Electric Power Generation,

Transmission and
Distribution
Second Edition

S.N. SINGH
Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur

New Delhi-110001
2012
ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION, TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION, 2nd Ed.
S.N. Singh

© 2008 by PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book
may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in
writing from the publisher.
ISBN-978-81-203-3560-8
The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.
Fourteenth Printing (Second Edition)
………………………………………………………October, 2012

Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, M-97, Connaught Circus,
New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Jay Print Pack Private Limited, New Delhi-110015.
 To
my father, mother
and wife, (Late) Madhuri
 .
Contents

Preface ………………xv
Preface to the First Edition ………………xvii
1. Introduction ………………1–7
1.1…Historical Developments of Electric Power Systems……1
1.2…Basic Structure of the Power System……3
1.3…Outline of the Text……5
2. Sources of Electric Energy ………………8–24
2.1…Introduction……8
2.2…Wind Power……8
2.3…Solar Power……10
2.4…Fuel Cells……12
2.5…Tidal Power……13
2.6…Geothermal Power……14
2.7…Biomass Power……15
2.8…Magneto-hydrodynamic (MHD) Power……16
2.9…Thermal Power……18
2.10…Diesel Engines……18
2.11…Hydropower……19
2.12…Gas Power……19
2.13…Nuclear Power……20
2.14…Other Energy Sources……20
2.14.1……Cogeneration……20
2.14.2……Combined Heat and Power (CHP)……21
2.14.3……Distributed Generation……21
3. Basic Principles ………………25–42
3.1…Introduction……25
3.2…Electrical Power……25
3.3…Phasor Notation……27
3.4…Real and Reactive Power……27
 3.5…Apparent Power……28
3.6…Complex Power……28
3.7…Three-phase Systems……32
3.8…Per-unit Representation……32
3.8.1……Per-unit Representation of Transformers……34
3.8.2……Advantages of Per-unit System……35
3.8.3……Per-unit Impedance Diagram……35
…Problems……39
4. Load Characteristics and Economic
Aspects………………43–63
4.1…Introduction……43
4.2…Commonly Used Terms……44
4.3…Curve Useful in System Operation and Planning……51
4.3.1……Load Curve……51
4.3.2……Load Duration Curve……51
4.3.3……Energy Load Curve……51
4.4…Power Factor……52
4.5…Economics of Power Factor Correction……53
4.6…Interconnection of Power Stations……57
4.7…Tariffs……58
…Problems……61
5. Steam Power Plants………………64–84
5.1…Introduction……64
5.2…Selection of Site for Steam Power Plants……64
5.3…Thermodynamic Cycle of Steam Flow……65
5.3.1……Rankine Cycle……66
5.3.2……Actual Rankine Cycle……67
5.3.3……Reheat Cycle……68
5.3.4……Regenerative Cycle……69
5.3.5……Heat Rate……69
5.4…General Layout of Steam Power Station……69
5.5…Main Flow Circuits……70
5.5.1……Fuel and Ash Circuit……70
5.5.2……Air and Gas Circuit……70
5.5.3……Feed Water and Steam Circuit……71
5.5.4……Cooling Water Circuit……71
 5.6…Main Parts of Steam Power Plant……71
5.6.1……Boiler……72
5.6.2……Coal Mills……73
5.6.3……Boiler Feed Pump……73
5.6.4……Air Preheater……73
5.6.5……Draught System……74
5.6.6……Economizers……74
5.6.7……Superheaters and Reheaters……74
5.6.8……Turbines……74
5.6.9……Condenser……75
5.6.10 Cooling Tower……76
5.6.11 Alternators……76
5.7…Cooling of Alternators……77
5.8…Protection of Turbo-Alternators……77
5.9…Excitation System……78
5.10…Governing System……80
5.11…Fuels……81
5.12…Fluidized-Bed Combustion……82
5.13…Efficiency of Thermal Power Plant……82
5.14…Lubricating Systems……83
5.15…Start-up Procedure of Thermal Units……83
6. Hydroelectric Power Plants………………85–102
6.1…Introduction……85
6.2…Selection of Site for Hydroelectric Power Plants……86
6.3…Hydrology……87…
6.3.1……Mass Curve……88
6.3.2……Flow Duration Curve……88
6.3.3……Hydrograph……89
……6.3.4……Unit Hydrograph……89
6.4…Classification of Hydroelectric Plants……90
6.4.1……Classification Based on the Hydraulic Features……90
6.4.2……Classification on the Basis of Operation (Base or Peak)
……91
6.4.3……Classification Based on Storage and Pondage……91
6.4.4……Classification Based on Location and Topography……91
6.4.5……Classification Based on Plant Capacity……91
 6.4.6……Classification Based on Head……92
6.4.7……Classification Based on the Constructional Features……92
6.5…Main Components of Hydroelectric Plants……93
6.6…Classification of Hydro Turbines……96
6.7…Hydro Generators……98
6.8…Pump Storage Plants……98
Problems……102
7. Nuclear Power Plants………………103–124
7.1…Introduction……103
7.2…Adverse Effects of Fossil Fuels……103
7.3…Pros and Cons of Nuclear Power Generation……104
7.4…Selection of Site for Nuclear Power Plants……105
7.5…Cost of Electricity……106
7.6…Components of Nuclear Power Plant……107
7.7…Basic Review of Nuclear Physics……107
7.8…Main Components of Reactors……111
7.9…Description of Fuel Sources……112
7.10…Types of Reactors……112
7.10.1……Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)……113
7.10.2……Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)……115
7.10.3……Heavy Water Cooled and Moderated (CANDU Type)
Reactor……116
7.10.4……Gas-Cooled Reactor……117
7.10.5……Fast Breeder Reactor……(FBR)……118
7.10.6……Fusion Reactor……119
7.11…Nuclear Power Programme in India……119
7.12…Effect of Radiation on Human Being and the Biosphere……121
7.13…Uranium as a Source of Energy……122
7.14…Safety of Nuclear Power Reactors……123
8. Gas Power Plants………………125–135
8.1…Introduction……125
8.2…Simple Gas-Turbine Plant……126
8.3…Advantages of Gas-Turbine Plant over Steam-Power Plant……127
8.4…Simple Gas-Turbine Cycle……127
8.5…Open-Cycle Gas-Power Plant……130
8.6…Closed-Cycle Gas-Power Plant……130
 8.7…Gas-Turbine for Power Generation……131
8.8…Combined-Cycle Gas-Power Plant……132
8.9…Features of Combined-Cycle Gas-Turbine……132
8.10…Microturbines……134
8.11…Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle (IGCC) Plants……134
9. Diesel Engine Power Plants………………136–145
9.1…Introduction……136
9.2…Advantages of Diesel Power Plants……137
9.3…Disadvantages of Diesel Power Plants……138
9.4…Applications of Diesel Power Plants……138
9.5…Diesel Engine Power……138
9.6…Diesel Plant Equipments……139
9.6.1…Diesel Engines……140
9.6.2…Governors……141
9.6.3…Air-intake System……141
9.6.4…Exhaust System……142
9.6.5…Starting System……142
9.6.6…Cooling System……142
9.6.7…Lubricating Oil System……142
9.6.8…Fuel Oil System……143
9.6.9…Diesel Engine Alternator……143
9.6.10…Instrumentation……143
9.6.11…Substation Equipments……144
9.7…Recent Advances in Diesel Plants……145
10. Transmission Line Parameters (Constants)
Calculations………………146–193
10.1…Introduction……146
10.2…Types of Conductors……147
10.3…Representation of Line……149
10.4…Inductors and Inductance……149
10.5…Ampere’s Law……150
10.6…Inductance of a Conductor……151
10.7…Inductance of a Single-Phase (Two-Wire) Conductor……153
10.8…Flux Linkages in a Composite Conductor—Self and Mutual
GMD……155
10.9…Inductance of One-Phase Two-Wire (Composite-Conductors)
 Line……157
10.10…Inductance of Three-Phase Transmission Line……159
10.11…Inductance of Three-Phase Double-Circuit Line……161
10.12…Bundled Conductors……166
10.13…Skin Effect……167
10.14…Proximity Effect……168
10.15…Guy’s Theorem……168
10.16…Electric Field Intensity Due to Infinite Line Charge……173
10.17…Potential Difference between Two Points Due to Line
Charge……174
10.18…Capacitance of Single-Phase Line……174
10.19…Potential Difference between Two Conductors in a Group of
Conductors……176
10.20…Capacitance of Unsymmetrically Spaced Three-Phase
Lines……177
10.21…Capacitance of Symmetrically Spaced Three-Phase Lines……180
10.22…Capacitance of Symmetrically Spaced Double-Circuit, Three-Phase
Lines……180
10.23…Capacitance of Unsymmetrically-Spaced Double-Circuit, Three-
Phase Line (Transposed)……183
10.24…Effect of Earth on Capacitance……184
Problems……191
11. Analysis of Transmission Lines………………194–233
11.1…Introduction……194
11.2…Classification of Lines……195
11.3…Short Transmission Lines……196
11.4…Generalized Circuit Constants……198
11.5…Medium Lines……203
11.5.1……Nominal-T Representation……203
11.5.2……Nominal-p Representation……205
11.6…Long Transmission Lines……210
11.7…Lumped-Circuit Equivalent Representation……214
11.7.1……Equivalent-p Representation……214
11.7.2……Equivalent-T Representation……215
11.8…Ferranti Effect……216
11.9…Power Flow Through a Transmission Line……218
 11.10…Effect of Transformer on the Performance of a Transmission
Line……223
11.11…Reactive Power Generation/Absorption of a Line……224
11.12…Power Transfer Capability of Transmission Lines……224
11.13…Compensation of Transmission Lines……225
11.14…Power Flow in a Long Transmission Line……228
Problems……231
12. Insulators for Overhead Transmission
Lines………………234–244
12.1…Introduction……234
12.2…Ratings……235
12.3…Types of Insulators……235
12.4…Voltage Distribution Across Suspension Insulators……237
12.5…String Efficiency……239
12.6…Methods to Improve String Efficiency……240
Problems……244
13. Design of Transmission Lines………………245–259
13.1…Introduction……245
13.2…Calculation of Sag and Tension……246
13.3…Equivalent Span Length and Sag……251
13.4…Effect of Ice- and Wind-Loading……252
13.5…Stringing Chart……255
13.6…Sag Template……256
13.7…Conductor Vibrations and Vibration Dampers……257
Problems……258
14. Corona and Radio Interference………………260–273
14.1…Introduction……260
14.2…Critical Voltages……261
14.3…Corona Loss……264
14.4…Advantages and Disadvantages of Corona……264
14.5…Factors Affecting Corona Loss……265
14.6…Effect of Corona on Line Design……267
14.7…Radio Interference……268
Problems……272
15. Insulated Cables………………274–298
15.1…Introduction……274
15.2…Cable Conductors……275
15.3…Insulating Materials……277
15.4…Insulation Resistance……279
15.5…Electrostatic Stress in a Single Core-Cable……280
15.6…Grading of Cables……283
15.6.1……Capacitance Grading……283
15.6.2……Intersheath Grading……286
15.7…Capacitance of a Single-Core Cable……290
15.8…Capacitance of a Three-Core Cable……291
15.9…Dielectric Loss and Dielectric Power Factor……294
15.10…Location of Faults in Underground Cables……295
15.10.1……Murray Loop Test……295
15.10.2……Varley Loop Test……296
15.11…Classification of Cables……297
Problems……298
16. HVDC Transmission and Facts
Technology………………299–341
16.1…Introduction……299
16.2…Advantages and Disadvantages of HVDC Transmission……300
16.3…Types of HVDC Links……302
16.4…Main Components of HVDC Transmission……303
16.5…Selection for Configuration for Converters……305
16.6…Analysis of Converters……307
16.6.1……Without Overlap……308
16.6.2……With Overlap……312
16.7…HVDC Control……318
16.7.1……Individual-phase Control……322
16.7.2……Equidistance Pulse Control (EPC)……323
16.8…Converter Faults……323
16.8.1……Arc Back……324
16.8.2……Arc Through……324
16.8.3……Misfire……324
16.8.4……Quenching……325
16.8.5……Commutation Failure……325
 16.9…Interconnection of HVDC Transmission into AC Systems……327
16.10…Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) Technology……327
16.11…Objectives of FACTS……329
16.12…Basic Types of FACTS Controllers……330
16.13…FACTS Devices……332
16.13.1…Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM)……332
……16.13.2……Static Synchronous Generator (SSG)……333
……16.13.3……Static VAr Compensator (SVC)……333
……16.13.4……Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR)……334
……16.13.5……Thyristor Switched Reactor (TSR)……334
……16.13.6……Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC)……334
……16.13.7……Static VAr Generator or Absorber (SVG)……335
……16.13.8……Static VAr System (SVS)……335
……16.13.9……Thyristor-controlled Braking Resistor (TCBR)
……335
……16.13.10 Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC)……336
……16.13.11 Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC)……336
……16.13.12 Thyristor-controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC)……337
……16.13.13 Thyristor-switched Series Capacitor (TSSC)……337
……16.13.14 Thyristor-controlled Series Reactor (TCSR)……337
……16.13.15 Thyristor-switched Series Reactor (TSSR)……338
……16.13.16 Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)……338
……16.13.17 Thyristor-controlled Phase Shifting Transformer
(TCPST)……339
……16.13.18 Interphase Power Controller (IPC) 339
……16.13.19 Thyristor-controlled Voltage Limiter (TCVL)……339
……16.13.20 Thyristor-controlled Voltage Regulator (TCVR)……339
…Problems……341
17. Distribution Systems………………342–382
17.1…Introduction……342
17.2…Effect of Voltage on Transmission Efficiency……342
17.3…Comparison of Various Transmission and Distribution
Systems……344
17.3.1……Equal Maximum Potential Difference between any
Conductor and Earth……344
17.3.2……Equal Maximum Potential Difference between any Two
 Conductors……349
17.4…Conductor Size……354
17.5…Kelvin’s Law……355
17.6…Influence of Voltage on the Size of a Feeder and a
Distributor……359
17.7…Radial and Ring-main Distributors……359
17.8…Interconnectors……360
17.9…Methods of Feeding Distributors……360
17.9.1……DC Distributors with Concentrated Loads Fed at One
End……361
17.9.2……DC Distributors with Concentrated Loads Fed from Both the
Ends……362
17.9.3……DC Distributed Load Fed at One
End……363……17.9.4……DC Distributed Load Fed from Both the
Ends……364
17.9.5……DC Ring Mains Distributor……365
17.9.6……DC Ring Main Distribution with Interconnector……366
17.10…DC Three-wire Distributors……367
17.11…AC Distribution……375
17.12…AC Distributor with Concentrated Loads……376
17.13…Three-phase, Four-wire Distribution System……378
17.14…Sub-mains……378
17.15…Stepped and Tapered Mains……379
Problems……380
18. Power Substations………………383–394
18.1…Introduction……383
18.2…Types of Substations……383
18.3…Bus-Bar Arrangements……384
18.4…Substation Bus Schemes……385
18.4.1……Single Bus Scheme……386
18.4.2……Double Bus with Double Breaker……387
18.4.3……Double Bus with Single Breaker……388
18.4.4……Main and Transfer Bus……388
18.4.5……Ring Bus……389
18.4.6……Breaker-and-a-Half with Two Main Buses……390
18.4.7……Double Bus-bar with Bypass Isolators……391
 18.5…Substation Location……391
18.6…Substation Equipments……392
18.6.1……Circuit Breaker……392
18.6.2……Isolators and Fuses……392
18.6.3……Lightning Arrester……393
18.6.4……Reactors and Capacitors……393
18.6.5……Current and Potential Transformers……394
18.6.6……Grounding……394
19. Grounding Systems………………395–406
19.1…Introduction……395
19.2…Resistance of Grounding Systems……395
19.2.1……Resistance of Driven Rods……396
19.2.2……Resistance of Grounding Point Electrode……396
19.2.3……Grounding Grids……397
19.3…Design Principles of Substation Grounding System……399
19.4…Neutral Grounding……399
19.5…Ungrounded System (Isolated System)……400
19.6…Resonant Grounding……401
19.7…Solid Grounding or Effective Grounding……402
19.8…Resistance Grounding……403
19.9…Reactance Grounding……404
19.10…Earthing Transformer……405
19.11…Neutral Grounding Practice……405
Problems……406
20. Power System Restructuring………………407–418
20.1…Introduction……407
20.2…Need for Regulation of Early Electric Power Utilities……409
20.3…Motivation for Power System Restructuring……410
20.4…What are transforming?……412
20.5…Potential Problems and Key Issues in Deregulation……414
20.6…Question to be Answered before Moving Towards
Deregulation……418
20.7…Milestones of Deregulation……418
Bibliography………………419–420
Answers to Problems………………421–426
Index………………427–433
 Preface
The enthusiastic response to the first edition and several suggestions,
feedback and comments received from the readers prompted me to come out
with the second edition of the book. This edition includes two new chapters,
viz. Diesel Engine Power Plant and Power System Restructuring. The chapter
on diesel engine power plants gives an overview of diesel power engines,
discussing advantages, problems and recent developments in the field. The
chapter on power system restructuring deals with the fundamentals of the
topic to make the students aware of the present changes in the electric power
industry.
…To make the basic concepts clearer, some more solved examples are added
in various chapters, whereas to enhance the problem solving capability of the
students, several unsolved problems are included at the end of each chapter.
…I appreciate the effort made by the undergraduate and postgraduate
students of Electrical Engineering at Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
(India), whose enthusiastic participation in classroom discussions helped me
to present many ideas and concepts with greater clarity.
I wish to thank Prof. S.C. Srivastava, Dean, Research and Development, IIT
Kanpur, and
Dr. K.G. Upadhayay, MMEC Gorakhpur for their encouragement. I
appreciate the valuable help received from Ms. Deepti Shakya, Mr. Bharat
Singh Rajpurohit, Mr. Jai Govind Singh, postgraduate students of IIT
Kanpur, for typing the manuscript and drawing the diagrams.
I express my gratitude to my father and mother for their encouragement and
best wishes without which the present edition would not have been possible.
Finally, my special thanks go to my wife Vandana and sons Prashant,
Praveen and Prakhar for their support.
S.N. SINGH
 Preface to the First Edition
The development of electric power systems has contributed to the
phenomenal technological advances of humankind over the past century.
Electric power provides clean and convenient energy to modern society.
…The main purpose of this textbook is to provide single-source coverage of
the full-spectrum of systems of electric power generation, transmission, and
distribution. The book is an outcome of the author’s experience of teaching
power system courses at the Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, and at
the Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand. It is designed for undergraduate
students of electrical engineering in accordance with the syllabi of Indian
universities/institutions.
…Beginning with a historical overview, Chapter 1 highlights the features and
structure of modern power systems. Chapter 2 provides a brief review of
various sources of electric energy. The basic principles and load
characteristics are explained in Chapters 3 and 4, respectively. Chapters 5
through 8 are devoted to detailed systems descriptions of generation of
electric power—steam, hydro, nuclear, and gas power plants.
…Chapters 9–14 deal with calculations of transmission line constants,
performance of transmission lines in terms of efficiency and regulation,
corona and radio interference with communication lines, design of insulators
for overhead transmission lines, mechanical design of overhead lines, and
design of insulated cables. In Chapter 10 that describes the performance of
transmission lines, various techniques of reactive power compensation are
also discussed. Chapter 15 is a rigorous but clear treatment of converter–
inverter circuits used in HVDC transmission. A detailed discussion of the
advantages of HVDC transmission over HVAC transmission is also presented
in this chapter.
…Most of the undergraduate textbooks on power systems do not cover
Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS). Power electronics based
FACTS technology can increase the power transfer capability of transmission
systems and regulate power flow over designated routes. Chapter 15 also
explains how the benefits of FACTS technology can be realized in practice.
…The distribution systems are discussed in Chapter 16, whereas Chapter 17
is devoted to substation configurations and their equipment. Neutral
grounding is explained in the final chapter.
…Numerous solved examples are included within the text to illustrate the
concepts discussed. Problems given at the end of chapters are aimed at
furthering the students’ understanding of the topics presented.
…I gratefully acknowledge the support provided by several of my colleagues
and
friends who have contributed to the development of the text. Special mention
must be
made here of Prof. S.C. Srivastava, Head, Electrical Engineering Department,
IIT Kanpur;
Dr. K.N. Srivastava, ABB Sweden, Dr. G.K. Singh and Dr. Vinay Pant, IIT
Roorkee;
Mr. K.S. Verma, KNIT Sultanpur; Dr. K.G. Upadhayay, MMEC Gorakhpur;
and Dr. Jovitha J., SIIT, Thailand. I am indebted to my many students who
helped me immensely in typing the manuscript and making the diagrams. I
also thank all my students whose enthusiastic participation in classroom
discussions helped me to present many ideas and concepts, with greater
clarity.
…My thanks are also due to PHI Learning, especially its editorial and
production teams for their utmost cooperation in bringing out the book on
time.
…Finally, no words are adequate to express my gratitude to my wife Madhuri
and sons Prashant and Praveen for their loving support, patience, and
understanding throughout the period of writing this book.
S.N. SINGH
 1
Introduction
This chapter provides a brief review of the development of electric power
systems. Beginning with a historical sketch of their evolution, the basic
structure of modern power systems is elaborated. A chapter-wise outline of
the text has also been presented.

1.1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF ELECTRIC POWER

SYSTEMS
The electricity was invented in very early age but its commercial usage began
in the late 1870s when arc lamps were used for lighthouse illumination and
street lighting. The credit for inventing electric power system goes to Thomas
Edison. Edison had established an electric power station at the historic Pearl
Station, New York in 1881, which began operation in September 1882. This
station had capacity of four 25-hp boilers supplying steam to six engine-
dynamo sets (dc generators) and supplied power to 59 consumers within area
of roughly
1.5 km in radius at 110 V through underground cable system. There were
similar developments in the other cities of the world within the next few
years. DC motors load were added to such systems after its invention by
Frank Sprague, in 1884.
The invention of transformers and ac system by L. Gaulard and J.D. Gibbs of
Paris, France made ac electric power system possible. The first practical ac
distribution system was installed for 150-lamps load in USA by William
Stanley at Great Barrington, Massachusetts, in 1886 for Westinghouse; he
also acquired the American rights to the transformers. The development of
poly-phase system (three-phase) by N. Tesla increased the attraction of
ac systems. By 1888, Tesla held several patents on ac motors, generators,
transformers and transmission systems. Westinghouse bought the patents of
these early inventions. In 1889, the first ac transmission line at 4000 V,
single-phase, 21 km was put into operation in Oregon, North America
between Willamette Falls and Portland.
In the 1890s, there was great controversy over whether the power utilities
should be standardized on ac or dc. Westinghouse advocated ac and Edison
favoured dc. Finally, ac system won out over dc system due to its various
advantages such as voltage transformation, possibility of long-distance
transmission with high voltage, and simpler and economical utilization. In
1893, first three-phase line in southern California, North America came into
operation at 2.3 kV, which was 12-km long. There was phenomenal growth
of electric companies by 1895.
Operating voltages and frequencies were not same at the beginning. The used
frequencies were 25, 50, 60, 66, 125 and 133 Hz, which created the
difficulties in the interconnection, and therefore, the standardization of
frequencies was felt necessary. North America adopted 60 Hz, however,
many other countries use 50 Hz.
Up to 1921, the ac system voltage used were 12 kV, 44 kV and 60 kV (rms
line-line), which rose to 165 kV in 1922, 220 kV in 1923, 287 kV in 1935,
330 kV in 1953, 500 kV
in 1965, 735 kV in 1966, 765 kV in 1969 and 1100 kV in 1990. It was also
felt necessary
to standardize the voltage system. Every country has different standard
ratings. In India,
it is 132 kV, 220 kV for high voltage (HV), and 400 kV and 765 kV for extra
high voltage (EHV). Although 765-kV line has been constructed in India but
it is presently operating at 400 kV.
Early developments witnessed the different generating voltages and unit
sizes. Generating unit sizes up to 1300 MW are in service, which was made
operational in 1973 at Cumberland station of the Tennessee Valley Authority.
The maximum generating voltage in advance countries are 33 kV. In India, it
is 21 kV and the highest unit size is 500 MW. The growth of unit sizes was
possible only after the interconnection and better cooling systems of
generators.
The ac transmission systems was again challenged by high-voltage dc
(HVDC) transmission system in 1954 when Swedish Power Board energized
60 mile, 100-kV dc submarine cable between Baltic island of Gotland and
Swedish mainland. With the advent of mercury valves in early 1950s, HVDC
transmission system became economical for long-distance transmission. The
development of new solid-state technology, HVDC has become even more
attractive. Today, numerous installations with voltages up to 800-kV dc have
become operational in the world. The dc transmission may be advantageous
to ac transmission for more than 500 km for overhead line and 50 km for
underground cables. In India, ±500-kV HVDC transmission from Rihand to
Dadri is operational.
In 1998, a high voltage synchronous machine, called powerformer that is
suitable for direct connection to the high-voltage network without any step-
up transformer, is launched. The rating of first powerformer was 45 kV, 42
MVA. One turbo machine rated at 136 kV,
42 MVA and one hydro machine rated at 155 kV, 75 MVA are installed in
Sweden.

1.2 BASIC STRUCTURE OF THE POWER SYSTEM

Nowadays, power system is complex, interconnected and vary in sizes and
configurations. A large amount of electrical energy is generated in thermal,
hydroelectric, nuclear and gas-power stations, also called conventional
electric energy sources. Some amount of electricity is generated through non-
conventional sources of energy. This power is also called green power as it
emits less pollution. Generated electric power is transmitted to the load
centres through power supply network consisting of transmission lines,
transformers and switchgears. Transmission networks are commonly
classified into four parts: transmission system, subtransmission system,
primary distribution system and secondary distribution system.
The main purpose of ‘transmission’ system is to connect all major generating
stations and load centres in the system without supplying any consumers en
route. The generating voltages are normally between 11 kV and 33 kV due to
technical problems, such as heating and insulation problem and are stepped
up with help of generating transformers to connect the generators and the
transmission lines. The generating and transmission systems are often called
bulk supply system. The interconnected transmission system of a state or a
region is called the grid of state or region. State grids are interconnected with
the help of tie lines and form the regional grid.
In India, power systems in most of the states are owned and operated by State
Electricity Boards (SEBs) which generate, transmit and distribute power
within the state territory. In addition to SEBs, which are controlled by
respective state governments, a few private sector utilities operate in the
metropolitan cities like Mumbai, Kolkata, Ahmedabad, etc. Five Regional
Electricity Boards (REBs), namely Northern REB, Southern REB, Western
REB, Eastern REB and North-Eastern REB exist to promote the integrated
operation of the regional power systems. The responsibility of REBs are to
review project progress, plan integrated operation among the utilities in the
region, coordinate the maintenance schedules, determine the availability of
power for inter-state utilities transfer, prescribe the generation schedule and
determine a suitable tariff for the inter-utility exchange of power. The names
of states in each REBs are given in Table 1.1 and Table 1.2 shows the
installed capacity and energy generation of REBs.
Table 1.1 Organizational Structure of Regional Electricity Boards
NREB WREB SREB EREB NEREB
Andhra Andman
Chandigarh Chhatisgarh Arunachal
Pradesh &
Dadar &
Delhi Karnataka Nicobar Pradesh
Nagar
Haryana Havelli Kerala Bihar Assam
Himachal
Daman & Diu Lakshadweep Jharkhand Manipur
Pradesh
Jammu &
Goa Pondicherry Orissa Meghalaya
Kashmir
Punjab Gujarat Tamil Nadu Sikkim Mizoram
Madhya West
Rajasthan Nagaland
Pradesh Bengal
Uttar Pradesh Maharashtra Tripura
Uttaranchal
Table 1.2 Region-wise Installed Capacity MW as on 30-01-2008
Thermal Grand
Region Hydro Nuclear RES
Coal Gas Oil total
NREB 12899.15 18577.50 3543.19 14.99 1180.001271.28 37486.11
WREB 7198.50 23752.50 6600.72 17.48 1840.003010.74 42419.94
SREB 10646.18 16682.50 3586.30 939.32 1100.006220.69 39174.99
EREB 3348.93 15659.88 190.00 17.20 0.00 200.41 19416.42
NEREB 1116.00 330.00 771.50 142.74 0.00 146.01 2506.25
Islands 0.00 0.00 0.00 70.02 0.00 6.11 76.13
All India 35,208.7675,002.3814,691.711,201.754120.0010,855.241,41,079.84
State
25896.76 42001.00 3869.72 604.61 0.00 2081.67 74,453.76
sector
Private
1230.30 4491.38 4183.00 597.14 0.00 8773.57 19,275.09
sector
Central
8082.00 28510.00 6638.99 0.0 4120.000.00 47,350.99
sector
Source: Ministry of Power, India.
In addition to the electric organization described above, there are some
Central Government Organization such as National Thermal Power
Corporation (NTPC), National Hydro Power Corporation (NHPC), Nuclear
Power Corporation (NPC), Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC), Bhakhara
Beas Management Board (BBMB), etc., which operate large thermal, hydro
and nuclear power plants and supply bulk power to the other electric utilities
for transmission and distribution. Power Grid Corporation is responsible for
bulk power transmission through Extra High Voltage (EHV) transmission
lines besides the SEBs. Northern REB and Western REB have 60% share in
the total installed capacity of India.
‘Subtransmission’ systems are used to transmit power to large consumers. It
is very difficult to distinguish subtransmission system from the main
transmission system. In India, we supply power to large consumers at 132 kV
and 66 kV. Moreover, 132-kV systems come under transmission system. In
early days when the transmission voltage was not high, lower voltages were
used for transmission. Due to system expansion and increase in voltage level
of transmission system, the lower voltage transmission systems are termed as
subtransmission systems.
Energy is often converted into electrical form which is used in the form of
heat, light and mechanical energy. Utilization of power is restricted to low
voltage only. Before feeding the powers to consumers, the transmission
voltages are stepped down and power is transmitted over distribution lines.
Distribution systems are further divided into two parts, viz., primary and
secondary distribution systems. Subtransmission systems form the link
between the main receiving station and the secondary substation. At the
secondary substations, the voltage is stepped down and power is fed into the
primary distribution system, which feeds power to medium large consumers
at distribution voltage higher than 400 V. It is normally
33 kV, 25 kV, 11 kV and 6.6 kV in India. The secondary distribution feeders
supply residential and commercial customers at 400 V. Distribution systems
have the largest share in power system network.
Figure 1.1 shows the basic elements of modern power system. Every power
system network need not necessarily have all the components. In some cases,
there is only one level of transmission, where a secondary transmission does
not exist.
 FIGURE 1.1 Structure of power system.

1.3 OUTLINE OF THE TEXT

Chapter 1 starts with a brief history of power systems’ evolution and
describes the structure of power system with emphasis on Indian power
systems that includes the organizational structures, voltage levels, installed
capacities, etc.
In Chapter 2, different electric energy sources, such as wind power, solar
power, fuel cells, tidal power, biogas power, etc., are explained. The
conceptual working principles of conventional sources of electric power
generation are also discussed. The other sources of electric power generation,
such as cogeneration, combined heat and power have also been introduced.
Demand of distributed generation is increasing nowadays and a concept of
distributed generation along with its advantages are explained in this chapter.
The fundamentals of electric power and phasor notation are described in
Chapter 3, which is useful to the students and also being used throughout this
book. Most of the analysis of power system is done on the per unit basis and
a detail description along with numerical examples and problems are
presented in this chapter.
Chapter 4 elaborates the different factors, load curves those are normally used
in power system planning and operation. Power factor is one of the important
issues in ac power supply and hence concept of power factor along with the
economics of power factor correction has been explained. Importance of
interconnection and tariff structure are also described in this chapter.
Chapters 5–8 are devoted to detail descriptions of steam power plants,
hydroelectric plants, nuclear power plants and gas power plants, respectively.
Starting with the operating cycle of steam power plant, main parts and their
working functions are explained in
Chapter 5. Chapter 6 discusses the site selection, hydrology, classification
and components of hydroelectric plants, classification of turbines, etc.
Concept and description of pumped storage plants are also given in this
chapter. Nuclear power plant with pros and cons of generation is described in
Chapter 7. Effects of radiation and safety of nuclear reactor are also
explained in this chapter along with the nuclear power program in India.
Description of open cycle, closed cycle and combined cycle power plants are
given in Chapter 8. Microturbines along with integrated gasification combine
cycle plants are explained in this chapter. Diesel engine power plants are
explained in Chapter 9.
Chapter 10 describes the fundamental concepts and detail calculations of line
parameters, such as inductances and capacitances. Skin and proximity effects
along with various theorems those are useful in the calculation of inductances
and capacitances are also presented in this chapter. Chapter 11 is devoted to
the performance analysis of overhead lines. Starting with the calculation of
line constants, different equivalent models are used for calculation of
regulation and efficiency. Different compensation schemes of the line are
also explained, in this chapter, to improve the performance of the line.
Chapter 12 discusses the insulators for the overhead lines along with the
string efficiency and methods to improve it. Mechanical design of
transmission lines including the sag and tension calculations, effect of wind
and ice loadings, stringing chart, sag template, and conductor vibrations and
dampers are explained in
Chapter 13. In Chapter 14, corona and radio interference are discussed with
examples.
Chapter 15 describes the insulated cables including the grading and
calculation
of capacitances. Dielectric loss and faults in cables are also discussed in this
chapter. HVDC transmission and flexible ac transmission systems (FACTS)
have been explained, in detail,
in Chapter 16. Starting with the comparison of HVDC to HVAC, the
different HVDC
links and analysis of converter/inverter systems have been presented in this
chapter. Fundamental concepts of FACTS technology along with various
devices are also explained in Chapter 16.
Comparisons of various transmission and distribution systems are done in
Chapter 17. Calculation of suitable conductor size using the Kelvin’s law is
discussed with its shortcomings. Different types of distributors and submains
are also explained in this chapter. Chapter 18 describes the different types of
substations along with their merits and demerits. Different types of grounding
systems are described in Chapter 19. Chapter 20 provides the concept of
power system restructuring (deregulation).
 2
Sources of Electric Energy
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The consumption of electric energy in residential, commercial and industrial
sector is increased in many folds, all over the world, due to its several
advantageous features. Limited fossil fuels resources and their impact on
environment, several countries have started to explore the alternative types of
energy sources. Alternative energy is generally defined as any power source
that is not based on fossil fuels or nuclear reactions, that includes electricity
generated from wind, solar, geothermal, biomass or plant matter, and
hydropower. Alternative fuels also can include ethanol from corn, bio-diesel
made from vegetable crops and methane made from waste or other sources.
Sources of electric energy are generally classified into two categories:
conventional and non-conventional energy sources. Conventional energy
sources include coal, diesel, gas and nuclear. On the other hand, non-
conventional energy sources are water, wind, solar, fuel cells, tidal, biogas,
etc., which are free of operating cost, pollution free and inexhaustible. These
are also called renewable energy sources.
2.2 WIND POWER
Wind power is being used since very early days in different applications such
as in ships, in agriculture purpose, etc. The exploitation of wind power, at
present, is increasing due to high price of oil and fast depleting of oil, gas and
coal deposits. The another concern is environmental problem that arises with
the conventional source of energy. Wind energy is plentiful, inexhaustible
and pollution free but great drawback on the utilization arises from both the
intermittence and unreliability. Denmark was the first country to use wind for
the generation of electricity.
The choice of windmills site depends on several factors such as windy area,
scattered population, cheaper to grid electricity cost due to transmission, etc.
It is more suitable near to coastal and remote areas. The great advantage of
windmills is that they may be installed in any locality where the
topographical and meteorological conditions are suitable and require no
outside supplies for its operation except for a stand-by battery and lubricating
oil.
The output power of windmill can be given by
Developed power P = 2.14 ´ 10–3Adv3 kW…………………(2.1)
where A = area swept by the windmill, d = wind density of air and, v = wind
velocity in mile/hour.
Windmills or wind energy converters convert wind power to electrical power.
Typical systems range from 30 kW for individual units to 5.0 MW for wind
farms of multiple units. Hub heights are around 80 metre and rotor diameters
are 65 metre. Rotor construction is either variable blade angle or non-
variable, and conversion from mechanical to electrical energy is via either
synchronous or induction generators. Synchronous generators are equipped
with pulse width modulated converters and control for these converters are
essential for regulating the behaviour of windmill on the electric grid.
Windmills are often installed in groups, or wind farms, and are seldom used
in isolation. A disadvantage of wind power is its irregularity; this further
complicates the connection to power grids.
Most of wind turbines designed for production of electricity have consisted
of a two- or three-bladed propeller rotating around a horizontal axis. Figure
2.1 shows a typical wind turbine. Efficiencies of different types of wind
turbine are shown in Figure 2.2.
 FIGURE 2.1 Wind-turbine system.

FIGURE 2.2 Typical performances of wind machine.

The cost of a wind turbine is around 1000 $/kW and electrical efficiency is
around 25%. Footprint size is in the order of 0.01 kW/m2 and operating cost
is between 4 to
12 cents/kWh.
Following are disadvantages of windmills:

1. Blow down of towers due to hurricane or typhoon

2. High acoustic noise level
3. Electromagnetic interference with metal blades
4. Requires energy storage batteries
5. Low-energy density.

India ranks fifth in the world with a total wind power capacity of 7844.57
MW (till 31-12-2007).

2.3 SOLAR POWER

Conversion of solar power energy to electrical energy has been technically
possible since the late 1930s. The main problem in solar power energy is its
availability. The solar power, which falls upon the whole earth, is of the
magnitude of 1.77 ´ 1014 kW. The rate at which solar energy reaches the
earth’s atmosphere (approximated to be 15 km from the earth’s surface at sea
level) is known as solar constant. Mathematically, solar constant is expressed
as
Solar constant = 1200 kcal/(m2-h) = 1.39 kWh/(m2-h)
When the sun passes through the atmosphere, part of the sun’s radiation is
reflected, scattered and absorbed by heating air, dust and by evaporating
water. The solar power densities at the surface of earth depend upon the sun’s
position and upon the clarity and humidity of the atmosphere. Following are
several distinct applications of solar power:

Space and water heating in domestic and commercial buildings, e.g.

photovoltaic collectors as shown in Figure 2.3
Large-scale heat collection for generation of electricity
The chemical and biological conversion of organic materials to liquid,
solid and gaseous fuel
Domestic lighting
Street lighting
Village electrification
Water pumping
Desalination of salty water
Powering of remote telecommunication repeater stations
Railway signals.
 Figure 2.3 Solar water-heating arrangement.
India is among a few countries with long days and plenty of sunshine,
especially in the Thar Desert region. This zone, having abundant solar energy
available, is suitable for harnessing solar energy for a number of applications.
In the areas with similar intensity of solar radiation, solar energy could be
easily harnessed. Solar thermal energy is being used in India for heating
water for both industrial and domestic purposes. A 140-MW integrated solar
power plant is planned to set up in Jodhpur, but the initial expense incurred is
still very high. Figure 2.4 shows schematic diagram of a solar power plant.
Solar energy can also be used to meet our electricity requirements. Through
solar photovoltaic (SPV) cells, solar radiation gets converted into dc
electricity directly. This electricity can either be used as it is or can be stored
in the batteries. This stored electrical

FIGURE 2.4 Schematic diagram of a solar power plant.

energy then can be used at night. SPV can be used for a number of
applications. If the means to make efficient use of solar energy could be
found, it would reduce our dependence on non-renewable sources of energy
and make our environment cleaner.

