2.

Steel bridges construction

The choice of a construction method for a steel bridge is influenced mainly by the bridge
location. Regarding beam bridges, the principal methods of construction are: construction with
a crane from the ground, construction by launching, cantilever erection, placement of the
complete bridge (or of large bridge elements) with heavy lifting methods or with a barge. These
methods are described in detail in this chapter. The technical difficulties associated with each
method are highlighted. This is followed by the description of the fundamental characteristics
of steelwork construction that are common to all methods and must be carefully considered
while studying the issue. Other construction methods may also be considered on a case by case
basis. Certain methods have been developed to respond to the specific needs and characteristics
of some types of steel bridges. For example, placement of bridge elements using a trolley
suspended from a cableway above the bridge is of interest for suspension bridges, because the
pylons of the final structure can be used to support the cableway. Specific techniques have also
been developed for arch and cable-stayed bridges (e.g launching by rotation).
The erection of bridge steelwork is a particularly critical phase as far as the overall
stability of the structure and the safety of personnel are concerned. A detailed study of the
impacts of the construction method is needed. Due to the increasing capacity of lifting
equipment, the current trend is to avoid the falsework which is generally expensive, while
increasing the size of the steelwork pieces and making the maximum use of those parts of the
superstructure already in place to support those that follow. One consequence is that during
construction the parts of the steel structure may be subject to stresses from their own weight
that are higher than those they will experience in service. This effect is more pronounced if the
structural form of the load carrying structure during erection is different from the one in the
final state. Such is particularly the case for bridges that are launched or erected by the cantilever
method. During construction various actions tend to occur together and their numerical value
assumed in design is more easily exceeded. A detailed study of the construction load
combinations, as well as diligent control of each construction phase, are required because the
probability of an unforeseen or accidental action is much higher than when the bridge is in
service. All these reasons mean that the potential impacts of the construction method on the
load carrying structure should be considered in the earliest design studies (Lebet & Hirt, 2013).
It is likely that the elements needed to guarantee the stability of certain parts of the
structure in its final state will not yet be in position during the construction process. This
situation must be addressed either by planning temporary support elements, or by ensuring
through other means that structural safety in terms of stability is guaranteed throughout the

46
construction process. An example is a concrete slab of a composite bridge which provides
lateral support to the main beams compression flanges, but which is only in place and effective
after erection of the steelwork and construction of the slab. It is also necessary to check elements
of the steel structure for their resistance to local buckling when subjected to concentrated forces.
The overall stability of the superstructure during its placement (against overturning, uplift, etc.)
must be guaranteed. There may be a lack of stability during erection due to, for example, the
absence of some of the self-weight that has a stabilising effect. It is also important to check that
the various pieces of steelwork can adequately resist the various handling operations to which
they will be subjected (lifting, transportation, assembly) (Lebet & Hirt, 2013).
To ensure that a steel bridge can be safely, economically and reliably executed
(fabricated, assembled and erected), designers should be aware of the processes of fabrication
and erection, the capabilities and limitations of the steelwork contractor and how the design
choices affect those processes. Guidance on design for construction generally follows the
sequence of activities undertaken by the steelwork contractor. The objectives of “design for
construction” are: to maximize the efficiency of the construction process and to minimize the
need for clarification and change. Achieving these objectives will reduce costs, reduce the
construction period, enhance quality and increase the safety of the work. The activities for the
steelwork contractor include planning, ordering, modelling, fabricating, assembling, coating
and erecting (for more details see: SteelConstruction.info).
How the bridge is designed and how it is built are linked. Ensuring that this link is
recognised will have an effect on the safety and quality of the construction. Methods of erecting
steel bridge structures vary considerably from site to site and from project to project. The
subject of erection aspects is therefore a wide and varied subject. This chapter focuses on the
aspects that should be considered during the initial design and detailed design phases.

