Communication system

TC-307
Lecture 4,5,6
Week 2
Course Instructor: Nida Nasir
Communication system
TC-307
Lecture 4, week 2
Course Instructor: Nida Nasir
Summary of week 1
• Basic terms
• Comm examples
• Elements of CS (TX, Channel, RX)
• Types of electronic comm (WRT modes) Simplex, duplex
• Types of electronic comm (WRT transmission) baseband, broadband
• Types of electronic comm (WRT input msg signal) Analog, digital
• Types of channel (wired, wireless)
• Types of information(message, signal)
• ACS block diagram
• Adverse effects/ disturbances of channel
• DCS block diagram
• Limitations of CS (Noise, Bandwidth)
• SNR
• Primary comm resources ( power, bandwidth)
• Theorems in CS (Nyquist , Hartley-Shannon)
• Modulation & its types ( Analog, digital, pulse)
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 PCM (Analog to digital conversion)
• A/D conversion also known as Pulse code
modulation(PCM) is a 3 step process.
1. Sampling
2. Quantization
3. Encoding
• Sampler: collect the sample data at instantaneous
values of message signal
• Quantizer: is a process of reducing the excessive
bits and compresses the value.
• Encoder: The digitization of analog signal is done
by the encoder.

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5
Need and Benefits of modulation
Modulation is needed basically to increase the bandwidth of signal and to multiplex
more signals.
Following are some of the advantages for implementing modulation in the
communication systems.
• Antenna size gets reduced.
• Modulation reduces noise and interference
• Avoid mixing of signals
• Communication range increases.
• Multiplexing of signals is possible
• Reception quality improves.

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1. Reduction in the height of antenna
• For the transmission of radio signals, the antenna height must be multiple of λ/4 ,where λ is the
wavelength .
λ = c /f where c : is the velocity of light f: is the frequency of the signal to be
transmitted
• The minimum antenna height required to transmit a baseband signal of f = 10 kHz
• Min antenna height = λ/4 = c/4f = 3x108/ 4x 104 = 7500m or 7.5km

Now, let us consider a modulated signal at f = 1 MHz .

• The minimum antenna height is given by = λ/4 = c/4f = 3x108/ 4x 106 = 75m

2. Modulation reduces noise and interference

• It requires channel bw to be greater than signal bw, so a HF carrier is needed to accommodate
wideband noise reduction. Therefore, high bw is traded for noise reduction.

3. Avoids mixing of signals

• If each baseband signal is used to modulate a different carrier then they will occupy different slots
in the frequency domain (different channels). Thus, modulation avoids mixing of signals .
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4. Increase the Range of Communication
• The modulation process increases the frequency of the signal to be
transmitted. Therefore, it increases the range of communication.

5. Multiplexing is possible
• The multiplexing allows the same channel to be used by many signals .
Hence, modulation can use the same channel and different signals can be
transmitted at the same time .

6.Improves Quality of Reception

• In modulation, the effect of noise is reduced which improves quality of
reception.

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 Coding and its Benefits
• modulation as a signal-processing operation for effective transmission while
Coding is a symbol-processing operation for improved communication.
• source coding is applied to generate the fewest bits possible for a given
message.
• To combat errors that arise from noise and interferences, redundancy needs
to be introduced. This process is known as error correction coding by the
transmitter and decoding by the receiver. By appending extra check digits to
each binary codeword, we can detect, or even correct.
• Channel coding is a technique used to introduce controlled redundancy to
further improve the performance reliability in a noisy channel.
• source coding can be viewed as the dual of channel coding.
• benefits of digital coding can be incorporated in analog communication with
the help of an analog-to-digital conversion method such as pulse-code
modulation (PCM).
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 Multiplexing and
multiple access

Multiplexing Multiple access

Frequency
Analog Digital division multiple
access

Frequency
Time Division Time division
division
Multiplexing multiple access
multiplexing

Wave Division Code division

Multiplexing multiple access

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 Multiplexing and multiple access
• multiplexing involves a fixed assignment of the
common communications resource (such as frequency
spectrum) at the local level, such as telephone users
usually takes place confined to a local site ( circuit
board ).
• Multiple access involves remote sharing of a resource
such as in satellite communication or mobile
communication, radio channel is used by large
number of users in dispersed locations.

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• Multiplexing is the process of allowing two or more
signals to share the same medium or channel ,
either wired or wireless

• A multiplexer converts the individual baseband

signals to a composite signal that is used to
modulate a carrier in the transmitter.