2.4 FUEL CELLS

A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts the chemical energy of a
fuel directly and very efficiently into electricity dc and heat, thus doing away
with combustion. The
most suitable fuel for such cells is hydrogen or a mixture of compounds
containing hydrogen. A fuel cell consists of an electrolyte sandwiched
between two electrodes. Oxygen passes through one electrode and hydrogen
through the other, and they electrochemically react to generate electricity,
water, and heat. Unlike a battery, a fuel cell does not run down or require
recharging. It produces energy in the form of electricity and heat as long as
fuel is supplied.
Hydrogen fuel is fed into the anode of the fuel cell. Oxygen (or air) enters the
fuel cell through the cathode. Encouraged by a catalyst, the hydrogen atom
splits into a proton and an electron, which take different path to cathode.
Proton passes through the electrolyte. The electron creates a separate current
that can be utilized before they return to the cathode, to be reunited with the
hydrogen and oxygen in a molecule of water. A fuel cell system, which
includes a fuel reformer, can utilize the hydrogen from any hydrocarbon fuel
from natural gas to methanol, and even gasoline. Since the fuel cell relies on
the chemistry and not on combustion, the emissions from this type of a
system would still be much smaller than the emissions from the cleanest fuel
combustion processes.
The type of electrolyte used characterizes fuel cells; examples include
alkaline, proton exchange membrane, phosphoric acid, molten carbonate and
solid oxide. Produced heat fuel- cell efficiency, when electrolytes are
operated between 80 and 1000°C, can range between
35–65%. The heat produced by an electrolyte can be utilized to raise the
efficiency of fuel cell to over 80%. Target capital cost (assuming large
volume manufacturing) ranges from
800 to 1300 $/kW and footprint size ranges from 1 to 3 kW/m2. Operating
cost is estimated between 8 and 10 cents/kWh and emissions of NOX gases
are extremely low at
0.003–0.03 lb/BTU. Fuel cells are typically aimed at single-installation site
that require between 50 and 1000 kW, e.g. high-rise office buildings,
hospitals, schools, hotels, etc. However, new small fuel cells are available for
residential purposes at about 5–10 kW.
Figure 2.5 shows the typical operation of fuel cells.
 FIGURE 2.5 Fuel cell.
Though fuel cells have been used in space flights, and combined supplies of
heat and power, electric vehicles are the best option available to dramatically
reduce urban air pollution. Compared to vehicles powered by the internal
combustion engine, fuel cell powered vehicles have very high-energy
conversion efficiency, (almost double that of currently used engines) and
near-zero pollution, CO2 and water vapour being the only emissions. Fuel-
cell-powered EVs (electric vehicles) score over battery operated EVs in terms
of increased efficiency and easier and faster refuelling.
Fuel-cell systems are excellent candidates for small-scale decentralized
power generation. Fuel cells can supply combined heat and power to
commercial buildings, hospitals, airports and military installations at remote
locations. Fuel cells have efficiency levels up to 55% as compared to 35% of
conventional power plants. Fuel-cell systems are modular (i.e. additional
capacity can be added whenever required with relative ease) and can be set
up wherever power is required.

2.5 TIDAL POWER

The tides offer a source of energy because of the potential energy of raised
tide water or the kinetic energy of tidal stream. The originating source of tidal
energy is in kinetic energy of the orbiting and rotating earth, moon and sun.
The water on earth rises and falls due to changing gravitation force. To date,
there has been little development of tidal projects despite the fact that these
schemes are quite attractive. There are at least three ways in which tidal
energy might conceivably be harnessed (Figure 2.6).
The one way of harnessing the tidal energy is simply to place a water wheel
in a tidal stream as shown in Figure 2.6(a). It is analogous to using a water
wheel in the river and is not suitable for electric generation due to variability
of the tidal stream flow. This scheme can be used for pumping water or
milling grain.
In the second scheme, as shown in Figure 2.6(b), a large floating object such
as a barge is raised by an incoming tide; it is constrained by pilings. It can be
then held and dropped later or allowed to fall with the tide to drive the
electric generator.
Third choice, as shown in Figure 2.6(c), is to build a low dam across the
mouth of a bay or a tidal estuary. As the tide comes in, gates are opened and
water flows into the bay or estuary. After the high tide the gates are closed.
During the off tide the stored water can be

FIGURE 2.6 Tidal power.

used for electricity generation. The weight of water (W) stored behind the
dam from high-tide level to low-tide level is RSr, where R is the tidal range in
metre, S is the average surface area of storage reservoir and r is the density of
water. As R changes with the discharge of water, the annual energy can be
obtained by taking the average value. The available energy is

The average power can be obtained by dividing E by time (T). The basic
problem with the development of tidal power projects is the requirement of
huge capital cost. Following are criterions for selecting the site for tidal
power projects:

The tidal range R should be large

The storage area should be large
 The site should allow the development of the necessary plant for
reasonable cost
It should be environmentally acceptable.

2.6 GEOTHERMAL POWER

The heat from the interior of the earth is a huge potential source of natural
energy that can be used for the generation of electricity. The heat is tapped
through wells drilled as much as two miles into the earth. The basic principle
of geothermal generation is that steam is used to drive the turbine, as in
thermal plant fuelled by Uranium or by fossil fuel. The first important
generation of geothermal electric power came in Larderello, Italy in 1904 for
lighting a few bulbs. Italy and Geysers area of San Francisco, USA are the
largest geothermal producing regions in the world. Figure 2.7 shows the
typical geothermal power plant at the Geysers.

FIGURE 2.7 Typical geothermal power plant.

The main advantages of geothermal power are that it is environmentally clean
and requires less space compared to hydro and solar power. The major
potential problems are the possible destructive effect of contaminated
wastewater and lad subsidence. It releases large amount of waste heat to the
environment.

2.7 BIOMASS POWER

Biomass, a form of chemical energy, is a renewable energy resource derived
from the carbonaceous waste of various human and natural activities. It is
derived from numerous sources, including the by-products from the timber
industry, agricultural crops, raw material from the forest, major parts of
household waste and wood. Biomass does not add carbon dioxide to the
atmosphere as it absorbs the same amount of carbon when consumed as a
fuel. Its advantage is that it can be used to generate electricity with the same
equipment or power plants that are now burning fossil fuels. Biomass is an
important source of energy and the most important fuel worldwide after coal,
oil and natural gas. This energy is being used for cooking, mechanical
applications, pumping, power generation and transportation.
Traditional use of biomass is more than its use in modern application. In the
developed world, biomass is again becoming important for applications such
as combined heat and power generation. In addition, biomass energy is
gaining significance as a source of clean heat for domestic heating and
community heating applications. In fact, in the countries like Finland, USA
and Sweden the per capita biomass energy used is higher than in India, China
or in Asia.
Biomass fuels used in India account for about one third of the total fuel used
in the country, being the most important fuel used in over 90% of the rural
households and about 15% of the urban households. Instead of burning the
loose biomass fuel directly, it is more practical to compress it into briquettes1
and thereby improve its utility and convenience of use. Such biomass in the
dense briquetted form can either be used directly as fuel instead of coal in the
traditional chulhas and furnaces or in the gasifier. Gasifier converts solid fuel
into a more convenient gaseous form of fuel called producer gas.
Scientists are trying to explore the advantages of biomass energy as an
alternative energy source as it is renewable and free from net CO2 (carbon
dioxide) emissions and is abundantly available on the earth in the form of
agricultural residue, city garbage, cattle dung, firewood, etc. Bio-energy, in
the form of biogas, which is derived from biomass, is expected to become
one of the key energy resources for global sustainable development.
At present, biogas technology provides an alternative source of energy in
rural India for cooking. It is particularly useful for village households that
have their own cattle. Through a simple process, cattle dung is used to
produce a gas, which serves as fuel for cooking. The residual dung is used as
manure. Biogas plants have been set up in many areas and are becoming very
popular. Using local resources, namely cattle waste and other organic wastes,
energy and manure are derived. A mini-biogas digester has recently been
designed and developed, and is being in-field tested for domestic lighting.
Indian sugar mills are rapidly turning bagasse, the leftover of the cane after it
is crushed and its juice extracted, into generate electricity. This is mainly
being done to clean up the environment, cut down power costs and earn
additional revenue. From current estimates, it can be seen that about
3500 MW of power can be generated from bagasse in the existing 430 sugar
mills in the country. Around 270 MW of power has already been
commissioned and more is under construction. It is a fact that half a kilo of
dry plant tissue can produce as much as 1890 kcal of heat that is equivalent to
the heat available from a quarter of kilogram of coal.

2.8 MAGNETO-HYDRODYNAMIC (MHD) POWER

In magneto–hydrodynamic (MHD) generator, an ionized gas or plasma is
passed through a strong magnetic field to produce an electric potential. It is a
form of heat energy to electric energy converter. The ionized gas (positive
and negative ions) is collected by metallic collecting plates. There are number
of possible forms of working MHD generators. The MHD unit can be
developed alone or combined with a gas turbine, or with a conventional
steam generator. Figure 2.8 shows the basic physical action of the generator.
Figure 2.9 shows the MHD cycle with steam cycle. Fuel is introduced to the
burner along with the seed material such as potassium which increases the
conductivity of the gas to permit the practical operation of the device. The
magnet deflects some of the ions to the plate, which get charged and produce
a dc electric potential. The exhaust gas passes first through an air heater that
heats out side air that has been compressed by the compressor attached to the
steam turbine. The heated air is then used in the burner. The hot exhaust gas
from MHD generator is then passed into the steam generator to drive the
turbine. The steam turbine drives both the compressor and an electric
generator. The exhaust gases continue on through a seed recovery stage
where the seed is captured and fed back to burner. Since recovery is not
perfect, some make-up seeds must be added. Next, the exhaust gas passes
through a Nitrogen and Sulphur removal stage before being released by the
stack.
 FIGURE 2.8 Magneto–hydrodynamic power generation.

FIGURE 2.9 MHD cycle with steam.

2.9 THERMAL POWER

Coal is the main fuel used in thermal power plants. Coal is fired to generate
heat that is used to produce steam. Steam is passed through a turbine that
rotates the rotor of electric generator to produce electricity. It is used in many
countries where high-head water is not available for power generation in
hydroelectric plants. The thermal efficiency of a steam power plant mainly
depends on the choice of steam cycle. The principal equipment of steam
power plants are the boiler, superheating, feed water heating, steam reheating,
turbine and generator. The major components of steam generating plants are
shown in Figure 2.10.

FIGURE 2.10 Major components of steam power plant.

2.10 DIESEL ENGINES

Diesel engines are used to drive the prime mover of electric generators for
producing the electricity. Diesel engines are used for two purposes: first, as a
stand-by set for start up of auxiliaries in steam and gas turbine power plants
and also for emergency supply to hospitals, hotels, factories and in other
commercial units; second, as continuous power generation. Diesel engines
have several advantages such as:

high operating efficiency

no stand-by loss
need very little water for cooling
quick start and stop is possible
easier handling of fuel.

However it has disadvantage of high noise, air pollution.

2.11 HYDROPOWER
Hydropower is one of the best, cheapest, and cleanest source of energy,
although, with big dams, there are many environmental and social problems.
The term hydropower refers to shaft power generated by converting potential
and kinetic energy of water. Small hydroelectric plants are fairly common
and are used in many countries. Hydroelectric plants are categorized into
micro hydro (£100 kW), mini hydro (from 101 kW to 1 MW), small hydro
(from 1 MW to a few MW, i.e. normally 6 MW) and hydroelectric plants
(more than 6 MW). Plants larger than 100 kW can use either induction
generator or synchronous generator depending upon the design and cost
analysis. Many of these smaller plants do not have dams but they run by
flowing water of rivers. They are also called run-of-river plants.
Following are advantages of small-scale hydropower, particularly in
developing countries:

The infrastructure for manufacture of the components of a

hydropower system, e.g. gates, valves, generators, etc., exists in most
developing countries.
Small-scale hydropower is regarded as more environmentally
favourable than large plants, both hydro and fossil-powered.
For electricity generation in remote or rural areas, small-scale hydro is
competitive with alternative small-scale plants based on renewable
energy or fossil fuels.
It is proven technology and the plants are long lasting.

New environmental laws affected by the danger of global warming have

made energy from small hydropower plants more relevant. These small
hydropower plants can serve the energy needs of remote rural areas
independently. The real challenge in a remote area lies in successful
marketing of the energy and recovering the dues. Local industries should be
encouraged to use this electricity for sustainable development. It is a
technology with enormous potential, which could exploit the water resources
to supply energy to remote rural areas with little access to conventional
energy sources. It also eliminates most of the negative environmental effects
associated with large hydro projects.
Large hydro plants are discussed in Chapter 6.

2.12 GAS POWER

When natural gas is used as fuel for running power plants, it is called as gas
power plant. It has some advantages over steam plants:

It is very simple. It does not contain the boiler or steam supply system,
condenser and waste heat disposal system.
 It has ability to start and take load quickly. Its start up time is only 2–8
minutes.

Two types of gas turbines are available: open cycle and combined cycle.
Figure 2.11 shows the typical open-cycle gas power plant. The detail
description is given in Chapter 8. A comparison of steam and gas power plant
efficiencies is shown in Figure 2.12.

FIGURE 2.11 Steam-power plant.

FIGURE 2.12 Thermal efficiencies of steam and gas plant.

2.13 NUCLEAR POWER

In nuclear power plants, the heat is generated with the help of nuclear fission
when a free neutron strikes the nucleus of a fissile material such as uranium,
thorium, etc. The plant containing the radioactive material is called reactor or
a pile. Reactor produces heat that is used for production of electric energy via
heat exchanger, turbine and generator. There are different types of reactor
with different coolants and moderators. A moderator is a substance that
causes neutrons to slow down, hence increasing their probability of
interacting with fissile nuclei. Detail description is given in Chapter 7.
2.14 OTHER ENERGY SOURCES
2.14.1 Cogeneration
Cogeneration is a process of capturing waste heat from manufacturing,
industrial process or heating or cooling systems and using it to generate
electric power that can be used to run one’s own equipment and can be sold
to the utility company. Cogeneration is the concept of producing two forms
of energy from one fuel. One of the forms of energy must always be heat and
the other may be electricity or mechanical energy. In a conventional power
plant, fuel is burnt in a boiler to generate high-pressure steam. This steam is
used to drive a turbine, which in turn drives an alternator to produce electric
power. The exhaust steam is generally condensed to water, which goes back
to the boiler. Since the low-pressure steam has a large quantum of heat,
which is lost in the process of condensing, the efficiency of conventional
power plants is only around 35%. In a cogeneration plant, very high
efficiency levels, in the range of 75–90%, can be reached. This is because of
the low-pressure exhaust steam coming out of the turbine is not condensed
but used for heating purposes in factories or houses.
There are two types of cogeneration system arrangements discussed as
follows:
Topping cycle. The input is first used to produce power and the exhaust
heat from the power producing prime mover is used to generate steam or used
directly in heating process.
Bottoming cycle. It is reverse of the topping cycle, utilizing waste heat
from a heating process such as an industrial furnace, to produce electricity.
Commonly waste heat is used to produce steam in heat recovery boiler and
used in turbine to produce electricity.
As cogeneration can meet both power and heat needs, it has other advantages
as well in the form of significant cost savings for the plant and reduction in
emissions of pollutants due to reduced fuel consumption. Even at
conservative estimates, the potential of power generation from cogeneration
in India is more than 20,000 MW. Since India is the largest producer of sugar
in the world, bagasse-based cogeneration is being promoted. The potential for
cogeneration thus lies in facilities with joint requirement of heat and
electricity, primarily sugar and rice mills, distilleries, petro-chemical sector
and industries such as fertilizers, steel, chemical, cement, pulp and paper, and
aluminium.
2.14.2 Combined Heat and Power (CHP)
How we produce energy and use them, nowadays, are concern of everybody.
The concepts of liberalization, globalization and climate change are causing
people to think differently. Internationally, the challenge is to cut greenhouse
gas emissions; locally, the challenge is to meet customers’ needs flexibly and
effectively. Thinking differently is not just about policy but also about
technology.
CHP is normally more common in cold countries where heat is more
prominent in buildings. They produce power and waste heat is used for
heating of the building by air or by water.
2.14.3 Distributed Generation
Distributed, or small generation units, typically less than 30 MW,
strategically located near consumers and load centres, supports for the
economic operation of the existing power distribution grid.
When Thomas Edison brought the Pearl Street Power Station online to
service New York City in 1882, he was essentially following a strategy that
today we would call distributed generation. But as technology advanced it led
to larger, more efficiently generating facilities built farther and farther from
the end user. Larger regional power transmission networks delivering power
to local distribution systems and finally the end users were put into play.
Over time the industry became regulated so that these changes could occur
efficiently without wasteful duplication of facilities and slowly, the economic
role of distributed generation became much more limited. Over the last thirty
years, the cost of building and maintaining large centralized nuclear and coal
fired generating facilities has become increasingly expensive and technology
has improved their efficiency and cost of smaller modular power generating
options. Restructuring of the industry paves the way for customers to select
the optimum combinations of energy resources to fit their individual needs.
Lately, on-site distributed power generation is being practised that is
reversing an almost 50-year trend towards centralized generation. As
deregulation and restructuring sweeps through the world’s energy corridors,
utilities and other energy service providers will see distributed power
generation as a threat or an opportunity, and will use a range of strategies and
technologies to keep old customers find new ones and boost revenues. If
wisely used, distributed power generation technologies can improve power
quality, boost system reliability, reduce energy costs, and help delay or
defray utility capital investments.
Proponents of distributed generation are quick to point out the untapped
market that exists in the world with two billion people that currently have no
access to electricity and several hundred million more that have to rely on a
limited, unreliable, or impossibly expensive supply of electricity. Despite the
tremendous social, economic, health and environmental benefits of
widespread access to environmentally clean electricity, many nations are
unable to maintain their current limited electrical grids and therefore afford
the cost of extending electrical capacity to service the majority of their
citizens. The combined influence of growing environmental concerns and the
arrival of new distributed generation technologies are changing both the scale
of power projects and the way utilities think
about electricity. These trends give rise to important questions regarding the
future providers of electricity and the form of service will they provide. It is
becoming clear that any future electricity generating systems, on any scale,
will include distributed generation services, concepts and technologies.
Distributed power generation in the form of turbine generators, internal
combustion engine generators, microturbines, photovoltaic solar panels, wind
turbines and fuel cells, provides electric power at a site closer to customers
than the central station and can be connected either directly to the consumer
or to a utility’s transmission or distribution system. Systems in use today
provide a multitude of services to utilities and consumers, including standby
generation, peak shaving capability, base load generation or cogeneration. As
technology advances, distributed power will provide economic and
environmental benefits well into the 21st century.
New opportunities exist for electric utilities and their customers. The future
of electric power lies in distributed generation—thousands of small power
systems in industrial and commercial facilities, working together as ‘virtual
power plants’. In such applications, diesel and gas engine generator sets offer
the benefits of low installed cost, high efficiency at full or partial load,
reliability, fuel flexibility and heat recovery potential.
Applications
Following are the chief areas for distributed generation:
Standby power. For customers that cannot tolerate interruption of service,
for either public health or safety reasons, or where outage costs are
unacceptably high, standby generators installed at hospitals, water pumping
stations and electronic dependent facilities such as server farms fill the bill.
Combined heat and power. Since all power generation technologies
produce a great amount of heat locating a power generator near a customer’s
site will allow the use of combined heat and power (CHP) or cogeneration
applications. This is significantly increasing system efficiency.
Peak shaving. Typically power costs fluctuate hour-by-hour depending
upon demand and generation availability. Here, hourly variations are
converted into seasonal and daily time-of-use rate categories such as on-peak,
off-peak or shoulder rates. Customer’s use of distributed generation during
relatively high-cost on-peak is referred to as peak shaving. Peak shaving
benefits energy providers when energy costs approach high prices.
Grid support. The power grid is a complex, integrated network of
generation of high-voltage transmission. It functions as substations and local
distribution networks. Strategic placement of distributed generation can
provide system benefits and negates the need for expensive upgradation to
the grid.
Stand-alone. Stand-alone distributed generation isolates the user, in remote
locations, from the grid either by choice or by circumstance. Such
applications include users
requiring tight control on the quality of the electric power delivered, as in
computer-chip manufacturing.
Technologies
Reciprocating engines. The most common form of distributed generation
technology available today is reciprocating internal combustion (IC) engines
fueled by natural gas. They offer low cost, easy start-up, proven reliability,
high load following characteristics and heat recovery potential. Emissions
from IC engines have been significantly reduced in the last few years.
Combustion turbines. Combustion turbines (CT) are an established
technology available in sizes from several hundred kilowatts to hundreds of
megawatts. They can be set to
burn natural gas or dual-fuel. The combination of low maintenance cost and
high-quality waste-heat make them an excellent choice for industrial and
commercial applications larger than 5 MW.
Microturbines. Microturbines with outputs of 30–200 kW are nowadays
catching the eyes of technology-driven marketers. Recent developments of
microturbines have focussed on the hybrid electric vehicle market, but is
quickly becoming a technology of interest as a stationary power source for
commercial buildings or light industrial markets for cogeneration or power-
only markets.
Fuel cells. Fuel cells producing electrochemical power similar to a battery
are also be- coming popular in the distributed-generation (DG) market.
Several different liquid and solid media can be used to create the fuel cell’s
electrochemical reaction. Fuel cells are inherently quiet and extremely clean
source of energy. At the moment the high costs of fuel cells make them best
suited to environmentally sensitive areas with power quality concerns. They
are being aimed at small commercial and residential markets as well as in
industrial cogeneration applications.
Photovoltaics. Photovoltaic power cells use solar energy to produce power
and can be sited anywhere the sunshines, making them suitable in sensitive
environment areas and for remote applications. High costs make them a niche
technology, but a lot of development work is being done in this area, so costs
are expected to decrease in the future.
Opportunities
With the worldwide electricity consumption expected to reach 22 trillion
kilowatt hours, by 2020, largely due to growth in developing countries
without nationwide power grids, there is no doubt about the importance of the
distributed generation market. The projected distribution generation capacity
associated with the global market is conservatively estimated at
20 gigawatts per year over the next decade. As utility restructuring sets in, the
financial burden of new capital investments will shift from consumers to
energy suppliers along with capacity additions.
This favours less capital-intensive projects and shorter construction
schedules. The opening up of new energy marketplaces has increased
pressure on energy suppliers to multiply the capacity to meet growing
demand of consumers during outages. Customer concerns over reliability
have escalated, particularly in the manufacturing sector. With the increased
use of sensitive electronic components, the need for high-quality power
supplies is of paramount importance.
1. A process of compressing something to form blocks of different shapes.
 3
Basic Principles
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Normally, during steady state, power system voltages and currents are
balanced three-phase sinusoidal in nature. If the supply is balanced, single-
phase analysis is suitable. In dc supply power, the calculation of power is
simple as it has only real-power component, however, in ac supply it has both
real and reactive powers.

3.2 ELECTRICAL POWER

Consider a single-phase circuit as shown in Figure 3.1. The instantaneous
voltage and current can be written as

where ~(=2rf) is in radian/second, z is the phase angle or power factor angle

with respect to voltage reference which is positive when voltage leads
current, and Vmax and Imax are the real numbers called the amplitudes or
peak values of voltage and current respectively.

FIGURE 3.1 Power into one-port network.

The transmitted instanteneous power (p), to one-port network, which is
defined as the rate change of energy, can be written as

From Equation (3.3), it is seen that p has two parts: a constant (average)
component and a sinusoidal component of frequency 2~. Figure 3.2 shows
the relationship among p, v and i. From this figure it is observed that the
average power is positive; but it can be positive, negative or zero. The power
consumed in resistive element is positive, however, it is zero in pure
inductance or pure capacitance. In active network, power may be negative.
The average power P over one period, T = 2r/~, can be defined as

In all applications, generally, P is used rather than p. Cosine of phase angle is

known as power factor. In ac power, leading and lagging power factors
terminology are used. In a description, “a load draws 100 watts at a power
factor of 0.707 lagging”, means current lags voltage by angle tan–1(0.707).
The angle z is equal to 45°.

FIGURE 3.2 Instantaneous power.

3.3 PHASOR NOTATION

Using following Euler’s formula of complex numbers

the current-time function i can be written in following form

The current phasor I can be defined as the complex number

In abbreviated form, the phasor is generally written as

The rms (root mean square) or effective value of phasor I will be equaI to
Imax/Ö2 and phase will be z. Phasors are always denoted by capital letters
and modulus is always the
rms value, however in instantaneous values, the peak values are used. The
phase value is normally represented in degrees, otherwise stated.

3.4 REAL AND REACTIVE POWER

From Equation (3.4), the average power, which is also known as active or
real power, is the useful power and greatly depends on the power factor. It
can be written in terms of rms values of current and voltage, as

Equation (3.3) can also be written as

The instantaneous power p has been decomposed into two components. First
component, marked as ‘a’ in Equation (3.9), pulsates around the same
average value as before but never goes negative. The second term, as marked
‘b’ in Equation (3.9), has a zero average value. This can be seen in Figure
3.3.
Reactive power (Q) is defined as

Equation (3.9) can be written in terms of real and reactive powers as

 FIGURE 3.3 Components a and b.
From Equation (3.11), the reactive power Q is equal to the peak value of that
power components, which travels back and forth on the line, resulting in zero
average and therefore capable of no useful work. The physical dimension of
both P and Q is watt. But the symbolized unit of P is ‘watt’ (W) and of Q is
‘var’ (VAr). More practical and bigger units of real power are kW, MW and
for Q it is kVAr and MvAr.
Using Equation (3.8), the real power (P) can also be written as

Real power is the real term of the product of voltage phasor and conjugate of
current phasor.

3.5 APPARENT POWER

Apparent power or volt ampere is defined as the product of rms values of
current and voltage across the circuit. It is very useful in defining the
apparatus of a unit. Mathematically

kVA and MVA are the practical units of apparent power.

3.6 COMPLEX POWER

Phasor notations are very useful in calculating the complex power (S). Let
voltage (V) and current phasors (I) be
Table 3.1 Phasor Relationship for Different Load

Table 3.2 Notations and Units of Power

The conjugate of current phasor can be written as

The complex power is defined as the product

Vector representation of complex power (inductive circuit) is shown in
Figure 3.4.

FIGURE 3.4 Complex power.

The real, reactive and apparent powers are equal in magnitude to the three
sides of a right triangle known as power triangle. If V leads I, which is same
as I lags V, both P and Q will be positive. For V lags I or I leads V, the
reactive power Q will be negative. Complex power can also be written in
terms of voltage and current. Table 3.1 shows the phasor relationship for
different loads. Different terminology and units of power are presented in
Table 3.2.
Considering the circuit as in Figure 3.4, the following relationship can be
written:

From Equation (3.17), we can write

For a network supplied by several independent sources, all at same

frequency, the sum of the complex power supplied by the independent
sources equals to the sum of the complex power received by all the other
branches of the network. This is known as the theorem of conservation of
complex power. Mathematically, for n sources, it can be written as
Using the concept of complex numbers, it can also be written as

Example 3.1 For = R + j~L and the current i =

(a) Calculate P and Q
(b) Calculate the instantaneous power.
Solution (a) We have

Therefore, the real power P = R and reactive power Q = ~L .

(b) Instantaneous voltage v can be written as

Instantaneous power can be calculated as

Example 3.2 Compute the powers in each elements of the circuit shown in
Figure 3.5.
Take supply voltage of 220 volt.

FIGURE 3.5 Example 3.2.

Solution Let us find the equivalent impedance of parallel branches.
The current will be

and the power in 5-ohm resister = I2R = 574.39 W

If current in branch ab is and current in branch cd is , these can be
calculated as

Hence the power loss in resister of branch ab = I12R = 1040.59 watts, power
loss in inductor
(= I12Xl) = 4162.37 VAR and power loss in capacitor (= I22Xc) = –5863.13
VAR.

3.7 THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS

The electric-supply system nowadays in use is of three-phase. However, in
low-power applications such as lighting and other domestic use, it may also
be of single phase. Earlier,
2-phase systems were used. But, now such systems have been made up to six
phases for special purposes. Now the industry has generally standardized on
the three-phase system, which can be either star- (wye-) or delta-connected.
In a balance system, the power in circuit will be equal to the Ö3 times the line
voltage and line current times the power factor. It can be mathematically
written as

The line voltage and line current are related to the phase voltage and phase
current for different connections. In star-connected system
where
VL = Line-to-line voltage
VP = Phase or line-to-ground voltage
IL = Line current
IP = Phase current

3.8 PER-UNIT REPRESENTATION

Sometime, it is convenient to use per unit (or percentage) quantity rather than
the actual quantity for the analysis of power system. In power system, the
different operating voltage are used due to presence of transformers, different
rating of generators, etc., and therefore calculation becomes difficult.
Moreover, system data is generally available in per-unit value on its own
base. Per-unit value is a dimensionless quantity and is represented as ‘pu’.
Per-unit value of a quantity is the ratio of the actual value in any unit to the
base or reference value of that quantity in the same unit. Thus

A well-chosen per-unit system can reduce the computational effort, simplify

evaluation and facilitate the understanding of system characteristics. The
selections of base quantities are also very important. Some of the base
quantities are chosen independently and arbitrarily while others automatically
follow depending upon the fundamental relationships between system
variables. Out of the four power system quantities, viz., power (VA), voltage
(V), current (A) and impedance (W), only two are independent. The universal
practice is to use machine rating, power and voltage as base values and base
values of current and impedance are calculated.
Consider a single-phase system with base voltamperes (VAb) and base
voltage (Vb), the base current and base impedance will be calculated as
The per unit impedance, then, can be given by

The practical choice of base power is kVAb or MVAb, however, base voltage
is selected in kVb. With these, base current and base impedance can be
derived as

Similarly, per-unit impedance can be derived as

In 3-phase systems, the base values usually chosen are 3-phase kVAb or
MVAb and line-to-line voltage (kVb). The base current, base impedance and
per-unit impedance can be found as

It is necessary to change per unit impedance from one set of base values to
the new set of base values. When base MVA is changed from MVAb,old to
MVAb,new and base voltage from kVb,old to kVb,new, per-unit impedance
can be calculated from following equation as
3.8.1 Per-unit Representation of Transformers
A three-phase transformer can be represented by a single-phase transformer
in getting the per-phase solution of the system. The delta-winding
transformer is replaced by an equivalent star so that the transformation ratio
of equivalent single-phase transformer is always line-to-line voltage ratio of a
three-phase transformer. Figure 3.6 represents the single-phase equivalent
transformer with primary winding impedance ZP and secondary winding
impedance ZS. The turn ratio is N : 1.

FIGURE 3.6 Single-phase equivalent transformer representation.

If primary winding voltage base is V1B and the secondary side-base voltage
is V2B, these can be written in the following form:

where I1B and I2B are the current bases of primary and secondary sides,
respectively.
Base impedances can be calculated as
and their ratio can be defined as

Impedance referred to primary side (Z¢P) and secondary side (Z¢S) will be

and per-unit impedance on primary side (Z¢P,pu) will be

From Equations (3.36) and (3.37), we have

This shows that per-unit impedance referred to the primary side will be equal
to per-unit impedance referred to the secondary side.
3.8.2 Advantages of Per-unit System
Per-unit representation has several advantages, such as:
1. In large electric power systems, the capacity and rating of equipment are
different and the use of per-unit quantities simplifies the calculations.
2. Per-unit representation of the impedance of any equipment is more
meaningful than its absolute value.
3. Using per-unit system, the chances of making mistakes in phase and line
voltages, single- or three-phase quantities are minimized.
4. In case of transformers, the per-unit impedance referred to primary side or
secondary side will be the same which further simplifies the calculations.
3.8.3 Per-unit Impedance Diagram
Single-line diagram of a power system can be represented by the per-unit
impedance diagram, as shown in Figure 3.7.
 FIGURE 3.7 Per-unit impedance diagram.
Following procedure is normally used for calculating the per-unit
impedances, which are used in drawing the impedance diagram.
(a) Choose an appropriate MVA or kVA base for the system. (Generally,
100 MVA is used in power system.)
(b) Choose the voltage base and calculate the appropriate base voltages for
other sections according to the transformation ratio.
(c) Calculate the per-unit impedance of each equipment and connect them
as per topology of the single-line diagram.
Example 3.3 Find complex power S2 in terms of S1, L and V for the circuit
shown in Figure 3.8

FIGURE 3.8 Example 3.3.

Solution Complex power S3 can be written as

Using conservation of complex power theorem, we get S2 = S1 – S3. Thus,

we obtain
This shows (Q2 < Q1) that inductor is source of consuming reactive power.
Example 3.4 A three-generator system is shown in Figure 3.9. Find the
impedances in
per unit on the 100-MVA and 11-kV base. Also draw the impedance diagram
for the same. Given that

FIGURE 3.9 Example 3.4.

Solution Taking the base of 100 MVA and 11 kV, the following pu values
can be calculated as
(a) Generators pu reactances: Since the reactance of the generators are given
on their own bases, the reactance of the generator-1 on the 100-MVA and 11-
kV bases will be
X1 = 0.25 pu
Reactance of generator-2 (G2) is given on 150-MVA and 16-kV base and the
pu reactance on 100-MVA and 11-kV base can be calculated using Equation
(3.33) as

Similarly, the pu reactance of generator-3 (G3) on new bases will be

(b) Transformers pu reactances: The per-unit reactances of transformers on

the new base values will be

Per-unit reactance of transformer-1 (T1) pu

Since the generator-1 is connected with T1 on the primary side, the base
voltage will be
11 kV for this transformer. Normally, pu values are calculated starting from
one end and reaching the another end of the system.

(c) Transmission line pu reactances: Since the line reactances are given in
the actual values, therefore it is required to calculate the base values for the
lines to calculate the base value of reactance. The base value of power for the
transmission line will be the same but the voltage base will be calculated as
per connection of transformer. Taking 11 kV at the primary of the
transformer-1, the secondary voltage will be 132 kV that will be the base for
the lines. Therefore Zb for the lines using Equation (3.31) will be
The reactance diagram can be drawn as Figure 3.10.

FIGURE 3.10 Impedance diagram.

Example 3.5 A 220 kV/400 kV, 240 MVA, transformer has primary winding
impedance
3 + j8 ohm and secondary winding impedance of 5 + j10 ohm. Find the pu
impedance on its own base referred to HV side and LV side.
Solution Impedance referred to LV side

Impedance referred to HV side

Example 3.6 A wye connected load is supplied from 3-phase 240 V mains.
Each branch of the load is a resistor of 20 ohms. Using 240V and 10 kVA
bases, calculate the pu values of the current and power taken by the load.
Solution
Let Vbase = 240 V
VAbase = 10 ´ 103
So, Zbase = 240 ´ 240/104 = 5.76W
So, load impedance in pu/phase = 20/5.76 = 3.472 pu.
Ibase = 10 * 103/ = 24.057 A.
So current drawn in pu (Ipu) = 1/3.472 = 0.288 pu.
Current drawn in amps = 0.288 * 24.057 = 6.93 A
Power drawn in = Vpu * Ipu = 0.288 pu.
The power drawn = 0.288 * 10 * 103W = 2.88 kW.

PROBLEMS
3.1 Calculate the power consumed in different elements of circuit shown in
Figure 3.11. Draw the phasor diagram taking voltage as reference. Take
supply voltage of 220 volt.

FIGURE 3.11 Problem 3.1.

3.2 Find in terms of , L, C and voltage for the circuit shown in Figure
3.12.

FIGURE 3.12 Problem 3.2.

3.3 Voltage magnitudes at both the ends of the circuit shown in Figure 3.13
are maintained to same value. Show that = – *.

FIGURE 3.13 Problem 3.3.

3.4 Find the load power at Bus-1 and Bus-2 in Figure 3.14.

FIGURE 3.14 Problem 3.4.

3.5 A 100-MVA 33-kV, 3-phase generator has a subtransient reactance of
15%. The generator is connected to the motors through a transmission line
and transformers
as shown in Figure 3.15. The motors have rated inputs of 30 MVA, 20
MVA and
50 MVA at 30 kV with 20% subtransient reactance. The 3-phase
transformers are rated at 110 MVA, 32 kVD/110 kV Y with leakage
reactance 8%. The line has reactance
of 50 ohm. Selecting the generator rating as the base quantities in the
 circuit, determine the base quantities in the other part of the system and
evaluate the corresponding
pu values. Also, draw the reactance diagram.

FIGURE 3.15 Problem 3.5.

3.6 Two generators rated at 10 MVA, 13.2 kV and 15 MVA, 13.2 kV are
connected in parallel to a busbar. They feed supply to two motors of inputs
8 MVA and 12 MVA respectively. The operating voltage of motors is 12.5
kV. Assuming the base quantities as 50 MVA and 13.8 kV draw the
reactance diagram. The percentage reactance of generators is 15% and that
for motors is 20%.
3.7 A 11 kV/132 kV 50 MVA, 3-phase transformer has an inductive
reactance of
j 0.005 ohms referred to the primay (11 kV). Calculate the pu value of
reactance based on the rating. Neglect resistance.
3.8 Express in pu all the quantities shown in the line diagram of the 3-phase
transmission system in Figure 3.16. Construct the single phase equivalent
circuit. Use a base of 100 MVA. The line is 80-km long with resistance and
reactance of 0.1 and 0.5 ohms, respectively. It has a capacitive susceptance
of 10 uS per km (split equally between two ends).

FIGURE 3.16 Problem 3.8.

3.9 The one line diagram of a 3-phase system is shown in Figure 3.17.
Transformers TR-2,
 TR-3 and TR-4 are rated at 40 MVA each and their reactances are 6.0%,
6.4% and 8.0%, respectively. TR-1 is rated at 50 MVA and its reactance is
10%. The generator and motor reactances are 18% and 18.5%, respectively.
Series res. and shunts neglected). Select a common power base of 100
MVA and voltage base of 22 kV on generator side, and
(a) Compute pu impedance values and load values, and draw the impedance
diagram.
(b) For the given loads, compute the generator terminal and its internal
voltages in kV.

FIGURE 3.17 One-line diagram.

 4
Load Characteristics and
Economic Aspects
4.1 INTRODUCTION
A correct idea of the load characteristic of a particular area is very much
important to
meet the power requirement. The major portion of power generation comes
from thermal, hydroelectric, nuclear and gas-operated power plants.
Presently, combined cycle gas operated
plants are becoming more popular due to high efficiency, minimum erection
time, easily available to produce power, etc. The location and size of different
plants are decided based on requirements of loads and their locations. The
other factors affecting the sitting and sizing are availability of fuel (input
energy), space, etc. The evacuation of power is also one concern.
The load demand in a power system is always varying during the whole day.
Figure 4.1 shows a typical demand at a station during the day. The minimum
capacity of generator should be such that it should meet the maximum
demand. But use of single unit to supply the whole load will not be practical
due to economic, reliability and efficiency reasons. Therefore, large numbers
of units are used to fit the load curve, which is a curve of demand vs time
during the day. Having the lower size of units, the maintenance cost,
operational cost and capital cost increase. Hence, a compromise between
selection of size and number of generating units is made. Its selection also
depends upon the cost of power, fix and operating, depreciation, interest
payment, etc. The electricity utilities derive their income from the customers
through the electricity bills. Different methods of charging consumers are
known as tariffs.
 FIGURE 4.1 Demand at a station during the day.

4.2 COMMONLY USED TERMS

The load can be categorized in terms of domestic, agricultural, industrial and
commercial loads. Present-day power stations invariably feed power to grid
and consumers draw power from the grid. The estimate of power and increase
in generation capacity depend on maximum demand, distribution and
variation of demand, and energy requirement. Following factors are normally
used in electricity system planning, operation and management.
Connected load
Each device at consumers’ terminal has its rated capacity. The connected
load is the sum of the continuous rating of the entire load consuming
apparatus and outlets connected to the system.
Maximum demand
The maximum demand of a consumer means the maximum power that the
circuit is likely to draw at any time. In other words, the maximum demand of
an installation or system is the greatest of all demands that have occurred
during the specified period of time, which may be daily, monthly, or yearly.
If all apparatus and outlets are used simultaneously to full extent, the
maximum demand will be equal to the connected load. But consumers do not
use all the devices and outlets at full load simultaneously and therefore the
maximum demand is always less than the connected load.
Demand factor
The demand factor is the ratio of maximum demand to the connected load.
Mathematically, it can be written as
Demand factor, generally lies between 0.5 and 0.8.
Diversity factor
The maximum demand of all consumers of a group does not occur
simultaneously. When considering the rated capacity of any equipment, it is
seldom necessary to choose rating equal to the sum of maximum loads. A
term commonly used in this connection is diversity factor (DF) being defined
as

In other words, it is the ratio of the sum of the maximum demands of all
subdivisions or groups or consumers to the maximum demand of the whole
of subdivisions or groups or consumers. It is also known as group diversity
factor and is always greater than unity. This factor gives idea about the
demand at distribution transformers.
Diversity will exist in the time of maximum demand of transformers on the
feeders and also as regards the feeders to the substations and substations to
the generating stations. The diversity factor between transformers, between
feeders and between substations can be combined into a single term
commonly referred to as peak diversity factor and is defined as

It gives an indication of the effective demand of consumer group at the time

of system peak. When the demand factors and the diversity factors are
known, the system demand can be calculated as follows:
Let L1, L¢1, L¢ ¢ 1,  and L2, L¢2, L¢ ¢ 2, … be individual connected loads of
group-1 and group-2, respectively. d1 and d2 be demand factors of group-1
and group-2, G1 and G2 be group diversity factors for group-1 and group-2,
p1 and p2 are peak diversity factors for
group-1 and group-2, respectively.
The maximum demand and demand at the system peak can be calculated as
Peak diversity factor will be multiplication of DF between transformers, DF
between feeders and DF between substations. High diversity factor is always
beneficial for economic operation of the system, which can be achieved by

Giving incentives to users to use power in light load period

Using day-light saving
Staggering office time
Using two parts tariffs both for maximum demand and energy
consumption.

