confined aquifer of
15m thickness is 25L/s. If the water table elevations at
two observations wells 50m and 20m away of the
main well are 114.6m and 112.5m respectively, find
the transmissivity of the aquifer?
2π k D(h2 − h1 ) 2π k (15)(112.5 − 114.6 )

Q= = 0.025 =
ln(20 / 50)
ln(r2 / r1 )
k = 10m/day, and T = 150m2/day.
Ex:
A main well has diameter of 0.5m and transmissivity
of 150m2/day, what is the height of the water table
head at the main well if the water head at an
observation well 50m away is 114.6m?
Observation well 1 Q (steady)
D
h1=114.6m
h2
r2=0.5/2
r1=50m
8
Soln:
2π k D(h2 − h1 )
Q= =
ln(r2 / r1 )
2π (150 / 86400)(h2 − 114.6)

0.025 =
ln (0.25 / 50 )
The water table head at the main well is h2 = 102.5m
Self test question:
A main well of 0.5m diameter penetrates a confined

aquifer of k = 20m/day and thickness of 35m. The
flow is pumped from the main well such that its water
table is maintained at drawdown (drop) of 5m below
the water table of an observation well that is 600m
from the main well, what is the discharge from the
main well?
9
The hydraulic conductivity in anisotropic aquifers:
When the aquifer material varies either horizontally or
vertically, then the aquifer is anisotropic and hence an
average k should be used. This case is more realistic
than assuming that the aquifer is totally isotropic (k is
constant), however in reality, the aquifer contains
materials that differ in properties in all directions.
To simplify the study in case of anisotropy, the

variation in the k will be detailed in the horizontal and
vertical direction.
The equivalent horizontal hydraulic conductivity:
Assume an aquifer of horizontal layers 1, 2, ..,n.
D1 k1 Layer 1
D2 k2 Layer 2 Flow
….
Dn kn Layer n
k1D1 + k2 D2 + ........ + kn Dn
kH =
D1 + D2 + ...... + Dn
10
The equivalent vertical hydraulic conductivity:
Assume an aquifer of vertical layers 1, 2, ..,n.
Layer 1 Layer 2 Layer n
k1 k2 kn Flow
……….
d1 d2 dn
d1 + d 2 + ........ + d n
kV =
d1 d 2 d
+ + ........ + n
k1 k2 kn
The relation between kH and kV:
In literature, it has been found that the horizontal
hydraulic conductivity kH is always greater than the
vertical hydraulic conductivity kV (kH/ kV ≈ 2 – 10). For
clay soils the ratio may reach up to 100.
Can you explain that???

Flow direction
Water
Soil particle rest with its flat surface
down due to floating affect
11
Drop in the groundwater table
Nonequilibrium analysis:
For the case of the non-equilibrium analysis and given
the flow rate, then the drop in hydraulic head (drop in
the water table level) is expressed by the Cooper-
Jacob approximation as (sd):
Q  2.25T t 
sd = ln  2 
4π T  r S 
sd : the drop in water table (m),
t : the time (seconds),
r : distance between the main and the observation well
S: volume released per unit volume of the aquifer per unit drop
in the water table (unit less).
Q
Water table at time = 0
Observation well
sd
D
Water table at time = t
r
Q  2.25T t 
sd = ln  2 
4π T  r S 
12
Ex:
An aquifer of T = 150m2/day, S = 10-4 provides flow
of 25L/s to a main well. Find the drop (sd) at an
observation well 20m away from the main well after
1day and 30days of pumping?
Soln: Applying the Cooper-Jacob approximation for sd then:

Q  2.25T t 
sd = ln  2 
4π T  r S 
0.025  2.25 (150) t 
sd = ln 
 150   (20)2 × 10 −4 
4π  
 86400 

