Solution of momentum transport problem by shell momentum balances

Here, we solve few simple problems of fluid mechanics with simple geometries by using the shell momentum balance approach. This
will lead to greater understanding of various terms involved in the application of conservation of momentum in fluid given in Equation
(9.1)

Flow through circular tube

Flow of fluids through a circular tube is a common problem, encountered frequently in different fields of engineering. Consider an
incompressible, Newtonian fluid, flowing through a horizontal circular tube as shown in Fig. (10.1). Assume that the fluid flow is
laminar and under steady state conditions. Determine the velocity profile and average velocity of the fluid using shell momentum
balance approach.

solution procedure

Assumptions

1. Fluid density and viscosity are constants.

2. System is in steady state.

3. Laminar flow (simple shear flow).

4. Newton's law of viscosity is applicable.

5. Fully developed flow.

Fig 10.1 Laminar flow in a horizontal pipe

Intuitively guess the velocity profile

Since the flow is steady and laminar, we may intuitively say that the velocities in r direction and θ direction are zero. Due to steady
state conditions, the fluid velocity in z direction, vz, is not dependent on time t. Furthermore, due to the axisymmetric geometry fluid
flow the velocity vz is independent of θ. Thus,

By applying the equation of continuity in cylindrical coordinates

Hence,

Since the fluid is flowing in z direction, we may conclude the following.

1. Since vr=0, r directional momentum balance is not important.

2. Since vθ=0 , θ directional momentum balance is again not important.

 3. Since vz≠0, z directional momentum balance is most important.

Decide the control volume

The control volume should be decided very carefully. The geometry and size of the control volume should be taken according to the
geometry of the system and based on the conditions given in the problem. In this case, the geometry of the pipe is cylindrical, hence
we use the cylindrical control volume. The fluid is flowing in the z direction but velocity is changing only in r direction. Therefore, the
control volume is taken in such a way that the variable thickness of the control volume is in the r direction. As the flow is not
dependent on z and θ coordinates, we may choose any dimension in z or θ directions. This means that zmay be any length. It may

be L/4, L/2 or L. In a similar manner, any value of θ may be taken. It may be 2 π or or π /2 or π /4. However, in

the r direction, we need to take the differential thickness dr. These arguments lead us to a control volume as shown in Fig. (10.2). The
length of the cylindrical shell is L which is equal to length of pipe and thickness is dr.

Fig 10.2 Control volume for flow through pipe

Momentum balance

As discussed earlier, the shear stress/forces may be written in two ways:

1. Taking shear stress as actual shear forces.

2. Taking shear stress as momentum flux.

Here, we show that both methods lead to the same final results for velocity profile.

Momentum balance using shear stress as shear force

Momentum flux entering the control volume by convection

Momentum flux leaving the control volume by convection

Since the pipe is horizontal, the force due to gravity is zero. No other body forces are acting on the control volume.

Surface forces
 1. Pressure force: Fluid is flowing in z direction only. So pressure forces which are working on the surface normal to z direction
are

Pressure force at z=0 is

Pressure force at z=L is

2. Shear forces: The shear stress tensor in cylindrical coordinate is given below.

Among all 9 components the first column of stresses are important for r directional flow, the second column of stresses are important
for θ directional flow, and the third column are important for z directional flow. Since the fluid is flowing in the z direction, only the

third column needs to be considered. Since the Velocity gradient is present only in the r-direction, only needs to be considered,
the remaining two terms are not significant. Now, we need to decide the direction in which the shear forces are acting. Recall

Where the unit vector is the outer normal of a surface and if it is in positive direction then is also positive while if it is in

negative direction then is shown as negative direction. Therefore, (as a force) is positive at r+dr and negative at r as

shown in Fig. 10.2.(Note: the first index, z, in from right to left indicates the direction of force and second index, r, indicates the
surface on which it acts).

Accumulation term: Due to steady state system, the rate of accumulation of momentum equals to zero .

General momentum balance is given below

or in this case

Since the velocity is constant along the axial direction as shown in Equation (10.2), the first two terms in Equation (10.8) are cancel
out and we are left with following Equation.
Dividing by , we have

As dr→0, the Equation (10.10) may be rewritten as given below.