• At the receiver, the composite signal is recovered at

the demodulator, then sent to a demultiplexer
where the individual baseband signals are
regenerated.

• Four applications that would be expensive or

impossible without multiplexing are telephone
systems, telemetry, satellites, and modern radio and
TV broadcasting.

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 Multiplexing and its types
Analog Multiplexing:

• Frequency division multiplexing: In FDM, multiple signals are transmitted over a single channel,
each signal being allocated a portion of the spectrum within that bandwidth. The spectrum is divided
into small bands and each user is assigned a specific band. In this, bandwidth is wasted bcz if user is
idle, his/her band cannot be used by anyone else.

• Wavelength division multiplexing, uses multiple data streams of different wavelength are
transmitted in the light spectrum. The increase in wavelength results in a decrease in the frequency
of the signal. Prism has the property of MUX and DEMUX to turn a single line to many and many
to one.

• In optical networking, wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) is equivalent to frequency-

division multiplexing for optical signal. Optical fiber communications use WDM technique, to
merge different wavelengths into a single light for communication.

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Digital Multiplexing:

• In time-division multiplexing (TDM), each signal occupies the entire bandwidth of the
channel. However, each signal is transmitted for only a brief time, multiple signals take
turns transmitting over the single channel.

• Time-division multiplexing divides the time frame into slots. It transports a signal over
communication channel by allocating one slot for every message. Suppose there are 30
users in a frame , slot1 is for user1, slot2 for user 2, slot3 for user3 and so on. When the
30th user completes its comm, then cycle repeats again from user1.

• One binary word from each source creates a frame. The frames are then repeated over
and over again.

• TDM is further classified into synchronous and asynchronous time-division

multiplexing.

• In synchronous time-division multiplexing, sampling rate is the same for all the
signals, and common clock input is fed.

• In asynchronous time-division multiplexing , sampling rate gets varied for each signal
and there is no need for a common clock input.

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The difference between FDM, TDM and WDM is
that FDM divides the bandwidth into smaller
frequency ranges and each user transmit data
simultaneously through a common channel within
their frequency range, TDM allocates a fixed time
slot for each user to send signals through a
common channel and WDM combines multiple
light beams from several channels and combine
them to a single light beam and sends through a
fiber optic strand similar to FDM. 15
Example: A cable TV service uses a single coaxial cable with a bandwidth of 860
MHz to transmit multiple TV signals to subscribers. Each TV signal is 6 MHz wide.
How many channels can be carried?

Sol:

Total channels = 860/6 = 143.33 or 143

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Summary lecture 4

1. A/D conversion (PCM)(sampling, quantization, coding)

2. Need , benefit of modulation
3. Coding & its benefits
4. Multiplexing and multiple access
5. Multiplexing and its types (FDM, WDM, TDM)

17
Communication system
TC-307
Lecture 5, week 2
Course Instructor: Nida Nasir
 Multiple access technique and types

• Multiple Access many users share a limited amount of

spectrum. These are similar to multiplexing,
• the techniques include frequency-division multiple access
(FDMA), time-division multiple access (TDMA), code-division
multiple access (CDMA).
• The term should not be confused multiplexing, which is the
process of grouping multiple base band signals into a single
signal so that it could be transmitted over a single
communication channel.
• Multiple access is used in wireless comm especially in satellite
and mobile comm system.

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• Frequency-Division Multiple Access. FDMA
systems allow many users to share a block of
spectrum by dividing up into many smaller channels.
Each channel of a band is given an assigned number
or is designated by the center frequency of the
channel. One subscriber is assigned to each channel.

• Time-Division Multiple Access. TDMA relies on

digital signals and operates on a single channel.
Multiple users use different time slots. In TDMA
systems, slot one allows three users per frequency
channel and the other allows eight users per channel.

• Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA), or SS

multiple access. It is used in satellite systems so that
many signals can use the same transponder. It is also
widely used in cellular telephone systems, it permits
more users to occupy a given band than other
methods. This system uses special codes assigned to
each user that can be identified.

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 Frequency, cycle, wavelength

• Frequency. Frequency is the number of times a particular

phenomenon occurs in a given period of time. Frequency is
measured in cycles per second (cps). In electronics, the unit of
frequency is the hertz, named for the German physicist
Heinrich Hertz.