Substituting 1day and 30days for t in the equation (sd),
the results are shown below:
t (days) sd (m)
1 10.36
30 14.26
What do you observe?
13
Ex:
A confined well produces flow through an aquifer of T
= 200m2/day. The volume released per unit volume of
aquifer per unit drop in the water table is 0.008.
Calculate the 2 days drop at an observation well 40m
away from the main well when the flow for the first
day is 100L/s while for the second day is 80L/s. ?
Soln: Applying the Cooper-Jacob approximation for sd then:
Q  2.25T t 
sd = ln  2 
4π T  r S 

The drop for the first day at Q of 100L/s =
0.1  2.25 (200)(1) 

sd = ln   = 12.238m
4π (200 / 86400)  (40) 2 (0.008) 
The drop for the second day at Q of 80L/s =
= sd at Q of 80L/s for t = 2 days – sd at Q of 80L/s for t = 1day
0.08  2.25 (200)( 2)  0.08  2.25 (200)(1) 

= ln  − ln   =1.906m
4π ( 200 / 86400)  (40) 2 (0.008)  4π (200 / 86400)  ( 40) 2 (0.008) 
14
The total (cumulative) drop over the whole 2 days =
= sd at 100L/s for the first day + sd at 80L/s for the second day
= 12.238 + 1.906
= 14.144m
Water table at t = 0
sd for the first day at 100L/s
sd for the second day at 80L/s
15
Multiple well system:
When there are multiple active wells in the same
aquifer, then pumping from individual wells will add
cumulative effect (multiple wells together) on the
groundwater table, i.e. each well will affect (drop) the
water head at other wells. In reality, a minimum
distance between active wells is kept to reduce such
effect, such distance is called the well influence
distance.
The well influence distance is defined as the radial
distance from the well center such that the water table
drop is kept nearly zero!!! when the well is under
operation.

Observe the effect of well 1 on well 2 just.
Water table at well 2 if

pumping from well 1 alone Water table before pumping
hd1-2
Water table at hd2 hd
2 total
well 2 if pumping
from well 2 alone
Water table at well 2

after pumping from
both wells
Well 2 Well 1
16
Drop in groundwater level
Ex:
Two pumping wells in confined aquifer with 800m
influence distance are located as shown. Water is
pumped from well B at steady rate of 2800m3/day,
calculate the steady state flow from well A such that
the total head drop at well B not to exceed 2m when
T is 2400m2/d. Well B has 40cm diameter.
200m
WA WB

Head drop at well B from its self (hdB-B).
Q = 2800m3/day
- hdB-B
head drop = 0
h1
Water table
h2
WB
-hdB-B = h2-h1
Influence distance = 800m
17
Influence on well B from its self and from well A.
Q Q = 2800m3/day
-hdB-A
-hdB-B
Total drop on WB
WA WB
Final water table

Soln:
T = 2400/86400 = 0.0278m2/s. Q2 = 2800m3/d = 0.032m3/s.
The total head drop at WB = head drop at WB from WB (hdB-B) +

head drop at WB from WA (hdB-A) ≤ - 2m.
-hdB-B + (-hdB-A) ≤ - 2m.
The drop on WB from its self (hdB-B) is estimated from:
2π T (h2 − h1 )
Q=
ln(r2 / r1 )
2π × 0.0278(− hd B −B ) hdB-B = 1.52m

QB = = 0.032
ln (800 / 0.2)
18
Soln:
The drop on WB from WA is hdB-A that can be computed
from: -hdB-B + (-hdB-A) ≤ - 2m.
Given hdB-B = 1.52m, then hdB-A ≤ 0.48m.
2π T (h2 − h1 )
Q=
ln(r2 / r1 )
2π × 0.0278(− hd B − A )
QA = =
ln(800 / 200)
2π × 0.0278(− 0.48)
QA = = 0.06m 3 / s = 5223m3/day
ln (800 / 200)
Groundwater artificial recharge