Coincidence factor
It is the ratio of the maximum coincident of total demand of a group of
consumers to the sum of the maximum power demands of individual
consumers comprising the group both taken at the same point of supply for
the same time. Thus, it is reciprocal of diversity factor.

Load diversity
It is the difference between the sum of the peaks of two or more individual
loads and the peak of the combined load. Mathematically, it is defined as
Load diversity = Sum of all individual loads – Peak of the combined load
Contribution factor
It is the contribution of a particular load, in per unit of the individual
maximum demand, to the group maximum demand. If ci is the contribution
factor of ith load in a group of n loads and Di is its maximum demand.
Therefore

If the maximum demands of the load are the same, the coincidence factor will
be equal to the average of contribution factor and if contribution factors of
each load are the same, the coincidence factor will be equal to the
contribution factor itself.
Loss factor
The ratio of the average power loss to the peak load power loss during a
specified period of time is known as loss factor. Mathematically

This is applicable for only copper losses of the system and not for iron losses.
Load factor
Load factor of a plant or system is the ratio of the average load to the peak
load for a certain period of time. If period considered is a day, the load factor
is the daily load factor and for month, it is monthly load factor and so on.
Therefore

Load factor is always less than unity. However, diversity factor is greater or
equal to unity. For better performance, the load factors should be as high as
possible. The effect of diversity factor is to reduce the simultaneous
maximum demand on the station for the same individual demands. The effect
of diversity factor is to reduce the capital cost for the station and
consequently a lower overall rate for generation of electricity. Load factor
depicts the variation of load during certain period but does not give any
indication of the shape of the load curve.
Plant capacity factor
The plant capacity factor (also known as plant factor) is the ratio of the
average annual load to the power plant capacity (also called installed
capacity) during given period. Therefore

The maximum value of plant capacity factor can be unity when the plant is
operating at its rated capacity throughout the year. Plant capacity is also
defined in terms of monthly plant load factor. It is also known as plant load
factor (PLF).
The capacity factor indicates the extent of use of the generating station. It is
different from load factor because of reason that the rated capacity of each
plant is always greater than expected maximum load due to some reserve
capacity. Thus

Plant use factor

It is the ratio of actual energy produced to the multiplication of plant capacity
and time (hours) of the plant operation.

The two important observations can be made saying that ideal condition for
cheap electric supply exists when,
(a) The installed capacity and hence the corresponding capital cost of the
generating plant is kept low (this can be obtained by good diversity
factor) and
(b) The daily output of each generator unit is large (which means good load
factor for the station). The reduction in costs with good load factor is due
to the fact that overall working cost/unit become low, the fixed charges
have been distributed over more units generated.
Utilization factor
It is defined as the ratio of maximum demand to the rated capacity of plant.
Thus

Utilization factors of efficient generators are kept high. The value of

utilization factor can be more than unity due to overloading of the plant. It is
evident that
Plant capacity factor = Load factor ´ Utilization factor (4.13)
Reserves
(a) Spinning reserve is that generating capacity which is connected to the
bus and ready to take load.
(b) Cold reserve is that reserve-generating capacity which is available for
service but not in operation.
(c) Hot reserve is that reserve-generating capacity which is in operation but
not in service.
(d) Firm power is power intended to be always available (even under
emergency conditions).
(e) Reserve margin is the difference between rated capacity minus actual
loading on the generator.
Example 4.1 Loads on a feeder during 24 hours of a day are given below:
Load Load Load
Time Time Time
(kW) (kW) (kW)
12 8 16
400 900 1400
am am pm
1 9 17
380 1200 1300
am am pm
2 10 18
350 1350 1500
am am pm
3 11 19
300 1200 1800
am am pm
4 12 20
350 1000 2000
am pm pm
5 13 21
500 950 1950
am pm pm
 6 700 14 1250 22 1000
am pm pm
7 15 23
750 1300 800
am pm pm
Calculate the maximum demand, average demand and load factor of the
feeder. If the feeder has the peak loss of 108 kW at peak load and annual loss
factor of 0.14, find the following:
(a) The average power loss of the feeder
(b) The total annual loss of the feeder
Also calculate the demand factor of the feeder if the connected demand is
2500 kW.
Solution From the table, it can be seen that the maximum demand is 2000
kW at
20 pm. Assuming the linear variations of load between the intervals, the
energy during the day will be
(400 ´ 1) + (380 ´ 1) + (350 ´ 1) + (300 ´ 1) + (350 ´ 1) + (500 ´ 1) + (700 ´
1)
+ (750 ´ 1) + (900 ´ 1) + (1200 ´ 1) + (1350 ´ 1) + (1200 ´ 1) + (1000 ´ 1) +
(950 ´ 1)
+ (1250 ´ 1) + (1300 ´ 1) + (1400 ´ 1) + (1300 ´ 1) + (1500 ´ 1) + (1800 ´ 1)
+ (2000 ´ 1) + (1950 ´ 1) + (1000 ´ 1) + (800 ´ 1)
= 24630 kWh

…
Example 4.2 Maximum demand of a generating station is 100 MW, a load
factor is 65%. The plant capacity factor and plant use factor are 50% and
80%, respectively. Determine
(a) the daily energy produced, (b) installed capacity of plant, (c) the reserve
capacity of plant, (d) the maximum energy that could be produced daily if the
plant is running all the time,
(e) the maximum energy that could be produced daily if the plant is running
at full load (according to the operating schedule) and (f) utilization factor.
Solution We have

(a) Daily energy produced = (Average demand) ´ 24 = 65 ´ 24 = 1560 MWh

(b) Using Equation (4.9),

Plant-rated capacity = = = 130 MW

(c) Reserve capacity = (Installed capacity) – (Maximum demand)
= 130 – 100
= 30 MW
(d) Maximum energy that could be produced if plant is running all the time
will be
Installed capacity ´ 24 = 130 ´ 24 = 3120 MWh
(e) Maximum energy that could be produced if plant is running at full load
(according to the operating schedule) will be
Example 4.3 Using the data given in Example 4.1 where the street lighting
loads of 200 kW included in the total load is only during 6 pm to 6 am (12
hours), determine the following:
(a) The class contribution factor for street lighting and the remaining load
(b) The diversity factor of the feeder
(c) The coincidence factor of the load group.
Solution (a) The class contribution factor (ci) is defined as

(b) Diversity factor is defined as

4.3 CURVE USEFUL IN SYSTEM OPERATION AND

PLANNING
4.3.1 Load Curve
Load on a station always changes and thus the generation. Load curve is a
graphical representation of variation of load with respect to time in
chronological order. Load curve is called daily load curve if the graph is for
whole day. If the time is one month, it is called monthly load curve and so on.
The daily load curve for a station is not the same for all the days. It differs
from day-to-day and season-to-season. Typically two load curves—one for
winter and other for summer—are used to calculate the base annual load
curve. Figure 4.1 shows a daily load curve. The load curves are very useful in
providing information such as

1. Area under the curve gives the actual unit generated required during
the period.
2. The ratio of area under the curve to the total area under the rectangle
in which it is contained gives the load factor for the period.
3. The peak of the curve gives the maximum demand on the station
during that period.
4. Area under the curve divided by number of hours gives the average
demand.

4.3.2 Load Duration Curve

Load duration curve is a rearrangement of all the load elements of load curve
in descending order with the greatest load on the left hand. Some time load is
also represented in terms of percentage of peak demand. Abscissa
corresponds to the time duration in the hours but the actual time. The load
curve can be daily, monthly or annual. It shows the hourly load during the
time, but not in the order that they occurred. Figure 4.2 shows the load
duration curve.
4.3.3 Energy Load Curve
For hydro plants it is necessary to know the amount of energy between
different demand levels. This is obtained by plotting energy curve which can
be derived from chronological curve or load duration curve. The energy load
curve plots the cumulative integration of area under load curve starting at
zero load to particular load. It is also called integrated duration curve. If
energy and demand are plotted in terms of percentage, it is called peak
percentage curve. Figure 4.3 shows the energy load curve.
 FIGURE 4.2 Load duration curve.

FIGURE 4.3 Energy load curve.

4.4 POWER FACTOR

Power factor is normally used in the case of alternating current where the
phase of voltage wave is not necessarily same as current wave. However in
the case of dc, it is always same and therefore power factor, which is cosine
of phase difference of voltage and current, is unity. For efficient operation of
system the power factor should be as high as possible. The main
disadvantages of having poor power factors are
(a) High cost of station and distribution equipment
(b) Poor voltage regulation
(c) High energy loss in conductor.
The main causes of low power factors are following:
(a) Transformers draw magnetizing current that causes total current to lag
with respect to induced electromotive force. At normal load its effect is
less but at light load, it reduces power factor.
 (b) Excessive use of induction motors.
(c) Arc lamps and arc furnaces operate at low power factor due to vary
nature and characteristics of the arc.
(d) Overloading of distribution feeders.
There are several measures by which low power factor can be avoided which
are given below:

1. It is preferable to use synchronous motors compared to induction

motors.
2. Use of high-speed induction motors compared to low-speed induction
motors.
3. Operate induction machine at rated output.
4. Switch induction motor delta winding to star winding at less than half
load.
5. Used dc motors instead of ac motors, if possible.

Static capacitors, synchronous condensers or phase modifier and phase

advancers1 are normally used to improve the power factors. The effect of
series capacitor on power factor improvement is very less however shunt
capacitor is used for power factor improvement. It can be easily understood
by phasor diagram. Power factor is a local phenomenon and power correction
equipment is installed near to the load where it is responsible for low power
factor.

4.5 ECONOMICS OF POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

Power factor of the system should be equal or close to the unity. Low power
factor means larger rating of equipment such as generators, transformers, etc.
Power factor can be improved in two ways:
(a) keeping the real power (kW) demand same and varying the apparent
power (kVA)
(b) keeping the apparent power (kVA) same and varying real power (kW)
demand.
For the same kW demand, if power factor is improved, the kVA demand will
be reduced and consumer will pay less for his kVA demand, if electric utility
is charging some money for kVA consumption. On the other hand consumer
will have to pay some amount for power factor improvement equipment. If
power factor is improved by keeping kVA same, the consumer has to
consume more kW and has to pay the charges for equipment and the extra
consumption of the energy.
Constant kW demand
Figure 4.4 shows the power factor improvement when real power demand
(kW) is constant. For improving the power factor a reactive power generating
device such as shunt capacitor, synchronous condenser, static condensers,
etc., must be installed.

FIGURE 4.4 Constant kW demand.

Let a load is consuming the real power P at lagging power factor cos i1
represented by OA. The kVA demand S1 will be

After power factor improvement, let the power factor is cos i2, the kVA
demand S2 will be

and

If a is the rate of charge per kVA, the saving in the kVA demand charge (C1)
would be
a DS. The required reactive power kVAR to reduce the demand will be BC
(=AC – AB). If b is the annual working cost (i.e. interest and depreciation etc.
on the capital investment) per kVAR, the total cost (C2) on this account will
be
b ´ BC = b(P tan i1 – P tan i2)……………………………(4.16)
The net saving (R) will be C1 – C2. Maximum saving for a particular power
factor improvement can be calculated as

This indicates that for getting maximum saving, the sine of power factor
improvement angle should be equal to the ratio of the annual cost of the
reactive power device to the rate of the kVA charge.
Constant kVA demand
To improve the power factor with keeping kVA consumption same, the load
must absorb some extra power and that can be generated through new plant.
Figure 4.5 shows an arrangement, where
OA = the original kW output
OD = the kW output after the installation of new plant
OC = original kVA (S)
OB = final kVA.

FIGURE 4.5 Constant kVA demand.

CF represents the additional kVA generated by this plant which can be
written as

kVA can be reduced by installing phase advancing plant rating equal to FB

(=FD – BD). Mathematically, FB can be written as

The cost of both options must be compared and cheap option should be used
which depends on the cost.
Example 4.4 A consumer is taking load of 20 kW at power factor of 0.8
lagging.
(a) Find the rating of capacitor to raise the power factor to 0.95 lagging.
(b) If a phase advancing device is used which takes current at leading power
factor of 0.1, find the rating of the device.
Solution Original power factor angle z1 = cos–1(0.80) = 36.87°. Power
factor angle after improvement (z2) = cos–1(0.95) = 18.19°. From the phasor
diagram as shown in
Figure 4.6, kVA loading before and after power factor improvement are OC
and OB.

FIGURE 4.6 Example 4.4.

(a) From the figure, we have

The rating of the capacitor required to raise the power factor will be BC (=CA
– AB). Therefore, the rating of capacitor will be
25 ´ sin (36.87) – 21.05 ´ sin(18.19) = 8.43 kVAR
(b) The phase advancing device works at leading power factor of 0.1
z3 = cos–1(0.1) = 84.26°
From Figure 4.7, we have following relations, ÐAOB = z2, ÐAOC = z1,
ÐDOA = z3. Let ÐBOC = a, ÐOCB = b, ÐOBC = d. These angles can be
calculated as
a = 36.87 – 18.19 = 18.68°, b = 58.87° d = 102.45°

FIGURE 4.7 Example 4.4.

4.6 INTERCONNECTION OF POWER STATIONS

In early days generating power stations were close to load centres and there
was less need to connect several generating stations together. The advantage
of interconnection forces the regulators to connect the power system. The
interconnection of stations has the main advantages as under:

1. With an interconnected system, the total reserve capacity can be

reduced considerably.
2. The capital cost per kilo watt of larger-capacity generator is less than
the small- capacity generator. In an interconnected system, it is
possible to have larger generator rating and thus reduce capital cost of
the system.
3. It is possible to run most effective units at higher load factor and
inefficient station can be used at peak hours only.
4. Interconnection reduces the requirement of high installed capacity.
The load curves of two different stations are seldom identical. The
 maximum demand is less than the sum of maximum demand of the
individual stations.
5. It also increases the reliability of the system.

The main drawbacks of interconnections are:

(a) Fault in one system gets transferred to other part of the system.
(b) High switchgear rating is to be employed at different point of the
system.
(c) Proper management is required to dispatch them.
Base load and peak load power stations
Since load is changing throughout the year and generators must cope up the
varying demand. Some generators must be on/off depending upon the
requirement. Peak load on station is relatively for small duration. If some
generator is used to peak load, its energy will be expensive, as load factor
will be low. In a coordinated operation hydro, steam, gas and nuclear power
stations are used to meet the load demand. Some power plants are used as
base load plants and some of them are used as peak load plants. Base load
plants are the plants, which operate most of the time and have high plant load
factor. However, peak load plants are operated during peak demand hours.
The operation of the power plants depends on the following criteria:

Cheaper electricity generating unit should be used as a base load

power plant.
Highest starting time generating plant is also used as base load plants.
Size on plants is also a decisive factor.

Table 4.1 shows the generating plants, generally, used as base load and peak
load plants.
Table 4.1 Base Load and Peak Load Power Stations
Type of generating Normal nature of
plant operation
Run-of-river Base load plant
Nuclear Base load plant
Pondage (high
Base load plant
reservoir)
Both peak and base
Steam
load plants
 Pondage with Peak load plant
small storage
Pump storage Peak load plant
Diesel Peak load plant
Gas* Peak load plant
*Nowadays gas stations are also used as both peak and base load plants depending upon the
size.

4.7 TARIFFS
For the proper management of any electricity utility, it is important to have a
source of income to meet its expenses. It is also important that electricity
industry should have some income for future expansion work. There are two
different types of charges: Fix charges and running charges. Fixed charges
include (a) capacity related: interests and depreciation, cost of plant,
buildings, transmission and distribution network, part of salaries of staff and
(b) consumer related: cost of meter, billing, collection, service, etc. Running
charges, also called variable cost, include fuel cost, operation and
maintenance cost and some wages.
The total cost of supply is to be shared by consumers and should pay a sum
according to use. The main objectives in framing a tariff are:
(a) The consumers must readily understand the tariffs.
(b) The tariff must be equitable as amongst different consumers.
(c) The tariff should also be such as to encourage consumers to improve the
power factor.
(d) The tariff should also be such as to encourage consumers to improve
load factor or to transfer their demand from peak to off-peak hours.
(e) Tariffs can be modified from time to time.
(f) Use of electricity is encouraged so that the economy of utilities is
improved.
There are different types of consumers who consume electricity for different
purposes. They can be classified into four subgroups:

1. Domestic consumers use electricity for domestic purposes.

2. Agricultural consumers use electricity of agricultural purposes such as
irrigation, thrashing, etc.
3. Industrial consumers use electricity for industrial production such as
heavy industries, manufacturing companies, etc.
 4. Commercial consumers use electricity for commercial purposes such
as municipalities, hospitals, etc.

The general form of tariff is

a kWh (or hp) + b kW + c
where a, b, c are the constants. Different types of tariffs are discussed below:
Flat rate tariff. In this rate, b and c are zero. The electricity charge is
directly multiplication of energy consumption and the factor a. It is simple to
understand and is independent on the contracted maximum demand.
Two-part tariff. The total charge under this kind of tariff is split into two
components: a fixed charge based on the maximum demand (irrespective of
energy consumption) and variable charge on the basis of actual energy
consumption. The main objection of this tariff scheme is that consumer has to
pay even if his consumption is nil.
Block rate tariff. Under this tariff scheme, different blocks of energy
consumption are charged at different rates. The problem of two-part tariff is
eliminated by this tariff. For example,
First
Rs
50
4.00/unit
units
Next
Rs
50
3.00/unit
units
And for additional unit @ Rs 2.00 per unit. This is for a particular month.
Maximum demand tariff. In this scheme of tariff, the charges are
calculated based on the maximum demand only. The coefficient a and c are
zero.
Power factor tariff. In ac system, the size of plant not only depends on the
kW but also on power factor. Power factor tariffs are devised to differentiate
between good power factor users and poor power factor users. The three main
classes are:

1. kVA maximum demand tariff: Instead of charging the maximum real

power (kW) demand, maximum kVA demand is charged in addition
to the charge corresponding to the energy.
 2. kWh and kVArh tariff: Under this scheme, both kWh (real power
energy) and kVArh (reactive power consumption) are charged
separately.
3. Sliding scale or average power factor tariff: There is some extra
charge if the power factor is worsening from the set value. In this
scheme, if consumers improve the power factor, an incentive will be
given to those consumers. Let power factor is set to 0.8 lagging. If the
power factor is 0.9, some discount will be offered and if power factor
is 0.7, some extra charges are taken.

Example 4.5 Load factor of a consumer is 35% and the monthly

consumption is 504 kWh. If the rate of electricity is Rs 180 per kW of
maximum demand plus Rs 2.00 per kWh, find
(a) the monthly bill and the average cost per kWh
(b) the overall cost per kWh if the consumption is increased by 20% with
the same load factor
(c) the overall cost per kWh if the consumption remains same but load
factor is increased to 40%.
Solution

Maximum demand = = 2.0 kW

(a) Monthly bill (Rs) = (2 ´ 180) + (2 ´ 504) = 1368

Overall cost per kWh = = Rs 2.71

(b) New consumption = 504 ´ 1.20 = 604.8 kWh

Since the load factor is same, the maximum demand = = 2.4 kW

Monthly bill (Rs) = (2.4 ´ 180) + (2 ´ 604.8) = 1641.6

Overall cost per kWh = = Rs 2.71

(c) Since the load factor is 40%, the maximum demand = = 1.75
kW
Monthly bill (Rs) = (1.75 ´ 180) + (2 ´ 504) = 1323
Overall cost per kWh = = Rs 2.63
Example 4.6 The load variation at a power supply station is given as:
P = 30 – 8 * sin(kt) + 0.325t MW.
where t is time in hours of a day and k = 0.6 red/sec. There are three
generators of
15 MW each. It is advantageous to fully load a machine before connecting
the others.
Determine:
(a) Maximum demand on the system.
(b) Load factor of the system.
(c) The total installed load, if density factor is 3.
(d) The minimum no. hours of each generator is in operation.
Solution Maximum demand can be obtained by dP/dt = 0
Thus – 4.8 ´ cos(0.6t) + 0.325 = 0.
cos(0.6t) = 0.325/4.8 = 0.0677083 = cos(1.0503032 + 2nr) n = 0, 1, 2...
0.6t = 2nr + 1.503032 or 2nr – 1.503032, n = 0, 1, 2...
t = 2.5051, 7.9669, 12.977, 18.4389, 23.449.
During t = 0 to 24 hrs, the load curve has 5 maxima and minimas.
The corresponding load at these times will be
P = 22.8325, 40.5709, 26.2359, 43.974, 29.639 MW.
Thus

30 – 8 ´ sin(kt) + 0.3250 = 30
sin (kt) = 0.040625t
Using hit and trial methods (or using graph),
t = 4.904, 11.265, 14.65, 22.94
Unit-3 will be in operation for = (11.265 – 4.904) + (22.94 – 14.65) hrs.
= 14.651 hrs.

PROBLEMS
4.1 A generating station has a maximum demand of 80 MW, a load factor of
65%, a plant capacity factor of 40% and a plant use factor of 85%. Find (a)
daily energy produced, (b) reserve capacity of plant, (c) maximum energy
that could be produced daily if the plant was running all the time and (d)
maximum energy that could be produced daily if the plant was running as
per operating schedule.
4.2 The load on the mains of a supply system is 1000 kW at p.f. of 0.8
lagging. What must be the kVA rating of the phase advancing plant which
takes leading current at a power factor 0.15 in order to raise the power
factor of whole system to 1.0.
4.3 A residential consumer has a connected load of 6 lamps each of 100 W
and 4 fans of
60 W at his premises. His demand is as follows:
From midnight to 5 120 680
From 7 p.m. to 9 p.m.
a.m. W W
No From 9 p.m. to 420
From 5 a.m. to 6 p.m.
load midnight W
380
From 6 p.m. to 7 p.m.
W
(a) Plot the load curve.
(b) Find the energy consumption during 24 hours.
(c) Calculate the demand factor, average load, maximum load and load
factor.
4.4 A factory having a load of 5 MW at 0.8 lagging for 2000 hours per
annum buys energy on tariff of Rs 500 per kVA plus Rs 2.5 per kWh
consumed. If the power factor is improved to 0.95 lagging by means of
capacitors costing Rs 1350 per kVA and having a power loss of 200 watts
per kVA, calculate the annual charge for electrical energy
(a) before (b) after the installation of capacitors and (c) the saving effected
by their use. Allow 8% per annum for interest and depreciation on the
capacitors.
4.5 The load (kW) on a substation is as follows:
Street Street
Time Domestic Commercial Time Domestic Commercial
lighting lighting
12 12
400 600 400 0 500 1100
a.m. p.m.
1 1
400 500 400 0 600 900
a.m. p.m.
2 2
400 450 400 0 600 1100
a.m. p.m.
3 3
400 450 400 0 600 1000
a.m. p.m.
4 4
400 500 400 0 600 900
a.m. p.m.
5 5
400 700 500 0 700 600
a.m. p.m.
6 6
400 1000 400 400 800 500
a.m. p.m.
7 7
0 800 700 400 1050 500
a.m. p.m.
8 8
0 700 900 400 1200 500
a.m. p.m.
9 9
0 600 1200 400 1100 500
a.m. p.m.
10 10
0 500 1300 400 900 400
a.m. p.m.
11 11
0 500 1200 400 700 400
a.m. p.m.
(a) Find the maximum demand, average demand and load factor of the
feeder.
(b) The class contribution factor for street lighting and the remaining load.
(c) The diversity factor of the feeder.
(d) The coincidence factor of the load group.
(e) If the feeder has the average loss of 14 kW and annual loss factor of
0.14, find the following:
(i) The peak power loss of the feeder at peak load,
(ii) The total annual loss of the feeder,
(iii) The demand factor of the feeder if the connected demand is 2500 kW.
4.6 Installed capacity of a generating station is 200 MW and (daily) plant
capacity factor is 40%. If the daily maximum demand is 160 MW and plant
use factor is 75%, find
(a) Daily average load,
(b) Daily load factor,
 (c) Daily energy produced,
(d) Reserve capacity,
(e) Maximum energy that could be generated daily if the plant was
running all the time,
(f) The maximum energy that could be produced daily if the plant was
running as per the operating schedule,
(g) Utilization factor.
4.7 The variation of load (P) with time (t) in a power supply system is given
by the expression
P(kW) = 4000 + 8t – 0.00091t2
where t is in hours over a total period of 1 year.
This load is supplied by three 10 MW generators and it is advantageous to
fully load a machine before connecting the others. Determine:
(a) The load factor on the system as a whole.
(b) The total magnitude of installed load if the diversity factor is equal to
3.
(c) The minimum no. of hours each machine is in operation.
(d) The approximate peak magnitude of installed load capacity to be cut
off to enable only two generators to be used.
1. A machine which may be connected in the rotor circuit of induction machine to improve power
factor.
 5
Steam Power Plants
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The use of steam power started when it was first used in locomotives
invented by
James Watt. Thereafter, steam power is used to rotate the prime mover of
electric generator and it is known as steam power plant. In this process heat
energy is converted into mechanical energy and then to electrical energy
through turbine–generator system. Heat energy may be obtained by the
proper combustion of a commercial fuel such as coal, gas, oil etc. Since
abundant availability with reasonably no cost, water is used to generate
steam, which readily conveyed through pipes, in a boiler by burning fuel in
furnace. Steam power plants are also called thermal power plants. The prime
movers of steam power plant may be operated either in noncondensing or
condensing.
In the noncondensing operation, the steam is exhausted from the prime
movers and is discharged at atmospheric pressure or at greater than
atmospheric pressure. Whereas in condensing plant, the prime movers
exhaust discharge steam into a condenser in which the pressure is less than
atmospheric and steam is converted to water. This is most commonly used in
modern age power plants.
5.2 SELECTION OF SITE FOR STEAM POWER PLANTS
Following are the factors to be considered for the site selection of thermal
power plant and installation of its equipments:
(a) Availability of land on reasonably cheap for its equipment and for
future expansion;
(b) Availability of sufficient and suitable amounts of good boiler feed water
and cooling or circulating water for condensers;
(c) Availability of fuel and its cost delivered to the boiler furnaces;
(d) Probable necessity for future expansion of the plant;
(e) The availability of other power services;
 (f) Away from the urban areas due to pollution etc.;
(g) The initial cost of plant;
(h) The magnitude and nature of load to be handled.
These plants can be either near to the coalmines or the load centres. The
choice of this is made on the basis of transportation cost of the fuel and
electrical energy. If the quality of coal is poor, the cost of transportation of
coal near to the load centres will be high and therefore power plants are
normally installed near to coal pits. In India, the modern thermal power
stations are located near to coalmines due to the poor quality of coal. In those
countries the coal is imported, the thermal power stations are installed near to
the harbours. In India, steam power stations are categorized as thermal power
plants and super thermal power plants. Those stations having generating units
(not the total capacity) of 500 MW or more are called super thermal power
stations.

5.3 THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE OF STEAM FLOW

First law of thermodynamics. This law relates the energy equation in its
various forms and states that when a system executes a cyclic process, the
algebraic sum of the work transfer is proportional to the algebraic sum of the
heat transfer. Or, energy can neither created nor destroyed.
Second law of thermodynamics. This law is used in dealing with
entropy and loss relations. It has been enunciated in a number of ways:

1. Heat cannot, on its own, flow from a body at lower temperature to a

body at higher temperature. (Clausius)
2. It is impossible to construct a heat engine which performs one
complete cycle and delivers work exchanging heat from a single
source. (Kelvin–Planck)

When heat is transferred to water, its enthalpy and physical state change. As
heating
takes place the temperature of water rises and generally its density decreases.
The vapour formed in this process is known as steam, which is a gaseous
state but does not entirely follow the laws of a perfect gas. The temperature at
which boiling or vaporization occurs is dependent upon the purity of water
and the absolute pressure exerted upon it. The Carnot cycle cannot be applied
to the steam turbines as compression phase does not exist in steam plants. A
steam power plant basically works on the Rankine cycle with small
deviations from ideal Rankine cycle.
5.3.1 Rankine Cycle
Figure 5.1 shows the pressure–volume diagram, and enthalpy–entropy
diagram of an ideal Rankine cycle. Water can be assumed as incompressible
during the pumping process. The process 1–2 shows the reversible adiabatic
pumping of feed water from the condenser to the boiler pressure. The work
done in this process is given by

FIGURE 5.1 p–v and h–s diagrams of ideal Rankine cycle.

The negative sign indicates that the work done on feed pump is from outside.
The process
2–3 shows the heating of feed water up to its saturation temperature, its
evaporation and super heating at constant pressure. Let heat supplied during
this process is Qs. Thus,
Qs = h3 – h2………………………………(5.2)
Process 3–4 is reversible adiabatic (isentropic) expansion of steam in turbine
and work done by the steam in the turbine is given by

The condensation of steam at constant pressure is represented by the process

4–1 and heat rejected during this process is Qr (say). Using first law of
thermodynamics, we get
Using Equations (5.1)–(5.4), the efficiency of an ideal Rankine cycle will be
given by

Normally, the (h2 – h1) which is feed pump work, is negligible compared to
other quantities in Equation (5.5), therefore, it can be written as

The efficiency of ideal Rankine cycle is never achieved which is a reference

value of an ideal steam power plant. Figure 5.2 shows the temperature–
entropy (T-s) diagram of an ideal Rankine cycle.

FIGURE 5.2 T-s diagrams of an ideal Rankine cycle.

5.3.2 Actual Rankine Cycle

Due to the pressure drops in the steam passages and irreversibilities in
various components, the ideal Rankine cycle deviates from the actual
Rankine cycle. Figure 5.3 shows the actual Rankine cycle where 1–2¢ is due to
irreversible process in feed pump and 3–4¢ is due to the turbine irreversibility.

FIGURE 5.3 H-s diagrams of an actual Rankine cycle.

The actual efficiency of steam power plant, by replacing the enthalpies h2
and h4 by h2 and h4, will be

The aim of power plant engineer or designer is to achieve the actual thermal
efficiency as close as possible to ideal thermal efficiency. The thermal
efficiency of a steam plant can be increased by following ways:
(a) Increase in initial steam pressure
(b) Increase in initial steam temperature
(c) Increase in condenser vacuum
(d) Regenerative feed water heating
(e) By reheating
(f) By use of economizer.
5.3.3 Reheat Cycle
Reheating is a process in which steam at the end of expansion in turbine
stages is taken out to boiler or reheater for resuperheating. This reheated
steam does more work in the next stage of turbine and increases the thermal
efficiency of the plant. Figure 5.4 shows a
 FIGURE 5.4 Rankine cycle with single reheat.
Rankine cycle with single reheat without any feed water heating. The
constant pressure line 5–6 shows the reheat process. If the QR is the heat
supplied during the reheating, the total heat supplies will be

The efficiency of the cycle depends on the reheat pressure. There is an

optimum value of reheat pressure. At first reheat, it is 0.2 to 0.25 times the
initial pressure of steam whereas for next reheat it is 0.2 to 0.25 times the first
reheat pressure of steam and so on.
5.3.4 Regenerative Cycle
The heating of feed water by steam extracted at various points while sending
it to the boiler is termed as regenerative heating. The extracted heat is used,
otherwise it would be lost in the condenser, to raise feed water temperature
above saturated liquid condition. By doing so the thermal efficiency can be
increased by 10% and therefore it is universally used in all steam power
plants. The large number of heaters makes the complication in design and
leads to considerable loss of pressure. It is found that for maximum efficiency
in a non-reheat cycle, the enthalpy rise is approximately the same in all the
heaters and the economizer. However the cycle efficiency does not seem to
be sensitive to the distribution of the total enthalpy rise in the heaters. The
number of heaters employed in large steam plants is 6 to 10 with a final feed
water temperature of about 285°C.
5.3.5 Heat Rate
Heat rate is a measure of the performance of the power plant in converting
heat to useful output. It is defined as the number of heat units required to
develop unit power output in an hour. The heat rate decreases with the
increase in thermal efficiency.

5.4 GENERAL LAYOUT OF STEAM POWER STATION

Schematic layout of a typical modern coal fired power plant is shown in
Figure 5.5. The main power plant can be subdivided into several small units,
namely

FIGURE 5.5 Layout of a typical steam power plant.

(a) Fuel handling unit
(b) Ash handling unit
(c) Boiler unit
(d) Feed water unit
(e) Cooling water unit
(f) Generator unit
(g) Turbine unit.

5.5 MAIN FLOW CIRCUITS

The flow circuit of a thermal power plant can be divided into four main
circuits, such as

1. Fuel and ash circuit

2. Air and gas circuit
 3. Feed water and steam circuit
4. Cooling water circuit.

They are discussed in the following sections.

5.5.1 Fuel and Ash Circuit
In a steam power plant, different types of fuels are required and are stored in
the storage. Steam can be generated from coal, gas or nuclear as main fuel.
Here, it is assumed that coal is main fuel for operating the steam power plant
and other types of power plant, such as nuclear and gas, discussed in other
chapters.
Fuel is stored in the storage and fed to the boiler through conveyor belt. Since
coal is available in different forms and sizes, it is required to make the coal in
a particular size so that complete burning is possible and total energy can be
extracted in terms of heat. It is also required to control the heat energy.
Therefore, the coal is passed through the crushers, sizers, dryers and
magnetic separator before feeding into the boiler. During the light up of
boiler, it is not possible to burn the coal and therefore liquid fuels are
required. It is also required during the disturbance in boiler because it is easy
to control the energy from liquid fuels. As a result of combustion, ash is
produced from coal fuel and is removed from the boiler through the ash
handling equipments.
5.5.2 Air and Gas Circuit
Air is required for complete combustion of the fuel, which is supplied
through the forced draught (FD) fans and induced draught (ID) fans. In all
large thermal power station both fans are used and normally they are in pairs
to balance the boiler. The air, which is fed to the boiler, is passed through the
air preheater to extract some energy of flue gases coming out from the boiler
after burning the coal. It also helps in the proper burning of the coal. The flue
gases consist of several gases and ash, which are passed through the
precipitator
(or dust collector) and then finally go to atmosphere through chimney.
5.5.3 Feed Water and Steam Circuit
Since most of the steam power plants are condensing type, the steam is
converted to water by condenser. Due to the safety of turbine, the water used
is demineralized (DM) and therefore it is not wasted to have better economic
operation of plant. Some part of steam and water is lost while passing
through the different components of the system due to leakages. Adding the
make-up water in feed water system compensates it. The boiler feed pump
(BFP) feeds the water into the boiler drum where it is heated to form the
steam. The wet steam from the drum is again heated in superheater before it
passed to the turbine. The superheated steam is expanded in the turbine to run
it. Depending upon the size of power plant unit, there are different stages of
the prime mover such as high-pressure (HP) turbine, intermediate-pressure
(IP) turbine and low-pressure (LP) turbine. The steam after the expansion in
HP turbine is sent back to boiler for reheating to increase the temperature and
pressure. After coming out from LP turbine, steam is passed through the
condenser into the hot well and finally to boiler through the BFP. Figure 5.6
shows the steam and water flow of the steam power plant.

FIGURE 5.6 Feed water and steam flow circuit.

5.5.4 Cooling Water Circuit

To condensate the steam in condenser and maintaining low pressure in it, a
large quantity of cooling water is required which is taken from the river or
pondage. After passing it through the condenser, it is fed back to the river or
pondage. When there is not enough water, the cooling tower or cooling ponds
are used. Sometimes due to fear of water pollution, this scheme is normally
preferred. However there is an excessive loss of water during this process and
is taken from the pondage or river.