• Cycle: One positive alternation and one negative alternation

form a cycle. A cycle consists of two voltage polarity
reversals, current reversals, or electromagnetic field
oscillations. The cycles repeat, forming a continuous but
repetitive wave.

• Wavelength is defined as the distance travelled by an EM

wave during the time of one cycle. EM waves travel at the
speed of light in atmosphere or vacuum, that is, 3 X 108 m/s. It
is inversely proportional to frequency of wave.
• wavelength = velocity of light
Frequency
λ = c/ f λ= wavelength in meter, f= frequency in Hz
c= speed of light = 3x108 m/s or 11.8 x 109 inch/s

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Electromagnetic spectrum
• Extremely low frequency
• Voice frequency
• Very low frequency
• Low frequency
• Medium frequency
• High frequency
• Very high frequency
• Ultra high frequency
• Super high frequency
• Extremely high frequency
• Infrared
• Visible/light spectrum

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ITU band designation

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• Extremely Low Frequencies. (ELFs) 30- to 300-Hz range. Application are ac power line frequencies (50 and 60 Hz are common), frequencies in the
low end of the human audio range, low frequency telemetry signals.

• Voice Frequencies. (VFs) 300 to 3000 Hz. Application are human speech, Standard telephone channels have 300-3000Hz bandwidth and are called
voice band channels.

• Very Low Frequencies. (VLFs) 3 kHz to 30 kHz Application are human hearing range up to about 15 or 20 kHz, musical instruments make sounds in
this range as well as in the ELF and VF ranges, used by government and military communication in radio transmission used by the navy to
communicate with submarines.

• Low Frequencies. (LFs) 30- to 300-kHz. The primary communication services using this range are in aeronautical and marine navigation. Frequencies
in this range are also used as subcarriers, signals that are modulated by the baseband information.

• Radio waves: 300kHz to 300GHz, includes short and long radio waves.

• Medium Frequencies. (MFs) 300- to 3000-kHz. application of frequencies in this range is AM radio broadcasting (535 to 1605 kHz). Other
applications is marine and amateur radio communication.
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• High Frequencies. (HFs) 3- to 30-MHz range. These are the frequencies generally known as short waves. All
kinds of simplex broadcasting and half duplex two-way radio communication take place in this range.
Government and military services use these frequencies for two-way communication. Amateur radio and CB
communication also occur.

• Very High Frequencies. (VHFs) 30- to 300-MHz range. used by many services like mobile radio, marine and
aeronautical communication, FM radio broadcasting (88 to 108 MHz), television channels 2 through 13, Radio
amateurs

• Ultrahigh Frequencies. (UHFs) 300- to 3000-MHz range. It includes the UHF TV channels 14 through 51, and
is used for land mobile communication and services such as cellular telephones, microwave and satellite radio,
military communication, radar and navigation services, radio amateurs also have bands in this range.

• Microwaves and SHFs.

microwaves. (1-GHz) and 30-GHz Microwave ovens usually operate at 2.45 GHz.
Superhigh frequencies (SHFs) 3- to 30-GHz range. These microwave frequencies are widely used for satellite
communication and radar. Wireless local-area networks (LANs), cellular telephone systems also occupy this region
.
• Extremely High Frequencies (EHFs) from 30 to 300 GHz. frequencies higher than 30 GHz are referred to as
millimeter waves, use of this range is satellite communication telephony, computer data, short-haul cellular
networks, and some specialized radar.
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• Frequencies Between 300 GHz and the Optical Spectrum. Lack of hardware and components limits its use. The
region occupied by 3 different light waves: infrared, visible, and ultraviolet.

• Infrared frequencies are signals in 0.3 THz to 300-THz and are not generally referred to as radio waves. Infrared
refers to electromagnetic radiation generally associated with heat. Infrared signals are used in electronic photography and
astronomy, missiles, airplane.

• Visible lights includes electromagnetic frequencies that fall within visible range of humans (0.3 PHz to 3 PHz). Light
wave communication is used with optical fiber systems which is used for transmission mediums.

• Beyond the visible region are the ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays, and cosmic rays. These are all forms of
electromagnetic radiation, but they are not used in communication systems.