Definition:
The term groundwater artificial recharge refers to the
process of transferring the surface water to the
groundwater aquifer by human interference. The main
concept behind the artificial recharge is to construct
simple structures to entrap surface water that will be
eventually transferred to the groundwater after being
infiltrated through the soil layers. Therefore, the
recharge process depends on the quantity of the surface
water stored and the soil properties as well (fast versus
slow artificial recharge will depend on the soil void
ratio, soil particle size, soil moisture content).
19

Techniques of artificial recharge:
• Infiltration pond (recharge basin): are natural soil

ponds placed next to major surface runoff streams to
store surface water and allow the infiltration through
soil to the underlying unconfined aquifer.
Pond
Groundwater table
20
• Trenches: are structures in natural soil placed

sloppy lands to intercept surface runoff and store
water and allow the infiltration through soil to the
underlying unconfined aquifer.
Surface ru
noff

• Injection wells: are structures similar to bore wells

where surface water is pressure or gravity injected to
supply water to ground aquifers.
Injected water
Well
21
Advantages of artificial recharge:
• It utilizes the surplus surface water to enhance the

groundwater storage and eventually increases the
safe yield.
• It requires simple and low cost structures to store
water for recharge.
• It has negligible losses (no evaporation).
• It improves the groundwater quality through diluting
potential groundwater solids content.

Ex:
Observe the recharge % of the total annual inflow for
the Wala dam reservoir.
Year Total inflow Spilling Recharged %

(m3) (m3) water (m3)
2008 1,349,793 ------ 1,220,721 90
2009 16,381,583 6,754,228 8,777,947 54
2010 34,570,535 25,173,738 9,617,735 28
2011 3,223,646 ------ 2,145,678 67
22
Introduction to water resources
The science of water resources is the water science that
focuses on studying the availability of water stored in a
region to cover the demand on water for human
activities like the domestic need (drinking, cooking and
cleaning), industrial activities need (food industry, paper
industry, tanning industry, structure industry, etc),
agricultural activities need, and recreational activities
need.
In general water is available from the following sources:
surface water (rivers, springs, natural and artificial
lakes), groundwater aquifers, treated wastewater, and
fresh water production using membrane filtration.
Water resources classification

All water resources are classified either traditional or
non-traditional water sources. Traditional water
sources are those evolved due to natural events like
precipitation or snow-melt (no human interference) like
flow in rivers and natural lakes. By definition, all
groundwater sources are traditional sources.
On the other hand, the non-traditional water resources
are those evolved due to human interference (man-made
structures) like treated wastewater from treatment plants,
and the freshwater production from desalting seawater
and brackish water using membrane filtration. In Jordan,
water from both traditional and non-traditional sources
is available.
23
Water resources classification
It should be noted that all the non-traditional water
resources are renewable resources, for example the fresh
water production from seawater desalination projects
(imagine the size of seas and oceans).
As a traditional water source, while part of the
groundwater sources is considered renewable, other part
is considered non-renewable sources (for example, the
Disi aquifer is a non-renewable groundwater source ).
Surface water sources from rivers, greeks, natural and
artificial lakes and from the snowmelt are renewable
water sources, however water amounts that can be
utilized depend on the precipitation amount and the
amount of water withdrawn.
Water resources facts (worldwide)
The study is based on 149 countries worldwide.
24
Utilized water resources in Jordan
The following table shows the distribution of the annual
amounts of water that can be utilized from different
sources in Jordan:
Source amount (Mm3)
Renewable groundwater 280

Non-renewable groundwater 140
Surface water 750
Treated wastewater 100
Brackish water (ready for desalting) 70
Surface water in Jordan

An other primary source of water in Jordan is the
surface water from surface basins (large area that
contributes surface water). The following table refers to
major surface basins in Jordan.
Basin annual surface water flow (Mm3)
Yarmouk river basin 166
Zarqa river basin 84
Mujib & Wala basin 102
Dead sea side wadis 43
Hesa 43
Jafr 13
Azraq 41
Northern wadi araba 46
25
Surface basins in Jordan
Distribution of water usage in Jordan