5.6 MAIN PARTS OF STEAM POWER PLANT

Different elements of steam power plants are discussed in the following
subsections:
5.6.1 Boiler
Boiler, which is the second tallest part after the chimney in a power plant, is
used for producing the steam and reheating it. Steam boilers are of two types:
water-tube boilers and fire-tube boilers. Generally, water-tube boilers are
used for electric power production. As the name, in water-tube boilers, the
water flows in tubes and fire is outside whereas in fire-tube boilers, it is
opposite. Fire-tube boilers are cheap but are more likely to explode.
Furthermore, the volume of water is more and therefore it is difficult to
control the steam production quickly.
The outer shell of a fire-tube boiler is more than that of water-tube boiler for
the same output. The water-tube boiler has advantages in respect of low
stresses from pressure and temperature differential and therefore small drum
size can be achieved. The area of heating in straight water-tube boiler is
varied by (a) varying the length of tubes, (b) having high tube numbers and
(c) varying the sections of tubes wide. Water-tube boilers have less weight of
metal for a given size and are less liable to explode, produce high pressure
and quickly controlled steam in demand. It has been mentioned in Section
5.3.2 that high pressure and temperature will increase the thermal efficiency
of the plant but there is limitation on the boiler to go for high pressure and
temperature. The capital cost of boiler will increase excessively for high
pressure and temperature. Turbine also put similar limitations.
In most of the conventional water-tube boilers, the circulation of water is
natural due to temperature differential. However in large and high pressure
boilers, forced circulation is employed. The different designs of water tubes
are available such as straight or bent tubes, longitudinal or cross drum,
vertical, horizontal or inclined tubes, forced or natural circulation, single or
multi drum, etc. A number of accessories is required in boilers such as water
level indicators, valves, alarms, pressure gauges, etc.
Since steam at different pressure and temperature contains varying amount of
energy, the number of kilogram steam generated is not an exact measure of
the energy produced. The capacity of steam boiler is expressed as the total
heat transferred by the heating surface in BTU per hour. The heat transfer
process that occurs in a steam generator is a steady flow process for which
the transferred heat is equal to the change in enthalpy of the fluid. The boiler
output, as measured by the heat absorbed by water and steam, is given by
Q = ms (hs – hf) BTU per hour (5.10)
where
ms = Weight of steam delivered by boiler (or superheater, if used), kg/hr
hs = Enthalpy of steam at observed pressure and quality or temperature,
BTU/kg
hf = Enthalpy of the fluid of feed water at observed condition as water
reaches the boiler (or economizer, if used), BTU/kg.
The overall boiler efficiency of a steam generating unit at any operating
condition is the ratio of the transferred heat to the energy supplied at by fuel,
i.e. output divided by input, or

where mf is the total weight of fuel fired per hour (in kg) and F is the high
heat value of fuel as fired (in BTU/kg).
5.6.2 Coal Mills
The use of pulverized fuel in power plant is common nowadays. The
pulverized coal mills are used for drying of coal, grinding, separation of
particles of desired size, forming proper
fuel–air ratio and suitable control of all these operations. The two systems of
preparing and burning pulverized fuels are (a) the central or storage system
where one independent plant prepares and transport to all unit and (b) the unit
or direct fire system in which one or more units connected to it. Preheated
forced air passed through pulverizer eliminates the necessity of separate
driers. The fuel is first crushed to a general size (approximately 1 cm) and
then passed over the magnetic separator to remove the tramp iron such as
nuts, volts and rivets. This crushed coal goes to the pulverizers and then
directly to furnace.
Pulverizers may be divided into four types based on the method of fuel size
reduction, namely, ball race, bowl mill, impact mill and ball mill. The
advantages of pulverized fuel include complete combustion, simpler ash
disposal, absence of smoke, use of cheap fuel, equipment adoptable to other
fuels (oil and gas), easy control of fuel and air supply, absence of all moving
parts in the furnace, no stand-by losses, lower labour cost, increase of
capacity per unit furnace volume and higher efficiency. Some of the
disadvantages are high capital cost, high cost of fuel preparation, furnace
depreciation and possibility of fly ash discharge through the chimney.
Grate and stokers. A grate is a sectional metallic structure designed to
support the fuel in a furnace and to permit passage of primary combustion air
through openings to the fuel. A stoker is a power-operated fuel feeding
mechanism. It is used for supplying solid fuel to a furnace and admitting air
to the fuel for proper combustion. By use of stokers, a cheaper grade of fuel
can be burned with higher efficiency, greater operational flexibility, better
maintenance of furnace and production of less smoke compared to the usual
hand firing. Automatic stokers are classified as travelling grate, overfeed,
spreader and underfeed stokers.
5.6.3 Boiler Feed Pump
A high-capacity induction motor is used to feed the water to the boiler. Due
to high power rating of this motor a special consideration is taken for cooling
of the bearings. In thermal power station approximately 10% of generated
power is consumed by its auxiliaries and boiler feed pump is the highest
power consuming auxiliaries in the steam power plants.
Feed water. Natural water cannot be used as such for steam generation as it
contains solid, liquid and gaseous impurities, which damage the blades of the
turbine. Although the steam is converted to water in condenser and fed to the
boiler by BFP but still some make-up water is required due to the loss in
steam and water.
5.6.4 Air Preheater
Air preheaters are used to extract heat from flue gases to combustion air. The
advantages of air preheaters are improved combustion, successful burning of
low-grade fuel, increased efficiency and increased capacity of plant. Air
preheaters apply either convection or the regeneration principle of heat
transmission.
5.6.5 Draught System
The main purpose of draught system is to supply air to the furnace and to take
the flue gases from the boiler through chimney. The pressure difference
known as draft is usually measured in centimetres (cm) of water gauge. The
resistances to flow air and flue gases which make draught system necessary,
are ducts, stacks, chimney, fuel beds, dampers, air preheaters, economizers,
accumulation of sooth and ashes in gas passages, etc. If the pressure
difference is by chimney or stack, it is known as natural draft. In forced
draught scheme, fans are used to create pressure difference. In most of
modern, big steam power plants two types of fans are used, namely forced
draught (FD) and induced draught (ID) fans.
5.6.6 Economizers
The economizers are used to extract heat from the flue gases for the heating
of feed water. It recovers some part of energy of flue gases, which are
disposed in the air. Their placements may be in the last flue gas pass within
the boiler setting or in casing between the boiler setting and the chimney or
stack. Economizers increase the resistance to the flow of flue gases and also
reduce their temperature and therefore induced draft is required.
5.6.7 Superheaters and Reheaters
The steam that exists at the vaporization temperature corresponding to its
absolute pressure is defined as saturated steam, which may or may not carries
water with it. The temperature and the total enthalpy of saturated steam, at
any pressure, can be increased by the application of additional heat, i.e.
superheating.
Advantages of superheating of steam are: (a) the additional heat imparted to
vapour causes it to behave more likely to perfect gas, (b) steam condensation
can be avoided,
(c) increase in efficiency and (d) elimination of moisture.
Superheaters are simple heat exchangers for imparting additional energy to
steam for a given pressure. A reheater is essentially a superheater as it is
designed to bring the partially expanded steam back to superheat temperature
by passing it through the tubes.
5.6.8 Turbines
Turbine, used to rotate the synchronous alternator, is a device, which
converts steam energy to rotational kinetic energy. The turbines can be
classified on the basis of steam flow direction, expansion process, number of
stages, speed, etc., as given in Table 5.1.
The potential energy in steam due to pressure and internal energy is
converted to kinetic energy when passing through the nozzles. In steam
turbine the steam expands in the stationary nozzles and attains a higher
velocity. There are several stationary blades and moving blades. In reaction
turbines, there are no nozzles but they have also fixed and moving blades.
The steam pressure is gradually reduced in the blades as the steam passes
through them. The rating of generating unit depends on the rating of turbines.
Commercial turbines use series combination of impulse and reaction type
because steam can be used more efficiently by using impulse and reaction
blades on the same shaft.
To increase the shaft output, several stages are used such as HP, IP and LP
turbines. For low rating of alternator, only one stage is used. In large steam
power units, all HP, IP and LP turbines are used.
Table 5.1 Classification of Turbines
Basis of
Types of turbine
classification
Expansion process (a) Impulse turbine
(b) Reaction turbine
(c) Combination of impulse and reaction turbine
Steam flow
(a) Axial turbine
direction
(b) Radial turbine
(c) Tangential turbine
Number of stages (a) Single-stage turbine
(b) Multi-stage turbine

Velocity compounded impulse (Curtis stage)

Pressure compounded impulse (Rateau stage)

Pressure–velocity compounded impulse (Curtis–

Rateau stage)

Pressure compounded reaction (Parson’s)

Number of flows (a) Single flow

(b) Double flow
(c) Divided flow
(d) Tandem or cross-compounded
Relative motion of
(a) Single rotation
rotor
(b) Double rotation
Rotational speed (a) N = 3000 rpm, f = 50 Hz
(b) N = 3600 rpm, f = 60 Hz
 (c) N = 1500 rpm, f = 50 Hz
(d) Geared units
Applications (a) Electric power generation
(b) Industrial
(c) Marine
Steam conditions (a) High-pressure non-condensing
(b) High-pressure condensing
(c) Back pressure
(d) Regenerative
(e) Reheating
(f) Extraction
(g) Mixed pressure
(h) Exhaust turbine

5.6.9 Condenser
Steam condenser is a device in which the exhaust steam from engines and
turbines is condensed and air and other noncondensable gases are removed in
a continuous process.
The two basic advantages of condenser are (a) to increase the efficiency of
plant and
(b) recovery of condensate for re-use as boiler water. The condensation in a
closed vessel produces a partial vacuum by reduction in the volume of the
low-pressure vapour. There are two types of condensers, namely, surface and
jet.
Cooling of the surface of condenser by passing air over its surface is not
adequate and water is used as a cooling medium. Huge amount of water is
needed for this purpose which is taken from the river etc. The warm water is
disposed off to the river. When an ample supply of water is not available at a
low cost or from natural source, some means of cooling circulating water
must be used. The oldest means of cooling and storing condenser water is to
discharge the hot water into a spray pond with nozzles, which increase the
cooling of the water at a faster rate.
5.6.10 Cooling Tower
The circulating water or the cooling water system forms the major section of
the condensing system and represents the second largest single power
consumer of the power generated by a set. In closed cooling system,
involving the cooling towers, the cooling water follows a closed cycle
through the cooling tower. There are some losses of water due to droplets
evaporation. Cooling towers are either natural or mechanical draught type.
5.6.11 Alternators
In steam power plants, several generating units are used to increase the total
capacity of the plant. For generating the electricity, high-speed synchronous
generators are used because the efficiency of steam turbines is high at high
speed. Whereas the efficiency of hydro turbines is larger at low speed and
therefore low speed alternators are used. Since the frequency of the grid is
one, the speed of the generator is decided by its number of poles. If P is the
number of poles and f is the frequency of the system, the speed (N) in round
per minute (rpm) is given by

Since the poles must be in even numbers (P = 2), the highest possible speed
for 50-Hz supply system will be 3000 rpm. However for 60-Hz supply
system it is 3600 rpm. With two numbers of poles, the cylindrical
construction is advantageous in terms of cost and performance. Field winding
is placed at the rotor of the alternator and armature winding is in stator. Since
the speed of turbo-alternator is high, the diameters of the machine is kept
minimum so that the centrifugal force acting on the rotor is minimized. To
keep the same electrical loading (proportional to area ´ length) the length of
the turbo-alternator is increased.
Normally, concentric type (or involute) and diamond type windings are used
for alternators. In concentric type windings, the straight bars are placed in
series enclosed slots and separate-end connectors are concentrically disposed.
Yoke is extended at either end to protect the end-windings. Both ends of each
phase are brought out for differential protection. Involute and diamond
windings consist of half coils made up of straight bars in one piece with two
half-end connectors and are placed in open slots. Core conductors are placed
in semi-enclosed slots, so that internal reactance of the machine is high.
There may be three or more coils per slot with graded insulation. Concentric
windings are preferred in high- voltage machines due to several advantages.
To minimize the current flow in the armature, which reduces the copper loss,
the voltage rating of the alternators is increased but it is also limited due to
the cost and insulation loss of the material. In India, the maximum rating of
the alternators are 21 kV, 500 MW. The ratings of other Indian thermal
generator units are: 11 kV, 50 MW; 11 kV, 100/110 MW; 15.56 kV, 200/210
MW.
5.7 COOLING OF ALTERNATORS
Cooling of alternators is very important due to damage of insulation at high
temperature. The heat generated due to the losses in rotor and stator of the
generators is to be taken away. Based on the circulation of cooling medium, it
can be classified as open circuit where air is drawn by fans etc. and
discharged to the atmosphere, and closed circuit where fixed volume of air or
hydrogen is re-circulated. Closed circuit cooling is widely used in modern
alternators having hydrogen as cooling medium, which is passed between
rotor and stator. There are numerous radial and axial ducts in the stator and
rotor cores. Main advantages of hydrogen cooling are as follows:

1. The heat transfer is more than that of air and its thermal conductivity
is 7 times more than air.
2. Ventilation losses (fan power absorbed) are lower by 10% since the
density of hydrogen is lower (1/10th).
3. There is no oxidation of insulating material and therefore the life of
insulation is more in hydrogen cooling.
4. Since hydrogen is not supporting medium of consumption, the
chances of fire hazards are minimized.
5. Less noise due to the lower density of hydrogen.
6. Due to hydrogen cooling, the size of frame can be reduced.

Hydrogen cooling has some disadvantages, too, such as:

1. There are chances of formation of explosive mixture of hydrogen and

air.
2. Problem of ensuring the complete tightness of hydrogen.
3. Expensive than air.
4. Special oil seals are required where the generator shaft is coming out.

Water is a superior cooling medium since it is cheap and it can absorb a large
quantity of heat for a given weight. Furthermore, power required for
circulating the water is less compared to hydrogen. The use of condensate
water for conductor cooling is not only readily available of high purity water
but also enable to utilization of the heat produced by stator losses. The water-
cooling of the rotor is more complex than in case of stator cooling due to
rotation of core and conductor.
5.8 PROTECTION OF TURBO-ALTERNATORS
Being one of the expensive devices in the power plant, alternator must be
protected from faults, which may be either in stator or rotor and other
abnormal conditions. Different faults and their protections on stator side are
given in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2 Types of Faults and Their Protection
Type of fault Relay used
External phase Over current relay with inverse time
fault delay
Faults between
Differential protection
phases
Phase to earth
Earth fault relay
fault
Faults between
Differential protection
turns
No special protection (almost
Open circuit fault
impossible fault)
Overheating Some thermal relays for alarm etc.

If generator field is not earthed, single earth fault will not cause any problem
but due to another earth fault there will be unbalance voltage induced by
rotor, which is severe. Therefore, an earth fault relay is used. Fault between
turns of rotor coils may also occurs and there will be vibration due to
magnetic unbalance. Due to open circuit, there is a failure of excitation and
synchronous machine will run as induction generator, which is normally not
allowed due to several reasons.
Abnormal condition will arise in the generator due to high voltage, over-
speed or unbalance loading which generate the negative sequence current.
Whenever there is over-voltage in generator and persists, it is not safe to
operate the generator. The generator main circuit breaker and generator field
breaker must be tripped. Over-speeding is also not desirable due to
mechanical consideration. There is an over-frequency relay which trip the
generator whenever the frequency exceeds the set value for a particular time
period. Negative sequence current relay is used to protect from unbalance
loading.

5.9 EXCITATION SYSTEM

Alternators control both power and voltage with two different control loops.
The control of turbine input (steam, water, gas) are called MW-frequency (P-
f) control loop. It is also known as load frequency control (LFC) or automatic
load frequency control (ALFC) or automatic generation control (AGC).
Second control loop is MVAR-voltage (Q-V) control loop or excitation
control loop. Figure 5.7 shows both the control loops.
The basic function of excitation system is to provide direct current to the field
winding of synchronous machine along with the control and protective
functions for satisfactory operation of the system. Excitation system controls
the terminal voltage of generator and reactive power generation. It also
responds to the system disturbances. For satisfactory operation of the system
it must fulfill following requirements such as meeting specified response
criteria, provide limiting and protective function, flexible operation and to
meet desired reliability and availability. The functional block diagram of
typical excitation control system is shown in Figure 5.8.
The excitation system can be categorized based on the excitation power
source as dc excitation, ac excitation and satic excitation systems. DC
excitation system was used in early days but now ac excitation systems are
widely used. AC excitation system utilizes as main sources of the main
generator excitation power with the help of rectifiers. There are two
arrangements possible such as stationary rectifier system and rotating rectifier
system. With stationary rectifier system, dc output is fed to the field winding
through slip rings.

FIGURE 5.7 Generator control loops.

 FIGURE 5.8 Functional diagram of excitation control system.
With rotating rectifiers, there is no need of slip rings and it is also called
brushless excitation system. In static excitation, all components are static or
stationary. Figure 5.9 shows the brushless excitation system.

FIGURE 5.9 Brushless excitation system.

5.10 GOVERNING SYSTEM

The choice of governing system is influenced by whether generator is for
independent factory or to the interconnected supply system. The fundamental
difference is that the speed of a turbo-alternator supplying to industry will
vary with the change in load, while the machine running in the interconnected
electricity system is automatically tied to the frequency of the system
irrespective of the load. Governing systems control the steam flow through
the turbine to achieve one or more of the following basic functions:
(a) Maintain a nominally constant shaft speed at all the loads
(b) Maintain a nominally constant steam flow through the turbine
(c) Maintain a nominally constant pass-out steam pressure at all flows
(d) Maintain a nominally constant inlet steam pressure at all flows
 (e) Maintain a nominally constant exhaust steam pressure at all flows
(f) Limit the power generated.
There are several methods of speed governing such as

1. Throttle governing
2. Nozzle control governing
3. By-pass governing
4. Fly ball speed governing etc.

Governing system has mainly four parts, namely, speed governor, amplifier,
speed changer and linkage mechanism. Figure 5.10 shows the fly ball speed
governing system.

FIGURE 5.10 Fly ball speed governing system.

5.11 FUELS
Fuels, either in their natural or prepared forms, exist as solids, liquids and
gases. Solid fuels include coals, lignites, cokes, woods and combustible
wastes from many processing operations. Liquid fuels include alcohol,
petroleum oils, etc., whereas gases are either natural or manufactured gases.
The principal elements of any fuel are carbon (C) and hydrogen (H). Some
fuels also have sulphur (S).
Coal, which is a mixture of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur,
moisture
and ash, is mostly used in thermal power plants. Owing to the effect of time,
pressure and temperature, the vegetation has been transformed into coal that
is taken from the mines
and ranges from fine dust to large lumps. Coal can be classified into several
categories.

1. Anthracite: It is a very hard coal having a shiny black luster. It is non-

coking and has a high percentage of carbon and less than 8% volatile
matter. Anthracite coal burns either without flame or with very high
bluish flames and desirable when smokeless combustion is essential.
2. Semi-anthracite: It occurs in small quantities and is not used for
steam generation. The percentage of carbon is less and it burns with
longer and more luminous flames. It contains 8–14% volatile matter
and less luster.
3. Semi-bituminous: It is the highest grade of bituminous coal and burns
with a very small amount of smoke. It is softer than anthracite and
contains 14–22% volatile matters. Semi-bituminous coal has a
tendency to break into small sizes during the storage and
transportation.
4. Bituminous: This type of coal, which varies greatly in percentage of
volatile matter, moisture, ash and sulphur, has high percentage of
volatile matter and burns with long yellow and smoky flames. A high
ash coal is usually designated as one having more than 10% ash.
Bituminous coal is classified as free burning and caking or coking.
Free burning coals do not swell and fuse together when ignite, as do
the coking or caking coals.
5. Sub-bituminous: It is also known as black lignite and is low-grade
bituminous coals. Sub-bituminous coals disintegrate when exposed to
the air and require careful attention during the storage. Its volatile
matter ranges from 35 to 45% and moisture contents from 17 to 20%.
6. Lignite: This is a transition state between peat and sub-bituminous
grade of coal and has a woody or often a claylike appearance. It has
low heat value, high moisture and
high-ash contents.

A good-quality coal contains high percentage of fixed carbon, low moisture

and less volatile matter. Fixed carbon refers to the combustible carbon left
after the volatile matter has been driven off during heating. Two analyzes,
namely, proximate analysis and ultimate analysis are performed to test the
quality of coal. The proximate analysis gives essential information on
moisture content, ash content, volatile content and fixed carbon, and helps to
determine the general characteristic of fuel. On the other hand, ultimate
analysis is the full chemical analysis of fuel and gives percentage of all its
chemical constituents. The analysis can be carried on the basis of (a) fuel as
received, (b) fuel as burned, (c) fuel air dries, (d) fuel dries and (e) fuel dried
and ash free.
Indian coals, in general, have high ash contents up to 20%. Clean coal, which
is also known as washing of coal, is used in several countries, which is
sometimes difficult and costly. Due to high ash contents, the efficiency of
boiler is greatly reduced, thus the reduced efficiency of plant, due to unburnt
coal, excessive clinker formation, etc. In most of the Indian thermal power
plants, pulverized coal is used.
Liquid fuels such as oils are also used in boiler furnace to generate steam
when it is cheaply available. It is easy in burning and controlling in heat.
Even in coal thermal power station oils are used during the lighting up the
boiler and in the case of emergencies.
Gaseous fuels are of two types: natural gas or manufactured gas. Methane
and ethane are the main constituents of natural gas. They are preferred over
coal power plants if cheaply available due to following advantages:
(a) They contain no ash or residue.
(b) They are easily mixed with oxygen and therefore no excess air is
needed.
(c) They are adaptable to automatic controls.
(d) They are quickly responsive to load demands.
5.12 FLUIDIZED-BED COMBUSTION
Direct combustion of coal is best accomplished by fluidized bed combustion
(FBC). If compressed gas is passed upward through a bed of inert particles at
a sufficient velocity to overcome gravity, each particle will float on the gas
stream in a boiling turbulent mass. This is known as fluidized bed. Coal
particles are added to the inert mass and may constitute only 10% of the mass
and thus cannot adhere to each other or agglomerate. Instead of inert particles
such as ash and sand, lime stone or dolomite is widely used in proper
proportional to combine with sulphur in coal and produce solid sulphate
particles. The production of nitrogen oxides (NOX) is also reduced greatly at
lower combustion temperatures. Thus it has advantages: direct removal of
sulphur during combustion; low NOX emission, ability to burn a variety of
fuels, and smaller size.

5.13 EFFICIENCY OF THERMAL POWER PLANTS

In thermal power plants there are three main important components:
generator, turbine and boiler and based on their efficiencies the power plant
efficiency can be obtained. The overall efficiency of thermal power plant can
be defined as

Generator is an electrical device and has high efficiency as compared to the

mechanical devices such as turbine and boiler. The efficiency of synchronous
generator varies between 96 and 99% that depends on size of machine and
cooling system. The thermal efficiency of steam turbine varies between 24
and 32%, which depends on the number of factors such as temperature and
pressure of steam, number of bleedings, exhaust steam pressure and
temperature, etc. The efficiency of boiler with economizer and air preheaters
may be taken as between 87 and 90%. Thus overall efficiency of the steam
power plant will be between
18 and 24%.

5.14 LUBRICATING SYSTEMS

The purpose of lubrication is to prevent wear by friction and minimize
frictional losses. Certain vegetable oils and mineral oils can be used for this
purpose but due to inferior in stability, mineral oils are widely used for
lubrication, which are also available in different forms. Different types of
lubricants are oils, greases and solid lubricants such as graphite. Normally
two types of lubricating mechanism are used as boundary film lubrications
and hydrodynamic films lubrications.

5.15 START-UP PROCEDURE OF THERMAL UNITS

The start-up procedure for thermal units depends on whether it is starting
from cold state or hot state. The boiler is to be lighted up first but before that
several checks and preparations are required. The main steps for cold start-up
are as follows:

1. Clearances from all the maintenance units should be taken and the
position of all the drains, valves must be in their required positions.
2. Feed tank must be filled using condensate transfer pump which pumps
water from condensate storage tank to feed tank/condensate extraction
pumps which pump condensate water from hot-well to feed tank.
3. Filling of boiler drum is done with the help of boiler feed pump (BFP)
after checking the required conditions. BFP is an induction motor and
consumes the highest power amongst the auxiliaries of power station.
4. One set of induced draught (ID) and forced draught (FD) fans are
started and furnace drought is kept at –5 mm of water column. These
fans are started only after checking required vane and damper
positions, lubricating oil pressures, etc.
5. After checking the boiler protection and other arrangements, the
boiler is lighted up with the help of 1 to 4 oil burners/guns, which
may use fuel oil (FO), high-speed diesel (HSD), low diesel oil (LDO),
etc., depending upon drum metal temperature.
6. As the drum pressure increases to 1.5–2.0 kg/cm2, vent are closed.
Further pressure-rising is done by increasing oil flows in burners or
increasing the burners. At 18 kg/cm2, super-heater drains are closed.
7. As pressure goes up to 30 kg/cm2 pressure reducing de-super (PRDS)
heating/charging is started.
8. Boiler pressure and temperature is raised up to the required value as
per casing temperature of turbine. Colder the casing, lesser will be the
pressure and temperature of steam to keep differential expansion in
check.
9. Cooling-water (CW) pump is started before raising the vacuum in the
condenser.
10. After PRDS has been charged, vacuum is started rising by taking an
ejector in service. Main ejector is also taken into service to raise the
vacuum up to the required level.
11. Before the rolling of turbine all protection should be checked and the
desired main steam pressure and temperature are maintained at the
inlet of turbine.
12. During the start-up, change in metal casing of turbine is carefully
followed. Turbine lubricating oil pressure and temperature are
properly monitored.
13. The turbine is rotated at 500 rpm and then 1000 rpm and all the
parameters of the plant are properly monitored.
14. If all the parameters of the plant are in the prescribed range, turbine
generator set can be rotated at 3000 rpm. The raising of speed from
1000 to 3000 rpm should be done continuously so that it should cross
critical speed smoothly.
15. The parameters such as vibration of bearings, temperature of bearing
oils, temperature difference of turbine casing, drum level, etc., are
carefully monitored.
16. If all the parameters are normal, the generator can be synchronized as
per guideline. Synchronization can be done manually or
automatically.
17. As soon as unit is synchronized, coal mills are taken into the service.
Primary air fans are started and coal feeding to boiler is also started.
Oil is gradually reduced and then totally taken off after stabilization.
Electrostatic precipitators are charged. Turbine drains are closed after
main steam temperature reaches above 520°C.
18. The load is gradually increased keeping watch on differential
expansion of turbine and turbo-supervisory parameters.
 6
Hydroelectric Power Plants
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Water is a boon for the living creatures. For the electricity generation, ample
quantity of water is used where water-flow from higher level to a lower level
is passed through a turbine. The energy of water utilized for electric power
generation may be either kinetic or potential. When water is in motion, it has
kinetic energy and is passed through the turbine for production of electricity.
Potential energy available in form of the level difference of water (called
head) is converted into kinetic energy that is used for rotating the generator to
produce electricity. Water from the rain is collected in lakes and reservoirs at
high altitude. Dams are constructed across the flowing streams, which require
huge catchments area to store the water. After the generation, the water is let
out into the river and gradually travels further and ultimately reaches the sea.
The hydraulic motors until the 19th century consisted of various types of
waterwheels driven by the weight of the water or the kinetic energy of the
current. The use of waterwheels as motors has several shortcomings, viz.,
they were cumbersome, had a low rotational speed and were very inefficient.
Hydraulic turbines were developed in the beginning of the 19th century.
Hydroelectric power was initiated in India in 1897 with a run-of-river scheme
near Darjeeling. The first major hydroelectric development was
Sivasamudram Scheme in Mysore with capacity of 4.5 MW, which was
commissioned in 1902. In 1914, Khopoli project in Maharashtra was put into
operation with a capacity of 50 MW for feeding power to Bombay, now
called Mumbai, city. However there was not much growth till 1947 and
hydroelectric power contribution in total installed capacity was only about
500 MW.
There are several advantages of hydropower.
(a) Water (also known as white coal) is non-wasting, self-replenishing.
Supply of water is automatic and water utilized in one season is
replenished by nature in the next season.
(b) Water reaches the powerhouse site on its own where no mining
 operation and transportation are involved as in the case of coal, oil and
gas.
(c) After use of water in electricity production, it can be redirected for the
further use of drinking and irrigation.
(d) Hydropower plant has very high efficiency (about 80%), that is much
higher than thermal plants.
(e) Hydropower plants have very long life (even 50 years) compared to the
thermal power plants.
(f) Maintenance is easy and less expensive compared to the thermal power
plants.
(g) Hydropower plants are quick in start and shutdown.
(h) The cost of production of electricity is very small (only operation and
maintenance cost).
(i) The percentage outage of hydropower plant is very low and thus more
reliable.
(j) Hydropower also provides ancillary benefits such as recreation,
fisheries, etc., in the case of run-of-river plants. It also controls the flood
where a storage reservoir is contemplated.
(k) The modern developments in hydro turbines have made it possible to
utilize a variety of turbines to suit a variety of conditions.
(l) It offers more flexibility in operation, control, etc.
The main drawbacks of hydroelectric plants are very initial capital intensive
and high time of construction period. Due to construction of dams and
reservoirs, a large portion of area is submerged into water, which leads to
environmental and other social problems. Also the availability of water varies
from year to year and in low rainfall years the capacity remains under
utilized. However, the advantages far outweigh the disadvantages.

6.2 SELECTION OF SITE FOR HYDROELECTRIC POWER

PLANTS
Selection of hydroelectric plants location depends on the following several
factors:
Availability of water. Water energy can be available in the form of either
potential energy or kinetic energy. To extract the potential energy, a reservoir
or pondage is required whereas to extract the kinetic energy run-of-river
project is used. In all the cases, a huge amount of water is required.
Normally, water is collected in reservoirs during the rain and used for the
electricity production throughout the years. Hilly areas are most suitable for
hydropower plants.
Storage of water. When the kinetic energy of water is low it is preferable
to have the reservoirs to collect the water for use of electricity production.
Due to wide variation of rainfall during the year makes it necessary to have
the reservoirs. The storage capacity of water is calculated by mass curve. The
capacity of plants is based on the water energy available taking into the
account of losses due to evaporation and percolation.
Head of water. The availability of head depends upon the topography of
the area. High head means high potential energy. To get most economical and
effective head, it is necessary to consider all possible factors, which affect it.
Distance from power station to the load centres. The generating
stations are normally connected to the main grid through the transmission
lines. The costs of transmission lines are also considered during the selection
of site.
Accessibility of site. The site should be easily accessed by rail or road for
transporting the plant equipments etc.
Others. When deciding the site, some other social factors are also
considered, such as the reservoir area should have less impact on the
relocation of the human beings from that area. The fertile land can be
submerged into water. Also the construction of dams may affect several other
impacts on the ecology. The reservoir should not be in seismic zone
otherwise any happening may create the flooding of several area, damage of
dam, equipments etc.

6.3 HYDROLOGY
Hydrology can be defined as the science that deals with the processes
governing deletion and replenishment of water resources over and within the
surface of earth. The cyclic movement, called hydrologic cycle, of water
rotates water from the sea to the atmosphere by evaporation and then from
there by precipitation to the earth and finally through streams, rivers, etc.,
back to the sea. The relationship between the elements of inflow and outflow
is provided by the solution of the equations of mass, energy, momentum and
state.
Hydrologic equation is simply the law of conservation of matter and can be
written, during a given period, as
Inflow = Outflow + Change in storage (6.1)
The main source of inflow is precipitation that includes rainfall, snowfall,
mist, dew, frost, hail, sleet, etc. whereas sources of outflow are as follows:

1. Surface runoff: It is the portion of the precipitation, which appears as

surface flow at the gauging site, after all losses.
2. Evaporation: It is the process by which water from liquid or solid
state, is converted into vapour form.
3. Infiltration: It is the process by which water enters the surface strata
of the soil and makes its way downwards to the water table.
4. Transpiration: It is the process whereby the moisture that has been
absorbed by the roots of the trees.
5. Interception: It is the quantity of water that is intercepted by
vegetation, buildings and other objects which subsequently evaporates
without contributing to the runoff.

The change in the storage is the effect of changes in moisture of depression

storage and detention storage.
Depression storage. This is the quantity of water stored in small and large
depressions, filling them to their overflow level. This quantity is lost
gradually due to evaporation etc., without contributing to the surface runoff.
Detention storage. Some of the water is accumulated on the land due to
precipitation. The overland flow contributing to the runoff is possible if there
is finite depth of flow over the surface. The volume of water corresponding to
this depth is known as detention storage.
6.3.1 Mass Curve
Mass curve is a plot of cumulative volume of water that can be stored from a
stream flow versus time in days, weeks or months. Figure 6.1 shows a mass
curve. Maximum intercept between line AB and mass curve is known as
reservoir capacity.
 FIGURE 6.1 Mass curve.
The unit used for storage is either cubic metre or day-second-metre. A day-
second-metre
is the flow at the rate of 1 m3/second for one day and equal to 60 ´ 60 ´ 24 =
86400 m3. The capacity of plant is based on the storage capacity, which can
be modified by storage
for the same mass curve. The water stored in dams is called pondage and
water stored in upstream reservoirs is called storage. A small storage is used
to meet the fluctuating demand for small period (one day). When powerhouse
is away from the main storage, a small pondage is provided near the
powerhouse. Sometimes surge tank is used. The capacity of reservoir, made
for a period of deficiency to make available the flow of water at a required
rate, is studied by mass curve.
6.3.2 Flow Duration Curve
Flow duration curve is a plot of discharge versus percentage of time for
which the discharge is available. It is obtained from hydrograph data. The
flow or discharge can be expressed as cubic metres per second, per week or
other unit of time. If the head at which the flow is available is known, the
discharge can be calculated in terms of the kilowatts power (P) using
following equation.

(since 75 kg-m/sec = 1 metric hp = 0.736 kW) where Q is the discharge in

m3/sec, t is the density of water (=1000 kg/m3), h is the efficiency of plant
and h is the available head
in metres.
The flow duration curve becomes the load duration curve for hydroelectric
plant and thus it is possible to know the total power available at the site. The
maximum and minimum conditions of flow can also be obtained by the flow
duration curve where minimum flow condition decides the maximum
capacity of plant that can be improved by increasing the storage capacity.
Figure 6.2 shows a flow duration curve. Flow duration curves are of no use
where the time sequence of the flow is of importance such as in the study of
floods.

FIGURE 6.2 Flow duration curve.

6.3.3 Hydrograph
It is a plot between discharges versus time of the flow. Hydrograph is shown
in Figure 6.3. Discharge is plotted on Y-axis and the corresponding time that
may be months, hours, etc., is plotted on the X-axis. Hydrograph also
indicates the available power from the stream at different times.
6.3.4 Unit Hydrograph
A unit hydrograph can be obtained from a hydrograph of the actual runoff
where there is uniform rainfall intensity and a real uniform distribution. It is a
hydrograph with a volume of
1 metre (or centimetre) of runoff resulting from a rainfall of specified
duration and a real pattern. It was first proposed by L.K. Sherman in 1932
and is an extremely useful and powerful tool for flood calculations. Figure
6.4 shows a unit flood hydrograph.
 FIGURE 6.3 A hydrograph.

FIGURE 6.4 A unit flood hydrograph.

6.4 CLASSIFICATION OF HYDROELECTRIC PLANTS

Hydroelectric plants exhibit a great deal of variety. They can be classified on
the basis of location and topographical features, the presence or absence of
storage, the range of operating head, the hydraulic features of the plant, the
operation features, etc. In some project, the main objective is not only the
power production but also for different purposes such as water supply,
irrigation, flood control, etc.
6.4.1 Classification Based on the Hydraulic Features
Based on the hydraulic principle in the basic design, hydroelectric plants can
be categorized into the four types:

1. Conventional hydroelectric plants: These plants utilize the normal

available hydraulic energy of the flowing water of rivers. Dams are
constructed to collect the water and used for electricity production.
2. Pumped storage plants: Pumped storage power plants are used for
 meeting the peak demand. Such plants utilize the concept of recycling
the same water by pumping the water back during off peak hours. It
will be discussed later in this chapter.
3. Tidal power plants: Tidal power plants utilize the tidal energy of
seawaters.
4. Depression power plants: It is a rare type of hydroelectric plant where
hydropower is generated by diverting an ample amount of water such
as seawater into a natural topographical depression that provides
operating head for the plant. This type of plant exists in Egypt. The
natural evaporation process controls the water level in the depression.

6.4.2 Classification on the Basis of Operation (Base or Peak)

A hydroelectric plant can be classified according to its operation in meeting
the demand such as base load plant or peak load plant. A hydroelectric plant
works as a base load plant if there is continuous power generation. If the
conditions prevailing at the power station permit regulated release of water,
plant can be used to generate peak power. Generally speaking, hydropower is
quite suitable for peak load operation due to its quick starting and relative
ease in picking up load. Pumped storage plants are necessarily peak load
plants whereas run-of-river plants are the base load plants. Other types of
hydroelectric power plants can be classified as per their operation.
6.4.3 Classification Based on Storage and Pondage
Hydroelectric power plants can also be classified on the consideration of
whether they have a storage reservoir or not. Storage becomes necessary
when the flow is uneven over the year. Without storage, the plants use only
the natural normal flow. In such cases, there may be a mini-reservoir or
pondage that takes care of day-to-day fluctuations. Some of the run-of-river
plants have also mini-reservoir or pondage.
6.4.4 Classification Based on Location and Topography
A hydroelectric plant can be located in hilly areas or in plains. Plants in hilly
areas are always associated with dams whereas plants in plain areas may have
only weirs for the main structure. In plains the rivers are usually wide with
large flood plains and may need ancillary river training works. Knowledge
about the location and topography of a plant helps in appreciating these
points.
6.4.5 Classification Based on Plant Capacity
Based on the capacity, hydroelectric plants are classified as
1. Very low-capacity up to 0.1
(midget) plants MW
up to 1.0
2. Low-capacity plants
MW
up to 10
3. Medium-capacity plants
MW
more than
4. High-capacity plants
10 MW
Based on the capacity, hydroelectric power plants are also classified as
1. Micro-hydro
<100 kW
plants
2. Mini-hydro 100 kW to 1
plants MW
3. Small-hydro 1 MW to a few
plants MW
More than a
4. Hydro plants
few MW
5. Super-hydro More than
plants 1000 MW
6.4.6 Classification Based on Head
It is difficult to give the exact range to classify hydroelectric plants based on
the available head. Normally, it is classified as follows:
1. Low-head
<15 m
plants
2. Medium-head
15–70 m
plants
3. High-head
71–250 m
plants
4. Very-high head More than
plants 250 m
High-head plants. Due to high head, small amount of water can produce a
large amount of power. Therefore, these types of plants are very economical.
Normally, the reservoirs are high up in the mountains and the powerhouse is
at the foot, taking advantage of large level difference. The catchment area is
small and if water from one stream is not sufficient, then water from
neighbouring streams can be diverted to the lake through the pipelines or
tunnels. The water is carried from main reservoir by tunnel to powerhouse via
the surge tank. The length of conduit system may be 15 km or more. For
heads above 500 m, Pelton turbines are used and Francis turbines are
common for low head.
Medium-head plants. Larger volume of water is needed in such plants
compared to high-head plants. Therefore, a reservoir of large capacity with
large catchment area is required. In these plants, water is generally carried
from main reservoir to the forebay and then to powerhouse through the short
penstocks. There is no need of surge tank as forebay itself acts as surge tank.
Generally there is one penstock per turbine. Francis, Kaplan and Propeller
type of turbines are common for the medium head power plants.
Low-head plants. To generate same amount of power in such plants, water
required is much larger than the high-head power plants. Generally run-of-
river, tidal plants and midget plants fall into this category. The catchment
area and the magnitude of peak flood are very large, the spillway length
being considerable. Francis, Kaplan or Propeller turbines are used for low-
head plants. The sizes of turbine and the powerhouse are large.
6.4.7 Classification Based on Constructional Features
Constructional feature is another way to classify the hydroelectric plants.
They can be classified as follows:
Run-of-river plants. The dominant features of run-of-river plants are that
these plants generate power on the rivers with a continuous flow throughout
the year with small seasonal variations. Such plants neither have a large
reservoir nor do they have a diversion of water away from the main channel.
A typical run-of-river plant has a powerhouse located with a weir spanning
the river that also serves as the river flow regulator. The site chosen should be
on a stable reach of the river with stable bed and banks. The maximum flood
anticipated should have low value and water should not carry much sediment.
Based on the constructional arrangement of the powerhouse and weir, run-of-
river plants can be further divided into four groups: block power plant, twin
power plant, pier-head power plant and submersible power plant. These
plants may or may not have the pondage. Run-of-river plants with pondage
are more reliable and its generating capacity is less dependent on available
rate of flow of water.
Valley dam plants. In valley dam plants, a dam is constructed for storing
the water. Powerhouse is located at the toe of the dam. No diversion of the
water from main river is involved. These are of medium- to high-head plants.
The artificial head created will depend on the height of the dam. There are
different arrangements of powerhouse location and spillway of the dam.
Diversion canal plants. A diversion canal with a flat slope in which the
flow from the river is diverted through the canal to powerhouse. The water
from powerhouse is drained back into the original river at downstream point.
A weir is constructed at the end of the canal to create a small pool of water,
called the forebay. The water from forebay is fed by means of penstocks to
the powerhouse situated in the lower reach of the river.
High-head diversion plants. In these type of plants, water is diverted
through a system of channels and tunnels. There are two ways to achieve it.
(i) Water is diverted to another neighbouring river or basin which is at a
much lower level than parent river.
(ii) Water from river could be diverted along the tunnels from an upper
stream point of river to a downstream point of same river. High-head
diversion plants are more or less similar to low-head diversion canal plants.
The main point of difference is, however, the elaborate conveyance system
for the high-head plants.
Figure 6.5 shows the different types of hydroelectric plants.

6.5 MAIN COMPONENTS OF HYDROELECTRIC PLANTS

The main components of a typical hydroelectric plant are: dam, reservoir,
water conduit system, tailrace, surge tank, trash rack, and powerhouse (which
consists of generator,
prime mover, switchyards, etc.). Figure 6.6 shows a typical layout of high-
head hydroelectric plant.
Dam or barrage. A dam or barrage is constructed to provide a head of
water to be
utilized in the water turbines. A dam across the river is a very important
component in
most of the high- and medium-head hydropower plants. Dams are also built
on top of hills, in case of pump storage power plants, where is no inflow.
Dams can be classified based on their (i) function, (ii) shape, (iii) material of
construction and (iv) hydraulic and structural design. Table 6.1 shows the
different types of dam classifications.
The main considerations in the choice of dam sites are safety and economy.
Other important factors are

1. Geology of foundation,
2. Hydrological considerations and river diversion during the
construction,
3. Construction material availability,
4. Accessibility of site to the rail/road,
5. Environmental degradation,
6. Human settlement etc.