(Note that, is a function of r only which means we get the total derivative instead of the partial derivative.)

Further integrating the Equation (10.11) once with respect to the variable r, we obtain

or

Here, c1 is a constant of integration. Equation (10.12) shows that if r=0, the value of will be infinite, which is physically not
possible. Therefore, c1 must be zero. Hence,

Now, by applying Newton’s law of viscosity, and taking as force, we obtain

Momentum balance using shear stress as momentum flux

Now, we will employ the second method where shear force are considered as momentum flux. To indicate the direction of momentum
flux, we draw the arrow in r direction and find where this arrow enters the control volume and also leaves the control volume as

shown in Fig (10.3). Thus, the momentum flux enters the control volume through the surface 2 rL at r=r and leaves through the

surface 2 π rL at r=r+dr.
 Fig 10.3 Momentum flux applied on control volume

Thus,

Momentum flux at r = r is

Momentum flux at r = r +Δr is

(Note: when we consider as the momentum flux, first index, z, indicates the direction of momentum flux, while the second
index, r, indicates the direction of flow of momentum flux from higher to lower value. Subsequently, it will become clear that if we
follow the coordinate system’s directions and assume momentum is flowing in this direction, the sign convention for momentum flux
is automatically taken place.)

In this case, momentum balance in Equation (9.2) may be modified as shown below

Here, the shear stress are taken into account as momentum flux. The pressure and gravity are the only applied forces.

Substituting various terms in above equation, we obtain

Dividing by , we obtain

Again as dr→0 Equation (10.17) leads to

or
By integrating the Equation (10.18), we have

As we discussed earlier, c1 should be zero. Therefore,

Now applying Newton’s law of viscosity where shear stress is taken as momentum flux, we obtain

Equation (10.14) and (10.20) are identical and hence show that both methods finally lead to the same result.
To obtain velocity profile we further integrating the Equation (10.21)

Here c2 is the second constant of integration which may be determined by using appropriate boundary condition.

Boundary condition

By no-slip boundary condition

vz=0 at r=R

Substituting the value of c2 in Equation (10.22), we finally get

Note: c1 can also be calculated by using the boundary condition in terms of velocity vz: i.e., vz is finite atr=0

or (since the velocity profile is symmetric about r=0).

Thus, the velocity profile for flow through pipe is given by the following expression
The maximum velocity of the fluid will be exhibited at the centre of the pipe and is given by

Alternatively, the velocity profile may also be expressed in terms of the maximum velocity as

The average velocity of the fluid in the pipe is the average of all local velocities. Thus, this may be calculated by estimating the
volumetric flow rate through the pipe and then dividing it by the cross sectional area of the pipe. The total volumetric flow in the
system is

where, dQ is the volumetric flow rate from small cylindrical strip of thickness dr.

By substituting the value of v z from equation (10.27), we have

By integrating the equation (10.30) from r=0 to r=R, we obtain

or

Thus,

and average velocity is

or
The velocity profile for laminar flow in a circular tube is shown in Fig. 10.5.

Fig 10.5 Velocity profile in horizontal pipe

We can also find the radial distance at which the local velocity of fluid flow equals the average velocity. For this, substitute

into Equation (10.26), we obtain

Finally , the volumetric flow rate in terms of pressure drop is as follows

Equation (10.36) is known as the Hagen – Poiseuille equation. Thus, if the pressure drop is given, we can calculate the volumetric
flow rate in the pipe and vice-versa. This equation can also be used for the calculation of viscosity in capillary flow viscometer.
However, it may be noted that Hagen – Poiseuille equation is valid only for fully developed laminar flow. Therefore, when this
equation is used for various calculations there may be some errors due to developing and exiting flow at both ends of the pipe.
Hence, this equation has to be modified for real situations.

Friction factor

The friction factor is a dimensionless number, which provides an idea about the magnitude of shear stress produced by a solid
boundary as fluid flows. This is defined as the ratio of shear stress at the wall and the kinetic energy head of the fluid, .