Water from different sources in Jordan is used mainly to
cover the needs of domestic purposes, agriculture and
industrial activities. The following table shows the
distribution of water usage in Jordan for the year 2005
versus competing sectors.
Sector amount used (Mm3/yr) % of water use

Domestic 291 31
Agriculture 604 64
Industrial 38 4
Live-stock 8 1
Total 941 100
26
The stressed water resources in Jordan
Due to the limited water resources in Jordan, the
increased demand on water for domestic, agriculture and
industrial activities has exceeded the available water
sources. The following table shows future scenarios
about the demand versus the supply in Jordan.
Year Total demand (Mm3) Total supply (Mm3) Deficit (Mm3)

2010 1383 1054 329
2020 1602 1152 450
2040 2236 1549 687
Introduction to surface water resources

Surface water resources in Jordan contribute about 38%
of the national water balance. The majority of the
surface water in Jordan comes from winter floods
collected in major dams and stream flows from the
Yarmouk river, Zarqa river and other eastern tributaries
(Wadis) of the lower Jordan river.
Such water source is considered renewable, however
surface water sources in Jordan are exploited due lack of
precipitation in recent years and the increased demand
on water.
From water quality perspective, surface water needs
further treatment for domestic purposes when compared
to groundwater sources (why?).
27
Surface water usage
Surface water resources in Jordan are used for different
purposes including:
1. Water supply for irrigation use, mainly in the Jordan
valley (about 30000 hectares) and highlands (about
4000 hectares).
2. Water supply for domestic use (Zai water treatment
plant is provided by water from Eastren Ghor Canal).
3. Water source for industry (Potash Arab Co. is
supplied partially by its water needs from the Mujib
dam).
4. Hydro-power generation (King Talal dam).
5. Groundwater recharge (Wala dam, Sewaqa dam).
Surface water resources

Major rivers and wadis in Jordan.
River Basin area Average historic Water utilized
(Km2) annual flow (Mm3) (Mm3)
Jordan 18194 1400 ----
Yarmouk 6974 440 100
(reduced to 360)
Zarqa 4154 85 Fully utilized
Wadi El-Arab 246 28 Fully utilized
Wadi Ziglab 100 10 Fully utilized
Wadi Kafrain 159 17 Fully utilized
Wadi Mujib 4380 83 Fully utilized
28
As can be seen from the previous table, the Yarmouk
river is considered as the main, the largest, and the most
important surface water resource in Jordan and
considered as a vital national resource. Recall that the
Yarmouk river is multi-share sources (Jordan about
100Mm3, Syria about 160Mm3, and others about
100Mm3).
It should be noted that Jordan cannot use the water from

Jordan river. The river natural freshwater flow has been
interrupted and abstracted before reaching Jordanian
lands, where only return irrigation flow and saline water
remains.

Major reservoirs in Jordan.
Dam Catchment Live storage Purposes Water resources
area (Km2) (Mm3)
Wadi El-Arab 262 17 Irrigation, domestic King Abdullah Canal
water supply, in winter and floods
power generation. of Wadi El-Arab.
King Talal 3,700 75 Irrigation, power Zarqa River and As-
generation. Samra wastewater
treatment plant.
Al Karameh 61 55 Irrigation. Surplus water from
King Abdullah Canal
in winter.
Kafrein 163 9 Irrigation, artificial Flood and base flow
recharge. from wadi Kafrein.
29
Major reservoirs in Jordan.
Dam Catchment Storage Purposes Water resources
area (Km2) (Mm3)
Wehdah 6974 100 Irrigation, domestic Yarmouk river flow,
water supply. winter flood.
Mujib 4380 32 Irrigation, domestic Mujib valley
and industrial water springs, winter
supply. flood.
Al tannur 2160 16 Irrigation. Hesa valley springs,
winter flood.
Wala 1770 9 Irrigation, domestic Winter flood.
and industrial water
supply, groundwater
recharge.
In addition to major dams, there are 18 micro-dam of 31Mm3 total

capacity, the largest among are Rowyshed dam of 10Mm3, Bayer
dam of 5Mm3, and Qatraneh dam of 4.2Mm3.