FIGURE 6.5 Types of hydroelectric plants: (a) run-of-river, (b) diversion canal, (c) valley dam,
(d) high-head diversion.
 FIGURE 6.6 Typical layout of high-head hydroelectric plant.
Table 6.1 Classification of Dams
Classification Types of
based on dams
(a) Storage
Function
dams
(b) Diversion
dams
(c) Detention
dams
(a)
Shape Trapezoidal
dams
(b) Arch
dams
(c) Multiple
arch dams
Construction (a) Steel
material dams
(b) Concrete
dams
(c) Stone
masonry
dams
(d) Timber
dams etc.
(a) Gravity
Design
dams
(b) Arch
dams
(c) Buttress
dams
(d)
 Embankment
dams
(e) Spillway
dams
(a) Overflow
Hydraulic design
dams
(b) Non-
overflow
dams

Reservoir and forebay. The main purpose of a reservoir is to store water

which may be used to generate electricity and for irrigation purposes. The
water is mainly stored during the rainy season. The capacity of reservoir is
decided by the water requirement for power generation.
Forebay is a regulating reservoir storing water temporarily when the load on
turbine is reduced and provide water when load is increased. It can be
considered as the surge reservoir near the intake. This may be a pond behind
the diversion dam or canal spread out.
Water-conduit system. A water-conduit system carries water from the
reservoir to the turbine of powerhouse through the pressure tunnel or pipes
called penstocks those may be laid above ground or underground.
Tailrace. Water is discharged into the tailrace after passing through the
turbine, which carries it into the river. A tailrace is an open channel or a
tunnel depending upon the powerhouse location. The discharge from all the
turbines is collected in the tailrace at its beginning by means of branch
channels. The tailrace may discharge into the original river itself or some
other river.
Surge tank. It is provided to act as pressure-release valve of the water-
conduit system from the effect of water hammer. When an additional storage
space1 (called surge tank),
near turbine is provided which stores water during the turbine load reduction
and release water when sudden increase in load is required, it controls the
pressure variation of penstock and prevents water hammer effect. It is
analogous to the flywheel of internal combustion engine.
Different types of surge tanks are being used, namely, simple type, restricted
orifice type, differential type, expansion chamber type and overflow type.
Trash rack. It is provided to stop the entry of debris, which might damage
the gates and turbine runners or choking of nozzles of the impulse turbines. It
is placed across the intake.
Prime mover. The head of water is converted into the kinetic energy in
prime mover, which rotates the shaft of the electric power generators
(normally synchronous alternators). Thus, a prime mover, also called a
turbine, converts the kinetic and potential energy of water into the
mechanical energy. The commonly used water turbines are Francis, Kaplan,
Propeller, Pelton. Normally water turbines rotate on the vertical axis.
Powerhouse. Powerhouse is normally located near the foot of the dam. It
may be underground or open type. Water is brought to the powerhouse with
help of penstocks and passed to the turbines those rotate the alternators. The
location of powerhouse is decided based on the maximum possible head at
the turbine. In powerhouse there are several in-house auxiliaries and controls.
Spillway. It discharges the excess water of reservoir beyond the full
permission level and acts as a safety valve of reservoir. If excess water is not
discharged, water level of reservoir will be raised and water may start
flowing over the dam, a phenomenon known as overtopping. The spillways
can be classified as (a) overflow spillway, (b) side channel spillway, (c)
emergency spillway, (d) chute or trough spillway and (e) shaft or siphon
spillway.

6.6 CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRO TURBINES

Water turbines, which convert water energy into mechanical energy, can be
considered as motors run by water. The main function of water turbines is to
rotate the generator coupled to it to produce electricity.
Basically the water turbines can be divided into two main categories: the
impulse type and reaction type. Water flows out of a nozzle, in case of
impulse type, in the form of a jet such that all the pressure energy is
converted into kinetic energy. The jet strikes the series of the buckets
mounted on the periphery of the wheel. Because of the impact, the runner is
rotated about the axis. Therefore the turbine is called the impulse turbine.
Since the pressure throughout the turbine is at the atmospheric that is
constant, the impulse turbine is also called a constant pressure turbine. Pelton
turbine is an impulse turbine.
Reaction turbine works on the principle of reaction. Water enters the turbine
at high pressure and low velocity, some pressure energy is converted into
kinetic energy and water then enters the runner and pressure energy is
successively converted into the kinetic energy. Water flowing through the
runner creates a reaction on the runner vane and runner is rotated. In a
reaction turbine, water is under pressure and turbine is filled with water when
working. Therefore a casing is must in an impulse turbine so that water
cannot splash out. Reaction water turbines usually have vertical arrangement.
Since water can be admitted all over the runner at one time in a reaction
turbine, it is sometimes also called a full admission turbine. Propeller,
Francis, Kaplan and more recently Deriaz turbines fall in this category. The
efficiencies of various water turbines with respect to the full load are shown
in Figure 6.7. The use of different types of water turbines based on the
available head, flow direction, and specific speed is given in Table 6.2.

FIGURE 6.7 Typical efficiencies of various types of turbines.

Table 6.2 Use of Turbines for Different Purposes
Use based
Classification Turbine types
on
(a) Propeller or
Head (a) Low head, 2–15 m
Kaplan
(b) Kaplan or
(b) Medium head, 16–70 m
Francis
(c) Francis or
(c) High head, 71–500 m
Pelton
(d Very high head, > 500
(d) Pelton
m
Flow (a) Radial inward or mixed
(a) Francis
direction flow
(b) Tangential flow (b) Pelton
(c) Propeller or
 (c) Axial flow Kaplan
(d Diagonal flow (d) Deriaz
Specific
(a) 4–70 rpm (a) Pelton
speed
(b) 60–400 rpm (b) Francis
(c) 300–1100 rpm (c) Kaplan
Output
(a) Up to 33000 hp (a) Pelton
power
(b) Up to 15000 hp (b) Kaplan
(c) Up to 820000 (c) Francis
(d) Very large (d) Francis
Discharge (a) Low (a) Pelton
(b) Medium (b) Francis
(c) High (c) Kaplan

Runaway speed is defined as the speed that the hydro unit will reach when
the full load suddenly trips and the governor mechanism fails to close. This
large increase in speed will increase the voltage and cause an electric
breakdown. Due to high speed centrifugal force will be high and pole may fly
off and bearing may be damaged. Therefore, the generator design has to be
done for this extreme condition. The values of runaway speeds are:
Pelton
1.85N
turbine
Francis 1.65–
turbine 1.8N
Kaplan 1.9–
turbine 2.2N
where N is the synchronous speed.

6.7 HYDRO GENERATORS

Water turbine rotates the rotor of electric power generator, which is coupled
to the turbine. In all electric power alternators the field winding is on the
rotor whereas armature is stationary. This arrangement has several
advantages. Hydroelectric generators are low speed machines compared to
the steam turbine driven generators.
As speed of hydro generator is low, for the same operating frequency the
number of poles is high. It is economical to have salient pole type
synchronous machine. To accommodate the large number of poles, the
diameter of the rotor has to be large enough. However, the axial length of the
poles may be comparatively low.
To avoid hunting and ensure the stability under transient and fault conditions,
a proper value of flywheel effect is necessary. It is also useful in taking care
of sudden load change of system. The flywheel effect is defined as equal to
Wk2, where W is the weight of rotating part in kg and k = 2 ´ radius of
gyration.
Nowadays, the size of hydro generating units is more than 250 MW. As size
increases, a number of problems arises, such as:
(a) Heat loss increases and additional cooling capacity has to be provided.
(b) Vibration is likely to increase and supporting structure must be made
more robust.
(c) Thrust bearing must be specially designed for heavy duty and should be
provided with high efficiency cooling.
(d) Machine becomes smaller for the same output, the value of Wk2
decreases and lesser energy storage capacity is available to cope with the
load fluctuations.

6.8 PUMP STORAGE PLANTS

The pumped storage power plants are a special type of power plants which
work as ordinary conventional hydropower stations for the part of the time.
These plants generate electricity during the peak load hours, called
generating phase, and pump water back from the tailrace side to the high
reservoir during off peak hours, called pumping phase. The pumped storage
plants have the following advantages:
(a) As compared to other peaking units, pump storage plants are
economical.
(b) The pumped storage plant is as rugged and dependable as conventional
hydropower station and can pick up load quickly.
(c) Such power stations are readily adaptable to automation as well as
remote control.
(d) Free from environmental pollution.
(e) It offers great flexibility in operation.
(f) These plants allow other units to run as base load and thus improve the
overall efficiency of the system.
But these plants suffer from following drawbacks:
(a) They have to be operated in narrow range of rated capacity to obtain the
maximum efficiency.
(b) Time interval required is about six hours to fully load from the
complete shut down.
(c) Machine is idle for several hours.
The pumped storage plants can be classified in two ways: based on the
duration of operating cycle and based on the inflow. The operating cycle may
be daily, monthly or seasonal. Based on the type of inflow, pumped storage
plant can be classified as (a) recirculating or pure type and (b) mixed type.
Example 6.1 If the catchment area of a reservoir is 50 km2 and average
rainfall is 150 cm/year, find the power in kW for which station having mean
head of 40 metre should be designed. Only 75% of rainfall is utilized and
expected load factor of station is 75%. Assume the turbine and generator
efficiencies are 88% and 93% respectively.
Solution Total available water for electricity production = 50 ´ 106 ´ 1.50 ´
0.75
= 56.25 ´ 106 m3
Taking the uniform discharge

Since the load factor is 75%,

Installed capacity of the generators = @ 760 kW

Example 6.2 The average weekly discharge (Q) measured at a site is given
below:
Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Q(m3/sec) 5005003502003008001100900400200
(a) Calculate the average discharge available.
(b) Plot the hydrograph.
(c) Plot flow-duration curve.
(d) Plot mass curve.
Solution (a) We have

(b) The hydrograph is drawn as in Figure 6.8.

FIGURE 6.8 Hydrograph (Example 6.2).

(c) Since the flow-duration curve (Figure 6.9) is a plot of discharge versus
percentage of time for which discharge is available which can be obtained
from the hydrograph data as given below:
Discharge Period (No. of Percentage of total
(m3/sec) weeks) period
1100 1 10
900 and above 2 20
800 and above 3 30
500 and above 5 50
400 and above 6 60
350 and above 7 70
300 and above 9 90
 200 and above 10 100
…

FIGURE 6.9 Flow duration curve (Example 6.2).

(d) Mass curve as in Figure 6.10 is obtained from the data presented in the
following table.
Weekly Weekly Cumulative
volume flow
Week flow
(day-sec- (day-sec-
(m3/sec) metre) metre)
1 500 3500 3500
2 500 3500 7000
3 350 2450 9450
4 200 1400 10850
5 300 2100 12950
6 800 5600 18550
7 1100 7700 26250
8 900 6300 32550
9 400 2800 35350
10 200 1400 36750
…
 FIGURE 6.10 Mass curve (Example 6.2).

PROBLEMS
6.1 The average monthly discharge (Q) measured at a site is given below:
Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Q(m3/sec) 180019001350120013003000410035001500130011001000
(a) Calculate the average discharge available.
(b) Plot the hydrograph.
(c) Plot flow-duration curve.
(d) Plot mass curve.
6.2 Using the data as given in Problem 6.1, find the maximum and average
power that can be developed in the hydroelectric plant having the mean
head of 50 m, if the efficiency of the plant is 85%. Also, calculate the load
factor of the machine.
1 The distance between the water source and turbine.
 7
Nuclear Power Plants
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The consumption of electric energy in residential, commercial and industrial
sector, all over the world has increased in many folds. Coal, natural gas and
oil provide most of the world’s energy. Petroleum currently accounts for 40%
of the world’s energy, natural gas provides 24%, and coal provides about
26% of the world’s energy and generates about 37% of the world’s
electricity.
Since fossil fuels are a natural resource, there will eventually be a shortage of
them in near future. The International Energy Agency is predicting oil to run
out by the year 2020 with the increased demand and the global economy
expands. Some predictions expect an oil supply crisis sometime within the
next two decades when global demand will exceed the oil supply. Natural gas
is expected to remain for up to 65 more years and the coal supply could last
up to 200 years at current consumption rates. With the world population
increasing to a predicted
8 billion by the year 2050, the end could come sooner.

7.2 ADVERSE EFFECTS OF FOSSIL FUELS

Fossil fuel greenhouse gases are among major contributors to the problem of
global warming. Not only the burning of fossil fuels damages the
environment, but every stage in the production of a fossil fuel also exposes
the environment to potential harm. For example, at the drill site, leaks and
spills may infiltrate the groundwater. During transportation and filling, spills
and accidents leak oil into the environment. At the refinery more toxic
leakage occurs. Local gas stations and boating docks contribute additional
spills. Vaporization and underground tank leakage add even more chemicals
to the environment. And of course, automobile exhaust gases pollute the air
and contribute to respiratory ailments such as the increasing levels of asthma
in children. Motor vehicles account for 50% of all hazardous air pollutants
and about 90% of carbon mono-oxide found in the air.
Burning of fossil fuels causes air pollution. Pollution is the smog we see over
cities, as well as, airborne contaminants that are not visible to the naked eye.
These contaminants can make you sick, burn your eyes and nose, give you an
itchy, irritated throat, and cause trouble with your breathing. The chemicals in
polluted air can cause cancer, brain and nerve damage, birth defects, lung
injury, and breathing problems. Air pollution harms the environment, and the
people, animals, forests, streams and lakes that reside within it.

7.3 PROS AND CONS OF NUCLEAR POWER

GENERATION
Pros
Nuclear fuel is inexpensive, more abundant than fossil fuels, and easy to
transport. The energy generated is very efficient and the remaining waste is
compact. Nuclear reactors need little fuel and it must only be changed
approximately once every three years. The amount of waste produced is
billions of time smaller that the volume of waste produced from a coal-
burning plant. Nuclear reactors are safe in comparison to fossil fuel methods.
Each year, about 50,000 people die due to respiratory illnesses in America
caused by burning of coal. The chance of a nuclear accident that would cause
that kind of damage to human life is 1 in every 250 years. Most of all, it is a
clean source of energy because it does not contribute to the greenhouse effect
or to acid rain.
Cons
Even though the cost of fuel is low, the actual cost of producing energy is
higher than other forms of energy because of emergency, containment, and
radioactive waste storage systems. High-level radioactive waste must be
stored in underground containment permanently. It must remain deep below
the surface of the earth for millions of years until it looses its radioactivity.
Uranium and thorium are mostly used as fuel in nuclear reactors. The mining
of uranium itself can cause serious problems in the environment and to the
people living near the mining site. During mining, large amounts of air
contaminated with radon and dust are blown into the open air which increases
the levels of radon concentrations. The incidence of lung cancer increases in
these areas. Groundwater from the mines contaminates rivers and lakes.
The meltdown of a reactor not only causes severe immediate danger, it can
also contaminate the area for years after the disaster. Increased incidences of
thyroid cancer along with numerous other serious health problems
accompany a nuclear meltdown. Crops grown in the area can contain high
levels of radioactive elements, and fish populations in nearby lakes cannot
regenerate, etc. It is even hypothesized that a properly functioning reactor can
emit toxic levels of radioactivity to the population in the surrounding area.
Economics of nuclear power

Nuclear power is cost competitive with other forms of electricity

generation, except in regions where there is direct access to low-cost
fossil fuels.
The decreasing cost of fossil fuels in the past decade has eroded
nuclear power’s previous cost advantage in many countries.
Fuel costs for nuclear plants are a minor proportion of total generating
costs and often about one-third those for coal-fired plants.
In assessing the cost competitiveness of nuclear energy,
decommissioning and waste disposal costs are taken into account.

The relative costs of generating electricity from coal, gas and nuclear plants
vary considerably depending on location. Coal is, and will probably remain,
economically attractive in countries such as India, China, USA and Australia
with abundant and accessible domestic coal resources. Gas is also
competitive for base-load power in many places, particularly with combined-
cycle plants. Nuclear energy is, in many places, competitive with fossil fuel
for electricity generation, despite relatively high capital costs and the need to
internalize all waste disposal and decommissioning costs. If the social, health
and environmental costs of fossil fuels are also taken into account, nuclear is
outstanding. Nuclear energy averages 0.4 euro cents/kWh, much the same as
hydro, coal is over 4.0 cents (4.1–7.3), gas ranges 1.3–2.3 cents and only
wind shows up better than nuclear, at 0.1–0.2 cents/kWh average.
7.4 SELECTION OF SITE FOR NUCLEAR POWER
PLANTS
There are several factors, which are considered in selecting the site for the
nuclear power station. The selection of site is similar to the thermal power
station as water is used as working fluid i.e. steam.
 1. Availability of water: As in the case of steam power stations, nuclear
power stations also requires ample amount of water for cooling and
steam generation.
2. Disposal of waste: It is one of the very important considerations in the
nuclear power station due to dangerous waste/residue of the nuclear
substances. Hence an extra care is needed in this respect. The storage
of waste, which is to be disposed deep under the ground in sea so that
radioactive effect is eliminated.
3. Away from populated area: Although there is always tight safety but
still there are chances of radioactive radiation, which affects the
health of people. Therefore, it must be away from the populated areas.
4. Nearest to the load centres: Since the transportation and storage
requirements are less compared to the coal fired plants. It is preferred
to construct the nuclear power plant near the load centres so that
transportation of energy at minimum cost can be achieved.
5. Other factors: Accessibility to the road and rail are the general
consideration of almost all the power plants as heavy equipments are
to be transported to the sites during the construction. The fuels are
also required to transport from the mines during the operation.

7.5 COST OF ELECTRICITY

The basic attraction of nuclear energy is its low cost compared with coal, oil
and gas fired plants. Uranium, however, has to be processed, enriched and
fabricated into fuel elements, and at least three quarters of the cost is due to
enrichment and fabrication. Allowances must also be made for the
management of radioactive spent fuel and the ultimate disposal of this spent
fuel or the wastes separated from it. The total fuel cost of a nuclear power
plant is typically about one-third that of a coal-fired plant and between one-
fourth and one-fifth of those for a gas combined-cycle plant. In the USA, they
account for 0.1–0.2 cent/kWh, which is no more than 5% of the cost of the
electricity produced.
The cost of nuclear power generation has remained steady over the last
decade. This is because declining fuel (including enrichment), operating and
maintenance costs have been offset by rising investment costs. In general, the
construction cost of a nuclear power plant is significantly higher than a coal-
or gas-fired plant because of added and sophisticated safety features, back-up
control equipment and other materials used. These can contribute up to half
the nuclear generation cost. This has sometimes been exacerbated by long
construction period, pushing up cost further. In Asia, time taken to construct
a nuclear power plant is shorter, for instance the new-generation 1300 MWe
Japanese reactors, which began operating in 1996 and 1997, were built in a
short period of four years.
Figure 7.1 shows the cost of electricity generation based on fuel plus
operation and maintenance costs only. This cost excludes capital, since this
varies greatly among utilities and states, as well as with the age of the plant.

FIGURE 7.1 Production cost of electricity in USA.

The future competitiveness of nuclear power will substantially depend on the
additional cost which may accrue to coal-generating plants. It is uncertain
how the real cost of meeting targets for reducing sulphur dioxide and
greenhouse gas emissions will be attributed to fossil fuel plants. Overall, and
under current regulatory measures, it is expected to remain economically
competitive with fossil fuel generation, except in regions where there is direct
access to low-cost fossil fuels. In Australia, for example, coal-fired
generating plants are close to both the mines supplying them and the main
population centres, and large volumes of gas are available on low cost, long-
term contracts.
Plant choice is likely to depend on a country’s balance of payments situation.
Nuclear power is very capital-intensive while fuel costs are relatively much
more significant for systems based on fossil fuels. Therefore, if a country
such as Japan or France has to choose between importing large quantities of
fuel and spending a lot of capital at home, simple costs may be less important
than wider economic considerations. Development of nuclear power, for
instance, could provide work for local industries, which build the plant and
also minimize long-term commitments to buying fuels from abroad. Overseas
purchases over the lifetime of a new coal-fired plant in Japan, for example,
may be subject to price rises which could be a more serious drain on foreign
currency reserves than less costly uranium.
Table 7.1 presents electricity generating cost (cents/kWh) in different
countries for 2005–2010.
Table 7.1 Some Comparative Electricity Generating Cost for 2005–2010
Country Nuclear Coal Gas
France 3.22 4.64 4.74
Russia 2.69 4.63 3.54
Japan 5.75 5.58 7.91
Korea 3.07 3.44 4.25
Spain 4.10 4.22 4.79
2.33–
USA 3.33 2.48
2.71
2.47–
Canada 2.92 3.00
2.96
2.54–
China 3.18 –
3.08
Source: OECD/IEA NEA 1998.

7.6 COMPONENTS OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

A nuclear power plant is almost similar to the coal-fired power plant except
the steam generation part where nuclear energy is used for the steam
generation. Some safety devices are also used. The basic circuit of a liquid
coolant nuclear power plant is shown in
Figure 7.2. The boiler of a conventional steam power station is replaced by
the nuclear reactor and the heat exchanger. Reactor is the main part of a
nuclear plant where a coolant is used to generate the steam to run the turbine
and thus electricity is produced.
7.7 BASIC REVIEW OF NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Atoms. An atom consists of a positively charged nucleus having neutrons
and protons, and a number of much lighter negatively charged electrons
orbiting the nucleus. Protons are positively

FIGURE 7.2 Nuclear power plant using a heat exchanger.

charged and its magnitude is equal to the magnitude of charge that is negative
on an electron. The charge on each proton is 1.602 ´ 10–19 coulomb. Thus an
atom is electrically uncharged as the number of protons is equal to the
number of electrons.
The number of protons in a nucleus is called the atomic number, which is
normally represented as Z. The total number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus is called mass number and is normally denoted by A. Therefore, the
number of neutrons in the atom will be (A – Z). The nuclear symbol is written
as

where X is chemical symbol. The chemical nature of an element is

determined by its atomic number. Hydrogen ( ) has one nucleus composed
of 1 proton, no neutron and 1 electron.
Most of the weight of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus. The radius of a
nucleus is of the order of 10–16 m and that of atom is 10–11 m. The weight
of a proton, electron and neutron are represented in terms of the atomic mass
unit (amu), which is (1/16)th of the weight of the oxygen atom. One atomic
mass unit is equal to 1.66 ´ 10–27 kg.
Proton mass (mp) = 1.007277 amu = 1.673 ´ 10–27 kg
Neutron mass (mn) = 1.008665 amu = 1.674 ´ 10–27 kg
Electron mass (me) = 0.0005486 amu = 9.107 ´ 10–31 kg
The atoms having the same number of protons (or electrons) have similar
chemical properties. They differ mainly in their masses. Such atoms are
called isotopes. Some of the isotopes of some elements are unstable and
disintegrate spontaneously. Many isotopes do not appear in nature and are
synthesized in the laboratory or in nuclear reactors. Two other particles are of
importance, namely, the positron and neutrino. The positron is a positively
charged electron having the symbols +1e0, e+ or +, whereas the symbol for
electron is –1e0, e– or b–. The neutrino is a tiny, electrically neutral particle,
ejected along with b particle during the nuclear fission.
Radioactivity. Most of the isotopes starting with Z 81 are not stable due
to small binding energy per nucleon and emit radiation till a more stable
nucleus is reached. Thus, a spontaneous disintegration process is called
radioactive decay, which is accompanied by the radioactive rays (a, b and c).
The resulting nucleus is called the daughter and the original nucleus is called
the parent. The radioactivity is always accompanied by a decrease of mass or
liberation of energy. Radioactive isotopes, both natural and man-made, emit
(a) a particles,
(b) b particles, (c) c radiation, (d) neutrons and (e) neutrinos. They also
undergo positron decay and orbital electron absorption, called K-capture.
These terms are defined as follows:
a decay. Alpha particles are helium nuclei (2He4), normally emitted by a
heavier radioactive nuclei at high velocity of about 3 ´ 107 m/s or (1/10)th of
the speed of light and accompanied by c radiation.
b decay. It is equivalent to the emission of an electron and raised the atomic
number by one while keeping the mass number the same. The mass of b
particle is same as mass of electron. The emitted velocity of b particles is of
velocity of light. The penetrating power of b particles are more than a
particles but lesser than c rays.
c radiation. c rays are the electromagnetic waves of short wavelength and
very high frequency and so very high energy(f = hn). When an a or a b
particle is emitted from the nucleus and smaller nucleus is till in an excited
state, the excess energy is emitted in the form of c rays. c radiation is highly
penetrating and does not affect either the atomic or mass number.
Neutron emission. If a nucleus possesses extremely high-excitation
energy, it may emit a neutron. The binding energy of a neutron varies with
mass number but on an average it is
8 MeV. If the excitation energy is 8 MeV or more, there may be neutron
emission. In neutron decay, the daughter is an isotope of parent.
Positron decay. When a radioactive nucleus has an excess of protons, b+
(positron) decay occurs and proton is converted into the neutron. Therefore,
the daughter nucleus has one less proton than the parent nucleus. To maintain
the electric charge neutrality of the atom, one electron has to be released.
These positron and electron are annihilated (added) producing gamma energy
equivalent to the sum of their rest masses, i.e. 2 ´ 0.00055 ´ 931 = 1.024
MeV. The reverse of annihilation process is called pair production. A c
photon having an energy exceeding 1.024 MeV can form positron–electron
pair, converting energy into mass in an endothermic process.
K-capture. This occurs when a nucleus having an excess of photons but
does not have the threshold energy of 1.024 MeV to emit a positron and it
captures an orbital electron from the rear most or k-shell. A proton in the
nucleus changes into a neutron by K-capture, which is accompanied by X-ray
emission.
Radiation or nuclear disintegration occurs at a definite rate, which is often
expressed in the form of half-life that is the time in which half of an original
atom disintegrates. The rate of decay is also called activity. The half-life is
defined as

where m is decay constant. If N0 is the number of nuclei of one specimen,

half of the N0 decay after one half-life; one-half of the remaining atom or 1/4
of N0 decays during the second half-life and so on. Table 7.2 presents several
radioactive materials with their emissions, product isotopes and half-lives.
The rate of release of radiation by a radioisotope is dependent on the activity,
a, which is the number of disintegrations per second. Since the decay
constant m is the change of decay each second, then with N nuclei present,
the activity is
a = mN
where

The useful unit of activity is the curie (Ci). One curie is equivalent of 3.7 ´
1010 disintegration/second.
Table 7.2 Selected Radioactive Isotopes
Principal
radiations
Energy (in
Isotopes Half-life Type
MeV)
Neutron 10.6 minutes b 0.782
Hydrogen-3
12.33 years b 0.0186
(tritium)
Carbon-14 5730 years b 0.155
Sodium-24 15.03 hours b 1.389
c 1.369, 2.754

Potasium-40 1.28 ´ 109 b 1.325

years
Cobalt-60 5.27 years b 0.318
c 1.173, 1.332
Krypton-85 10.7 years b 0.672
c 0.517
Iodine-131 8.04 days b 0.606
Cesium-137 30.17 years b 0.512

Radium-226 1.60 ´ 103 a 4.78

years

Uranium-235 7.038 ´ 108 a 4.40

years

Uranium-238 4.468 ´ 109 a 4.20

years

Plutonium-239 2.41 ´ 104 a 5.16

years

Binding energy and mass defects. In nuclear physics, the energy is

expressed in mega-electron-volt (MeV) and mass is in atomic mass unit
(amu). One electron volt is the energy gained by an electron passing through
the potential difference of one voltage. Since the charge on electron is 1.602 ´
10–19 C,
 1 eV = 1.602 ´ 10–19 Joule
1 MeV = 106 ´ 1.602 ´ 10–19 = 1.602 ´ 10–13 J
According to Einstein mass-energy relation (E = mc2, where m is mass in kg,
E is energy in joules and c is the velocity of light in metre/second), the
energy corresponding to 1 amu (=1.66 ´ 10–27 kg) will be as follows:

The sum of masses of the protons and neutrons exceeds the mass of the
atomic nucleus. This difference in the mass is called mass defect. The energy
associated with the mass defect is known as the binding energy of the
nucleus, which is a direct measure of nuclear stability. The energy can be
released in two ways:
1. By combining the light nucleus and the energy released, known as fusion.
2. By breaking the heavy nucleus and the energy released, known as fission.
Fission is most widely used in nuclear power stations. The materials
fissionable by thermal or low speed neutrons are , and .

7.8 MAIN COMPONENTS OF REACTORS

The nuclear furnace is termed as reactor or pile. The purpose of a nuclear
reactor of power plant is to produce electricity. Mass is converted into
energy. A mass of fissile material such as uranium is brought together in the
form of fuel rods and inserted into the core of the reactor. This energy from
fission heats the core. To cool the core, and remove the heat so that it can be
used to generate power, a coolant is run through the system and taken to a
heat exchanger, which removes the heat to a separate system. It is then used
to generate steam, which runs turbines, which in turn drives electric
generators.
Fuel rods. A fuel rod is a zircaloy tube, filled with pellets of uranium.
These fuel assemblies can be lifted into and out of the reactor mechanically,
allowing fuel replenishment while the reactor is in operation. This is a typical
fuel rod assembly.
Shielding. Shielding is used to give the protection against the a, b and c
radiations during the process of fission in reactor.
Moderator. A moderator is used to slow down the neutrons released during
fission. Graphite, heavy water or beryllium can be used as a moderator for
natural uranium; however, ordinary water is used with enriched uranium.
Control rods. To prevent the melting of fuel rods, disintegration of coolant,
destruction of reactor due to excessive energy release, control the chain
reaction at steady state value during the operation of reactor, it is necessary to
have controls. Chain reaction can be controlled either by removing the fuel
rods or by inserting neutron absorbing material. These rods are made of
boron carbide, cadmium or hafnium and are inserted from the bottom of the
core to absorb neutrons, which controls the rate of fission. Additional main
control rods are inserted from the top down and provide automatic, manual or
emergency control.
Coolant. Coolants are used for transferring heat produced inside the reactor
to a heat exchanger for utilization of power generation. The commonly used
coolants are gas (carbon dioxide, air, hydrogen, helium), ordinary water,
heavy water, liquid metals (sodium or potassium) and some other organic
liquids. Coolant flows through and around the reactor. There is also an
emergency core cooling system, which will come into operation if either
coolant circuit is interrupted.
Steam separator. Steam from the heated coolant is fed to turbines to
produce electricity in the generator. Ninety-five per cent of the heat from
fission is transferred through the coolant. The steam is then condensed and
fed back into the circulating coolant.
Containment. The reactor core is located in a concrete lined cavity that acts
as a radiation shield. The upper shield or pile cap above the core is made of
steel and supports the fuel assemblies.

7.9 DESCRIPTION OF FUEL SOURCES

The energy to power a nuclear reactor is created through nuclear fission.
Fission takes place when an atom splits in two and releases a lot of energy as
heat.
In order to use a naturally occurring uranium ore as fuel, it must go through
the purification process. An ore is a rock containing recoverable
concentrations of uranium. It is mined, crushed and grinded into slurry. The
slurry is leached with sulphuric acid, which dissolves the uranium, and it is
then extracted. It then goes through a solvent extraction (or precipitation)
process and uranium comes out in the form of a bright yellow solid. It goes
through a high-temperature drying process and turns into a khaki (or soil)
colour. It is then shipped out and is ready to go into the fuel rods.
Uranium is the most frequently used element in the fission process. An
isotope of uranium can split into two very easily. When its nucleus is hit by a
slow neutron, the fission process is started. It continues as several fast
electrons are split from the nucleus. In order to continue the reaction, these
electrons must be slowed by a moderator (often water). Control rods are used
to regulate the rate of the reaction. When the reaction takes place in the core
of a reactor it creates energy that can be used for power generation. The
uranium is loaded into the core in the form of pellets encased in stainless
steel tubes. These tubes are then surrounded by a moderator. The entire core
is enclosed in a very thick steel or concrete pressurized vessel. The heat is
then used to make steam, which in turn is put through a turbine which
generates electricity.
Spent fuel assemblies are replaced one-third at a time, once a year, before
they cause the reactor to lose energy. Fuel lasts for about three years until the
build up of fission products starts slowing down the reaction.

7.10 TYPES OF REACTORS

A nuclear reactor can be classified in different ways such as on the basis of
types of core used, moderator used, coolant used, fuel used and neutron
energy. The classification of reactors is given in Table 7.3.
Table 7.3 Classification of Reactors
Basis of
Types of reactors
classification

Type of core omogeneous

used reactors

Heterogeneous
reactors

Moderator
used Graphite reactors
 Beryllium reactors

Light water (ordinary)

reactors

Heavy water reactors

Coolant used Ordinary water

cooled reactors

Heavy water cooled

reactors

Gas cooled reactors

Liquid metal cooled

reactors

Organic liquid cooled

reactors

Neutron
energy Thermal reactors

Fast reactors

Fuel material
used Enrich uranium
 Natural uranium

Plutonium

Thorium

A heterogeneous reactor has a large number of fuel rods with the coolant
circulating around them and carrying away the heat produced during the
fission process. In a homogeneous reactor, the moderator and fuel are mixed
together. The solution is critical in the core. The other advantages are:

No need of control rods

Need not be shut down for removal of fission products
Simple in design
Cheaper
Core power density is higher due to better heat transfer capability.

Due to difficulties in maintenance, induced radioactivity, erosion and

corrosion, homogeneous reactors are not commonly used. Natural uranium
also cannot be used. Light water cooled and moderated reactors using slightly
enriched uranium fuel are the most commonly used for power production.
7.10.1 Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)
Water can be used as a moderator and coolant for power reactors. Figure 7.3
shows the pressurized water reactor power plant. The fuel used is slightly
enriched uranium in the form of thin rods or pallets and cladding is either of
stainless steel or zircaloy. Water under pressure is used as both moderator
and coolant. This type of reactor, as shown in Figure 7.4, is extensively
 FIGURE 7.3 Schematic diagram of a PWR power plant.

FIGURE 7.4 Pressurized water reactor (light water).

developed in USA. The most important limitation in PWR is the critical
temperature of water. The coolant pressure must be greater than the saturation
pressure to suppress boiling which is maintained at about 155 bars. A
circulating pump is used to maintain the water round the core, which absorbs
heat. The PWR power plant is composed of two loops in series, the coolant
loop, also called primary loop and the water-steam or working fluid loop.
The coolant picks up the heat from the reactor and transfers it to the working
fluid to generate steam to run the turbine–generator system similar to the
steam power plant.
A pressurizer and surge tank, which is tapped into the pipe loop, is used to
maintain the constant pressure in the water system throughout the load range.
There is also some modification to increase the efficiency of the cycle by
inclusion of an oil-fired superheater between main heat exchangers and the
turbine. There is also an economizer along with some feed water heaters.
Since the water passing through the reactor becomes radioactive and
therefore the entire primary circuit including the heat exchanger has to be
shielded. The main advantages and disadvantages are given as follows:
Advantages

It is cheap as ordinary water is used as moderator and coolant.

It is very compact in size compared to other reactors.
Power density of reactor is relatively high.
There is a possibility of breeding plutonium by providing a blanket of
U-238.
Reactor takes care of the load variation by using the pressurizer and
surge tank.

Disadvantages

Low thermal efficiency (approximately 20%).

Greater heat loss due to use of heat exchanger.
Due to high pressure, a strong pressure vessel is required.
There is lack of flexibility in recharging.
More safety device is required.
Expensive cladding material is required to avoid corrosion.

7.10.2 Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

Boiling water reactor also uses water as a moderator and coolant but in this
case the steam is generated in the reactor itself, as shown in Figure 7.5. There
is no need of heat exchanger. Steam is separated and dried by mechanical
devices located in the upper part of the pressure vessel assembly. Thus water
serves the triple functions of coolant, moderator and working fluid. In this
reactor, enriched uranium is used as fuel. Figure 7.6 shows a schematic
diagram of boiling water reactor power plant. The advantages and
disadvantages of BWR are given as follows:
 FIGURE 7.5 Boiling water reactor (light water).

FIGURE 7.6 Schematic diagram of a BWR power plant.

Advantages

Less costlier than PWR due to reduction in cost of heat exchanger.

It is more efficient than pressurized water reactor as there is no heat
loss component in the heat exchanger.
The pressure of vessel is less compared to the PWR as water is
allowed to boil in reactor. It also reduces the cost of vessel.
A BWR is more stable than a PWR.
The temperature of metal surface is lower as compared to the PWR.

Disadvantages

Since steam is produced from water, which is passing through the

 reactor, the radioactive contamination of turbine mechanism is
possible. Better steam pipes are required to avoid the radioactive fear.
Waste of steam will also lower the efficiency of the plant.
It is not suitable for meeting a sudden load increase.
Power density of BWR is lower than PWR and hence the size of
vessel is larger
than PWR for same output.

7.10.3 Heavy Water Cooled and Moderated (CANDU Type) Reactor

Heavy water (D2O) has almost the same characteristic as that of ordinary
water. Its boiling point at atmospheric pressure is 101.4°C and its density at
room temperature is only 10% above the density of water. Heavy water
moderated and cooled reactors are extensively developed and used in Canada
and are called Canadian Deuterium Uranium (CANDU) reactors. These
reactors use pressurized heavy water (PHW) and suitable for those countries
which do not produce the enriched uranium. Figure 7.7 shows the CANDU
reactor. This reactor uses the natural uranium as fuel, which is comparatively
cheaper than the enriched uranium. Other advantages are low-pressure vessel,
no control rods and low-fuel consumption. The moderators being at low
temperature is more effective in slowing down the neutrons. The construction
of equipment requires lesser time than the others.

FIGURE 7.7 Heavy water reactor.

The main drawback of this type of reactor is its cost, as the cost of heavy
water is extremely high. There is also a problem of leakage, therefore, a
proper safety design is needed.
7.10.4 Gas-cooled Reactor
In gas-cooled reactors, gas is used as a coolant and graphite is used as a
moderator, as shown in Figure 7.8. The inherent advantage of gas-cooling is
that the maximum temperature and pressure of the working fluid can be
selected independently; raising temperature does not necessarily imply
raising of coolant pressure, as with the liquid cooled reactors. Normally
carbon dioxide or helium is used as coolant. Although gases are inferior to
water in heat transfer, but offers several advantages such as safer than water-
cooled reactors, less severe corrosion problem and natural uranium can be
used as fuel.

FIGURE 7.8 Gas-cooled reactor.

Helium, a suitable coolant compared to CO2 as it is chemically inert, has
good
heat transfer capability and low-neutron absorption. Being a monoatomic gas,
it can
produce more power for a given temperatures in the Brayton cycle and higher
efficiency. With U-233/Th-232 fuel, the helium-cooled graphite moderator
functions as a thermal
breeder reactor.
7.10.5 Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR)
Based on the neutron flux spectrum, reactors are classified as thermal reactors
and fast breeder reactors. The main advantages of thermal reactors are ease in
control, greater inherent safety and more heat generated per unit volume of
core compared to fast breeder reactors. On the other hand thermal reactors
pose some limitations such as (1) choice of fuel is very much restricted in
case of uranium, (2) size and weight of reactor per unit power output is
higher and (3) more fissile material is consumed.
Fast breeder reactors convert more fertile material to fissile material and
therefore fuel consumption is less compared to the thermal reactors. Most
produce fissile plutonium from fertile U-238. The fuel rod in core region thus
contains a mixture of fissile Pu-239 and
U-238. The active core region is surrounded by a blanket of fertile U-238.
This region captures neutrons that would otherwise be lost through leakage,
thus producing additional fissile material.
A coolant with excellent heat-transfer properties is required to minimize the
temperature- drop from the fuel surface to the coolant and also it must be
non-moderating. This rules out water, and the best coolants for fast breeder
reactors are liquid metals such as sodium (Na). Such reactors are also called
liquid metal cooled reactors (LMCR). Due to induced radioactive of liquid
sodium, an intermediate loop also uses Na or NaK as coolant between the
primary radioactive coolant and the steam cycle. Therefore, there is a need of
two heat exchangers. The primary loop design can be either pool type or loop
type. In pool type system, the reactor core, primary pumps and intermediate
heat exchangers are placed in a large pool of liquid sodium contained reactor
vessel, whereas in loop type system all are placed outside the vessel.
Figure 7.9 shows a liquid metal fast breeder reactor (LMFBR).

FIGURE 7.9 Schematic diagram of a LMFBR power plant.

7.10.6 Fusion Reactor

Fusion is a process where small nuclei are combined together to form heavy
nucleus. During this process huge energy is released. There are several
possible reactions. A positively charged nucleus is accelerated with high
kinetic energy to overcome the repulsive forces, by raising the very high
temperature resulting in a plasma. The four possible reactions involving
deuterium are:

The main advantages of the fusion power plants are:

Deuterium is available in abundant

No radioactive waste production
Safer in operation
High efficiency
Low heat rejection to the environment.

Now the commercially suitable technology is not developed.