Here, ρ is the density and is the average velocity of fluid. The friction factor is thereby defined as

where, is the shear force per unit area on the wall of the tube. This may be calculated as shown below

Here, first minus sign is used as the inside surface of the tube wall has outer normal in the negative r direction and second minus sign

is used because is treated here as momentum flux. If is treated as actual shear force then positive sign would have to be
taken. For fully developed laminar flow, the velocity profile is parabolic and is given by

Evaluating the velocity gradient at the wall (r=R), we have

Thus, the shear stress considered as momentum flux is given by

or

The friction factor may now be calculated as shown below

or
Equation (11.7) shows that the friction factor in laminar flow region depends only on the Reynolds number. Clearly, the friction factor
is also a dimensionless number.

Friction factor in turbulent flow

Fig 11.1 Smooth and rough surface of pipe

In turbulent flow, the friction factor also depends on the surface of the pipe. A rough pipe leads to higher turbulence than a smoother
pipe, so that the friction factor for smoother pipes is less than that for rougher pipes. The ratio of surface roughness height ( ∈) to
pipe diameter (D) is used to quantify the “roughness” of the pipe surface. In practice, the shear stress on the wall may be calculated
by measuring the pressure drop across the pipe for a given flow rate. Thus, friction factor may be calculated as the function of
Reynolds number and plotted on a log-log plot for a given surface roughness. The curves are different for different surface roughness
as shown in figure. (11.2). The collection of these f-Re plots is called Moody Chart as shown in figure below, and can be used for
estimating the friction factor for given flow parameters.

Ref: http://www.brighthub.com/engineering/civil/articles
Solution of some more fluid flow problems by shell momentum balance approach

In this section, we solve a few more fluid mechanics problems in simple geometries using the shell momentum balance approach. The
detail procedure, which was also used in previous example, is outlined below.

1) Make a diagram of the flow geometry with the appropriate coordinate system

2) Specify all necessary assumptions

3) Intuitively assume the velocity profile

This is an important step for solving these problems. In laminar flow, the fluid flows in parallel layer without mixing. Thus, it is easy to
guess the non-zero components of velocities by intuition.

4) Apply of the equation of continuity to modify the velocity profile

5) Determine the non-zero shear stress component(s)

Since the shear stress components depend on the velocity profile, the non-zero shear stress components may now be determine.
6) Determine control volume and make shell momentum balance for the control volume

Draw control volume in system diagram according to system shape, size and problem statement. The selection of proper control
volume is very important to solve problem correctly. The control volume should be select in such way that it can be easily integrated
for whole system. The differential length of control volume should be taken in direction of changing velocity.

Write momentum balance equation for the control volume. The shear stress may be considered as shear force or as momentum flux,
both provide the same results as shown in previous example. Write down all surface and body force acting on the fluid carefully.
Finally obtain an appropriate differential equation and integrate.

7) Boundary conditions

Use appropriate boundary conditions which help us to determine the constant of integration in above step.

Falling film on an inclined flat surface

An inclined surface of length L and width W is situated at an angle Β to the vertical direction as shown in Fig. (11.3). A Newtonian fluid
is freely falling on the surface as a film of thickness δ. Assuming the flow to be laminar, determine the velocity profile, flow rate and
shear force on the surface by the fluid.

Solution
Fig 11.3 Laminar flow on an inclined surface

Assumptions

 Constant density, viscosity

 Steady state

 Laminar flow (simple shear flow)

 Fully developed flow

 Newton's law of viscosity is applicable

Assume velocity profile

The fluid is flowing in the z direction, hence only the z component of velocity is non-zero. Thus, we may assume

, an
d

We may further assume that vz does not depends upon y coordinate. Since the flow is steady, vz does not depend on time. Thus,

Using the equation of continuity in the cartesian coordinates for constant fluid density, we have

which reduces to

Equation (11.11) indicates that vz does not depend on the z coordinate. Thus,
There are nine components of the shear stress as shear force or momentum flux, namely

Since vz is only the non-zero velocity, and also it is the function of x coordinate , is the only significant component of shear
stress and we need to write momentum balance only in z direction. Because the pressure is same at both ends of the inclined plane,
there is no pressure force on the fluid. Now, we can solve this problem by assuming shear stress as a shear force or shear stress as
momentum flux.

