Forest Fragmentation

M. J. THOMSON

The loss of woodland habitat in southern Ontario is alarming. Over 80 percent of the upland woodlands south and east
of the Canadian Shield have been lost since the nineteenth century. Not only has there been overall loss of woodlands,
the quality and ecological viability of many of the remaining woodlands are also being degraded. Simply measuring the
amount of woodland cover fails to address how well these features function or how effective they are in providing envi- 1
ronmental benefits. Forest fragmentation, or the “carving up” of woodlands into smaller and more isolated patches is
threatening forest ecosystems in southern Ontario. Understanding forest fragmentation is easier if you know a little
about woodland ecology.

A primer on woodland ecology

Within a forest, a diverse and vibrant ecosystem is made up of dif- species for that area. Many forest-nesting birds shun edges because
ferent layers, from the forest floor, to the shrub-rich understorey, to of the increased risk of predation or nest parasitism, as well as
the regenerating trees, and upwards to the canopy and “super- inhospitable temperature and moisture conditions, or insufficient
canopy”. A diversity of tree species and ages can provide many food. Edges are also more susceptible to human disturbance.
habitats for birds and other wildlife. Many woodland birds and Small woodland patches have a proportionately high amount
insects live out their entire lives in just one of these forest strata, and of edge habitat. Landscape ecologists often equate the edge habi-
so certain habitats within woodlands are particularly critical. But tat to an ecological buffer – typically 100 metres in width. Therefore,
much of our current woodland habitat is made up of relatively forest habitat must be at least 100 metres from the edge before it
young, regenerating replacement forest, homogeneous planta- can be considered “interior”. Thus a 200 m x 200 m square wood-
tions, or forests with a large component of invasive non-native land (4ha) or a 3 ha round woodland will contain no interior habi-
species. This means there are fewer areas of relatively undisturbed tat and would not likely support interior wildlife species. Using the
older growth forests with the specific habitat niches necessary for 100-metre definition, a circular forest patch would have to be
native wildlife. almost eight hectares in size to contain just one hectare of interior
What about the areas between woodlands, wetlands and habitat. Satellite images of southern Ontario show us that in many
native prairies? What goes on in these in-between spaces is very areas, most patches are smaller than eight hectares and those that
important. Consider, for example, what happens to woodlands as are larger are often relatively long and narrow so that they provide
the landscape changes from agricultural to urban. Increased noise little or no interior habitat.
affects wildlife. Cats and dogs become major sources of predation.
Invasive non-native vegetation such as garlic mustard, Norway
maple and European buckthorn become established and out-
compete native species. As more land is lost to roads, parking lots
and buildings, less rainwater percolates into the ground, changing
surface and subsurface water flow patterns. This means less mois-
ture is available to woodland plants and animals, but it can also
decrease the amount of water in underground aquifers and Two patches of the same size might
increase the risk of flash floods downstream. (See fact sheet not have the same amount of forest
Making the Connection Between Woodlands and Water) interior habitat because of shape.
Both the size and shape of a woodland determine the type of A long thin patch 200 metres in
habitat found there. Some plant and animal species are adapted to width will only have edge habitat.
open areas, others to woodland interiors, and still others to transi-
tional areas between the two, called edge habitats. A diversity of liv- What is forest fragmentation?
ing things needs a diversity of places to live.
Species diversity typically increases with increasing forest Forest fragmentation occurs when large, continuous forests are
cover, although the size and composition of woodlands determine divided into smaller blocks by roads, agriculture, urbanization, or
what species live there. Birds are a particularly effective barometer other development. This process reduces the forest’s function as a
of forest size and shape, since many of our native species need
large expanses of interior habitat. Typically, forest patches 200
hectares or larger support 90 to 100 percent of the forest bird
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WOODL AN DS

The degree of fragmentation can affect different organisms differently.

For example, a county road or a narrow agricultural field separating two
A predominantly forested landscape is fragmented by woodlands might not prove to be much of a barrier to a hawk. However,
development and other competing land uses. to other plant or animal species, such a barrier might be just as daunting
Ecological function is diminished or lost altogether. as a four-lane highway or a subdivision.

habitat for many plant and animal species. As well, it reduces the The fragmentation of existing southern Ontario woodlands is
forest’s effectiveness in performing other functions, such as water more dramatic than in any other region of comparable size in the
and air purification. In southern Ontario, highways, subdivision Great Lakes basin. In the area between Woodstock, Brantford, and
developments, utility corridors, or agricultural fields typically inter- Lake Erie, more than 80 percent of forest patches are now less than
rupt natural cover. Even minor unpaved roads or wider trails three hectares in size. This means that few of these patches will
through the woods can have an impact on the natural functions of have forest-interior habitats. More urban development, networks of
a forest. Fragmentation not only reduces the area that is left as for- roads and other human disturbances are continuing to carve many
est but also affects other biophysical aspects of the forest, such as natural forests into smaller and more isolated parcels. The resulting
forest structure, temperature, moisture and light regimes. It dis- woodland islands are often too small to maintain healthy gene
turbs the habitat to which all forest animals and plants have adapt- pools or viable populations of plants and animals over the long
ed over millennia. term.