7.11 NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME IN INDIA

In India, nuclear power is developed by Nuclear Power Corporation that
installs powerhouses and generates electricity. Till 2007, the installed
capacity of nuclear power station was
4120 MW. India uses pressurized heavy water reactors (PHWR) because of
several advantages. It uses natural uranium as fuel that is available in India
and heavy water as moderator and coolant.
The existing operating power stations of the Company are:

1. Tarapur Atomic Power Station Units—1&2 (TAPS—1&2)

(Maharashtra)
2. Rajasthan Atomic Power Station Unit—2–4 (RAPS—2–4)
(Rajasthan)
3. Madras Atomic Power Station Units—1&2 (MAPS—1&2) (Tamil
 Nadu)
4. Narora Atomic Power Station Units—1&2 (NAPS—1&2) (UP)
5. Kakrapara Atomic Station Units—1&2 (KAPS—1&2) (Gujarat)
6. Kaiga Atomic Power Station (Kaiga—1&2) (Tamilnadu)

Table 7.12 gives the nuclear history of India.

Table 7.4 India’s Nuclear History
Year Developments
1947 India gains independence from Britain.
Indian government passes the Atomic Energy Act (the beginning of its nuclear
1948
program).

1955 Canada agrees to supply India with a powerful 40 MW research reactor,

known as the Canadian–Indian Reactor, CIR.

With British assistance, construction begins on India’s first reactor, the 1 MW

Apsara research reactor.

1956 USA agrees to supply heavy water for CIR, now called CIRUS.
(March) Apsara becomes India’s first operational reactor.

1960 CIRUS starts operating.

1962 India predicts nuclear energy will generate 20 to 25 GW of electricity by 1987.
1969 India predicts its nuclear generated electricity will be 43.5 GW by 2000.
Work begins on a pilot scale Fast Breeder Test Reactor. It was expected to become
1972
operational in 1976, but it was delayed until October 1985.
1974 India explodes its first nuclear device at Pokhran and claims the explosion was for
(May) peaceful purposes.
The Nuclear Suppliers Group, an international organization that aims to reduce
1975
nuclear weapons proliferation, forms in response to India’s nuclear tests.
1987 India’s nuclear generated electricity capacity is 950 MW.

1998 India conducts a second set of test explosions (11–13 May).

Pakistan responds by exploding its own nuclear devices (28–30 May).

2000 President Bill Clinton visits India, the first US president to do so in 22 years.

India’s nuclear generated electricity capacity is 2.7 GW.

For the first time, the Fast Breeder Test Reactor operates continuously for 53
days.

2001 USA lifts sanctions that were imposed on India and Pakistan after the 1998 tests.
Construction begins on India’s first industrial-scale breeder reactor, the Prototype
2004
Fast Breeder Reactor.

2006 The Indian Department of Atomic Energy predicts it will be able to generate
20 GW of nuclear energy by 2020 and more than 200 GW by 2052.

President George W. Bush approves a controversial law that could

eventually allow India to buy American nuclear reactors and fuel.

In March, Bush and Manmohan Singh sign a nuclear agreement to provide

fuel and technology.

2007 India and Pakistan sign an agreement to reduce the risk of accidental nuclear war.
2010 Anticipated date of completion of Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor.

7.12 EFFECTS OF RADIATION ON HUMANS BEINGS AND

THE BIOSPHERE
Radiation refers to the frequency of an electromagnetic spectrum related to
electromagnetic radiation. It is the emission of energy through space in the
form of waves. Radiation is not an anthropogenic process. Natural
background radiation is emitted from radioactive chemicals that are naturally
occurring, such as uranium, radon, potassium and other elements. Radiation
is sometimes referred to as alpha, beta or gamma radiation.
Uranium itself does not contain much radioactive material, but it must be
carefully handled in the mining process. Most of the radioactive material is
left in the tailings, after the uranium is extracted, and never goes into the fuel.
Small or natural doses of radiation are not harmful to humans or the
biosphere. A dose of 100 mrems per year is considered to be the average
human exposure. A dose of over 200 mrem all at once could cause radiation
sickness. The naturally occurring radioactive material becomes hazardous
through human intervention, such as, mining and using it in the fission
reaction process. Through these activities, radioactive chemicals are
introduced to food, air and water.
Radioactive fission products are variant forms of ordinary chemicals and are
produced in nuclear reactors. It is also possible for the fission chain reaction
to form activation products which can lead to contamination. This happens
when already existing chemicals in the nearby air or water absorb energy and
slightly vary in structure to become radioactive. As they return to normal
state over hundreds of thousands of years, they release ionizing radiation.
Gamma radiation is released from isotopes of bismuth and lead. They can be
toxic to the kidney if they build up, but are usually released through the urine.
As radon decays, it emits alpha radiation. Radon gas is released during the
mining of uranium. Alpha particles do not normally penetrate the human
skin, but they can damage the skin. If they enter the body through ingesting,
inhaling or absorbing radioactive chemicals, they can cause serious damage
to the organs. For example, if alpha particles (or beta particles) discharge in
the lungs they can cause lung cancer. If they are attached to the bone, they
can cause bone cancers or leukemia. That is why it is harmful to have our
water, food and air in contact with these materials.
Safe disposal of radioactive waste
After all the fuel in the rod has gone through the fission process, the rods are
said to be ‘spent’. At that time, they are the most radioactive material on
earth! Since they emit gamma radiation, they must not come in contact with
the biosphere, so they are shielded with water and thick lead walls. If they
were to come in contact with humans, they would cause certain death! These
fuel rods must go through a process to remove the radiation. The outer
cladding is dissolved in nitric acid and the radioactive debris is stored, in the
liquid form, in large carbon or stainless steel drums. After it solidifies, it is
permanently buried in a repository. Waste of lower radioactivity is buried in
dirt trenches or pumped out to sea. This is not hazardous because this waste is
of low concentration.
Over time, a nuclear power plant becomes contaminated even though most of
the fission fragments are safely kept inside the fuel rods. Activation products
are formed in the air, water and pipes of the building, and the plant eventually
becomes unusable. It is then deactivated, dismantled and disposed off as a
radioactive waste. The radioactive waste in the mining process is contained in
a dam. The solids that remain after the uranium is extracted are called
tailings. They are pumped as slurry to the specially engineered dam to retain
them securely.
What happens in a meltdown?
The term meltdown refers to the actual melting of the fuel in the reactor. This
occurs when the temperature in the core reaches 2800°C. A significant
amount of melting has occurred in several cases: Three Mile Island and
Chernobyl. The worst-case scenario of a meltdown would happen in this
sequence: the reactor loses coolant water and the core is exposed, the fuel
assemblies would corrode and the fuel would be exposed and would then
melt its way through the containment. In less severe cases, the release of
radioactive materials to the environment does not always occur. This will
only happen if there is over-pressure of the containment due to 20% melting
of fuel, a steam explosion, and failure of the containment cooling and
spraying systems. Even if the fuel does begin to melt, it would take hours to
make its way through the containment. Therefore, workers have plenty of
time to restore coolant to the core.
Redesigned reactors
The nuclear industry has learnt from the mistakes that lead to the disasters at
Chernobyl, Three Mile Island and other close calls. Improvements and new
designs have been made to help ensure that the world will never again come
close to a nuclear meltdown. Redesigned plans include strengthened
containment in order to decrease the potential for leakage, and a new
heating/cooling system. This new system involves an emergency evacuation
of heat (when the core is damaged), a stabilizing/cooling process for this
heat, and a decrease in the quantity of free hydrogen that could further
increase the fission process.
Control rods have been improved to fit the entire length of the core and the
insertion time was lowered, making it easier to control the rate of the fission
reaction, therefore, not allowing it to get out of control. Improvements to the
emergency protection system include incorporating a four-time redundant
checking system.
7.13 URANIUM AS A SOURCE OF ENERGY
Uranium has the advantage of being a highly concentrated source of energy,
which is easily and cheaply transportable. The quantities needed are very
much less than for coal or oil. One kilogram of natural uranium will yield
about 20,000 times as much energy as the same amount of coal. It is,
therefore, intrinsically a very portable and tradable commodity. The fuel’s
contribution to the overall cost of the electricity produced is relatively small,
so even a large fuel price escalation will have relatively little effect. For
instance, a doubling of the 2000 U3O8 price would increase the fuel cost for
a light water reactor by 30% and the electricity cost about 7% (whereas
doubling the gas price would add 70% to the price of electricity).
There are other possible savings. For example, if spent fuel is reprocessed
and the recovered plutonium and uranium are used in mixed oxide (MOX)
fuel, more energy can be extracted. The cost of achieving this is large, but is
offset by MOX fuel not needing enrichment and particularly by the smaller
amount of high-level wastes produced at the end. Seven UO2 fuel assemblies
give rise to one MOX assembly plus some vitrified high-level waste,
resulting in only about 35% of the volume, mass and cost of disposal.

7.14 SAFETY OF NUCLEAR POWER REACTORS

There have been two major accidents in the history of civil nuclear power
generation:

Three Mile Island, United States, in 1979, where the reactor was
severely damaged but radiation was contained and there were no
adverse health or environmental consequences.
Chernobyl, Ukraine, in 1986, where the destruction of the reactor by a
steam explosion and fire killed 30 people and had significant health
and environmental consequences.

Safety is also a prime concern for those working in nuclear plants. Radiation
doses are controlled by using remote handling for many operations in the
core of the reactor, by shielding, and by limiting workers’ time in areas with
significant radiation levels. Continuous monitoring of individual doses and
the work environment back up these procedures, and ensure very low
radiation doses compared with those in other industries. By any comparison,
nuclear energy applied to electricity generation is extremely safe. There are
over one thousand deaths each year in coal mines, mostly providing fuel for
the main alternative to nuclear energy. There are also health hazards from the
actual use of fossil fuels.
To achieve an optimum safety, nuclear plants in the western countries operate
with a ‘safety-in-depth’ approach, with multiple safety systems. These
include a series of physical barriers between the radioactive reactor core and
the environment, the provision of multiple safety systems, each with backup
and designed to accommodate human error. Safety systems account for about
one quarter of the capital cost of such reactors.
Besides the control rods, which are inserted to absorb neutrons and the
backup cooling systems to remove excess heat, most reactors are designed
with an inherent feature called a negative void coefficient. This means that
beyond an optimal level, as the temperature increases, the efficiency of the
reaction decreases (especially if any steam has formed in the cooling water).
This is due to a decrease in moderating effect so that less neutrons cause
fission, hence the reaction slows down automatically.
Other physical features also enhance safety. For instance, in a typical reactor,
the fuel is in the form of solid ceramic (UO2) pellets. The radioactive fission
products remain bound inside the fuel pellets. The pellets are inside
zirconium alloy tubes, forming fuel rods. The rods are inside a large steel
pressure vessel with walls about 20-cm thick. This in turn is enclosed inside a
robust concrete containment structure with walls a metre or more thick.
In 1996, the Nuclear Safety Convention came into force. It is the first
international legal instrument on the safety of nuclear power plants
worldwide. It commits participating countries to maintain a high level of
safety by setting international benchmarks to which they subscribe and
against which they report. It has 65 signatories and has been ratified by 41
states.
Example 7.1 Find the binding energy in MeV of ordinary helium 2He4 for
which
atomic mass is 4.002603 amu. Given that mp = 1.007277 amu, mn =
1.008665 amu and
me = 0.00055 amu.
Binding energy = 0.030381 ´ 931 = 28.285 MeV

Binding energy per nucleon = = 7.071 MeV

Example 7.2 The decay constant of radium (atomic mass = 226.095) is
1.3566 ´ 10–11 s–1. Find the (a) half-life and (b) the initial activity of 1 g of
radium-226.

Example 7.3 Assuming 80% of neutrons are absorbed by U-235 cause

fission and rest being absorbed by the non-fission capture to produce an
isotope U-236, estimate the fuel consumption of U-235 per hour to produce
100 MW of power. Each fission of U-235 yields 190 MeV of useful energy.
 8
Gas Power Plants
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Gasoline, oil and natural gas are all fossil fuels, which were formed over
millions of years as carbon-based life forms died and decomposed. After
many years, layers of sand and clay formed above organic layers. The
pressure from the upper layers hardened organic material to form into the
substances known as coal or crude oil. Crude oil is used to make gasoline,
which are used daily to power cars and some generators. Natural gases are
mined in a similar way. The natural gas is trapped between the crude oil
below and the limestone above. Natural gas is used in homes and in major
factories and corporations to heat and energize the facilities.
Gas-turbine (GT) based technology is of great interest to the developing
countries because it is the most efficient technology for converting fossil
fuels into electricity and because of ongoing research and development to
make it even more efficient. In addition, gas-turbines generate relatively low
level of greenhouse gases (GHG), such as carbon dioxide. Finally, GT based
technology has the flexibility to deal with the situations where natural gas is
not readily available (a situation that frequently occur in developing
countries) because it can handle a wide variety of low calorific value and
contaminated fuels, the latter requiring a lot of care for their successful
operation.

8.2 SIMPLE GAS-TURBINE PLANT

A simple gas-turbine plant consists of a combustor, an air compressor, a
turbine and several auxiliaries for lubrication, speed control, fuel supply and
starting. There are several practical limitations such as blade temperature,
blade speed, compressor efficiency, turbine efficiency and heat transfer, are
encountered in gas-turbine operation.
In the operation of gas turbine, compressed air is delivered to the combustor
where fuel is supplied in steady flow and a continuous flame is maintained. A
spark makes the original ignition. The heated air in the combustor expands
through nozzles and develops a high velocity. Some of the kinetic energy of
air stream is delivered to the blades of the turbine. Part of this energy is used
to drive the compressor and the remainder is available for shaft work. A
combustion chamber connects the compressor air outlet and the gas turbine
gas inlet. When unit runs, air enters the compressor inlet from the
atmosphere. Air pressure and temperature rise as the compressor forces the
air through its outlet. The compressed air then enters the combustion chamber
or furnace where fuel oil or gas also enters and burns in the compressed air,
raising its temperature. The heated air and the product of combustion,
comprising a mixture of gases, then enter the turbine and produce the shaft
work. The gas pressure drops as it flows through the turbine and the gas
finally exhausts at atmospheric pressure into the surrounding air. Figure 8.1
shows the simple gas-turbine plant.

FIGURE 8.1 Simple gas-turbine plant.

Besides its use in aircraft, the gas turbine has its widest application as
pumping engine in the petroleum industries. The successful use of pulverized
coal as fuel can also be used for gas-turbine plants. Gas-turbine plant offers
inherent advantages of its simplicity, compactness, low space, low first cost
and low cooling water requirement. Some of the advantages of gas turbine
over the reciprocating engines for aircraft are: use of kerosene or distillate,
less fire hazard, no unbalance forces, simple cooling system, fewer moving
parts, easy installation, small frontal area, not being limited by propeller
characteristics and less weight per horsepower.

8.3 ADVANTAGES OF GAS-TURBINE PLANT OVER

STEAM POWER PLANT
Gas-turbine plants offer several advantages over the steam-power plants.
Some of them are listed below:

1. Gas-turbine system is compact and required less space compared to

steam-power plant of same capacity.
2. It requires fewer auxiliaries and installation takes less time.
3. There is no condenser maintenance.
4. It requires a simple lubricating system, light foundation.
5. It can be easily controlled.
6. It can be quickly started as compared to the steam-power plant.
7. The fuel consumption is low during the starting and shutting down.
8. There is clean exhaust and there is no stack required.
9. Due to fewer auxiliaries, the required personnel to run the plant are
also less.
10. In the case of no run plant, personnel required are almost nil.
11. Virtually, there is no water requirement.
12. Gas-turbine plants have low weight power ratio.
13. It is also economical to operate below a given power factor and thus
saving of cost.
14. The capital cost is comparatively smaller than that of steam-power
plant.

The main problem with the gas-turbine plant is that the compressor must be
started before the unit starts which requires the additional external driving
power to start the turbine. However, in the case of a steam-power station, it is
also necessary to run the several auxiliaries before the starting of the units
such as boiler-feed pump, ID and FD fans, etc. After the unit is started, the
turbine is used to drive the compressor and total work available is less.

8.4 SIMPLE GAS-TURBINE CYCLE

Brayton, in 1873, presented simple gas-turbine cycle that is basis of gas-
turbine analysis. Figure 8.2 shows the gas-turbine cycle which consists of
isentropic compression (1 to 2), constant-pressure energy addition (2 to 3),
isentropic expansion (3 to 4) and constant-pressure energy release (4 to 1).

FIGURE 8.2 p–v and t–s diagrams of simple gas-turbine cycle.

It is reversible cycle and efficiency would be

where m is the mass of the air flow and CP is the specific heat at constant
pressure.
Now since

In practice the actual cycle efficiency may deviate from the ideal cycle due to
following reasons.

1. Air is not a perfect gas.

2. The medium is not pure air since fuel has been added.
3. The quantity of medium may change due to leakage, fuel injection
and bleed air for cooling.
4. Compression and expansion are not isentropic.
5. Pressure losses occur throughout the system.
6. Not all energy supplied in fuel is released on combustion.
7. Energy escapes from the system (non-adiabatic).
 8. Exhaust velocity is not used.

The efficiency of simple gas turbine is very low. There are three methods to
increase the thermal efficiency of the cycle, which are: regeneration,
reheating and intercooling.
Regeneration. Recovering waste heat from the high-temperature exhaust
gases of a
gas turbine is a means of improving the cycle efficiency. It is similar to the
air preheater in the case of thermal power plants. The device used for
extracting the heat from the heated gas is called regenerator or heat
exchanger. These are either tabular or rotary plate type in construction.
Figure 8.3 shows a line diagram of gas turbine with regenerator.

FIGURE 8.3 Layout of a gas-turbine power plant with a regenerator.

The use of a regenerator in a gas turbine presents three problems: necessity of
large area of tube surface, maintenance of clean surfaces, and increased
resistance flow. The effectiveness of a regenerator is transferring all the
energy available from the exhaust gases to the air, which is to be heated.
Reheating. Partially expanded high-temperature gas in turbine can be
reheated so that it can be expanded further to produce additional work. There
may be several stages of heating. If only one turbine is there, then there will
be no use of reheating. In two-stage turbine, one reheater can be used, as
shown in Figure 8.4. It improves the performance of the gas-turbine plant.
 FIGURE 8.4 Gas-turbine power plant with reheater.
Intercooling. Compressor consumes very high energy and therefore two
compressors are used with intercooling, which acts as a heat exchanger, as
shown in Figure 8.5. The power required to run the compressor could be
reduced because reduction in the volume of
air-cooled. The number of stages of compressors are decided based on the
cost and energy saving. Intercooling results in the enhancement of thermal
efficiency, air rate and work ratio. Therefore, overall size of the power plant
is reduced for same capacity. Normally, air or water is used to cool the
compressor.

FIGURE 8.5 Gas-turbine power plant with intercooler.

8.5 OPEN-CYCLE GAS-POWER PLANT

Open cycle is the simplest form of gas turbine where air is taken from the
atmosphere, compressed, heated at constant pressure (usually by combustion
of fuel in the air) and expanded in the turbine. Gases coming out of the
turbine are exhausted in the atmosphere. It suffers from the disadvantage that
its efficiency is moderate. A number of simple additions can therefore be
made to the cycle which, at the expense of some increase in complexity,
increase either its efficiency or its specific output. They are as follows:
 (a) It is possible to divide the compression units into two or more stages
and to provide intercooling between each stage.
(b) The turbine can also be split into two or more stages and heat added
using reheaters between the turbines in order to increase the work output
from the lower pressure-end of the expansion cycle.
(c) Means may be provided for recovering the waste heat in the turbine
exhaust, which is known as regenerator.

8.6 CLOSED-CYCLE GAS-POWER PLANT

In closed-cycle gas-turbine, as shown in Figure 8.6, the heat to the working
medium (air or any suitable gas) is given without directly burning the fuel in
the medium and the same working fluid is used again and again in the cycle.
In gas-power plant, the combustion chamber is just like the boiler, intercooler
is as condenser and air-heater corresponds to the water heater of the steam
power plant. Closed-cycle gas-turbine plants are not yet used for the
generation of electricity due to large size of required heat exchangers. A
comparison of open cycle and close cycle is given in Table 8.1.
In order to gain the partial advantages of smaller equipments and to reduce
the cost of air heater, semi-closed-cycle gas-turbines are proposed, where
closed cycle handles the clean air only.

FIGURE 8.6 Layout of a closed-cycle gas-turbine power plant.

Table 8.1 Comparison of Open-cycle and Closed-cycle Gas-turbine Plants
Open cycle Closed cycle
Combustion product flows through Instead of combustion chamber there is an air heater
the turbine. Thus there is a danger to warm the working air. Therefore, there is no danger
of fouling. of fouling.
Due to closed operation, cycle can work
It is not possible to use the denser
on high pressure and thus the physical size of
air and therefore larger size is
equipments are reduced and their per-formance
required.
improved considerably.
There is no need of pre-coolers Pre-coolers are required to get rid of the unavailable
between turbine exhaust and the energy by cooling the working air to the lowest
compressor inlet. possible temperature.
It becomes complex due to the addition of air heater
It is a simple cycle.
and pre-cooler those are needed.
Less cooling water is required. Ample cooling water is required.
Better quality of fuel is used. Inferior fuel or solid fuel can be used.

8.7 GAS-TURBINE FOR POWER GENERATION

In the 1950s, when gas turbines were first used for power generation in large
numbers, they were applied almost exclusively to peaking duty. Designs were
required for this mode of service that featured low specific cost and good
starting reliability. Through the 1960s and early 1970s, continuing advances
in efficiency, reliability and availability facilitated a wider range of
applications for gas turbines. Today, with the addition of low emissions,
overall low life-cycle cost and fast installation time, the gas-turbine-based
power plant has become the most widely used method for power production.
With the increasing operating hours, the cost of fuel has assumed greater
significance in optimizing machine design. As operating (or fuel) cost has
become more important, technology development has been focussed on
improving efficiency, primarily through increasing firing temperature. But
higher operating temperatures can drive design engineers to use more
expensive parts that may affect operating and maintenance practices.
So, in today’s environment, with gas turbines in widespread use in power
generation and cogeneration applications as base-load machines in combined-
cycle configurations, optimizing gas-turbine design requires balancing
multiple objectives of low first cost, fuel cost, and operation and maintenance
costs over the whole life of a machine.

8.8 COMBINED-CYCLE GAS-POWER PLANT

Combined-cycle systems utilize the Brayton-cycle gas-turbine and the
Rankine-cycle steam system with air and water as working fluids to achieve
efficient, reliable and economic power generation. Flexibility provided by
these systems satisfies both utility-power generation and industrial-
cogeneration applications. Current commercially available power-generation
combined-cycle plants achieve net plant thermal efficiency typically in the
50–55% range. Further development of gas-turbine, high-temperature
materials and hot-gas path,
metal-surface cooling technology shows promise for near-term future power
generation combined-cycle systems capable of reaching 60% or greater plant
thermal efficiency. Additional gas-turbine technological development, as well
as increases in steam-cycle pressure and temperature and steam turbine stage-
design enhancement, is expected to achieve further improvement in
combined-cycle efficiency.

8.9 FEATURES OF COMBINED-CYCLE GAS-TURBINE

The combination of the Brayton-cycle gas-turbine and the Rankine-cycle
steam-power system complements each other to form efficient combined-
cycles. The Brayton cycle has high source temperature and rejects heat at a
temperature that is conveniently used as the energy source for the Rankine
cycle. The most commonly used working fluids for combined cycles are air
and steam. Other working fluids (organic fluids, potassium vapour, mercury
vapour, and others) have been applied on a limited scale. Combined-cycle
systems that utilize steam and
air-working fluids have achieved widespread commercial application due to:

High thermal efficiency through application of two complementary

thermodynamic cycles.
Heat rejection from the Brayton cycle (gas turbine) at a high
temperature that can be utilized in a simple and efficient manner.
Working fluids (water and air) that are readily available, inexpensive
and nontoxic.

Industrial gas turbine (GT) is a well-established technology. GTs, in

combination with the waste heat recovery steam generators to supply steam
to steam-turbines (thus forming a combined-cycle plant), are already reaching
efficiencies of well over 50%, with efficiencies projected to approach 60%
over the next few years. In addition, GT based plants are of interest because
of the modularity of the technology (i.e. phased plant construction and
commissioning can be staged in accordance with the demands of the power
system), their relatively low level of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, such
as carbon dioxide as well their ability to handle a wide variety of low
calorific value and contaminated fuels, the latter requiring a lot of care for
their successful operation. Finally, GTs are especially attractive because of
current low fuel prices. Main features of the combined-cycle power plants
are:
1. High thermal efficiency: Combined-cycle thermal efficiency is higher
than that of other conventional power generation systems.
2. Low installed cost: Combined-cycle equipment is pre-engineered and
factory packaged to minimize installation time and cost. All major
equipments, such as gas- turbine generator, heat recovery steam-
generator (HRSG), and steam-turbine generator, can be shipped to the
field as assembled and tested components. Auxiliary equipments, such
as condensers, can be shipped factory-tubed and hydro-tested. This
greatly reduces the inventory of parts that must be managed in the
field and minimizes installation cost. The combined-cycle equipment
cost is higher than that of conventional steam plants due to pre-
engineering; however, combined-cycle plant installation costs are
significantly lower, resulting from the reduced installation cycle.
3. Fuel flexibility: Combined-cycle plants are efficiently operated by
burning a wide range of fuels, ranging from clean natural gas and
distillate oil fuels to ash-bearing crude oil and residual oil fuels.
Operation with coal-derived gas fuels has been applied in many
commercial-size combined-cycle systems.
4. Flexible duty cycle: Combined-cycle systems provide flexibility in
operation for both base load and mid-range duty with daily startup.
Gas turbines in multi-shaft, combined-cycle configuration can be
started quickly, bringing about two-third of plant power online,
typically in less than 60 minutes. Combined-cycle plants also provide
efficient operation at part load, particularly for multiple gas-turbine
combined-cycle systems. Modulating compressor inlet guide vanes
are standard features of many gas-turbine models, enabling high
efficiency operation at part load through reduction in turbine airflow.
This is accomplished at a nearly constant turbine exhaust temperature,
so that design steam conditions and low stack loss can be maintained
to provide an excellent part-load efficiency.
5. Short-installation cycle: Combined-cycle plants can be installed and
operated in lesser time than that required for conventional steam
plants. Again, this is primarily due to the pre-engineering and
packaging of major components in the factory. Phased installation of
the plant, when gas turbines are installed and operated in the simple-
cycle mode during the steam-cycle equipment installation, enables the
user to generate power and revenue in as little as a year from order
 date.
6. High reliability/availability: High reliability operation results from
evolutionary design development that improves parts and
components, and quality manufacturing programs that offer
operational factory testing. High availability is achieved through
development of sound operation and maintenance practices, which
reside principally with the user.
7. Low operation and maintenance costs: Low operation and
maintenance costs are achieved through quality design, prudent
operation and equipment design that allow convenient access for
component inspection.
8. High efficiency in small-capacity increments: Gas-turbine generators
are designed and manufactured in discrete frame sizes.

8.10 MICROTURBINES
Microturbines operate on the same principles as traditional gas turbines. Air
is drawn into the compressor where it is pressurized and forced into the cold
side of the recuperator. Here, exhaust heat is used to preheat the air before it
enters the combustion chamber. The combustion chamber then mixes the
heated air with fuel and burns it. This mixture expands through the turbine,
which drives the compressor and generator (typically at high speeds such as
from 70,000 to 120,000 rpm). Since the generator is mounted on the same
shaft as the turbine, it rotates at the same speed. The combusted air is then
exhausted through the recuperator before being discharged at the exhaust
outlet.
The generator thus produces high-frequency AC-power that is converted to
50–60 Hz by power electronics devices. Typical power ratings range from
25–500 kW although multiple units may be directly interconnected to provide
up to 10 MW. Typical capital costs are in the 500–1000 $/kW range and
electrical efficiencies are 27–32%. Utilizing the exhaust, heat can improve
the overall efficiency up to 80%. Footprint size is of 60 kW/m2 area, where
operating costs (i.e. the cost to produce electricity) are estimated between 6
and 8 cents/kWh and NOX emissions are around 0.1 lb/BTU. Typically,
microturbines use natural gas as fuel, but other fuels, such as diesel, propane
and kerosene are possible. Flare gas from wellheads has even been used as a
source of fuel. However, the quality of the fuel (particulates, etc.) must be
controlled due to the narrow paths within the turbine.

8.11 INTEGRATED GASIFICATION COMBINED-CYCLE

(IGCC) PLANTS
IGCC plants consist of three main sections: the ‘gas island’ for conversion of
coal and refinery residues (such as heavy fuel oil, vacuum residues or
petroleum coke) including gasification and downstream gas purification
(removal of sulphur and heavy metal compounds in accordance with required
emissions levels), the air separation unit and the combined-cycle plant. The
modular design (of gas generation, gas-turbine system, HRSG and the steam-
turbine system) offers the possibility of phased construction as well as
retrofitting of CC plants with a gasification plant, thus replacing the
‘standard’ gas-turbine fuels (natural gas or fuel oil) by syngas produced from
coal or refinery residues. IGCC is, in principle, a combination of two mature
technologies. However proper integration is the key to the success of the
IGCC projects from lessons learnt from more than 350 gasifiers operating
commercially worldwide. IGCC can be expected to be a field of commercial
application in developed countries, such as Italy, for residual refinery fuels
and gasified coal. However, a great care needs to be taken in implementing a
commercialization strategy for developing countries. The total potential of
refinery-based integrated coal gasification combined-cycle (IGCC) plants is
estimated to be 135 GW, by 2015. Currently, over 6 GW of coal and refinery
residue based IGCC projects are either under construction or planned.
Biomass gasification-combined cycle technology offers several advantages
relative to direct combustion-steam cycle and other biomass power
technologies. The principal advantage of IGCC plants is its potential for a
higher power-generation efficiency in the smaller size range appropriate for
biomass power projects. This higher efficiency is important because the
delivered cost of biomass fuel is often higher than that of fossil fuels, and
biomass power projects are generally smaller (10–60 MW) and hence
encounter diseconomies of scale relative to fossil fuel power projects (250–
330 MW and larger for coal-based direct combustion and IGCC plants). The
size of biomass power projects is limited by the maximum transport distance
at which it is economic to harvest and transport biomass fuel to a power plant
(50–75 miles) and the biomass crop production potential of the land area
around the plant. Figure 8.7 shows the process flow sheet of atmospheric
pressure gasification combined cycle power plant.
FIGURE 8.7 Atmospheric pressure gasification combined-cycle power plant.
 9
Diesel Engine Power Plants
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Within 10 seconds of a blackout, stationary diesel engines start working.
Diesel engine-driven electric generators serve as emergency backup power
for hospitals, business and individuals nationwide and provide the electric
utility industry crucial services during power failures. Portable rental power
units are used in critical situations as a temporary source of power. During
preparations for the “Y2K” computer crisis, diesel generators served as a
critical backup strategy for individuals and businesses.
In addition, diesel generators are used as backup power by most of the
nuclear power plants due to their reliability and ability to maintain plant
safety in emergencies. Coal-fired power plants also rely on diesel for
emergency auxiliary systems. Hydroelectric, nuclear, wind and solar power
are also used to provide backup power generation. Still, most of these
alternatives rely on diesel engines at some point in the power production
process. Hence, diesel engines will continue to be an integral part of power
generation for the foreseeable future.
In June 2005, US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) proposed new
regulations that would put stationary diesel engine emissions on track to
achieve near-zero emissions levels in the next few years. In the interim,
engine manufacturers and the utility industry have risen to these new
challenges and are already producing and designing engines and diesel
generators to meet these new regulations. The diesel industry is confident that
the new emissions standards can be met without disruptive impacts on power
output, reliability, ease of maintenance, and fuel economy of diesel engines.
To help businesses and cities protect critical facilities during a power outage,
the following measures can be taken to ensure backup power in a crisis.

Assess the risk: Identifying your facility’s critical loads is an

important first step. Assign a cost to the risks associated with utility
power interruptions, production losses and downtime.
 Install a standby generator: Frequent outages of a few seconds, a few
minutes, or more can often disrupt performance and have significant
cost implications to businesses. While other fuel sources take up to
two minutes to engage, diesel-powered standby generators are
uniquely qualified to provide power quickly during a power outage
and offers the most effective source of reliable backup power
available.
Have sufficient fuel storage: The chemical structure of diesel fuel
allows more energy to be released per unit than any other source of
commonly used power. This greater power density means less fuel
consumption than other sources. Still, it is important to make sure that
you have sufficient fuel storage capacity on-site for an extended
outage of several days.
Maintain your equipment: As required by electrical codes, standby
generators should be “exercised” monthly to ensure that they operate
as designed in the event of an emergency.
Contract rental power: If installing your own standby generation is
not feasible for your business, you might consider contracting with a
firm to reserve rental generator power for use in the event of an
extended outage.

9.2 ADVANTAGES OF DIESEL POWER PLANTS

Diesel power plants offer several advantages as follows.

The capital cost per kW is low.

Design and installation are simple and cheap.
These can be easily procured, installed and commissioned in less time.
Compared to the thermal-power plants, less space is required for
sitting and fuel storage.
Starting time and stopping time are very less. Thus, they can be put
into service and taken out quickly.
These have good efficiency (approximately 40–45%), which is higher
than thermal power plants. Moreover, the working efficiency at part
loads does not fall so much as that of a steam plant.
Small diesel generators can be portable and can be put near any load
requirement. However, a big size diesel power plant can be located
 near load centres as it requires less space.
These power plants are free from ash and require less water for
cooling system.
The operation is simpler, and lesser operating and supervising staff is
needed than a thermal power plant.

9.3 DISADVANTAGES OF DIESEL POWER PLANTS

Diesel power plants have several disadvantages as well. They are as follows.

The operating cost of it is very high as diesel is more costly than coal.
The size of diesel unit is limited and very large capacity is not
possible with these prime movers.
Their repair and maintenance costs are high.
The useful life is very less (approximately 5–10 years).
They have limited overload capacity.
The noise and air pollution is more.

9.4 APPLICATIONS OF DIESEL POWER PLANTS

The size limitations notwithstanding, the escalating oil prices have made the
operation of diesel electric plants very uneconomical. As a result, they play a
minor role in electric power generation. The existing plants are operated only
when absolutely necessary. Their fields of application are as follows:

Emergency plant: A countless number of industries all over the

country have installed diesel electric plants in their premises to
maintain essential services when supply from the grid is not available.
They are used for starting auxiliaries in steam power stations.
Mobile plants: Mobile diesel electric plants mounted on trailers are
used for temporary and emergency purposes.
Peak load plant: A diesel plant can be started and loaded quickly. As
such, these plants can be used as peak load plants.
Standby plants: They can be used as standby plants when supply from
grid is not available.
They can be used in remote locations where supply from the grid is
not available. The use of diesel electric plants during the construction
stages of thermal and hydroelectric power plants is very common.
9.5 DIESEL ENGINE POWER
The ideal thermal cycle of the diesel engine is shown in Figure 9.1.
Beginning with working medium at state 1, it is first polytropically
compressed to state 2, then the heat is added during limited isobaric
expansion, after which a polytropic expansion to the initial volume reduced
the pressure to state 4. The processes 1–2 and 3–4 in ideal cycle are the
isentropics with air as the fluid. The area 1–2–3-4–1 is the work produced by
the cycle, and effective pressure is its average height.

where r is the compression ratio (v1/v2) and for air standard performance c =
1.4.
From Equation (9.1), it can be seen that higher efficiency can be achieved by
high compression ratio and low cutoff ratio (v3/v2). The engine size (which is
proportional to the Pav is increased as R decreases. The requirement of
adequate fuel consumption imposes a limitation on maximum cutoff ratio (R)
that can be used.

FIGURE 9.1 Ideal thermal cycle of diesel engine.