Mujib dam reservoir in Jordan.
30
Winter flood at spillway of Wala dam.
Surface water storage

Reservoirs:
Reservoirs are large artificial lakes created by barriers
(dams) to entrap surface water from natural streams to
store and release water when needed. Reservoirs are
classified according to the purpose into single-purpose
reservoirs (Al Karameh dam reservoir for irrigation) and
multi-purpose reservoirs (King Talal dam reservoir for
irrigation and power generation).
Two major issues related to reservoirs are: to estimate

the current storage capacity of existed reservoir, and to
estimate the required capacity to meet future needs of
water.
31
Reservoir purposes:
Reservoirs are built to store and release water for several
purposes including:
• Supply fresh water for domestic use,

• Supply water for irrigation,
• Flood control,
• Hydropower generation,
• Recreational purpose, and
• Creating positive impact on the environment.

Reservoir storage components:
Reservoir storage consists of following components:
• Normal pool level,

• Minimum pool level,
• Active or useful storage,
• Dead storage,
• Surcharge storage, and
• Flood control storage.
32
Reservoir storage components:
Spillway
Surcharge storage Maximum pool level
Flood control storage Normal pool level
Active or useful storage Dam
Sluiceway
Minimum pool level
Dead storage
Sediment accumulation

Reservoir storage yield:
• Yield from a reservoir: the water amount that can be

withdrawn from a reservoir in a specified period of
time.
• Safe yield (firm yield): the maximum water volume
can be supplied in a specified period of time during
critical period (dry season).
• Secondary yield: the water volume that is available
during high inflow season.
33
Storage capacity of existed reservoir:
The trapezoidal formula is one of several methods used
to estimate the current storage capacity of existed
reservoir. It simply relies on estimating the water
surface area from elevation-area curves (contour areas at
h contour interval) and then the volume of water stored
between two contours (surface areas A1 and A2) is given
as:
Elevation
h h
∆V1 = ( A1 + A2 )
2
A1 A2
Area

Storage capacity of existed reservoir:
The total storage volume (V) is the sum of sub-volumes
between contour areas:
h
∆V1 = ( A1 + A2 ) h
Elevation
2 h
h
∆V2 = ( A2 + A3 )
2
A1 A2 A3
Area
V = ∆V1 + ∆V2 + ....
34
Ex:
From the given elevation-area curve find the total
storage volume (V) of an existed reservoir.
120
100
Elevation (m)....
80
60
40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2
Area (km )

Soln:
To compute the total storage volume (V) of the existed reservoir,
contour interval of 20 is selected. At elevation 0m the area A1 is
0km2, at 20m A2 is 1.2km2, at 40m A3 is 2.3km2, and so on..
120
100
Elevation (m)....
80
60
40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2
Area (km )
35
Soln:
V = ∆V1 + ∆V2 + ....
20
V= (0 + 1.2) + 20 (1.2 + 2.3) + 20 (2.3 + 4)
2 2 2
20 20
+ (4 + 6.7 ) + (6.7 + 10) 120
2 2 100
Elevation (m)....
2
= 384m.km 80
60
3
= 384Mm 40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2
Area (km)

Storage capacity determination:
The storage capacity determination for non-existed
reservoir is an important key for well managing water
resources systems. The storage capacity is function of
two elements: the inflow water amount (supply) and the
outflow amount (demand or release).
In the next few slides, the active storage or the useful

storage capacity will be determined. The size of the
active storage highly relies on dry period analysis
(critical period).
36
In literature, the active storage capacity of reservoirs is
determined using four methods:
1- The mass curve method (Ripple method).
2- Sequent peak method (analytical method) .
3- Operation approach.
4- Optimization approach.
For the purpose of this course, the first two methods will
be discussed.