• Ultraviolet range is 3PHz to 30 PHz

• X rays range is 30PHz to 300PHz
• Gamma rays range is 0.3 EHz to 3 EHz
• Cosmic rays range is 3 EHz to 30 EHz

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Electromagnetic
spectrum

27
Electromagnetic
spectrum for
wired channels

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Electromagnetic
spectrum for
wireless
channels

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 Licensed and unlicensed frequency bands
• Primary difference between licensed and unlicensed bands is that
the licensed bands are allowed to be used only by the company who
have license, whereas the unlicensed bands are used by anyone who
wants to use them.
• licensed bands are paid while unlicensed are free.
• ISM (Industrial, Scientific and Medical) band is a
license free frequency band for operation of industrial, scientific, and
medical equipment, other than telecommunication. most commonly
ISM device is the home microwave oven operating at 2.45 GHz
• In Pakistan, PTA(Pakistan Telecommunication Authority) give
licenses for services.
• a license holder operates without interference or spectrum crowding.
The FCC provides legal protection and enforcement to prevent other
operators from transmitting over the same frequency in the same
geographic area while in unlicensed band there’s greater potential for
interference from other users located nearby.
• Examples of license bands are : TV, radio broadcasting, military,
mobile, satellite comm.
• Examples of license free bands are : WiFi, bluetooth

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Radio waves and microwaves
Radio waves: Freq ( 3 KHz – 1GHz)
1. tv, fm broadcasting uses radio waves.
2. no alignment required
3. they uses isotropic(omnidirectional) antennas
4. can penetrate through walls because of large wavelengths(in meter)
5. get reflected off the ionosphere, so it is possible to receive radio signals from far away that have
bounced their way to us.

Microwaves : Microwave freq ( 1 – 300 GHz)

1.satellites and mobile communication uses microwaves
2. TX and RX antennas must be aligned
3. They use directional (parabolic)antennas
4. cannot penetrate through walls because of small wavelength(in centimeters) tend to go straight
5. microwaves can pass through the ionosphere so they are good for communicating with satellites.
 Terrestrial microwave and satellite comm
•Microwaves 1 GHz to 300 GHz, have short wavelengths
•Microwave frequencies are used for wireless
communication as they penetrate ionosphere. They get
attenuated when used as ground waves as well as surface
waves. Due to this reason microwave communication is
mainly LOS (Line of Sight) based communication.
•Microwave communication systems are mainly
classified into satellite systems and terrestrial systems.
•Microwave frequency gets attenuated due to buildings,
trees, geographical locations. In order to extend the range
of terrestrial communication system, multiple repeaters
are used.
•A terrestrial communication system (earth/land-based)
uses two stations and repeater module. Multiple repeaters
are used between source and destination stations.
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•The primary difference between satellite and
terrestrial radio systems is that satellite systems
propagate signals outside Earth’s atmosphere and, thus, are
capable of carrying signals much farther.
•In terrestrial comm, transmissions are in btw 2 earth
stations
•In satellite comm, the frequency with which, the signal is
sent into the space from TX ES is called as Uplink
frequency while the frequency with which, the signal is
sent by the transponder to RX ES is called as Downlink
frequency.
•Coverage area of a satellite based system is greater than
that of a terrestrial based wireless communication system.
• A GEO satellite with one single antenna can cover about
1/4th of the earth.
•A satellite radio repeater is called a transponder, which
receives the signal (at uplink freq), amplifies or repeats the
signal and retransmits it on different freq (downlink freq).

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 Lecture 5 Summary

• Multiple access and its types (FDMA, TDMA, CDMA)

• Electromagnetic spectrum
• Electromagnetic spectrum for wired and wireless channels
• Licensed and unlicensed freq spectrum
• Radio waves and microwaves
• Terrestrial microwave and satellite communication

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Communication system
TC-307
Lecture 6
Week 2
Course Instructor: Nida Nasir
 Radio wave propagation
1. Reflection.
• All metallic objects reflect radio waves on transmission path, such as
building parts, water towers, automobiles, airplanes, and even power lines,
earth, water.
• Radio wave reflection follows the principles of light wave, that is, the
angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence.

2. Refraction.
• It is the bending of a wave due to the medium through which the wave
passes.
• The speed of a radio wave is approximately 300,000,000 m/s (186,400
mi/s) in free space, i.e., in a vacuum or air.
• As a radio wave travels through free space, it encounters air of different
densities, the density depending on the degree of ionization (gain or loss of
electrons). This change of air density causes the wave to be bent.
• The degree of bending depends on the index of refraction of a medium n,
the index of refraction for air is very close to 1. The index of refraction for
any other medium will be greater than 1,

3. Diffraction.
• light and radio waves travel in a straight line. If an obstacle appears
between a transmitter and receiver, some of the signal is blocked, creating
a shadow zone.
• A receiver located in the shadow zone cannot receive a complete signal.
However, some signal usually gets through due to the phenomenon of
diffraction, the bending of waves around an object.
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Electromagnetic Wave
Propagation over
wireless channel
• ground wave(surface wave)
• sky wave
• space wave (ground reflected
wave and line of sight/direct
wave).