Why should we be alarmed? What are the causes of fragmentation?

Southern Ontario’s forested landscape is a resource that provides Any land-use change can potentially result in fragmentation. The
both livelihood and leisure to residents and visitors. Ecological ben- extent of the impact will depend on the type of change, the degree
efits include vital filtering and absorption of water into the system. of fragmentation, and the species involved. In the early days of set-
Forests also absorb large amounts of carbon dioxide that would oth- tlement, much of the forested landscape was fragmented by land
erwise be released into the atmosphere. Through photosynthesis, clearing for timber and agriculture. In the more recent decades, some
plants use the energy from sunlight and nutrients from the soil and of the most serious fragmentation has been caused by urban sprawl.
air to yield the oxygen that is essential to the survival of living things. Urban sprawl refers to new development that consumes land
Our forests and woodlands are still an important part of our region’s at a rate faster than that at which the population is growing. It uses
economy and represent a significant source of revenue and employ- more land per person combined with the fact that the population
ment, in both timber and non-timber products. Our forests serve as itself is steadily increasing in cities and towns. It promotes depen-
important education, research and recreation areas, and, not least, dency on the use of cars, because it is characterized by low-densi-
our forests and woodlands are treasured places for spiritual and psy- ty development that separates where people live from where they
chological well-being. However, the rate at which woodlands are shop, work and recreate. It also separates them from access to
changing and disappearing in many areas is alarming. Ecosystems green space and natural areas in their communities because typi-
are dynamic, adapting and resilient living systems, but they cannot cally natural areas are not incorporated into the design of these
withstand the scale of this assault. If we want to maintain the bene- developments.
fits that woodlands provide, we need to keep them intact. Roads and rights-of-way that go along with sprawl are particu-
 Forest fragmentation can have negative and often irreversible effects on
local environments, especially when associated with human development.

larly insidious because they include not only the paved surface of Sprawl-type planning completely disregards the continuity of natu-
the road itself but also the area along the median, the shoulder, the ral ecosystems, dissecting or removing them altogether instead of
ditch and an allowance beyond the ditch up to the forest’s edge. using less land area, integrating woodlands into the community,
Roads can be impassable barriers for wildlife, restricting their and leaving natural connecting corridors intact within carefully
movement among forest patches. planned communities. 3

What are the consequences?

Forest fragmentation can have negative and often irreversible between patches becomes temporarily vulnerable to predators,
effects on local environments, especially when associated with harsh environmental conditions, or simply to starvation.
human development.
Isolation of a population. Both plant and animal populations can
Reduction of total habitat area. When habitat is reduced to small- become isolated within a patch when surrounding patches of
er and smaller patches, there is less overall habitat as well as less habitat are destroyed. Migration or movement becomes difficult
diversity in habitat types. A reduced amount of habitat supports and hazardous. Isolated populations are prone to decline due to
correspondingly smaller populations of wildlife, as well as fewer inbreeding, swings in numbers due to over-exploitation of habitat,
species. and sudden removal from the patch due to disturbances such as
fire, wind damage, or insect or disease infestations.
Edge habitat. When a habitat is fragmented, the amount of edge A woodland patch
habitat increases at the expense of interior habitat. Species depen- Vulnerability to external competition and predation. If prey with edge habitat
dent on interior habitat suffer, while edge-dependent species, species wander too close to the edge of protective habitat, preda-
including invasive species and predators, thrive. Highly fragment- tors can take them. Some species may be excellent competitors
ed forests cannot provide the food, cover, or reproduction needs deep within their own specialized habitat, but less successful
of interior forest species. Predators such as crows and raccoons against those species found at the edge of their habitat.
and nest parasites like the brown-headed cowbird find target
nests more easily in edge habitats. Woodland-dependent bird Flow of genetic material throughout landscape. Wildlife should
species, even though they are found in nearby woodland areas, be able to move freely from one forest patch to another. This
often avoid smaller fragments. movement allows for interbreeding, creating genetically stronger
populations and ensuring that suitable habitats can be filled. In a
Woodland size is also important. Smaller forests usually support fragmented forest landscape, large distances between woodlots
a lower diversity of forest-dwelling species and proportionally may prevent this movement and are an impediment for migrat-
fewer numbers of each species due to edge effects, which can ing wildlife. For this reason, corridors between isolated patches
extend from 100 to 300 metres into the forest. Patches of 200 can help wildlife by providing routes through which they can trav-
hectares are considered the minimum size for a forest ecosystem el. Corridors also benefit plants, making seed dispersal and estab-
to recover from disturbance events such as wind-throw, fires, or lishment into new areas easier. While even narrow hedgerows can
insect and disease infestations. help create linkages between fragments, corridors of 100 to 200
metres wide or greater are considered more effective.
Vulnerability during movement among patches. As a habitat
becomes fragmented, patches become separated from one anoth-
er by relatively inhospitable terrain. Wildlife attempting to cross