The mass curve method (Ripple method) is used to
estimate the active storage capacity of reservoirs when
the demand on water (release) is constant. In the mass
curve, the cumulative inflow determines the total supply,
while the cumulative constant demand represents the
total withdrawn. Our target is to maintain storage for the
incoming flows during wet periods to overcome the
largest deficit between the demand and the little inflow
(little supply) during the dry periods.
The following example will show detailed solution.
37
Ex:
Use the mass curve method (Ripple Inflow
method) to estimate the active Year (m3/yr)
storage capacity of a reservoir that 2000 60000
will be installed on a river with 2001 126000
yearly inflows as shown in the 2002 19000
table to overcome a constant 2003 28000
demand on water of 70000m3/yr.
2004 107000
2005 140000
2006 66000
2007 14000
2008 40000
2009 149000
2010 51000

Soln:
Step1: Calculate the cumulative inflows and cumulative demand.
Inflow Cumulative Demand Cumulative
Year m3 inflow m3 m3 demand m3
2000 60000 60000 70000 70000
2001 126000 186000 70000 140000
2002 19000 + 205000 70000 210000
2003 28000 233000 70000 + 280000
2004 107000 340000 70000 350000
2005 140000 480000 70000 420000
2006 66000 546000 70000 490000
2007 14000 560000 70000 560000
2008 40000 600000 70000 630000
2009 149000 749000 70000 700000
2010 51000 800000 70000 770000
38
Soln:
Step2: Plot the cumulative inflows and cumulative demand.
800
700
Cumulative inflow, demand
600 Cumulative inflow

(Thousand m3)
500
400
300 Cumulative demand

200
100
0
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010

Soln:
Step3: Locate dry and wet periods.
800
700
Wet period 2
600
(Thousand m3)
500
400
Dry period 2
Wet period 1
300
200
100
Dry period 1
0
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010
39
Soln:
Step4: Construct tangents (parallel to demand) at the beginning
of dry periods.
800
nt
700
Wet period 2 ange
T
600
(Thousand m3)
500
400
nt Dry period 2
Wet period 1 ange
300 T
200
100
Dry period 1
0
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010

Soln:
Step5: Find the storage required to supply the demand over the
dry period.
800
700
Wet period 2
600
(Thousand m3)
Storage required to
500 supply demand
over dry period 2
400
Dry period 2
Wet period 1
300
200 Storage required to

supply demand
100
Dry period 1 over dry period 1
0
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010
40
Soln:
Step6: Find the critical (maximum) storage required to supply
the demand over the critical dry period. Storage = 100,000m3.
800
700
Storage required to supply demand
over dry period 2 = 100,000m3
600
(Thousand m3)
500
400
300 Storage required to supply demand

over dry period 1 = 90,000m3
200
100
Dry period 1
0
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010

The sequent peak method is used to estimate the active
storage capacity of reservoirs when the demand on water
varies with time. In this method, the cumulative inflow
determines the total supply, while the cumulative
variable demand represents the total withdrawn. Our
target is to maintain storage for the incoming flows
during wet periods to overcome the largest deficit
between the demand and the little inflow during the dry
periods.
The following example will show detailed solution.
41
Ex:
Use the sequent peak method to Inflow Demand
estimate the active storage capacity Year (m3/yr) (m3/yr)
of a reservoir that will be installed 2000 60000 50000
on a river with yearly inflows as 2001 126000 75000
shown in the table to overcome the 2002 19000 81000
yearly demand on water as shown. 2003 28000 77000
2004 107000 86000
2005 140000 66000
2006 66000 92000
2007 14000 44000
2008 40000 53000
2009 149000 51000
2010 51000 93000