2.1. Construction with a crane from the ground

Construction with a crane means lifting various steelwork elements - lengths of main
beam, cross bracing, horizontal bracing - from the ground using a crane (Fig.2.1). This is an
advantageous means of erecting the steel structure because it requires less equipment on site
and a reduced amount of labour. Erection using cranes is considered the most cost effective
erection method for the majority of structures. However, it does require good accessibility
around the construction site, and is only suitable for bridges which are relatively not very high
(with a deck up to approximately 15 m above the ground). Only crawler cranes and some small
rough terrain mobile cranes are able to traverse the site with a load. The site areas adjacent to
the bridge will affect the position and size of crane that can be used and this will affect capacity
of lift and therefore choice of crane and the piece size. The area for preassembly will also
influence lift size.
The erection of an I-girder is often accomplished with a single construction crane
(Fig.2.2, left). Depending on the size, weight and capacity of the girder, the crane could use
either a single lift point located at the centre of gravity of the member or two lift points located
47
symmetrically towards the centre of gravity utilizing a spreader beam. Depending on the overall
size and complexity associated with the bridge construction, the individual girder erection could
incorporate the use of temporary supports, temporary pier brackets or hold cranes to provide
stability to the member until a sufficient number of girder lines are erected and connected via
permanent cross frames or diaphragms to form a stable system. The erection of a box girder is
often carried out with a pair of construction cranes working in tandem during the lift (Fig.2.2,
right). The cranes are typically rigged with a spreader beam that contains two beam clamps
each. The beam clamps are attached to the top flanges of the box girder near the ends of the
member. Unlike I-girders, an individual box girder may be stable once it is lifted onto its
permanent supports, due to the internal bracing system.

Figure 2.1. Construction with a crane from the ground

Figure 2.2. Erection of I-girders with a single crane (left) and erection of a box girder with a
pair of cranes working in tandem (right)

The erection may take place either with or without temporary supports. If such supports
(props, falsework) are used, they may be either continuous or discrete. The evolution of heavy
lifting equipment means that when temporary supports are needed, they tend to be a small
number of discrete props rather than continuous falsework. The bending moments that can be
resisted at the bases of the telescopic arms of mobile cranes currently used worldwide can be
as high as 15.000 kNm, which means that, e.g. a weight of 100 tones can be carried at a distance

48
of 15 m. If the spans are sufficiently short, and the size of the individual steelwork pieces allows,
the temporary supports can be avoided. An alternative method may be used if the superstructure
of the bridge is sufficiently strong and stiff in bending, or perhaps it can be supported with
temporary supports. To begin with, the structure is constructed either from the ground or
launched. Once the structure is in place, it serves as a working platform for constructing the
spans. Falsework towers are supported on the deck and allow relatively easy erection of e.g. the
arches. Such a procedure is shown in Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3. Falsework towers supported on the deck for arch erection: scheme (top) and two
examples (bottom)

2.2. Incremental launching

This method of a steel bridge construction is about assembling the elements of a

structure in an area that is in line with the bridge axis, and located at one or both ends. As the
elements are joined together piece by piece, the structure is pulled or pushed, in stages, into its
final position (Fig.2.4). Launching is typically performed in a series of increments so that
additional sections can be added to the rear of the superstructure unit prior to subsequent

49
launches. The superstructure is completely assembled (typically one span or more at a time),
including cross frames and bracing, prior to launching operations.
Launching the steelwork over road or river, involves assembly of steelwork, typically
behind an abutment, on the highway approach. The steelwork is assembled on low resistance
rollers or a sliding system at each pier or temporary support. A haulage and restraint system is
used. The steelwork requires plenty of construction alignment to ensure adequate fit up prior to
launching and needs to have sufficient time in the programme to allow for this. However,
assembly is normally near ground level, with the use of much smaller and less expensive cranes
and minimum work at height.
The method of launching the steelwork is adopted when lifting equipment cannot access
the whole length of the bridge, or when the height of the bridge becomes too big for lifting with
cranes located on the ground. The method can be used to construct a bridge over a wide range
of challenging sites, which feature limited or restricted access, including those with the
following characteristics: deep valleys, deep water crossings, steep slopes or poor soil
conditions making equipment access difficult or environmentally protected species or cultural
resources beneath the bridge. Currently this method is used to launch girder bridges with spans
up to 150 m (Rosignoli, 2002). The launching method has also been applied to tied-arch or truss
spans, although these are fully assembled prior to launching.

Figure 2.4. Incremental launching scheme

To accomplish a girder launch, the superstructure is assembled on a roller system behind

one of the abutments in segments of sufficient lengths to maintain stability while launched.
Once a segment is assembled, hydraulic jacks are used to move the structure across the
abutment until it reaches the first pier support. After the girders are properly aligned on the first
pier, additional segments are assembled on the roller system behind the abutment and the
hydraulic jacks advance the structure until it reaches the next pier. This launching process is
continued until the entire structure rests on its permanent supports. This procedure requires a
little equipment, but the girders must be specifically designed both globally and locally to
handle the large forces generated during the launch.
In order to reduce the cantilever moments and the amount of deflection that occurs
during launching operations, one of two systems (and sometimes both) may typically be
employed. On the one hand, the contractor can construct a tapered launching nose on the leading
end of the girders (Fig.2.5, left). The launching nose reduces the dead load of the cantilever
span and utilizes its tapered profile to assist in “lifting” the mass of the girders as they are
launched forward onto the landing pier. In other cases, the contractor may choose to use a
50