What can be done? Planting and otherwise encouraging natural regeneration can enhance
the size and shape of fragments or patches to create more interior habi-
“Defragmentation” tat. Restoration activities can also include building or enhancing linkages
between isolated patches. But we must also address fragmentation at a
Fortunately, the ecological value and function of forest fragments broader scale. (See fact sheet on Cores and Corridors: The Importance
can, in many cases, be improved through restoration activities. of a Green System in Southern Ontario)
 SOUTH E R N ONTAR IO
WOODL AN DS
4 Visions or strategies that have been proposed by various organiza- Adirondack Heritage Project. The vision of this project is to
tions share the aim of building a more connected, integrated natu- broadly link these natural physiographic features into a connect-
ral system. These approaches all take into account the whole ed system that would support the migratory movement of many
landscape on a scale that is appropriate for ecological function. species, including large mammals, on a large geographic scale.
They also acknowledge the reality that the landscape in southern (www.utoronto.ca/env/st/pspaces/publicspaces.htm or
Ontario is largely settled, and that we need to maintain a healthy, www.noahprojectontario.org)
strong agricultural community as well.
Oak Ridges Moraine. This natural 160 km long moraine feature,
Big Picture 2002. Using data sets and Geographic Information which has experienced heavy urban development, has special
Systems (GIS), the Big Picture 2002 identifies existing natural cores provincial legislation to protect and maintain it as a broad natural
and corridors and maps out potential areas for restoring corridors area. The Oak Ridges Moraine Conservation Plan holds urban
between natural areas, as well as enhancing large core natural development to 8 percent of the moraine. Protected countryside
areas. This process takes into account the fact that urban areas and areas cover 30 percent, while 62 percent remains in natural core
transportation corridors are not suitable for restoration, and that and linkage areas. (www.stormco.org)
wildlife (both plants and animals) have a hard time crossing these
barriers. This project looks at all of southern Ontario from the Niagara Escarpment Plan. This plan, approved in 1985, is a good
Carolinian Zone to the Canadian Shield and into eastern Ontario. example of land-use planning limits on development to maintain a
www.mnr.gov.on.ca/MNR/nhic/nhic.cfm connected system of natural areas and to protect the landform
itself, a natural feature running 725 kilometres from Queenston to
NOAH-Niagara Escarpment-Oak Ridges-Algonquin to Tobermory. (www.niagaraescarpment.org)

Written by Helena Rusak

Illustrations by Clive Dobson
FON gratefully acknowledges the generous support for this fact sheet by The Richard Ivey Foundation.

The Federation of Ontario Naturalists (FON) protects Ontario’s nature through research, education, and conservation action.
FON champions woodlands, wetlands and wildlife, and preserves essential habitat through its own system of nature reserves.
FON is a charitable organization representing 25,000 members and supporters and 125 member groups across Ontario.

Fact sheets in this series include:

Cores and Corridors: The Importance of a Green System in Southern Ontario
Forest Fragmentation
Introducing Old Growth – The Ultimate Forest
10 Ways to Save Your Local Woods (and Water!)
Urban Forests: An Important Part of Our Natural Heritage
Making the Connection Between Woodlands and Water

Woodlands At Risk is a 32-page full colour booklet about the threats to

southern Ontario’s woodlands, available from FON.

If you wish to support FON or learn more about current conservation issues in Ontario visit: www.ontarionature.org

FEDERATION OF ONTARIO NATURALISTS

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