9.6 DIESEL PLANT EQUIPMENT
In the modern age, diesel engines are extensively used for driving small
electric generators. The electric equipment in the diesel plant, however, is
influenced greatly by the diesel engine characteristics. Besides engine, diesel
plants need the following equipment for their operation.
(a) Governing system.
(b) Air-intake system: Air filters, ducts, super charger.
(c) Exhaust system: Connecting ducts, silencers, mufflers, water heaters.
(d) Starting systems: Battery, air compressor, electric motor.
(e) Engine cooling system: Pumps, spray-pond, heat-exchanger, water-
treatment, piping.
(f) Engine lubricating system: Oil tanks, oil pumps, relief valves, filters,
purifiers, coolers, piping.
(g) Fuel system: Fuel storage tanks, pumps, strainers, oil filters, meters,
heaters, piping.
(h) Alternators with exciters.
(i) Instrumentation.
(j) Switchgear and control equipment.
9.6.1 Diesel Engines
The diesel engine, for a diesel electric plant, may operate on a two-stroke or
four-stroke cycle. In a two-stroke cycle, there is a combined expansion and
exhaust stroke (backward stroke) and a combined intake and compression
stroke (forward stroke) to complete one revolution of the crankshaft. In a
two-stroke engine, the cycle of operations is completed in four-stroke (two
revolutions), the four strokes being intake (suction), compression, expansion
(working) and exhaust. A two-stroke engine develops more power for the
same speed and piston displacement and costs less than a four-stroke engine.
However, a four-stroke engine has higher efficiency, lower specific fuel
consumption and more effective lubrication than a two-stroke engine. The
thermal cycles of the two-stroke and four-stroke diesel engine are shown in
Figure 9.2.
 FIGURE 9.2 Thermal cycle of two-stroke and four-stroke diesel engine.
The major advantages of four-cycle engines are:
(a) Cylinder scavenging is performed throughout one stroke and therefore
more efficiently performed, and the fuel consumption is slightly reduced.
(b) Lubrication is more effective, and during the expansion and exhaust
strokes, the pressure on the main gear is relieved. Thus, the oil film
automatically reinforces itself in the bearing, etc. The engine can be
designed with higher bearing pressure.
(c) Scavenging pumps are not necessary.
(d) Combustion and expansion occur once in four-strokes and therefore
cooling is better and the heat stress is lower.
(e) There are no ports in the cylinder liner.
The major advantages of two-cycle engines are:
(a) More power can be developed for a given size of cylinder.
(b) The weight, cost and size of engine per BHP is less.
(c) More flexible engine and simple design.
Two types of ignition system (compression ignition or spark ignition) are
used. The diesel engines are mostly compression ignition type. In
compression ignition engine, combustion starts by spontaneous ignition of
fuel and air because of high temperature developed by the compression of the
air, whereas a spark ignition engine uses a spark plug to ignite the fuel air
mixture. Large diesel engines intended for continuous service and long life
are usually low-speed units. Thus, units ranging from 1000 to 3500 hp, the
speed of 400 to 600 rpm are common and the piston speeds range from 1200
rpm to 1600 rpm. The smaller units have speed up to 900 rpm or 1200 rpm.
The selection of engine size depends on the capacity of the plant. The
overload capacity of the plant is very low and its operation at loads less than
full loads is uneconomical. Therefore, the determination of plant capacity is
very important. To determine plant capacity, an estimate of essential
connected loads (which must be supplied under emergency conditions) is
necessary. It is also necessary to estimate the demand factor and the diversity
factor. The connected load multiplied by demand factor and divided by
diversity factor gives the plant capacity. The size and number of engines
depends on plant capacity, the purpose for which the plant is being set up and
the load characteristics. For small-scale industries only one or two engines
are sufficient. It is advisable to calculate the generation cost and overall plant
economy for more than one alternative and select the best one. The total
space available in the installation is also an important consideration in
determining the number and size of units.
9.6.2 Governors
The speed regulation is defined as

Modern diesel engines are equipped with either non-isochronous or

isochronous governors. A non-isochronous governor may be either a
mechanical governor in which the power to regulate the fuel flow is obtained
from flyweights, or it may be a relay type employing a hydraulic or electric
(including electronic) system. Isochronous governors are relay type and
usually supplied for the diesel engine having parallel operation. When
voltage and frequency (single generator operation) are not so important, the
regulation of 6% is acceptable. All diesel engines should be supplied with
emergency over speed governors to stop the units when the speed exceeds by
10%.
9.6.3 Air-intake System
Air requirements of diesel plants are high (around 4–8 m3 per kWh). Small
engines take air from the engine room, but for large engines, air is drawn
from outside the engine room and delivered to the inlet manifold through the
air filters, which remove the dust and other suspended impurities from air.
Filter types include dry, oil bath, viscous impingement and electrostatic
precipitator filters. In cold climates, the intake air is heated, by using the heat
from exhaust gases, before injection. Supercharging is usually employed to
increase the pressure of intake air above atmospheric pressure.
9.6.4 Exhaust System
The diesel engine takes considerable amount of air, and this air comes out
from the exhaust system. The function of the exhaust system is to discharge
the engine exhaust to the atmosphere outside the building. A good exhaust
system should keep the noise at a low level, exhaust well above the ground
level to reduce the air pollution at breathing level, and isolate the engine
vibrations from the building by using a flexible section of the exhaust pipe.
The exhaust pipe is provided with a muffler to reduce pressure in the exhaust
line and eliminate much of the noise. The exhaust system must carry around
0.17 to 0.23 m3 of air per minute per horse power developed. The waste heat
of exhaust gases may be used to raise low-pressure steam, or heat the oil or
ventilating air for the plant, or to heat the buildings.
9.6.5 Starting System
Because of high compression pressures, even a small diesel engine in a power
plant cannot be started by hand cranking. Small diesel engines can be started
by electric starter driven by batteries. Air motors may be used for medium
sized units. Compressed air system is mostly used for starting diesel engine in
power plants. Compressed air from air tank, at about 20 times atmospheric
pressure, is admitted to a few of the engine cylinders, making them work like
reciprocating air motors to turn the engine shaft. Fuel admission to the
remaining cylinders causes the engine to start. A motor-driven compressor is
used to supply air to the compressed air tank. A 0.45 m3 tank with air at 20
atmospheric pressure is sufficient for starting a
1200 hp engine 5 to 7 times without being recharged.
9.6.6 Cooling System
The extra heat, not used for doing useful work, has to be removed from the
engine. Otherwise, this extra heat may disintegrate the lubricating oil film on
the cylinder walls and damage the cylinder liners, heads, walls, piston and
rings. Small engines may be air-cooled but large engines mostly employ
forced water cooling. The cold water is sent through the cylinder jacket with
the help of a pump. The hot water is cooled in a spray pond and re-circulated.
It is necessary to keep the exit temperature of the cooling water around 70°C.
If this temperature is too low, the lubricating oil film will not spread properly
and will result in cylinder and piston wear. If this temperature is too high, the
lubricating oil burns. This necessitates a control of the flow of cooling water
according to the load on the engine. The cooling water requirement of a
diesel engine (for 10°C temperature rise) is around 2 to 4 litres per bhp per
minute. It is possible to utilize the heat of exit cooling water for heating oil or
buildings. It is necessary to treat the make-up water to remove the scale
forming impurities. Zeolite softener or lime or lime-soda-ash treatment is
employed.
9.6.7 Lubricating Oil System
Lubricating oil consumption is one of the important elements in the diesel
power costs which is around 3% of the fuel costs. Therefore, a proper lub-oil
system is a must. High pressure and small clearances necessitate a good
lubrication system for a diesel engine. The life of the engine and the
efficiency depend largely on the lubrication system. In addition to lubricating
the moving parts, the lubricating oil removes heat from the cylinder and
bearings, carries away the solid matter from rubber moving parts and helps
piston rings to seal gases in the cylinder. The parts of the engine which need
lubrication include piston and cylinders, gears, crank-shaft and connecting
rod, bearings etc. Piston and cylinder need special lubricating oil. The forced
feed lubrication is mostly used, and the equipment for this purpose includes
pumps, oil cooler, oil cleaner, sump oil tank etc. The lub-oil pumps are driven
by engine shaft. An oil system should have a strainer to remove larger
impurities, and filters are used to remove smaller particles.
9.6.8 Fuel Oil System
In a small engine, the fuel is stored in a small tank mounted on the engines.
Whereas the fuel received by the large plant is stored in bulk storage tanks
which are situated outdoors for safety. Oil is drawn from these tanks by
pumps, daily or at suitable intervals, and delivered through strainers and
meters to small storage tanks called day tanks which feed engines. The
function of the engine fuel admission system is to supply correct amount of
fuel to each cylinder in advance of the working stroke at proper time even
with varying load conditions. Nowadays, all diesel power plant engines use
mechanical injection system in which fuel at a pressure of around 100
kg/cm2 is delivered mechanically, through the atomiser nozzle, into the
compressed air.
9.6.9 Diesel Engine Alternator
The diesel engine alternators are of rotating field, salient pole construction,
the number of poles varying from 6 to 28 and capacities from 25 to 35000
kVA at 0.8 p.f. lagging. Generally they are rated at 440 volt, though larger
machines may have a voltage rating of
2.2 kV. The alternators are directly coupled to the engines. Special attention
as regards mechanical design of the alternator is necessary to avoid setting up
of torsional vibrations due to uneven turning moment of the engine. They are
provided with automatic voltage regulators to permit close voltage regulation
and satisfactory parallel operation. Almost all diesel engine alternators are
provided with damper windings. Each alternator is provided with its own
exciter usually coupled to the engine shaft either directly or through a belt to
increase speed. The voltage rating of exciter is 115 V or 230 V and power
rating 2 to 4% of the alternator rating.
9.6.10 Instrumentation
A diesel plant must have a number of instruments to ensure satisfactory
operation. These instruments are:
(a) Temperature measurements: Thermometers (or pyrometers) for
measurement of exhaust temperature, jacket water temperature,
lubricating oil temperature, fuel oil temperature and injection air
compressor temperature.
(b) Pressure measurements: Pressure gauges to gauge both final and inter-
stage pressure of starting air system, lubricating oil system before and
after cooler, cooling water, jacket water and fuel oil before and after
strainer.
(c) Energy meter, wattmeter, voltmeter and ammeter.
(d) Synchronising equipment, if operating with grid.
(e) Alarm systems to give warning in the event of high lubricating oil
temperature, high jacket water temperature, low jacket water pressure,
low lubricating-oil pressure, incorrect starting and blower motor over
current.
9.6.11 Substation Equipment
The various pieces of substation equipment include bus bars, station
transformers, circuit breakers, over-current, over-voltage and under-voltage
relays etc. The switchgear is grouped in the form of a switch board, which is
placed in the engine hall on the alternator end of the engine. A mimic
diagram with lamp type semaphores indicates the position of the circuit
breakers and also indicates whether the bus bar is alive or dead. The engine
governors can be controlled from the switchboard to enable easy
synchronizing of the alternators. Figure 9.3 shows the diagram of a diesel
engine.

FIGURE 9.3 Schematic diagram of a diesel engine.

9.7 RECENT ADVANCES IN DIESEL PLANTS

The following new diesel plant technologies are being developed. Diesel-
combined-cycle plants and bio fuel-based diesel engines are becoming
popular. In the diesel-combined-cycle plant, the exhaust gas temperatures are
higher due to the combination of design and tuning. This technology used hot
combustion process for combustion instead of the conventional process. In
hot combustion process, the diesel engines cooling losses are reduced, thus
increasing the temperature of hot exhaust gases. The waste heat of exhaust
gases is used in steam generation, which is used to generate electricity thus
improving the plant efficiency. DCC plant is equipped with nitrogen oxide
catalytic converter and desulphurisation system to keep the pollution level
low. Using plants for production of diesel can be used for power generation.
A low cost method of converting wood and other bio fuels into liquid bio
fuels is being developed.
 10
Transmission Line
Parameters (Constants)
Calculations
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The main function of a transmission line is to transfer bulk amount of power
to load centres and industrial users up to the primary distribution lines. A
transmission system consists of structures, wires, switching and conversion
stations. It forms the bone of the power system, which connects the
generating stations with the load points. Transmission systems are
interconnected due to economic, security and reliability reasons. The
transmission line requirement is decided based on the system planning.
Whenever a generating plant is added to the system, a transmission line is a
must to evacuate the power from the generating station. Each country has
certain sets of rules for the voltage and number of lines for evacuation. The
requirement of other transmission lines is also assessed so that no line gets
overloaded even during the outage of some critical lines. While deciding the
transmission system, following factors need to be considered:

1.Voltage level
2.Right-of-way requirements
3.Type and size of a conductor
4.Line regulation and voltage control
5.Corona loss
6.Efficiency
7.Compensation requirement
8.System performance including the power flow, stability, etc.
9.System fault levels at different bus bars and requirement of new
circuit breakers for the same.
10. Protection system for new lines and a change in setting of the same
 for other lines, if any.
11. Grounding
12. Insulation coordination
13. Mechanical design
(a) Sag and stress calculations
(b) Conductor composition
(c) Conductor spacing
(d) Insulator configurations
14. Structure design
(a) Structure types
(b) Stress calculations
15. Economics of the system

10.2 TYPES OF CONDUCTORS

Conductors used for electrical system are those having less resistance, low
weight, high-tensile strength, low cost and low coefficient of expansion.
Normally, we use aluminium and copper as conductors for the same. The
main advantages of aluminium conductors over copper conductors are:

low weight
high conductivity (less resistance) and less corona loss
low cost

The main problems with aluminium conductors are:

low tensile strength

high coefficient of expansion
large area (thus high wind pressure)

Normally, conductors for ac transmission system are used in the form of

stranded except for smaller cross-section. Stranded conductors are
electrically parallel and spiralled together. The main reason for stranding the
conductors is to reduce the skin effect. The size of conductors is decided
based on the voltage and the current carrying capacity. A general formula for
the total number of strands (N) for n layers (including the centre strand) of
strands in a conductor, if each strand is uniform, is
N = 3n2 – 3n + 1 (10.1)
The overall outer diameter of the conductor (D), if the diameter of one strand
is d, will be
D = (2n – 1)d (10.2)
To increase the tensile strength of the conductor, one or more central
conductors (of different materials) are used, which have a high tensile
strength. In modern overhead transmission systems, bare aluminium
conductors are used which are classified as
AAC: all-aluminium conductor
AAAC: all-aluminium alloy conductor
ACSR: aluminium conductor steel reinforced
ACAR: aluminium conductor alloy reinforced
In most applications, ACSR conductors are used for both distribution lines
and transmission lines. Reasons for these are given as follows:
(a) Steel core aluminium conductors are normally cheaper than copper
conductor of equal resistance which is obtained without sacrificing
efficiency, durability or length of useful life.
(b) By high mechanical strength, the length of span can be increased and
cost of erection and maintenance can be reduced.
(c) Corona loss (to be discussed) and skin effect are reduced.
The name of various ACSR conductors used in India are given in Table 10.1.
It should be noted that these are the names of animals.
Table 10.1 Names of ACSR Conductors
Names Size (mm) Names Size (mm)
Mole 6/1/1.50* Wolf 30/7/2.59
Squirrel 6/1/2.11 Panther 30/7/3.00
Weasel 6/1/2.59 Zebra 54/7/3.00
Rabbit 6/1/3.55 Moose 54/7/3.53
42/4.57 (Al) + 7/2.54
Raccoon 6/1/4.09 Bersimis
(steel)
6/4.72 (Al) + 7/1.57
Dog
(steel)

* number of strands/no. of steel strands/diameter of strands

10.3 REPRESENTATION OF LINE

For analysis purposes, a single-phase transmission line can be represented by
series combination of ac resistance (r) and inductance (L) and shunt
combination of conductance (g) and capacitance (C), as shown in Figure
10.1, where small sections of lines are added together to form the full-length
line. The conductance of transmission line represents the leakage loss at the
insulators of the supports. Three-phase transmission line can also be
represented as a single-phase equivalent representation, if the line is
balanced. These parameters are distributed in nature and are usually
represented on loop-length basis in case of two-wire transmission system and
on per conductor basis in case of three-phase transmission systems.

FIGURE 10.1 Distributed line parameters.

The transmission capacity of a line mainly depends on the inductance and the
capacitance, as resistance and conductance are very small. The resistance
used for analysis of transmission line performance is the effective (or ac)
resistance. The direct current resistance (Rdc) of a conductor is defined as

where t = conductor resistivity, l = conductor length and A = conductor cross-

section area.
The ac resistance is more than dc resistance due to skin effect.

10.4 INDUCTORS AND INDUCTANCE

An inductor is a device that stores energy in a magnetic field. The inductance
(L) is defined as the flux linkages per unit current. Mathematically it can be
written, if the flux linkage linearly changes with the current, as

where m is the total flux linkages (weber-turns) and ym is the flux linkage in
the coil. When the flux linkage does not linearly change with the current,
inductance is defined as the ratio of infinitesimal change in flux linkage to
infinitesimal change in current producing it and can be written as

Mutual inductance between two circuits is defined as the ratio of flux

linkages of one circuit to the current in the second circuit. If m12 is flux
linkage with circuit 1 produced by current I2, the mutual inductance will be

10.5 AMPERE’S LAW

The line integral of magnetic flux intensity (H) around a closed path is equal
to the current enclosed in that path. Mathematically, it is represented as

If the path of integration encloses N number of turns of wire and each wire
carries current (I) in the same direction, then

Using the Ampere’s law, the magnetic field intensity (ampere-turn/metre) due
to a long current carrying conductor as shown in Figure 10.2 can be derived
as follows:

FIGURE 10.2 Variation of magnetic field intensity of a long conductor.

Let us assume that current is uniformly distributed in the conductor of radius
R and the return path for the current in this conductor is so far away that
magnetic field of the conductor is not affected. Magnetic field intensity will
be different within and outside the conductor as the flux linkages due to
internal flux and external flux are different.
Magnetic field intensity outside the conductor
Let us calculate the magnetic field intensity (Hx) using Ampere’s law at a
distance x (>R). The length of enclosed path will be 2rx and the enclosed
current is I. Using Equation (10.7),

or

This shows that magnetic field intensity is inversely proportional to the

distance x, outside the conductor.
Magnetic field intensity inside the conductor
Let us calculate the magnetic field intensity (Hx) using Ampere’s Law at a
distance x (< R). The length of enclosed path will be 2rx (Figure 10.2). Since
the current density (Ix/a¢ = I/a) is same throughout the conductor where a¢ and
a are the area of the conductor at radius x and R respectively, the enclosed
current at x inside the conductor will be

This indicates that magnetic field intensity at a distance x inside the

conductor is directly proportional to the distance from the centre of the
conductor. Following observation can be made from above calculations:

1. Magnetic field intensity at surface of the conductor is the highest.

2. Magnetic field intensity at the centre of the conductor is zero.
3. The presence of earth will affect the magnetic field geometry
insignificantly.
 4. Even the volume of the conductor is small, magnetic field energy (We
= 0.5 mH2) stored is not small.

10.6 INDUCTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR

Inductance of a conductor is defined as the flux linkage per ampere. Since
there are two flux linkages: one is due to the internal flux and second is due
to the external flux, inductances corresponding to these fluxes are calculated
separately. Following assumptions are made:
(a) Current density in the conductor is uniform
(b) Relative permeability of conductor material is unity.
Inductance due to internal flux linkages. Magnetic flux density (B)
can be written using Equation (10.13) as

This shows that flux density varies with the distance from the centre. Refer to
Figure 10.3.

FIGURE 10.3 Cross-section of conductor.

Let us take magnetic field density (Bx) is constant for small distance of dx at
x from the centre. The flux (dz) passing through a small cylindrical shell of
radii x and x + dx will be
dz = Bxdxl = n0Ixdxl/(2rR2) Wb
where l is the length of the wire. Since this flux links only the current
enclosed in the radius of x, the flux linkage will be product of flux and
number of turns. Thus
Inductance due to external flux linkages. Let us calculate the flux
linkage between two points A and B at distances d1 and d2 respectively from
the centre of the conductor. The flux density (Bx) at distance x from the
centre of the conductor, as shown in Figure 10.4, can be expressed using
Equation (10.10) as

FIGURE 10.4 Flux linkage between two points.

Thus flux in the concentric circle shell will be

This flux links the current I and thus the total flux linkage between points A
and B will be
10.7 INDUCTANCE OF A SINGLE-PHASE (TWO-WIRE)
CONDUCTOR
Figure 10.5 shows an arrangement of one-phase two-wire system in which
one conductor is used as return path. X denotes current passing through the
conductor normal to the paper and the return current coming out of the paper
is denoted by dot.

FIGURE 10.5 Single-phase two-wire system.

For conductor-1, there are two fluxes. One is due to the internal flux and
other is due to external flux. The inductance due to internal flux will be the
same as in Equation (10.14). The external flux will be from the distance R
(radius of conductor) to D + R but it should be noted that the flux links up to
a distance D – R (at the surface of the second conductor) with a current I and
between D – R and D + R, it links with varying current from I to zero. For
simplicity, we can take the average distance D up to centre of the second
conductor. For distances greater than D, there is no flux which encloses the
conductor as sum of the current is zero. Therefore, flux linkage due to
external flux between D – R to R will be

Normally, the radius of conductor is very small compared to the distance

between the conductors (R << D). Thus D – R @ D. The flux linkage due to
external flux can be written as
Total flux linkage of conductor-1 will be

Total inductance of the circuit due to the current in conductor-1 only is

Since e–1/4 is equal to 0.7788, therefore R¢ (called as geometric mean radius

G.M.R.) is equal to 0.7788R. This multiplying factor of 0.7788 adjusts the
radius in order to account for internal flux linkages, which applies to solid
round conductor.
Similarly, inductance due to the current in the second conductor will be

Equation (10.18) can also be derived with the help of total flux linkages. The
total flux linkages due to both the conductors will be the sum of the flux
linkages caused by the currents flowing in both the conductors. Since the
current in both the conductors is same, the total flux linkages will be double
of Equation (10.16). The total inductance will be the total flux linkages
divided by the current as
This inductance is called inductance per loop length which is double of the
inductance per conductor in a single-phase line.

10.8 FLUX LINKAGES IN A COMPOSITE CONDUCTOR—

SELF AND MUTUAL GMD
Let us consider a group of n composite conductors electrically parallel, as
shown in
Figure 10.6. There will be two types of flux linkages: one due to current in
conductor itself and second due to currents in the other conductors. If the
currents carried by individual composite conductor are I1, I2, I3, …, In, their
sum will be zero. The respective distance between each conductor and the
point P that is very far from them as shown in the figure. Stranded conductors
are also a type composite conductor and each strand shares equal current but
the sum of currents are not zero.

FIGURE 10.6 Group of n-composite conductors.

The flux linkage (internal and external) of conductor-1 (Equation 10.16),
which is of radius R1, due to its own current I1, up to point P will be
The flux linkage with conductor-1 due to current in conductor-2 within
limiting distance D2P and D12 will be

Similarly, flux linkages with conductor-1 due to the currents in other

conductors can be written. The total flux linkages with conductor-1 due to
current in all the conductors will be

Since sum of the currents in all the conductors is zero, the current in the nth
conductor can be written as In = – (I1 + I2 + I3 + … + In–1]. Putting this
value in Equation (10.19) and simplifying, we get

As point P is very far away from composite conductors, the ratios

Alternate method
Equation (10.20) can also be derived in different way as follows. Let us take
three conductors as shown in Figure 10.7.
Flux linkages of conductor-1 due to its own current I1 will be (external flux
due to current in conductor-1 will extend from R to infinity)

FIGURE 10.7 Flux linkage of one conductor in group of three conductors.

Flux linkages of conductor-1 due to current I2 in conductor-2 will be (flux
due to current in conductor-2 will be enclosed from D12 to infinity),

Total flux linkages of conductor-1 will be

This equation can be generalized as Equation (10.20) for n conductors in a

group.
10.9 INDUCTANCE OF ONE-PHASE TWO-WIRE
(COMPOSITE- CONDUCTORS) LINE
Let us assume, two wires A and B consist of respectively m and n composite
conductors, as shown in Figure 10.8. The current in each conductor of wire-A
will be I/m and of wire-B will be –I/n. One group of conductors acts as a ‘go’
conductors for single-phase line and the other as the ‘return’ conductors.

FIGURE 10.8 One-phase two-wire composite conductors.

The flux linkages of any conductor (say 1) due to current in all conductors
will be

The inductance of conductor-1 in wire-A will be

Similarly, the inductance of conductor-2 in wire-A will be

Since wire-A consist of m conductors electrically in parallel, the inductance

of wire-A will be
where D11, D22, …, Dmm represent the 0.7788 times the radius of
conductors 1, 2, …, m respectively.
The numerator of argument of natural log (mnth root of the product of the mn
distances between m conductors of wire-A and n conductors of wire-B) is
called geometric mean distance (GMD, often called mutual GMD) and
denoted by Dm. The denominator of argument of log, which is the m2 root of
m2 distances, i.e. the distances of the various conductors from one conductor
and the radius of the same conductor, is called geometric mean radius (GMR,
also called self GMD) and denoted by Ds. Then, the inductances of
conductors will be

Inductance of wire-B can also be obtained as

10.10 INDUCTANCE OF THREE-PHASE TRANSMISSION

LINE
A single circuit, 3-phase system as shown in Figure 10.9, is having three
wires (conductors) a, b and c with current Ia, Ib and Ic respectively. Let us
assume that radius of each conductor is R. The flux linkage of conductor a
due to currents Ia, Ib and Ic, using Equation (10.20), can be written as
 …

FIGURE 10.9 Three-phase transmission line with unsymmetrical spacing.

Similarly mb and mc can be expressed as

If currents in phases are symmetrical, the phase current Ib and Ic can be

represented in terms of phase current Ia, as follows:
Ib = IaЖ120° = a2Ia and Ic = IaÐ120° = aIa
where a2 = –0.5 + j0.866. Putting the values of Ib and Ic in the expression of
Ia, we have

Thus inductance of conductor a will be

From Equations (10.23–10.25), it is seen that inductance of conductors a, b
and c are unequal and have imaginary part which is due to mutual
inductances. This is a general derivation
for single circuit, three-phase transmission line with unsymmetrical spacing.
From
Equations (10.23–10.25), the inductance for different cases can be derived as
follows:
Conductors at equal spacing. When conductors are at equal spacing,
they are called symmetrically spaced. If the spacing is D (i.e. Dab = Dac =
Dcb = D), the inductance of conductors will be

This indicates that if spacing between the conductors is same, whether they
are transposed or not, the inductance of each phase is equal and there is no
imaginary components.
Line is transposed. Transposing of power conductors means changing the
position of phase conductors at regular interval along the line so that each
conductor occupy others positions over an equal distance, as shown in Figure
10.10. If transmission lines are not transposed, the voltage drop in the
transmission line will not be the same due to unequal inductances. Another
problem is the radio interference because external flux outside the conductors
is not zero.
 FIGURE 10.10 Transposition of lines.
Normally, modern power lines are not transposed, however, it is done at the
stations. The effects of difference in inductance are very small in the case of
asymmetrical spacing. The inductance of untransposed line is taken as
average value of inductances.
If a line is transposed, each line will take all the three positions for the one-
third length of the line. The average value of inductance will be

For the equilateral spacing Dm = D.

10.11 INDUCTANCE OF A THREE-PHASE DOUBLE-

CIRCUIT LINE
To increase power transfer from one point to another point, transmission lines
run in parallel, normally on the same tower, are called double circuit. There
are different configurations possible: symmetrically spaced and
asymmetrically spaced. If these circuits are on the same tower, the effect of
self and mutual inductance are more than if they are on the different towers.
The main aim to run more than one circuit is to reduce the inductance of the
equivalent circuit. It can be seen from Equation (10.22) that for low
inductance, the Dm should be low and Ds should be as high as possible.
Therefore, the rule is to separate the individual conductors of a phase as
widely as possible and keep the distance between the phases small. So, in the
case of double circuit line, arrangement of Figures 10.11(a) and 10.11(b) are
preferred to the arrangements as shown in Figures 10.11(c) and 10.11(d).
Conductors a and a¢ are connected in parallel and form one phase of supply.

FIGURE 10.11 Three-phase, double-circuit arrangements.

Inductance with symmetrical spacing

Inductance can be calculated from the basic theory of flux linkages or with
GMD and GMR concepts. For symmetrical spacing, the conductors must be
placed at the vertices of a regular hexagonal, as shown in Figure 10.12.
Conductors a, b and c belongs to one circuit and a¢, b¢ and c¢ are of second
circuit. The words a, b, c denoted the respective phases of the system. From
Figure 10.12,

FIGURE 10.12 Three-phase, double-circuit with symmetrical spacing.

Dab = Dbc = Dac = Dcb = Dca = Dba = D
Dac = Dbc = Dca = Dbc = Dba = Dab = Ö3D
Daa = Dbb = Dcc = 2D.
Let us assume a balance case, i.e. Ia + Ib + Ic = 0 and radius of each
conductor is R.
Method 1: Flux linkages approach. Flux linkage of conductor a

Substituting the value of Ib + Ic = –Ia, we get

Hence the inductance of conductor a will be

Since the conductors of a phase are in parallel, the inductance of phase a will
be La/2.
Method 2: GMR and GMD approach. Mutual GMD of phase a is
Inductance of each conductor will be 2 ´ LA which will be

It is same as in Equation (10.26). It must be noted that using GMD and GMR
concept, inductance of phase (not conductor) is calculated.
Inductance with unsymmetrical spacing (transposed lines)
Since the conductors are not symmetrically placed, to calculate the
inductance of the line, the line should be assumed to be transposed. If
transposition is not there, there will be imaginary terms in inductance. Figure
10.13 shows the possible arrangement of transposed lines.
To remember the sequence of the transposition, the position of phases of first
circuit will move downward in cycle and the phases of second circuit will
move upward cyclically.

FIGURE 10.13 Three-phase double-circuit arrangements.

Method 1: Flux linkages approach. Flux linkages of conductor a in
position-1
Similarly, flux linkages of conductor a in position-2 and position-3 will be

The average flux linkages of conductor a(ma) will be (ma1 + ma2 + ma3)/3.
Hence

Substituting the value of Ib + Ic = –Ia, we get

Hence inductance of conductor a will be

Since the conductors of a phase are in parallel, the inductance of phase a will
be La/2.
Method 2: GMR and GMD approach. Mutual GMD of phase a in
position-1,

(Note that GMD1 is of conductor a only and for a’ it will be the same.
Therefore, the effective GMD of phase a will be equal to the GMD of
conductor a.)
Self-GMD (or GMR) of phase a in position-1,

Similarly self-GMR of phase a in position-2 and position-3 can be written as

Inductance of phase a using Equation (10.22) will be

It is same as in Equation (10.27).
It should be noted that GMD concept could not be applied to non-
homogeneous conductors. If the current is not uniformly distributed over the
section of conductor, GMD approach will not be suitable. It is defined as
GMD of a point with respect to a number of points, which is the geometric
mean distance between that point and other points. It can also be applied to
the area.

10.12 BUNDLED CONDUCTORS

Stranded or composite conductors touch each other, however, bundled
conductors are separated from each other by 30 cm or more and conductors
of each phase are connected by conducting wires at particular length. Figure
10.14 shows the stranded and bundled conductors. For the voltage rating
more than 230 kV, it is not possible to use the round conductors due to
excessive corona loss. It is preferred to have the hollow conductor, normally
in substations, and bundled conductors in transmission lines. The main
advantages of using bundled conductors are:

Reduced corona loss

Reduced voltage gradient at the surface of the conductor
Low reactance due to increase in the self-GMD
Reduced radio interference
Increase in capacitance
Larger loading capability and
Increase surge impedance loading.

The reactance of bundled conductors can be calculated with the help of GMD
and GMR approach.
 FIGURE 10.14 Bundled and stranded conductors.

10.13 SKIN EFFECT

The alternating current distribution in a wire is not uniform. The current
density near the surface is more than near to the centre. It is affected by the
frequency of the current. If the frequency of current is more, the current
distribution is more non-uniform. This effect is known as skin effect. Due to
this effect the effective resistance (or ac resistance of the conductors)
becomes more than the direct current (dc), where the current distribution is
uniform, resistance (called the dc resistance). This can be understood by an
example.
Consider a solid current carrying conductor of circular cross-section, as
shown in Figure 10.15. This can be replaced by a large number of conductors
bunched together with small radii. These conductors occupy the same cross-
sectional area. If the current is same, the loss can be calculated in both the
cases and thus the effective resistance. In n strands, each of resistance nR
ohm carries a uniformly distributed current (of I/n ampere). The loss will be
same as a single conductor (I2R). Let us assume half of the conductors (n/2)
carry currents of [(I/n) + DI] ampere and the other half (n/2) carry [(I/n) – DI]
ampere. The total loss is

which is greater than I2R. This indicates that the effective resistance will be
more than the dc resistance if current distribution is not uniform.

FIGURE 10.15 Skin effect.

Due to non-uniformity of current, skin effect, the flux linkages are reduced
and thus skin effect reduces the effective internal reactance. The inner
filaments carrying currents give rise to flux which links the inner filaments
only whereas the flux due to the current carrying outer filaments enclose both
inner and outer filaments.

10.14 PROXIMITY EFFECT

Like skin effect, the proximity effect also increases the resistance of the
conductor. The alternating flux in a conductor caused by the current flowing
in neighbouring conductors gives rise to circulating currents, which cause the
non-uniformity of the current and thus increases resistance. Let us consider
two-wire system, as shown in Figure 10.16. When conductor A carries
current, its flux links with the other conductor B. The flux linkages are nearer
to the conductor, as shown by shaded portion, than the opposite side. If the
current in conductor B is opposite to the current in A, the current density will
be more in the adjacent portion of the conductor. If the current direction is
same, the current density will be more in the remote part of the conductor.
Due to this non-uniformity, the effective resistance is more than the dc
resistance.

FIGURE 10.16 Proximity effect.

This effect is more pronounced in cable where the phase conductors are
nearer to each other. The proximity effect is negligible in overhead
transmission line. Both skin effect and proximity effect depend on the
conductor size, frequency of the supply, resistivity and permeability of the
conductor material. For the circular conductors, the increase in effective
resistance is proportional to d2fnr/t,where d is the diameter of the conductor.

10.15 GUY’S THEOREM

If the number of strands is more, it is very cumbersome to calculate the
effective radius of the conductor. These can be calculated by Guy’s Theorem.
It is stated as:

1. GMD between n conductors symmetrically placed on the periphery of

 a circle of radius r will be r ´ (n)1/(r–1).
2. GMD of any point inside the circle from a line or point placed on the
periphery of a circle of radius r will be r.

Example 10.1 Find the equivalent radius of 7-strand conductor. The radius of
each strand is r.
Solution From Figure 10.17,
D12 = D23 = D34 = D45 = D56 = D17 = D27 = D37 = D47 = D57 = D67 =
2r
D11 = D22 = … = 0.7788r
D14 = D25 = D36 = 4r
D13 = D24 = D35 = D46 = 2 ´ 2r ´ sin (60°) = (2Ö3)r

FIGURE 10.17 Example 10.1.

Self-GMD of strand-1,

Since strands 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 are on the periphery of the conductor, they are
in symmetrical and the self-GMD of these strands will be similar to strand-1.
However, the self-GMD of strand-7 will be

Example 10.2 If the equivalent radius of each conductor is r. Find the

equivalent radius or self-GMD of four bundled conductor separated by
distance d from their centres.
Solution In Figure 10.18, as the conductors are symmetrically placed, the
self-GMD of one will be equal to the others. Self-GMD of conductor-1 will
be

FIGURE 10.18 Example 9.2.

Example 10.3 Two wires of single-phase transmission line are separated by 3
m. The radius of each conductor is 0.02 m. Find the loop inductance of the
line. What will be the inductance of each conductor?
Solution Using Equation (10.17), the inductance of one conductor will be

Loop inductance will be 2 ´ L1, i.e. 2.104 mH/km.

Example 10.4 Show that the loop inductance of 1-phase line arranged, as
shown in
Figure 10.19, will be

if d << D, where R is the radius of each conductor.

FIGURE 10.19 Example 10.4.

Solution Using GMD and GMR, loop inductance, as in Equation (10.22),
will be

Since the return wire conductors b and b¢ are in the same configuration as
“go” conductors a and a¢, the GMDs will also be the same. Therefore, mutual
GMD will be

If D >> d, Dm = D, thus loop inductance will be

Example 10.5 Determine the inductance of 3-phase line arranged, as shown

in
Figure 10.20. The radius of each conductor is 0.03 m. The spacing between
phase conductors is 35 cm and distance between the phases (D) is equal to 4
m.

FIGURE 10.20 Example 10.5.

Solution Flux linkage of conductor a,
Putting these values in above equation we get

Inductance of conductor a’ will be

Since conductors a and a’ are in parallel, the inductance of phase A will be

Therefore, putting the values of D and d, we get

LA = 2.347 –j0.241 mH/km
Similarly, the inductance of phase B will be
Therefore, LB = 2.069 mH/km. Since the position of C phase is same as
phase A, the inductance of phase C will be, LC = 2.347 – j0.241 mH/km.
Average inductance Lavg = 2.254 mH/km
Example 10.6 Find the inductance per kilometre of a double circuit, 3-phase
system, as shown in Figure 10.21. The conductor radius is 2.5 cm.

FIGURE 10.21 Example 10.6.

Solution From the figure, we can calculate the various distances as

Mutual GMD of phase a in position-1

Since the conductors of phase a will occupy the position of phase b conductor
in next position, Mutual GMD of phase a in position-2 is
Similarly, the mutual-GMD of phase a in position-3 is
GMD3 = 5.277 m
Self-GMD (or GMR) of phase a in position-3 is
GMR3 = 0.375 m
Therefore, mutual GMD will be

10.16 ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY DUE TO INFINITE

LINE CHARGE
Consider a long wire having the charge q coulomb per metre as shown in
Figure 10.22. Using Gauss’s law, the flux intensity (E) at point P, which is r
metre from the conductor, can be calculated as follows:

where D = electric flux density, ds = differential area ds with direction

normal to the surface and Q = total charge enclosed by the surface area ds.
 FIGURE 10.22 Electric field intensity.
The flux density at point P, considering the cylindrical shell of radius r and of
length l, will be calculated using Gauss’ law. The enclosed area will be 2rrl
and total charge enclosed will be ql. Thus

The field intensity E is related to field density as D = eE. If medium is air, e

will be equal to e0. Therefore

10.17 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS

DUE TO LINE CHARGE
Potential at any point is defined as the work done in moving unit positive
charge from infinity to that point. If two points P1 and P2 are at distances r1
and r2 from the charge, the potential (voltage) difference between these
points can be calculated by integrating field intensity (E) along any path
joining two points as

Negative sign used as unit charge is moved against the field.

10.18 CAPACITANCE OF SINGLE-PHASE LINE

Capacitor is an electrical device, which consists of two conductors (plates)
separated by a dielectric medium and used for storing electrostatic energy.
Capacitance is defined as the ratio of charge on one conductor to the
potential difference between the conductors.
To derive the capacitance formula for 1-phase line, following assumptions
are made:

1. Charge is uniformly distributed over the surface of conductor so that

flux is radial. (But the presence of other charge near to the conductor
it is not uniform.)
2. Effect of earth is neglected.
With these assumptions, let us consider the two conductors are arranged, as
shown in
Figure 10.23, separated by distance D. If the charge density at conductor A is
q coulomb/m and radius of each conductor is R, the electricity field intensity
at point P situated at x metre from the centre of first conductor A, will be

FIGURE 10.23 Single-phase two-wire system.

However, the electricity field intensity at point P from the centre of

conductor B having charge density –q coulomb/m (return path of current I),
will be

Since both the fields are in the same direction, the total electricity field
intensity at point P will be

The potential difference between the conductors will be

If D >> R, D – R @ D, therefore potential difference will be

It should be noted that in the calculation of capacitance, actual radius is used
instead
of R’ (=0.7788R), which is used in the inductance calculations. Sometimes, it
is also required to calculate the capacitance of the conductor with respect to
neutral. The capacitance between the conductors, which are having the
charges with opposite polarity at a time, is CAB. Then the capacitance of the
conductor with respect to neutral will be two times the capacitance of a
single-phase line because CAN and CBN are in series. These can be
understood from Figure 10.24.

FIGURE 10.24 Capacitance between conductors.

Alternate method. Using Equation (10.29), we can write the potential
difference between two conductors due to the charge on conductor A as

and the potential difference between two conductors due to the charge on
conductor B will be

Since the charge on conductor A will be equal and opposite to the charge on
conductor B, the total potential difference due charges on both the conductors
is
Thus the capacitance will be calculated as in Equation (10.32).

10.19 POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO

CONDUCTORS IN A GROUP OF CONDUCTORS
Figure 10.25 represents a group of n parallel conductors. Let us assume that
the sum of their charges is zero. It is also assumed that distances between the
conductors are large compared to the radius of the conductors, and the effect
of ground is negligible. The charges are also uniformly distributed on the
surface and the length. The potential difference between conductors 1 and 2
due to the charge q1 on conductor-1 is

FIGURE 10.25 Group of conductors.

where D12 is the distance between conductor-1 and conductor-2 and R1 is
the radius of conductor-1. The potential difference between conductors 1 and
2 due to the charge q2 on conductor-2 is

If the distance between conductor-3 and conductor-1 is D13 and between

conductor-3 and conductor-2 it is D23, the potential difference between
conductors 1 and 2 due to the charge q3 on conductor-3 is

Similarly the voltage drop between conductors 1 and 2 due to charge on other
conductors can be calculated. The total potential difference between
conductors 1 and 2 due to charges on all the conductors is

In similar ways, the potential difference between other conductors due to

charges of all the conductors can also be calculated.

10.20 CAPACITANCE OF UNSYMMETRICALLY SPACED

THREE-PHASE LINES
Figure 10.26 represents a 3-phase, unsymmetrically spaced line
configuration. The sequence of transposition is shown in Figure 9.10. If the
line is not transposed the capacitance between the line and neutral will not be
equal. The capacitance of each phase to neutral of an untransposed line will
be almost the same. The error is negligible and the calculation becomes
simpler.
If there are no charges in the vicinity of the phases, the sum of the charges in
phases will be zero. Radius of each conductor is assumed to be R. Let us
calculate the potential difference between phases a and b, Vab1, in position-1
as shown in Figure 10.26 due to charges on the conductors using Equation
(10.34).

FIGURE 10.26 Three-phase transmission line with unsymmetrical spacing.

In postion-2, conductor a will take the position of conductor b and conductor

b will take the position of conductor c and so on. The potential difference
between phases a and b, Vab2, in position-2 will be
The average potential difference between phase a and b will be

From the phasor diagram, as shown in Figure 10.27, it is clear that Vab + Vac
= 3Van. Phasor voltages are shown in Figure 10.27. The sum of phasor
voltages Vac and Vab are represented by vector sum of BA and AD. The
resultant sum will be BD in direction of Van. If
the magnitude of Van is V, which is same for all the phases, the magnitude of
Vac and Vab will be VÖ3.
 FIGURE 10.27 Phasor diagram.

Since BD is in phase with Van, therefore,

Vab + Vac = 3Van (10.38)
Using Equations (10.36) and (10.37),

Thus capacitance of phase conductor a to neutral plane will be

It can be seen that Cbn and Ccn will be equal to Can.

10.21 CAPACITANCE OF SYMMETRICALLY SPACED

THREE-PHASE LINES
If a line is symmetrically spaced, the distances Dab, Dbc and Dca in Figure
10.26 will be the same (say D). Using Equation (10.34), the potential
difference between phases a and b (Vab) due to charges on the conductors
will be

Solving Equations (10.41) and (10.42) similar to Equation (10.39), we get

10.22 CAPACITANCE OF SYMMETRICALLY SPACED

DOUBLE-CIRCUIT, THREE-PHASE LINES
For symmetrical spacing, the conductors must be placed at the vertices of a
regular hexagonal as shown in Figure 10.12. Conductors a, b and c belong to
one circuit and a¢, b¢ and c¢ to the second circuit. The letters a, b and c denote
the respective phases of the system. From Figure 10.12,
Dab = Dbc = Dac = Dcb = Dca = Dba = D
Dac = Dbc = Dca = Dbc = Dba = Dab = Ö3D
Daa = Dbb = Dcc = 2D
Let us assume that there are no other charges in the vicinity, i.e. qa + qb + qc
= 0 and radius of each conductor is R. Using Equation (10.35), the potential
difference between phases a and b (Vab1) due to charges on the conductors
of the first circuit, i.e. a, b and c, will be

The potential difference between phases a and b (Vab2) due to charges on the
conductors of the second circuit, i.e. a¢, b¢ and c¢ will be

Using Equations (10.43) and (10.44), the total potential difference between
phases a and b (Vab) due to charges on the conductors of both circuits, will
be

Similarly
Since Vab + Vac = 3Van, from above equations, we can have

The capacitance of conductor a with respect to neutral plane will be

The capacitance per phase (Cn) will be 2Can, because each phase has two
conductors and they are in parallel.