Assuming as momentum flux

Draw a control volume of length L, width W and differential thickness dx.

Fig 11.3 Control volume for falling film problem

Momentum balance in x direction

Rate of momentum flux entering CV due to viscous transport at

Rate of momentum flux leaving CV due to viscous transport at

Gravity force acting on fluid in z direction

Rate of momentum flux entering in CV due to convective transport

Rate of momentum flux leaving from CV due to convective transport

Now, when above terms are substituted for z-momentum balance, we obtain

Since the velocity vz does not depends on z coordinate, the first two terms cancel out and we obtain

Dividing Equation (11.19) by volume of the control volume (LWΔx), we have

As Δx→0 , The Equation (11.20)simplified to

The Newton’s law of viscosity (here, shear stress is defined as momentum flux) is given by

By integrating the Equation (11.25), we have

or

The above equation requires two boundary conditions for determining c1 and c2.

Boundary conditions

1 At x=0 the liquid surface is in contact with air where the shear stresses at both gas liquid phases should be equal. Thus,

Since both may be assumed Newtonian fluids, we have

where ρg is the density and µg is the viscosity of air. Thus

Since, µg and ρg is much smaller than µ and ρ, and Equation (11.30) may be approximately written as

Substituting above boundary condition in Equation (11.26), we obtain

2. At x=δ no slip boundary condition may be applied, i.e.,

at
Thus, from Equation (11.27), we get

or

Finally the velocity profile is obtained as

or
Falling film "Assuming as shear force"

Now, we again solve the same problem (falling film over an inclined plane) by treating shear stress as a shear force. For this purpose,
we take the same control volume as before.

For momentum balance in z direction, all terms are same as before except the terms for shear forces. Here, represents the force
in z direction acting on the surfaces which have normal in x direction. Shear force is positive if the outward normal is in positive
direction and negative if normal is in negative direction. Thus,

shear force at x=x is

Shear force at x=x+Δx is ;

The z momentum balance for this case is as follows

Dividing Equation (12.3) by the volume of control volume WLΔx, we have

As Δx→0 Equation (12.4) leads to

Now, substituting the Newton’s law of viscosity for shear stress as a force

Therefore,

Equations (11.24) and (12.7) are the same, which show that both approaches provide the same answer.
Maximum velocity

It is clear from Equation (11.37) that the maximum velocity is given by

Average velocity and volumetric flow rate of falling film

vz is the linear velocity in z direction. Hence, the volumetric flow rate can be determined by integrating it over the cross section of
flow (Wδ).Thus ,

From Equation (11.37), we get

By integrating Equation (12.10), we find

To obtain the average velocity, we divide the volumetric flow rate by the cross sectional area.

or

Equation (12.12) may also be written as

Force acting on solid surface due to the fluid

(Note: in Equation (12.14), first ‘+’ sign shows the direction of the normal of the inclined surface and second ‘+’ sign is taken since
shear stress is defined as shear force). Thus,

In this lecture, we have once again seen that the shear stress tensor may be assumed as a shear force or as a momentum flux. In
either case, we finally obtain the same expression for the velocity profile. The only difference is that when we treat shear stress as a
shear force, it is included in the summation of all forces term in the momentum balance equation, while when we treat shear stress as
momentum flux, it is written as momentum entering and leaving by the viscous transport. From now onwards, we will treat shear
stress as momentum flux as it is more consistent with what we see in heat transfer as Fourier’s law of heat conduction and in mass
transfer as Fick’s law of diffusion. Thus, in transport phenomena (Momentum transport, Heat transport, and Mass transport) for the
basic transport laws we have minus sign in front the relevant gradient implying fluxes flow from higher values to lower values.

Falling film on the outside of a circular shell

In an experiment, a fluid flows upward through a small circular shell and then flows downward out side the tube under laminar
conditions as shown in Fig. 12.2. We need to set up a relevant momentum balance and determine the velocity profile, mass flow rate
and the force acting on outer surface of the tube.
Fig 12.2 Falling film outside the circular tube

Assumptions

 Density and viscosity are constants.