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 Wave Propagation Through (Radio/ Microwave)
There are 3 ways of propagating electromagnetic waves within earths atmosphere.
1. ground wave (surface wave),
2. sky wave, and
3. space wave(ground reflected wave and line of sight/direct wave).

• The free-space path is the line-of-sight path directly between the transmit and
receive antennas (this is also called the direct wave).
• The ground-reflected wave is the portion of the transmit signal that is reflected off
Earth’s surface and captured by the receive antenna.
Above two are collectively known as Space waves.

• The surface wave consists of the electric and magnetic fields associated with the
currents induced in Earth’s surface, also known as ground wave.

• The sky wave is the portion of the transmit signal that is returned (reflected) back to
Earth’s surface by the ionized layers of Earth’s atmosphere.

• At frequencies below 1.5 MHz, the surface wave provides the primary coverage,
and the sky wave helps extend this coverage at night when the absorption of the
ionosphere is at a minimum.

• For frequencies above about 30 MHz to 50 MHz, the LOS and ground-reflected
paths are the only paths of importance. The surface wave can also be neglected at
these frequencies.
Ground Waves/surface waves:

• A surface wave travels over the surface of earth.

• Ground wave propagation is strongest at the low- and medium-frequency ranges, 30-
kHz to 3-MHz. It requires large antennas and high transmission power.

• The conductivity of the earth determines how well ground waves are propagated.
The better the conductivity, the less the attenuation and the greater the distance the
waves can travel.

• The best propagation of ground waves occurs over sea water because the water is an
excellent conductor while highest degree of attenuation is over jungle areas.

• At frequencies beyond 3 MHz, the earth begins to attenuate radio signals.

• Surface wave propagation is used for ship to ship and ship to shore
communication, for radio navigation and maritime mobile communication.
Sky Waves
• Sky wave signals are radiated by the antenna into the upper atmosphere, where they
are bent back to earth. This bending of the signal is caused by refraction in
ionosphere.
• The ionosphere is divided into three layers, the D layer, the E layer, and the F layer;
the F layer is subdivided into the F1 and F2 layers.
• The D and E layers, the farthest from the sun, are weakly ionized. They exist only
during daylight hours, during which they tend to absorb radio signals in the
medium-frequency range from 300 kHz to 3 MHz.
• The F1 and F2 layers, the closest to the sun, are the most highly ionized and have
the greatest effect on radio signals. The F layers exist during both day and night and
cause refraction of radio signals
• At very high frequencies, above about 50 MHz, refraction seldom occurs. VHF,
UHF, and microwave signals usually pass through the ionosphere without bending.
• Reflected radio waves are sent back to earth with minimum signal loss. This effect
occurs in the 3- to 30-MHz or shortwave range.
• AM broadcast signals are propagated primarily by ground waves during the
day and by sky waves at night.
• EM waves directed above horizon level are sky waves they are radiated
towards the sky where they are either reflected or refracted back to earth by
the ionosphere.
IONOSPHERE

Ionosphere is a region of space located 50km to 400km (30 miles to 250 miles above earth
surface) has 3 layers

D layer is the lowest layer of ionosphere and is between 50-100 Km (30 – 60 miles above
earth surface) this layer is farthest from sun and has little ionization. This layer disappears
at night. The D layers reflects VLF, LF waves and aborbs MF, HF Waves

E layer is between 100- 140 Km (60-85 miles above earth surface). This layer has
maximum density at noon as sun is at highest point. This layer almost disappears at night.
The E layer supports MF surface wave propagation and reflects HF Waves during day
time

F layer is made up of two layers F1 and F2 during day time F1 layer is located between
140-250km (85-155 miles above earth surface). F2 layer is located between 140-300km
(85-185 miles above earth surface) during winter and 250-350 km (155-220 miles in
summer)
• During night F1 layer combines with F2 layer to form a single layer
• F1 absorbs and attenuate HF Waves, although most of the waves pass through F2
where they are reflected back to earth
Space Waves. This method of radio signal propagation is by
direct waves, or ground reflected wave.