Soln:
Step1: Calculate the cumulative storage = Σ (inflow – demand).
Inflow Demand Yearly storage Cumulative

Year m3 m3 m3 storage m3
2000 60000 - 50000 10000 10000
Surplus
2001 126000 75000 51000 61000 storage
2002 19000 81000 -62000 + -1000
Deficit
2003 28000 77000 -49000 -50000 storage
2004 107000 86000 21000 -29000
Surplus
2005 140000 66000 74000 45000 storage
2006 66000 92000 -26000 19000
2007 14000 44000 -30000 -11000
Deficit
2008 40000 53000 -13000 -24000 storage
2009 149000 51000 98000 74000
2010 51000 93000 -42000 32000
42
Soln:
Step2: Determine the reservoir storage capacity from the analysis
of the cumulative storage. The reservoir storage capacity is the
difference between the surplus storage and deficit storage.
For dry period 1, the reservoir active storage =

= 61000 – (-50000) = 111000 m3.
For dry period 2, the reservoir active storage =

= 45000 – (-24000) = 69000 m3.
The critical storage is 111000m3 which the reservoir active

storage.

Water losses from surface reservoirs:
Besides to sedimentation problem, water in surface
reservoirs is exposed to losses including evaporation
and leakage. The following measures can be adopted to
reduce water losses:
• Constructing deep reservoirs to reduce evaporation,
• Planting tall trees around the reservoir to reduce the
wind speed and hence reducing the potential
evaporation,
• Covering the reservoir with plastic sheets (for small
reservoirs).
• Removing weeds and un useful water plants.
43
Globe issue related to hydrology
Global warming
44

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Engineering Hydrology

Hydrograph and flow:

Introduction to water resources:

Amman Jan 8, 2013. (Source: The Jordan Times Jan 8, 2013).

Amman - Zarqa highway near Ain Ghazal intersection Jan 8, 2013.

Zarqa city (Source: The

Applications of the hydrology in CE:

Components of the cycle are:

Vin: total water volume inters the system

Runoff volume in Runoff volume out

Infiltration volume out

Lower contour line

Upper contour line

2- Equant watersheds: results from gentle slopes.

Steep watershed discharges flow like case …..

Watershed of rough surface discharges flow like case ….

When a stream of order i meets a stream of order i + 1,

Runoff Principal order

Law of stream length

What is the length of streams of order 6?

To deal with hydrologic random variables, statistical

Statistical methods in hydrology

Expected value = mean

Statistical methods in hydrology

Year Rainfall (mm) Year Rainfall (mm)

Year xi (xi − x )2 Year xi (xi − x )2

Statistical methods in hydrology

Examples from CE applications:

Statistical methods in hydrology

Design value Variable

One of the most common equations to plot the empirical

Statistical methods in hydrology

The probability P(X > x) = 1 - P(X ≤ x) is called the

Statistical methods in hydrology

Year Rainfall (mm) Year Rainfall (mm)

Statistical methods in hydrology

Question: estimate the design storm that being exceeded 40%

Statistical methods in hydrology

The rainfall intensity is defined as the ratio of the

Statistical methods in hydrology

Statistical methods in hydrology

Year 15-minute extreme rainfall depth (mm)

Statistical methods in hydrology

Answer: use the probability plot

Extreme rainfall (x)

Statistical methods in hydrology

xd,T : extreme rainfall depth for storm of duration d and

Statistical methods in hydrology

From the historical data

xd = x15 = 13.72mm S d = S15 = 5.64mm

Statistical methods in hydrology

7. Plot the IDF curves. Place storm duration (d) at

Statistical methods in hydrology

For 15-min, x15,5 = 24.7 + 0.72×5 = 28.3mm

Micro-scale basin: measuring the runoff

Micro-scale basin: measuring the runoff

If the conditions mentioned above are not applicable,

Micro-scale basin: measuring the runoff

Micro-scale basin: measuring the runoff