 Steady state.

 Fully developed laminar flow.

 Newton’s law of viscosity is applicable.

Non-zero velocities

Fluid is flowing in the z direction due to gravity. There is no driving force in the θ direction and a solid surface is present in
the r direction. Therefore, we may intuitively assume that
Now, using the equation of continuity in cylindrical coordinate system, we have

or

From Equation (12.18), we obtain that vz is independent to z. Therefore,

Choose a control volume in the film of differential thickness dr and length L (it is a cylindrical shell).
Fig 12.3 Control volume for falling film outside the circular tube

There are nine components of shear stress tensor. Since the fluid is flowing in z direction and it is a function of r only, we may argue

as before is the only important component of the shear stress tensor. The other components are insignificant for momentum
balance in z direction. The momentum balance in z-direction is given below.

Momentum balance for control volume

Convective momentum entering the control volume at z=0 is

Convective momentum leaving the control volume at z=L is

Shear stress as momentum flux entering the control volume at r= r is

Shear stress as momentum flux entering the control volume at r= r + Δr is

{Note: If you consider shear stress as momentum flux, then it always flows in the positive direction of axes}

Fluid is flowing only due to gravity and may be written as

Substituting above terms, we obtain

Since velocity, vz, is not dependent on the z, the first two terms in above equation are equal and cancel out, leaving the following
equation for momentum balance.

Dividing Equation (12.26) by volume of control volume , we obtain

As dr→0, Equation (12.27) reduces to

or

After integration we obtain

and
Here, and are the constants of integration.

Boundary conditions

1. r=aR we have the air water interface where we may assume that

(The explanation is given earlier in Lecture 11.)

Substituting the above boundary condition in Equation (12.31), we obtain

2. At r = R, no slip boundary condition is applicable. Thus,

Using this boundary condition, we obtain

or,

Therefore, the velocity profile is given by

or

Maximum velocity

At r = aR, the velocity is maximum. Thus,

Laminar flow in a narrow slit

A Newtonian fluid is flowing in a narrow slit (B<<W<<L ), formed by two parallel plates as shown in Fig. (13.1), due to the combined
effect of both gravity and pressure. Determine the velocity profile, average velocity, and mass flow rate for laminar and steady flow.

Fig 13.1 Laminar flow in narrow slit

Assumptions

1. Density and viscosity are constant.

2. Steady state.
 3. Laminar Flow(simple shear flow).

4. Newton's law of viscosity is applicable.

Fluid is flowing in the z direction due to both gravity and pressure difference. Therefore, vz is the only important velocity component.
As the slit is very narrow (B<<W<<L ), we may assume that end effects are negligible in ydirection and vz is not a function of y.

Thus, intuitively we assume the velocity profile as,

Now, using the equation of continuity in cartesian coordinate system

or
Therefore,

From above velocity profile, we may conclude that is the only important shear stress component. We now select a cuboidal
control volume of dimensions L, W, Δx, as shown in Fig. 13.2 (Note: differential thickness is chosen in x direction)

Fig 13.2 Control volume for laminar flow in narrow slit.

Momentum balance in z direction

Convective momentum entering the CV at z=0 is

Convective momentum leaving the CV at z=L is

Momentum entering CV by viscous transport at x=x is

Momentum leaving the CV by viscous transport at x=x+Δx is

Pressure force at z=0 is

Pressure force at z=L is

Gravity force on CV is

Substituting these terms into the momentum balance in z direction, we get

Since, vz is not a function of z, the first two convective momentum terms represented by Equations (13.5) and (13.6) are equal and
hence cancel out from the above equation and we get

Dividing Equation (13.13) by the volume of the control volume ΔxLW , we obtain

Combining the pressure force with gravity, and taking the limit as Δx→0, we have

or
where,

Substituting Newton’s law of viscosity, we have

or

and finally after integration, we get

Boundary conditions are

1. At x=0 , the velocity profile must be symmetric. Therefore,

or

2. At x=B , no slip boundary condition is applicable. Thus,

or
Thus, velocity profile may be written as

Equation (13.23) describes the velocity profile in the narrow slit.