• Direct wave often referred to as line-of-sight communication.

Direct or space waves are not refracted, nor do they follow
the curvature of the earth.
• Line-of-sight communication is characteristic of frequency
above 30 MHz, particularly VHF, UHF, and microwave
signals.
• The antennas for transmitters and receivers operating at the
very high frequencies are typically located on top of tall
buildings or on mountains, which greatly increases the range
of transmission and reception.
• A repeater is a combination of a receiver and a transmitter
operating on separate frequencies. It picks up a signal from a
remote transmitter, amplifies it, and retransmits it (on another
frequency) to a remote receiver.
• Repeaters are widely used to increase the communication
range for mobile and handheld radio units, the antennas for
which are naturally not very high off the ground.
• If a direct wave signal is to be received beyond the horizon, the
receiving must be high enough to intercept it.
• practical transmitting distance with direct waves is a function of
the height of the transmitting and receiving antennas.
• The formula for computing the distance between a transmitting
antenna and the horizon is
d = ˨ 2ht where ht = height of transmitting antenna, ft, d =
distance from transmitter to horizon, mi
• This is called the radio horizon and Space wave propagation
can be extended by increasing either the height of TX or RX
antenna
• To find the practical transmission distance D for space wave,
height of the receiving antenna must be included
D = ˨ 2ht + ˨ 2hr where hr = height of receiving antenna, ft.

Example, if a transmitting antenna is 350 ft high and the receiving

antenna is 25 ft high, find the longest practical transmission
distance?
D = ˨ 2(350) + ˨ 2(25) = ˨ 700 + ˨ 50 = 26.46 + 7.07 = 33.53 mi

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 Calculating Received Power
• As a signal leaves an antenna, it immediately become attenuated, the degree of attenuation is proportional to the square of the distance between the
transmitter and receiver.
• Ground wave signals are greatly attenuated by objects on the earth, which block the signals and reduce their level at the receiver.
• In sky wave propagation, the ionospheric conditions determine the reduction of signal level at the receiver.
• Space wave signals are absorbed and attenuated by objects in their path such as trees or walls.
• The power density at a given distance from an isotropic radiator is predicted by the formula:
Pd = Pt / 4 πd2 where Pd = power density of signal, W/m2, d = distance from point source, m, Pt = total transmitted power, W
• However, practical antennas are not purely isotropic sources, if the transmitting antenna is a dipole, the dipole has a gain of 1.64 (or 2.15 dB) over
an isotropic source, so the result must be multiplied by 1.64.
Example: Suppose a transmitter puts a 50-W signal into a dipole antenna. The power density of the signal at a distance of 30 mi (48.3 km, or 48,300
m) is Pd = 1.64Pt/ 4 πd2 = 1.64(50)/ 4(3.1416) (48,300)2 = 3x 10-9 = 3 nW/m2
• formula for power at a given distance can be expanded to derive actual power of a signal at a receiving antenna:
Pr = PtGtGr λ2 /16 π2d2 where λ signal wavelength, m, d distance from transmitter, m , Pr, Pt received and transmitted power,
respectively, Gr, Gt 5 receiver and transmitter antenna gains expressed as a power ratio and referenced to an isotropic source.
• if the gains are those in reference to a dipole, each must be converted to a power ratio and multiplied by 1.64 before being used in the formula.
• This formula is normally used only for ground wave, direct wave, or space wave calculations. It is not used for sky wave signal predictions
because the refraction and reflection that occur make predictions highly inaccurate.
45
Channel capacity in CS

1. Channel capacity or bit rate for binary and M-ary levels

• Minimum Nyquist bitrate for a binary (two level) system, Channel capacity/ bit rate should be twice of
bandwidth. r or C=2B
• With multilevel signaling, the Nyquist formulation for channel capacity will then become r or C = 2B log2 N

2. Channel capacity for noisy and noiseless channel

• Hartley’s law for channel capacity I or C = 2B (without noise)

• Hartley’s Shanon law for channel capacity I or C = B log2 ( 1+ SNR) (with noise)

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Transmission efficiency, Bit rate(bits per second), baud(symbols per second)

• Transmission efficiency is the accuracy and speed with which information, whether it is voice
or video, analog or digital, is sent and received over communication media.

• Stated mathematically, capacity becomes I or C = 2B (without noise in channel)

• When noise becomes an issue, expression will be I or C = B log2 ( 1+ SNR) (with noise)
C is the channel capacity expressed in bits per second and B is the channel bandwidth(Hz).

