DATA MODEL:-

A model is a representation of reality that retains only selected details. A data model is a
conceptual method of structuring the data, these Data model were developed to overcome the
limitations of file oriented systems.

The major data model which made an effort to develop the data base management system are

1. Hierarchical model

2. Network model

3. Relational model.

4.Entity relationship model .

5.Object oriented model.

1.Hirerchial model:- The hierarchical model was develop in the year 1960's to manage the large
amounts of data for complex manufacturing projects such as the APOLO rocket that landed on the moon
in 1969.Its basic logical structure is represented by an upside down tree. The hierarchical structure
contains levels, or segments. A segment is the equivalent of a file system record type with in the
hierarchy the top layer is perceived as the parent of the segment directly beneath it. The segment
below other segments are the children of the segment above. In short the hierarchical model depicts a
sets of one to many relationships between a parent and its children segments.

The hierarchical data model yielded many advantages over the file system model. In fact many
of the hierarchical data models features formed the foundation for current data models. Many of its
data bases application advantages are replicated. However, the hierarchical model had limitations. It
was complex to implement, it was difficult to manage and it laced structured independence. Also many
common data relationship do not conform to the 1:M form and there were no standards for how to
implement the model out of the next model called network model was developed.

2.The network model:- It was created to represent complex data relationships more effectively than
the hierarchical model to improve data base performance and to improve database standard. The lack
of data base standards was trouble some to programmers and application designers because it made
data base designs and application less portable.

To help establish data base standards, the conference or data systems languages (CODASYL)created the
data base task group (DBTG)in the late 1960's. The DBGT was charged to define standard specifications
for an environment that would facilitate database creation and data manipulation.

----:A schema data definition language which enables the DB administrator to define the schema
components
----:A subschema DDL allows the application programs to define data base components that will be used
by the application.

----: A data manipulation language to work with the data in the data base.

In the network model, the user perceives the network data base as a collection of record in 1:M
relationships. How ever unlike the hierarchical mode, the network model allows a record to have more
than one parent. In network DB terminology a relation ship is called a SET.

Each set is composed of at least two record type an owner record and a member record. A set
represents a one to many relationship between the owner and the member.

3. The Relational model:- The relational model was introduced in 1970 by EF Codd. The relational model
represents a major break through for both user and designers. To use an analogy the relational model
produced an "automatic transmission" data base to replace the standard transmission data base that
preceded it. The relational model foundation is a mathematical concept known as a relation. To avoid
the complexity of abstract mathematical theory we can think of a relation.(some times called a table.) As
a matrix composed of intersecting rows and columns, each row in a relation is called tuple, each column
represents an attribute.

In 1970's Codd's works was consider ingenious but impractical. The relation model conceptual
simplicity was brought at the expense of computer over head. Computers at that time lacked the power
to implement the relational model. Fortunately computer power grew exponentially as did operating
system efficiency.

The relational data model is implemented through a very sophisticated relational DBMS. The
Rdbms performs the same basic functions provided by the hierarchical and network dbms system.

The most important advantages of the Rdbms is its ability to hide the complexity of the
relational model from the user.. The Rdbms relational model from the user. The Rdbms manages all of
the physics details, while the user see's the relational database as a collection of tables in which data are
store. The user can manupulate and query the data. Tables are related to each other through the
sharing of the common attribute. A relational table stores a collection of related entities. In this respect
the relational database table resembles a file.

Another reason for the Rdbms rise to dominance is its powerful reflexible query language. For more
relational database software the query language is structural query language which allows the user to
specify what must be done without specifying how it must be done. The Rdbms users SQL to translate
user query to instruction for retrieving requested data.SQL makes it possible to retrieve data with
farness effort than any other DB or file environment.

From an end user perspective any SQL base relational data base application involves three parts.
A user interface, a set of tables stored in the database and SQL engine.
 4.Entity relationship model:- The conceptual simplicity of relational database technology triggered the
demand for Rdbms. In term the rapidly increasing requirement for transaction and information created
the need for more complex data base implementation structure, thus creating the need for more
effective database design tools.

Complex design activities required conceptual simplicity to yield successful result. Although the
relational model was a vast improvement over the hierarchical and netwrk models, its still lack the
features that could make it an effective database design tools, because it is easier to examine structures
graphically then to describe them in next. Thus, the entity relationship model has become a widely
accepted standard for data modeling.

Peterchen first introduce, the ER data model in 1976. It was graphical representation of
entities and their relationship in a database structure that quickly become popular because it
complemented the relational data model and ERM combine to provide for tightly structured database
design, ER model are normally represented in an entity relationship diagram which uses graphical
representation to data base components.

The ER model is based on following components.

Entity: An entity was defined as anything about which data to be collected and stored. An entity is
represented in ERD by a rectangle also known as an entity box. The name of an entity, a noun is written
in the singular form.

ATTRIBUTES:- Each entity is described by a set of attributes that describes particular characteristics of
the entity.

RELATIONSHIP:-Describes associations among data most relationship describe association between two
entities. When the basic data model components were introduce 3 types of relationship among data
web illustrated one to many, many to many and one to one

Generally the entity relationship models can be shown using 2 notations.

1.The original chen notations.

2. The current crow’s foot notations.

1. The chen notations:- In this type notation, the entities are represented by rectangular boxes where
the entities written in capital letter with in the box. The attributes are represented through ellipse which
is associated with each entity. The connectives are written next to each entity box, and the relationship
are represented by a diamond connected to related entities through a relationship line. The relationship
name is written inside the diamond. Eg,

TAKEEESK
STUDENT COURSE

COURSE NAME
ST.ID ST.NAME COURSE id
NMEE
2.Crow foot notation:-The name crow food is derived from the 3 pronged symbol used to represent the
many side of the relationship. Here the connectives are represented by symbol. For eg: 1 is represented
by a short line segment and M is represented by 3 pronged corw’s foot symbol. In this the relationship
name is written over the relationship line.

STUDENT COURSE

PK student.id PK COURSE ID
COURSE NAME
Student.name

5. The object oriented model:- Increasingly complex real world problems demonstrated a need for a
data model that more closely represented the real world. In the object oriented data model, both data
and their relationships are contained in single structure known as an object. In turn, the OODM is the
basic for the object oriented data base management system

An OODM reflects a very different way to define and use entities. Like the relational model entity, an
object is described by its fluctual content. But quite unlike an entity, an object includes information
about relationships between the facts with in the object as well as information about its relationship
with other objects.

Therefore the fact with in the object are given greater meaning. The OODM is said to be a symantic data
model because semantic indicates meaning.

Subsequent OODM development has allowed an object also to contain all operation that can be
performed on it, such as changing its data values and printing data values.

The oo data model is based on the following components

 An object is an abstraction of a real world entity. In general terms, an object may be

considered equivalent to an ER models entity. More precisely, an object represents only one
occurrence of an entity of an entity.
 Attributes describes the properties of an object includes the attributed name, social security
number and date of birth
 Object that share similar characteristics are grouped in classes. A class is a collection of
similar objects with shared structure attribute and behavior methods. In a general sense a
class resembles the ER model entity set in that it contains set of procedures known as
methods.
 Classes are organized in a class hererachy. The class hierarchy resembles an upside down
tree in which each class has only one parent.
 Inheritance is the ability of an object with in the class. Hirerachy to inherit the attributes and
method of the classes.