Mass flow rate and average velocity

Mass flow rate = Volumetric flow rate × Density

By substituting the value of velocity from Equation (13.23), we have

or

Average velocity = Volumetric flow rate/ Area of cross section

or
Annular flow with inner cylinder moving axially

In a wire coating machine, a wire of radius kR is moving into a cylindrical hollow die. The radius of the die is R , and the wire is moving
with a velocity v0 along the axis. The die is filled with a Newtonian fluid, a coating material. The pressure at both ends of the die is
same. Find the velocity distribution in the narrow annular region. Obtain the viscous force acting on the wire of length L . Also, find
the mass flow rate through the annular region.

Fig 13.3 Annular flow with the inner cylinder moving axially

Assumptions

1. density and viscosity are constant

2. steady state.

3. laminar (simple shear flow).

4. Newton's law of viscosity is applicable.

Velocity components
The fluid is moving due to the motion of the wire in z direction so vz is the only important velocity component. There is no solid
boundary in θ direction, and the flow is steady, therefore vz will not depend on θ and t. Hence,

Now, applying the equation of continuity in cylindrical coordinates

or

Thus,
This result indicates that is the only significant shear stress among the 9 components for momentum balance in z direction.
Now, consider a control volume of differential thickness dr and length L at a distance r away from the center. We may write the
momentum balance in z direction.

Fig 13.4 Control volume for annular flow with the inner cylinder moving axially

Convective momentum entering at z=0 is

Convective momentum leaving at z=L is

Momentum entering control volume by viscous transport at r = r is

Momentum leaving control volume by viscous transport at at r = r +Δr is

Now, the momentum balance over the control volume is below

Since velocity vz is not dependent on z coordinate therefore the convective terms represented by equations (13.29) and (13.30) are
equal and hence cancelled out. Leaving with the following equation,
Dividing equation (13.34) by volume of the control volume,

Taking the limit as dr→0, we have

and after integration

where is an integration constant. Now, using Newton’s law of viscosity, we get

or

where is another integration constant.

Boundary conditions are

at r = kR ,

or
and at r = R,

or

From Equation (13.41)

or
or

By substituting the value of c1 into Equation (13.39), the velocity profile may be obtained as

or

Mass flow rate in the annular region

or

or

Drag force acting on the wire may be calculated as

or
By substituting the value of velocity vz, we obtain

Finally, we obtain the expression for drag force as

Flow of two immiscible fluids between two parallel plates

Two immiscible liquids are flowing in between two adjacent, parallel plates. Solve the problem for velocity profile and mass flow rate.

Fig 14.1 Flow of two immiscible fluids between a pair of horizontal plates

Assumptions
  Density and viscosity are constants.

 Steady state.

 Laminar (simple shear flow) fully developed.

 Newton’s law of viscosity is applicable.

Since fluid is flowing in z direction only, therefore vz is the only non-zero velocity component. We can assume that end effects are
negligible in y direction and hence, vz is not a function of y. thus,

Now using equation of continuity for Cartesian coordinate system

which implies that

As before, we may concluded that is only important shear stress component for momentum balance in z direction. Choosing a
differential strip of thickness dx and length L as a control volume, we have

Fig 14.2 Control volume for Flow of two immiscible fluid between a pair of horizontal plates

Momentum balance in control volume

Convective momentum entering CV at z=0 is

Convective momentum leaving CV at z=0 is

Momentum entering CV by viscous transport at x=x is

Momentum leaving CV by viscous transport at x=x+Δx is

Pressure force at z=0 is

Pressure force

at z=L is

The equation for momentum balance can be written as

As before, convective terms cancel out and Equation (14.11) reduces to the following equation.
Dividing Equation (14.12) by volume of control volume ΔxLW, we obtain

Now, as Δx →0 Equation (14.13) becomes

After substituting Newton’s law of viscosity in Equation (14.14) and integrating it, we obtain
This equation is valid for both regions. Therefore,

Here, superscript (1) represents the phase-1 and superscript (2) represents the phase-2.

Boundary conditions

There are four boundary conditions needed to solve the problem and given below

This leads to the solution