• Bit rate refers to the rate of change of a digital information signal, which is usually binary.
• Baud, refers to the rate of change of a signal on the transmission medium after encoding and
modulation have occurred.

baud = 1/ ts where baud = symbol rate (baud per second), ts = time of one signaling element
(seconds)

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 Multiple Coding/Encoding, M-ary Levels
Channel capacity can be modified by using multiple-level encoding schemes that permit more bits per symbol to be
transmitted and therefore multiple voltage levels can be used. Using multilevel signaling, the Nyquist formulation
for channel capacity is
C = 2B log2 N where r or C = channel capacity (bps) , B = minimum Nyquist bandwidth (hertz)

N = 2m where N = no. of discrete signal or voltage levels/ encoding levels, m = no. of bits.
For example, with one bit, only 21 = 2 conditions are possible, With two bits, 22 = 4 conditions are possible, with
three bits, 23 = 8 conditions are possible, and so on.

Example: For a binary signal with bit or symbol time of 1 μs. Find bit rate and Bw
Bitrate or baud = 1/ ts = 1/ 1 μs= 1Mbps.
The bandwidth needed to transmit this 1,000,000-bps or 1Mbps signal can be computed from C = 2B, or B = C/2
Thus a minimum Nyquist bandwidth of 1,000,000/2 = 500,000 Hz (500 kHz) is needed.

same result is obtained with the new expression C = 2B log2 N ;

B = C/ 2 log2 N = 1000000/ 2 log2 2 = 1000000/ 2x1 = 500,000 Hz (500kHz)

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Example: Find the maximum channel capacity of a voice-grade telephone line with a bandwidth of 3100 Hz
and an S/N of 30 dB?

First, 30 dB is converted to a power ratio. If SNR dB=10 log SNR

SNR= log-1 30/10 = Antilog 3 = 1000
I or C = B log2 ( 1+ SNR) = 3100 log2 ( 1+ 1000)= 3100 log2 1001 =3100x10 = 31000bps or 31kbps
Where log2 1001= 3.32 log10 1001 = 3.23x3 = 9.97 =10

This bit rate of 31,000 bps is surprisingly high for such a narrow bandwidth as the bandwidth of the voice-grade
line is 3100 Hz,
channel capacity C =2B = 2(3100)= 6200 bps. That rate is for a binary (two level) system only, and it assumes
no noise.

How Shannon-Hartley theorem predict a channel capacity of 31,000 bps when noise is present?
It is possible to achieve a 31,000-bps channel capacity on a 3100-Hz bandwidth line when multilevel encoding is
applied. Since number of coding or symbol levels has not been specified.

C = 2B log2 N. Rearranging the formula, we have log2 N = C/2B = 31000/6200 = 5;

N=Antilog 5 = 25 = 32

So, we conclude that to have ch. Capacity of 31kbps we need 32 different levels or symbols(multilevel
coding) instead of using 2 level(binary).

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MODEM
•Modem is short for "Modulator-Demodulator." It is a hardware component that allows a
computer or another device, such as a router or switch, to connect to the Internet.

•The function of a modem is to modulate an analog carrier signal to carry digital

information; and to demodulate a similar signal so as to decode the digital information
from the analog carrier signal.

•A modem is used for transmitting and receiving data over a communication channel, such
as twisted-pair telephone lines, coaxial cables, and optical fiber's.

•The purpose of a modem is to convert a computer's data stream to analog format so that
it can be transmitted over the analog telephone line.

•The first modems were "dial-up," meaning they had to dial a phone number to connect
to an ISP(Internet Service Provider). Dial-up modems also required full use of the local
telephone line, meaning voice calls would interrupt the Internet connection.

•Modern modems are typically DSL(Digital Subscriber Line) or cable modem, which are
considered “broadband” devices. DSL modems operate over standard telephone lines,
but use a wider frequency range. They provide TV, cable Internet, and digital phone
signals over the same cable line.

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Summary lecture 6

1. Optical Characteristics of Radio Waves (reflection, refraction, diffraction)

2. Electromagnetic Wave Propagation over wireless channel (ground
wave/surface wave, sky wave, space wave (ground reflected wave, line
of sight/direct wave)
3. Received power calculation
4. Channel capacity for noisy and noiseless channel
5. Channel capacity or bit rate for binary and M-ary levels
6. MODEM

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