Using GMD and GMR concept

Calculation of capacitance can also be done based on the GMD and GMR, if
lines are transposed. Since there is no electric field inside the conductors as
they are assumed to be perfect conductors, in GMR calculation, radius R is
taken instead of R’ in the case of inductance calculations. Then
Thus

Equation (10.48) is equal to Equation (10.47).

10.23 CAPACITANCE OF UNSYMMETRICALLY SPACED

DOUBLE CIRCUIT, THREE-PHASE LINE
(TRANSPOSED)
Figure 10.13 shows the arrangement of a three-phase double circuit line. The
capacitance can be calculated using the potential difference concept or
GMD/GMR concept. Here, GMD and GMR concept is used to calculate
capacitances. GMD of conductor a will be the same as GMD of conductor a¢.
Then

Similarly mutual-GMD of phase a in position-2 and position-3 can be written

as

Self-GMD (or GMR) of phase a in position-1,

The equivalent GMD (Dm) and GMR (Ds) of the system will be

Capacitance of phase a, using Equation (10.48) will be

10.24 EFFECT OF EARTH ON CAPACITANCE

Figure 10.28(a) represents the flux lines and equipotential surface of an
isolated charge (neglecting the earth effect). The flux lines are terminating to
an imaginary charge placed at infinity. Earth can be assumed as perfectly
conducting horizontal sheet with infinite extent and it will behave as
equipotential surface. Any charge or charged conductor is placed near the
earth surface, the fluxes emanate from them will be perpendicular to the earth
as shown in Figure 10.28(b). This can be visualized by an imaginary charge
of opposite polarity placed inside the earth at the same distance h, where h is
the height of the charge from the earth surface. This concept is known as
image charge. The method used to calculate the capacitance in the presence
of earth is known as method of images. While calculating the effect of earth
on the capacitor, effect of imaginary charge will also be considered.
 FIGURE 10.28 Earth effect on capacitance.

Capacitance of single conductor charge

Let us consider a conductor at a height h from the earth surface, as shown in
Figure 10.28(b). Using the concept of images, an image charge of equal and
opposite polarity will be considered. This arrangement is similar to 1-phase
line separated with distance 2h. The capacitance with reference to ground,
using Equation (10.33), will be

Earth effect on the capacitance of single-phase line

Figure 10.29 shows the one-phase conductors a and b and their image
conductors a¢ and b¢ respectively. If the conductor a is having positive charge
density q coulomb/m at any time t, then the charges on conductors b, a¢ and b¢
will be –q, –q and +q coulomb/m respectively. Using Equation (10.34), the
potential difference between conductor a and b (Vab) due to charges on the
conductors a, b, a¢, b¢ will be
 FIGURE 10.29 Single-phase line and its images.

Thus capacitance between conductor a and b will be

It can be seen from Equation (10.51) that denominator value is decreased and
therefore the effect of earth increases the capacitance. If h >> D, the under-
root term will be unity and this is true for all practical purposes.
Earth effect on the capacitance of three-phase line
Figure 10.30 shows the 3-phase line conductors with their image conductors.
Using GMD and GMR concepts, the capacitance can not be calculated.
 FIGURE 10.30
Using Equation (10.34), the potential difference between conductor a and b
due to charges on conductors a, b, c, a¢, b¢ and c¢ will be

…
 …

Example 10.7 A single-phase 10-km line is 8 m above the ground. The

diameter of the conductors is 2 cm and is separated by 4 m horizontally. Find:
(a) Capacitance between conductors
(b) Capacitance between phase and neutral plane
(c) Capacitance when effect of ground is neglected
(d) Charging current when the line is charged at 33-kV, 50-Hz supply.
Solution (a) Using Equation (10.51), the capacitance between the conductors
will be
(b) The capacitance between phase and neutral plane will be twice of
capacitance between conductors. Therefore Can = Cbn = 9.56 pF/m.
(c) The capacitance between the conductors when effect of earth is ignored
will be

(d) Charging current (Ic) will be ~CabV. Therefore,

Ic = ~CabV = 2r ´ 50 ´ 4.78 ´ 10–12 ´ 10 ´ 103 ´ 33 ´ 103 = 0.496 A

It should be noted that the charging current for single-phase line is the
multiplication of capacitive reactance contributed by capacitance between the
conductors and voltage between the conductors. Whereas in the case of 3-
phase lines, the charging current per phase will be the multiplication of
capacitive reactance contributed by capacitance between the phase and
neutral, and phase voltage.
Example 10.8 Determine the capacitance per phase of a 3-phase transmission
line shown in Figure 10.31. Diameter of conductors is 2.5 cm. Assume the
line is transposed.

FIGURE 10.31 Example 10.8.

Solution Using Equation (10.40), the capacitance of phase a to neutral plane
will be
Example 10.9 A 50-Hz 3z line (transposed) composed of one ACSR Moose
conductor (overall Dia. = 31.8 mm) per phase has flat horizontal spacing of
10 m between adjacent conductors. Compare the inductive and capacitive
reactances in ohms per kilometre per phase of this line with that of a line
(transposed) using a three-conductor bundle of ASCR lynx conductor (each
having overall Dia. = 19.6 mm) having 10 m spacing measured from the
centre of the bundles. The bundle conductors in each phase are arranged in an
equilateral triangle formation with spacing between conductors in the bundle
as 40 m.
Solution Case–I Unbundled (single) Moose conductor

…
Case–II Bundled conductor

GMD = Dm = 12.6 m (as above case–I)

…
\ with bundle conductor, both XL and XC decreases.
Example 10.10 Three-phase double circuit line as shown given below has
conductor radius
5 cm. Find the inductance and capacitances per/km/phase.

…
Transmission line parameters
Table 10.2 shows the transmission line parameters (at 100 MVA base) of
different voltage lines used in India.
Table 10.2 Parameters of transmission lines
R X B
Voltage Type of
S.No. class pu/100 pu/100 pu/100
conductor
km km km
800 Quad ACSR
1. 0.00019 0.00474 2.40644
kV ‘BERSIMIS’
400 Twin ACSR
2. 0.00186 0.02075 0.5550
kV ‘MOOSE’
220 Single ACSR
3. 0.0176 0.0886 0.1350
kV ‘ZEBRA’
132
4. Panther ACSR
kV

PROBLEMS
10.1 Determine the self-GMD of the following types of conductors (Figure
10.32) in terms of radius R of an individual strand

FIGURE 10.32 Problem 10.1.

10.2 Determine the inductance of single-phase transmission line having
arrangement of conductor as shown in Figure 10.33. One circuit consists
of three wires of 1-cm diameter each and the other circuit two wires of 2-
cm diameter each.

FIGURE 10.33 Problem 10.2.

10.3 Derive the expression, staring from flux linkage, for inductance per
phase of three-phase double-circuit line with unsymmetrical spacing (all
the three phases are in the same vertical plane). Also calculate the
capacitance per phase. The line is transposed.
10.4 In the arrangement of conductors for the single-phase transmission line
having arrangement of conductors, as shown in Figure 10.34. Diameter of
each conductor is
2 cm. Assuming the current of equally distributed in the conductors,
calculate the inductance per kilometre length of line.

FIGURE 10.34 Problem 10.4.

10.5 Determine the inductance per kilometre of a 3-phase transmission line
having two conductors per phase, as shown in Figure 10.35. Diameter of
each conductor is 25 mm and carries 50% of the phase current.
 FIGURE 10.35 Problem 10.5.
10.6 Determine the inductance per kilometre per phase of a double-circuit
three-phase transmission line, as shown in Figure 10.36. The radius of
each conductor is 2 cm.

FIGURE 10.36 Problem 10.6.

10.7 Calculate the effective diameter of the conductor, as shown in Problem
10.1, using Guy’s theorem.
10.8 Determine the capacitance and inductance per kilometre length of a
double-circuit
three-phase line, as shown in Figure 10.37. The transmission line is
transposed. The diameter of each conductor is 25 mm.

FIGURE 10.37 Problem 10.8.

10.9 Determine the capacitance of arrangement shown in Figure 10.38 when
(a) the effect of earth is neglected and (b) the effect of earth is considered
if the heights of conductors from ground are 10 metres. Radius of
conductors is 2 cm.

FIGURE 10.38 Problem 10.9.

10.10 A 3-phase line has inductance 1.2 mH/km. The radius of each phase
conductor is
 2 cm. Find the capacitance of phase to neutral. Assume that conductors are
equilaterally spaced.
10.11 A 3-phase line has flat, horizontal spacing of 2 m between adjacent
conductors. The radius of each conductor is 0.25 cm. At a certain instant,
the charges on the centre conductor and one of the outer conductors are
identical and voltage drop between these identically charged conductors is
775 kV. Neglect the effect of ground and find the value of the identical
charge in coulomb/km at the instant specified.
10.12 Determine the capacitance and charging current per kilometre length as
in
Problem 10.2, if the line is operating at 20 kV, 50 Hz.
10.13 Determine the capacitance and charging current per kilometre length as
in
Problem 10.4, if the line is operating at 11 kV, 50 Hz.
10.14 Determine the capacitance and charging current per kilometre length as
in
Problem 10.5, if the line is operating at 220 kV, 50 Hz.
10.15 Determine the capacitance and charging current per kilometre length as
in
Problem 10.6, if the line is operating at 400 kV, 50 Hz.
10.16 A 50-Hz 3z line composed of one ASCR Bluejay conductor per phase
has flat horizontal spacing of 11 m between adjacent conductor. Compare
the inductive reactance in ohms per kilometre per phase of this line with
that of a line using a two conductor bundle conductors each having the
same distance as the single conductor and 11 m spacing measured from
the centre of the bundles. The spacing between conductors in the bundle is
40 cm.
10.17 For the data given in Problem 10.16, compare the capacitive reactances
in ohm-kilometres per phase of the two line configurations.
10.18 Six conductors of ACSR Drake constitute a 50-Hz double circuit three-
phase line arranged as shown in Figure 10.39. The vertical spacing
however is 5 m; the longer horizontal distance is 10 m; and shorter
horizontal distances are 8 m. Find
(a) The inductance per phase (in H/km) and the inductive (in W/km).
(b) The capacitive reactance to neutral (in W/km) and the charging current
in A/km per phase and per conductor at 132 kV.
FIGURE 10.39 Typical arrangement of conductors of a parallel circuit 3-phase line.
 11
Analysis of
Transmission Lines
11.1 INTRODUCTION
The technical analysis of transmission line is done to know its performance to
transfer power from the sending end to the receiving end. Performance of a
transmission line includes efficiency and regulation. For bulk power transfer,
three-phase transmission lines are used but for analysis purposes, line can be
represented by its single-phase equivalent using the phase resistance, phase
inductance and line to neutral capacitance with assumption that supply and
load are balanced in transmission line. Since the resistance, inductance,
capacitance and conductance are distributed over the line length, the
performance of the line depends on the manner how these are accounted for.
General definitions of efficiency and regulation in per unit are:

For the transmission lines, efficiency is defined as the ratio of power

delivered at the receiving end to the power sent at sending end.
Mathematically, it is defined as

The end where load is connected is called as receiving end while the end that
supplies power is known as sending end. To calculate the efficiency in
percentage, 100 is multiplied to the value of ‘efficiency’.
Regulation of transmission line is defined as the ratio of change in voltage at
the receiving end, from no load to full load keeping the sending-end voltage
and frequency constant, to the full load voltage. Mathematically, percentage
regulation is defined as

where V¢r is the receiving end voltage magnitude at no load and Vr is the
full-load voltage magnitude at receiving end.

11.2 CLASSIFICATION OF LINES

Transmission lines are represented into three categories: short lines, medium
lines and long lines. A line having length less than 80 km is called a short
line. The charging of capacitance (shunt) can be ignored in the analysis and
series resistance and inductance can be treated as lumped parameter, as
shown in Figure 11.1. If the transmission line is between 80 km and 200 km,
the charging capacitance of the line cannot be ignored however the series
impedance can be taken as lumped parameters. Charging capacitance is also
considered as lumped parameters and can be represented as nominal-T and
nominal-p, which are shown in
Figure 11.2. These are called so because line parameters are considered as
lumped parameter that is not accurate. The line more than 200 km mile is
called long lines, whose exact representation is required. The line can also be
represented as T or p but since line parameters are taken as distributed
parameters, they are known as equivalent-T and equivalent-r representations.

FIGURE 11.1 Short transmission line.

 FIGURE 11.2 Medium transmission line representation.

11.3 SHORT TRANSMISSION LINES

Short line and its phasor diagram are shown in Figure 11.3.

FIGURE 11.3 Short transmission line and its phasor representation.

Receiving-end current is taken as reference. R and X are per-phase

resistance and inductance, respectively, of the transmission line. From the
phasor diagram, we get

Squaring and adding, Equations (11.1) and (11.2), we get

Using Taylor series expansion and neglecting the higher order terms, we
obtain
Since there is no shunt part,
Sending-end current = Receiving-end current
and
Sending-end voltage (Vs) = Receiving-end voltage (Vr)
at no load. Therefore,

Taking receiving-end voltage and current as base values, vr and vx represent

per unit resistance and reactance of the line respectively. From Equation
(11.5), we obtain the following relationship for zero regulation.

Equation (11.6) shows that for zero regulation the power factor of load must
be leading. If the power delivered at the receiving-end is P, the efficiency in
percentage of the line is written as
Example 11.1 Find the power factor for short transmission lines for
maximum regulation.
Solution For maximum regulation,

Using Equation (11.5), we get

11.4 GENERALIZED CIRCUIT CONSTANTS

It is important to represent the transmission line in terms of the sending- and
receiving-end voltages and currents. A transmission line can be represented
as four-terminal (2-port) network, as shown in Figure 11.4. This terminal pair
circuit is passive (no energy source), linear (where impedances are
independent of the amount of current flowing through the element) and
bilateral (where impedances are independent of direction of current flow).
Following relationships can be established,

…
 FIGURE 11.4 2-port network representation.
In matrix form, it will be

where A, B, C and D are generalized circuit constants and hold the following
properties:

1. These are complex constants.

2. They hold, AD – BC = 1.
3. If symmetrical network, A = D.
4. A, D are dimensionless.
5. B is impedance, C admittance.

Proof of AD – BC = 1
Consider Figure 11.5(a), where an ideal voltage source (with zero internal
impedance) is connected to sending-end, and receiving-end is short-circuited
with zero impedance. Thus
Vr = 0 and following relations can be obtained using Equations (11.9) and
(11.10):

FIGURE 11.5 2-port network.

Suppose the sending-end is short-circuited and the same ideal voltage (E) is
applied at the receiving-end. From Equation (11.9), we get
Using reciprocating theorem, = (Figure 11.5b). From Equation (11.10),

This relation is very useful for checking the constants A, B, C and D which
are calculated independently.

A, B, C and D quantities in terms of and

Sometimes it is also important to represent the receiving-end voltage and
current in terms of sending-end voltage and current with the help of A, B, C
and D parameters. Pre-multiplying Equations (11.9) and (11.10) by C and A
respectively, we get

Subtracting Equation (11.16) from Equation (11.15) and using relationship

AD – BC = 1,
we get

Subtracting Equation (11.19) from Equation (11.18) and using relationship

AD – BC = 1, we get

Using Equations (11.17) and (11.20), we get the relationship in matrix form
as
Constants for two networks in tandem
Let two 2-port networks having constants A1, B1, C1, D1 and A2, B2, C2,
D2, respectively be connected in tandem, as shown in Figure 11.6. If the
receiving-end voltage and current of first network are V and I which are also
sending-end voltage and current for the second network, the resultant
constants A, B, C, D can be calculated as follows:
Using Equations (11.9) and (11.10), we have

FIGURE 11.6 Two 2-port networks in tandem.

Constants for two networks connected in parallel

Let two 2-port networks having constants A1, B1, C1, D1 and A2, B2, C2,
D2, respectively be connected in parallel as shown in Figure 11.7. If the
sending-end and receiving-end currents are and in the first network and
and are the sending-end and receiving-end currents in the second
network, the resultant constants A, B, C, D can be calculated
as follows:
For the first and second network, following relations can be written
 …

FIGURE 11.7 Two 2-port networks in parallel.

Since

Pre-multiplying Equation (11.21) by B2 and Equation (11.23) by B1 and

adding, we get

Since transmission line is symmetrical, hence A = D, where

C can be determined using A, B and D from Equations (11.25) and (11.26)

and putting in
AD – BC = 1, we can have
Adding Equations (11.22) and (11.24), we get

Putting the value of from Equation (11.21) in above equation, we have

Regulation of short lines in ABCD constants

Generally, quantities P, Ir (or Vr) and cos zr are given and so A, B, C, D
constants. Using equation the no load (Ir = 0) voltage at the
receiving-end will be Vs/A
Thus

Example 11.2 A 3-phase, 5-km long transmission line, having resistance of

0.50 ohm/km and inductance of 1.76 mH/km, is delivering power at 0.8-p.f.
lagging. The receiving-end (RE) voltage is 32 kV. If the supply-end (SE)
voltage is 33 kV, 50 Hz, find (a) line current, (b) regulation and (c) efficiency
of the transmission line.
Solution Sending-end (SE) line-to-line voltage = 33 kV. Therefore,

(a) Using Equations (11.1) and (11.2), we can write

Solving this equation, ignoring the negative value of current, we get,

(b) At no load, receiving-end voltage will be equal to the sending-end

voltage, thus

(c) Power output, P = 3 (Phase voltage) ´ (Phase current) ´ (Power factor)

Therefore
P = 3 ´ 18.48 ´ 0.157 ´ 0.8 = 6.96 MW
and
Losses in the line = 3Ir2R = 0.185 MW
Thus the efficiency will be
11.5 MEDIUM LINES
When the length of transmission line is more than 80 km, the line-charging
capacitance is significant and cannot be ignored. Since capacitance is
distributed over the line, but for analysis purposes, this can be assumed as
lumped parameter either at the centre of line (nominal-T) or at both the ends
of a transmission line (nominal-p). These are called nominal-T or nominal-
p because, it is approximate representation due consideration of distributed
parameters as lumped parameters. The detail performance analysis of both
representations is given below.
11.5.1 Nominal-T Representation
Figure 11.8 shows the nominal-T representation of a transmission line. For
analysis, it is preferable to take the receiving-end current as reference. Phasor
diagram is represented in Figure 11.9.

FIGURE 11.8 Nominal-T representation of a line.

FIGURE 11.9 Phasor diagram of nominal-T representation.

Let us calculate the sending-end voltage. The voltage at point C will be
If the current in the shunt branch is , it can be aa calculated as

Receiving-end voltage with no-load (Ir = 0, Is = IC) will be Vr = VC. The

current in shunt branch will be

Determination of A, B, C, D constants
Taking any reference, the voltage equations can be written as

The current equation becomes

Comparing Equations (11.9) and (11.10) with Equations (11.32) and (11.33),
respectively, we get

It can be seen that following relations are valid for the transmission lines.
These relations are used to check the accuracy of the parameters calculated.
A = D and AD – BC = 1
11.5.2 Nominal-p Representation
Figure 11.10 shows the nominal-r representation of a transmission line. For
analysis, it is convenient to take voltage as reference. The vector diagram is
shown in Figure 11.11.

FIGURE 11.10 Nominal-r representation of a line.

FIGURE 11.11 Phasor diagram of nominal-r.

Let us calculate the sending-end voltage and current taking

receiving-end voltage as reference:
Sending end current will be

For calculation of regulation, receiving-end voltage at no-load can be

calculated as

Determination of A, B, C, D constants
From Figure 11.10, we get

Thus
Comparing Equations (11.36) and (11.37) with Equations (11.9) and (11.10),
respectively, we get

From these relations, we obtain

A = D and AD – BC = 1
Example 11.3 A 3-phase, 100-km, transmission line is delivering 50 MW,
0.8-p.f. lagging at 132 kV. Each conductor is having resistance 0.1 ohm/km,
reactance 0.3 ohm/km, and admittance 3 ´ 10–6 mho/km. If the load is
balanced and leakage is neglected, calculate the sending-end voltage,
sending-end power factor, efficiency and regulation of the line using
(a) nominal-T and (b) nominal-p representations.
Solution We have

(a) Using nominal-T representation: Refer to Figure 11.9. Taking receiving-

end current as reference, the voltage at point C,
The current in the shunt branch

and

Therefore, the sending-end voltage (line–line) is 143.95 kV.

From the phasor diagram (Figure 11.9), power factor angle is (40.34 – 4.14 =
36.2). The power factor is 0.807 (=cos 36.2) lagging. Now, the receiving-end
voltage at no-load

(b) Using nominal-r representation: Taking receiving-end voltage as

reference, we get from (Figure 11.10),
Sending-end voltage (line–line) will be 143.98 kV (= 83.13 ). Now,

Power factor = cos (32.56 + 3.472) = 0.809 lagging. Receiving-end voltage at

no-load will be

Alternate method (using A, B, C, D constants and nominal-T

representation). Taking Vr as reference, we get
Therefore
= (0.9955Ð0.086) ´ 76.21 + (31.552Ð71.608)(273.36Ж36.87) ´ 10–3
= 82.954 + j5.029
= 83.11Ð3.469° kV
Sending-end voltage (line–line) will be 143.95 kV (=83.11Ö3). We also have
= (3 ´ 10–4Ð90) ´ (76.21 ´ 103) + (0.9955Ð0.086) ´ (273.36Ж36.87)
= 217.95 – j140.687
= 259.41Ж32.84° A
and the sending-end power factor = cos (32.84 + 3.47) = 0.806. Similarly,
other quantities can be calculated.

11.6 LONG TRANSMISSION LINE

For the transmission line less than 200 km, the transmission parameters:
resistance, reactance and admittance, can be taken as lumped. But for lines
more than 200 km, distributed parameters are considered for accuracy of
analysis where voltage and current vary at each point in the transmission line.
Figure 11.12 shows the representation of a long line. Receiving end is taken
as reference for measuring the distances. For analysis, an incremental length
Dx is considered, as shown in Figure 11.13.
Let
z = Series impedance per unit length
y = Shunt admittance per unit length
l = Length of line
Z = zl = Total series impedance
Y = yl = Total shunt admittance
 FIGURE 11.12 Long transmission line.

FIGURE 11.13 Representation of length Dx.

If the voltage and current at distance x is V and I respectively, these will be V
+ DV and
I + DI at distance x + Dx respectively, as shown in Figure 11.13. We also
obtain
DI = VyDx and DV = (I + DI) zDx @ IzDx (11.38)
Equation (11.38) can be written as

If considered section Dx is very small, (Dx ® 0). From Equation (11.39), we

obtain

and

Differentiating Equation (11.41) with respect to x and simplifying using

Equation (11.40), we get
where = c = a + jb is called the propagation constant which is a
complex quantity. Here, a is called attenuation constant and b is called phase
constant and has unit of radian/unit length. Now, differentiating Equation
(11.43), we get

where which is known as characteristic impedance.

Using the limiting conditions, i.e. at x = 0, V = Vr and I = Ir and putting these
values in Equations (11.43) and (11.44), we have

Now Equations (11.43) and (11.44) can be written as

Similarly, we can also simplify current Equation (11.44) in the following

form

Sending-end voltage and current equations can be obtained by putting x = l in

Equations (11.45) and (11.46)
Comparing Equations (11.47) and (11.48) with Equations (11.9) and (11.10)
respectively, we get

From these relations, we obtain

A = D and AD – BC = 1
Surge impedance and surge impedance loading
Characteristic impedance is defined as the square root of the ratio of series
impedance to shunt admittance which is a complex quantity. The phase angle
of transmission line is usually less than 15°. Mathematically, characteristic
impedance can be written as

If the line is lossless (r = 0 and g = 0), the characteristic impedance is known

as surge impedance, that is a pure resistance and can be written as

Normally, surges are of high frequencies and therefore losses are neglected.
Thus in case of lossless line, the term ‘surge impedance’ is used instead of
‘characteristic impedance’. It should be noted that surge impedance or
characteristic impedance is independent of the length of lines. Surge
impedance of overhead lines and cables depends on the configuration of
conductors and their placing. The approximate value of surge impedance for
overhead lines is 400 ohm and for cables it is 40 ohm. Since distances
between cable conductors are small, the value of inductance is smaller and
capacitance is relatively higher compared to overhead lines, thus low surge
impedance.
Surge impedance loading (SIL) of a line is the power transmitted when a
lossless line operating at its nominal voltage, is terminated with a resistance
equal to surge impedance of the line. It can be written as

If the voltage in Equation (11.50) is phase voltage, the PSIL will be per phase
surge impedance loading and for getting the 3-phase surge impedance
loading, three must be multiplied. If voltage is a line–line voltage, the PSIL
will be three-phase surge impedance loading. Surge impedance loading is
also known as natural loading of the line, which indicates that it is the
maximum power that can be delivered and is useful in transmission line
design. Surge impedance loading of AC lines are given in Table 11.1.
Table 11.1 Surge Impedance Loading (SIL) of AC Lines
Line voltage Conductor SIL
S.no.
(kV) configuration (MW)
1 765 Quad Bersimis 2250
2 400 Quad Bersimis 691
3 400 Twin Moose 515
4 400 Twin AAAC 425
5 400 Quad Zebra 647
6 400 Quad AAAC 646
7 400 Tripple Snowbird 605
8 400 Twin ACAR 557
9 220 Twin Zebra 175
10 220 Single Zebra 132
11 132 Single Panther 50
12 66 Single Dog 10

To increase the power transmitted through a long transmission line, the

operating voltage of the line can be increased or Z0 can be reduced. Z0 can be
reduced either by using double circuit line which is very expensive or by
increasing the value of capacitance or by decreasing the value of inductance.
Waves on transmission lines
Looking at Equation (11.43), two terms Aecx and Be–cx represent the two
waves of the voltage evaluated at x metre from the right-hand side of the line.
The total voltage at any point is the sum of these two components. If x
increases (wave is moving from right-hand side to left-hand side), the value
of Aecx increases. It has the highest value at left-hand side and the lowest
value at right-hand side. Since left-hand side is the sending-end and left-hand
side is the receiving-end, term Aecx is incident wave voltage. Similarly, we
can give argument for second term, which is reflected wave voltage.
Now, Equation (11.45) can be written as

A line terminated with characteristic impedance is called flat or infinite line

(no reflection). It can be seen that driving point impedance of the line will be
Zc.
If the line is terminated with we have

and Equations (11.47) and (11.48) become

11.7 LUMPED-CIRCUIT EQUIVALENT REPRESENTATION

In nominal-p or nominal-T representations, we take the lumped parameters
instead
of distributed parameters, which is not accurate. After deriving the ABCD
constants of the line in terms of distributed parameters, they can also be
represented as lumped-circuit equivalent-T or equivalent-p (also known as
equivalent-T or equivalent-r).
11.7.1 Equivalent-r Representation
Figure 11.14 shows the lumped circuit equivalent-p of a long line, where
and are circuit parameters. These can be calculated using ABCD parameters
approach.
 FIGURE 11.14 Equivalent-r representation.
For the network given as in Figure 11.14, we can write the following
relationship:

Comparing Equations (11.51) and (11.52) with Equations (11.9) and (11.10),
we get

Equating the B parameter in Equations (11.53) and (11.49), we get

where is the total series impedance of the line. Equating parameter A

in
Equations (11.53) and (11.47), we have
Eliminating the value of Z¢ from Equation (11.54), we have

If the line is not long, the term

will be equal to unity.

11.7.2 Equivalent-T Representation
Figure 11.15 shows the equivalent-T representation of the line. The values of
Z¢ and Y¢ are to be determined in terms of distributed parameters.

FIGURE 11.15 Equivalent-T representation.

From the figure, we get
Comparing Equations (11.57) and (11.58) with Equations (11.47) and
(11.48), we get

Putting the value of Y¢ from Equation (11.59) in Equation (11.60), we have

11.8 FERRANTI EFFECT

In long transmission lines and cables, receiving-end voltage is greater than
sending-end voltage during light-load or no-load operation. This occurs due
to high-charging current. This effect is known as ferranti effect. When an
open-circuited line (no-load) is charged, it draws significant amount of
current due to capacitive effect of the line. This is more in high-voltage long-
transmission lines. Ferranti effect can be understood as follows.
Under no-load (Ir = 0), we can write Equation (11.47) as

From Equation (11.63), it is seen that the value of Vr is always greater or

equal to Vs because the value of cosh (cl) is always less than or equal to
unity. Actual value depends on the cl, which is a function of inductance,
capacitance and length of the line.
Example 11.4 A 50-Hz, 400-kV transmission line is 450-km long and having
following distributed parameters:
r = 0.033 ohm/km, L = 1.067 mH/km, C = 0.0109 mF/km
It is delivering 420-MW power at 0.95 lagging. Neglecting the leakage
conductance, calculate
(a) Voltage at sending end
(b) Current at sending end
(c) Sending-end power factor and load angle
(d) ABCD parameters
(e) Regulation of line
(f) Efficiency.
Solution Let us calculate the impedance and admittance as
z = r + jx = 0.033 + j2rfL = (0.033 + j0.335) ohm/km
and
y = j~C = j3.425 ´ 10–6 mho/km
Then the characteristic impedance

and
Propagation constant c = = 1.074 ´ 10–3 Ð87.19°
Therefore
cl = a l + jbl = 0.4833Ð87.19° = 0.0237 + j0.4827
Let us calculate sinh (cl) and cosh (cl):

Now, the receiving-end current

and the receiving-end phase voltage

Vr = = 230.94 kV
(a) Taking receiving-end voltage at reference, using Equation (11.47),
sending-end voltage can be calculated as

Line–line voltage will be 451.16 kV (=260.48Ö3).

(b) Using Equation (11.48), sending-end current will be

(c) Sending power factor pfs = cos (19.23 – 18.28) = 0.9998 lagging and load
angle d = 19.23°.
(d) Using Equation (11.49), A, B, C, D parameters will be calculated as
A = D = cosh (cl) = 0.886Ð0.71°
B = Zc sinh (cl) = 313.49Ж5.626° ´ 0.4648Ð87.41° = 145.71Ð81.78° ohm

…
11.9 POWER FLOW THROUGH A TRANSMISSION LINE
Figure 11.16 shows the transmission line connected with load. At sending
end, a power source is supplying the power to the load. Receiving end is
assumed as reference. The sending-end angle d should be positive because
real power flows from higher angle to lower angle. It is also true that reactive
power always flows from higher voltage to lower voltage, which varies
throughout the line. The direction of real power flow is same throughout the
line, however, reactive power depends on the voltage profile of the line.

FIGURE 11.16 A transmission line with load and power source.

The sending quantities can be represented in terms of constants A, B, C, D of
the line as

We can derive the current equations as

Let
A = | A |Ða , B = | B |Ðb, D = | D |Ða (as D = A)
Receiving-end power
Receiving-end complex power

If Vs, Vr are in kV and are line voltages, the complex power will be a three-
phase
power in MVA. From Equation (11.66), real power (Pr) and reactive power
(Qr) at receiving end can be written as

From Equation (11.67), it can be seen that the maximum power (Prmax)
(keeping voltages constant) received by the load will be at b = d, because a
and b are constants and depend on the line configuration and design.
Therefore, we get

These equations indicate that load must draw leading reactive power to
receive maximum real power.

From Equation (11.71), we can make following observations:

1. Receiving-end power will be maximum at d = 90°.

2. Receiving-end power can be increased by increasing sending-end
voltage magnitude
|Vs| and/or receiving-end voltage magnitude .
3. Reducing reactance of the line can increase receiving-end power.

Normally, angle d is very small; Equation (11.72) can be further simplified as

From Equation (11.73), it can be observed that the reactive power is directly
proportional to the difference in the voltage magnitudes. It also indicates that
the reactive power is mainly dependent on the voltage however real power is
mainly dependent on the angle d.
Sending-end power
At this point it is obvious to think why we use voltages in power calculation
rather than current. The main reason is that voltages are easily obtainable and
in current, direction is involved but in voltage it is not. Sending-end power
(taking RE voltage as reference) can be written as

At the sending end, the real power can be written as

From Equation (11.75), it can be seen that the sending-end power will be
maximum at
d + b = r. The maximum sending-end power will be
Thus the transmission real power loss, PL = –Pr + Ps.
Circle diagram
Sometimes it is easier to calculate the quantities using the circle diagram.
Sending-end and receiving-end circle diagrams can be drawn separately.
Consider the circle diagram for receiving end. If the power factor at receiving
end is ir, we can write Equation (11.67) as

If Pr and Qr are on the x-axis and y-axis respectively, Equation (11.78)

shows a circle having radius of

Figure 11.17 shows the circle diagram of receiving-end power.

 FIGURE 11.17 Receiving-end circle diagram.
For given Pr, ir, Vr and ABCD constants, sending-end voltage can be
determined using the receiving-end circle diagram. Following steps must be
used (Figure 11.18).

FIGURE 11.18 Circle diagram.

(a) Convert the three-phase quantities into per phase quantities, such as
power and voltages.
(b) Calculate (|A|/|B|)
(c) Choose a suitable scale by looking Pr and (|A|/|B|)
(d) Draw a horizontal line and set a point n. Draw line nq with an angle ir and
cut it at m with value
(e) Drawn a line no of length with angle b – a in third quadrant.
(f) Connect o with m and measure om and convert to kVA with scale which
will be equal to .
(g) Calculate the value of

11.10 EFFECT OF TRANSFORMER ON THE

PERFORMANCE OF A TRANSMISSION LINE
There are several situations where transmission line is connected with
transformer at either ends. It is important to analyze the effect of these
transformers on the line performance. Equivalent circuit diagram of a
transformer is shown in Figure 11.19.
This is a representation of two-port network and its ABCD parameters can be
easily calculated. Using ABCD constant with transmission line constants, a
final ABCD values can be calculated and performance of the system will be
analyzed.

FIGURE 11.19 Transformer equivalent circuit.

11.11 REACTIVE POWER GENERATION/ABSORPTION OF

A LINE
Figure 11.20 shows the voltage variation along the line under different
loading conditions. Since transmission lines are having both inductance and
capacitance, where inductor absorbs the reactive power and capacitor
generates reactive power, the net reactive power depends on the loading of
the lines. If the line is lossless, the reactive absorption will be I2~L and
reactive power generation will be V2~C. When
I2~L = V2~C ® flat voltage profile
I2~L > V2~C ® sag voltage profile
I2~L < V2~C ® over-voltage profile
 FIGURE 11.20 Voltage variation along a line.

11.12 POWER TRANSFER CAPABILITY OF

TRANSMISSION LINES
Power transfer capability of transmission lines is restricted mainly due to
three reasons: thermal limit, voltage-drop limit and stability limit. Thermal
limit is due to heat generated when current flows in the conductor. Heat
generated by line losses (I2R) causes a temperature rise. Since line
temperature of overhead lines must be kept within a safe limit to prevent
excessive line sag between transmission towers and to prevent irreversible
stretching, the ground clearance must be maintained in the case of overhead
transmission lines. This imposes condition on the maximum safe current in a
line. Several factors other than the current flowing in conductor are
responsible for increase in the temperature such as design conditions
(conductor size and geometry, spacing between towers, etc.) and operating
conditions (ambient temperature, wind velocity, etc.). Cables are even more
prone to thermal limit because of limited possibilities for heat transfer.
However, there is no problem of sag in cables. But if the cable gets too hot,
the insulation will begin to deteriorate and may fail in future.
Other restriction is due to the stability limit. In case of short lines, the
ultimate transmission capability, using Equation (11.71), is corresponding to
d = 90°. But to have reasonable expectation of maintaining the synchronism,
d is limited to 30 to 60°. In this case, the stability limit is 60 to 70% of the
ultimate capability. In short lines, the power handling capability is set by
thermal limit rather than stability limit. However it is reverse in the case of
long transmission lines. For long line, power transfer can be expressed in
terms of surge impedance loading of the line. If the line is lossless (g = jb)
and at both the side’s voltages are same, we can write from Equation (11.70)

This shows that if the line length increased, bl increases and Pr decreases.
In medium transmission lines, the voltage drop is the main criterion for
transferring maximum power over the lines. A line has current rating which
provides the safe operation and above which it is not recommended for
operation especially for long duration of time. Since lines are designed to
operate at certain voltage level (restricted due to string insulators and
clearances), sometimes rating is also given in terms of power which is
multiplication of current and voltage. Extra-high voltage lines normally
operate near to unity, the rating in MVA is almost the same as MW. Figure
11.21 shows the limits with length of lines.

FIGURE 11.21 Capability limits of lines.

11.13 COMPENSATION OF TRANSMISSION LINES

Compensation means modification of the electrical (not physical)
characteristics of transmission line in order to increase its power transfer
capacity and satisfying the following fundamental requirements of
transmission:
1. Major synchronous machines must remain stable in synchronism.
2. Voltage must be kept near rated values.
This first requirement is necessary to maintain the all generators and
synchronous condensers to be in synchronism. This is the requirement of
stability of the system. The second requirement is for a healthy operation of
the system. In the system, there may be under-voltage, which may be due to
high-load current or due to fault in the system. However, over-voltage may
occur due to fault or switching transients. Both under-voltage and over-
voltage may lead to unreliable operation of the system. The main objectives
of compensation of the system are:

To produce a substantially flat voltage profile at all the levels of

power transmission
To improve the stability of the system
To meet the economical way for reactive power requirement of the
system.

Compensation can be categorized by several ways. If compensation is done

for changing the characteristic impedance of line, it is known as surge
impedance compensation or
Z0-compensation. It is also possible to change the electrical length of the line,
and the compensation used for this purpose is known as line-length
compensation or
i-compensation. Transmission lines are compensated by using different
sections and is known as compensation-by-sectioning.
Z0-compensation. Ignoring the losses, the surge impedance of the line will
be Ö(xlxc), where xl is the series reactance and xc [=1/(j~C)] is the shunt
reactance of the line. By changing xl or xc, Z0 can be changed.
i-compensation. In this compensation scheme, the effective value of i is
reduced. Since i = bl = Ö(xl/xc), by reducing xl, the value of i can be reduced.
Normally, the series capacitor is used. Practically it is not possible to increase
xc.
Compensation by sectioning. In this approach, a line is divided into
several sections and voltages as the terminal of sections are maintained using
continuous voltage control devices.
Compensation can also be classified according to the device-control
operation. In active compensation, control variables are continuous and
voltage is maintained (such as static var compensators). However in passive
compensation, quantities are not continuously controlled such as series
capacitors and shunt reactors. Sometimes compensation is categorized by
devices used such as series compensation and shunt compensation. Taking an
ideal case as uniformly distributed fixed compensation, they can be explained
as follows:
Shunt compensation
If a uniformly distributed shunt compensating inductance is lgsh (H/m), the
effective value of the shunt capacitance C¢ will be related as

where ksh is the degree shunt compensation and defined as

where bc is the shunt capacitive susceptance per unit length and1 bcsh is the
shunt compensation susceptance per unit length. The value of ksh is positive
for inductive shunt compensation and it is negative for capacitive shunt
compensation. The effective value of surge impedance (Z¢0) and phase
constant (b¢) with shunt compensation can be given by

and

From Equations (11.80) and (11.81), it is clear that shunt inductive

compensation will increase Z0 and decrease b, whereas the shunt capacitive
compensation will decrease Z0 and increase b.
Series compensation
If uniformly distributed series capacitive compensation is Ccse (F/m), the
effective value of series reactance x¢l will be related as
The value of kse is positive for capacitive series compensation and it is
negative for inductive series compensation. The effective value of surge
impedance (Z¢0) and phase constant (b¢) with shunt compensation can be
given by

From Equations (11.82) and (11.83), it is clear that series inductive

compensation will increase Z0 and b, whereas the series capacitive
compensation will decrease both Z0 and b.
The combined effect of series and shunt compensations are as follows:

The effect of power variation with different degree of compensation is shown

as in
Figure 11.22.
 FIGURE 11.22 Effect of power transfer with degree of compensation.

Series and shunt compensations in the network

For the voltage control, normally shunt capacitors are used as a reactive
power source. It is ideally suited for compensating the line if the reduction of
effective characteristic impedance is primary consideration. However, shunt
capacitors increase the effective line length. Shunt capacitor compensation
could lead to reduction in small signal stability margin and poor voltage
regulation. Shunt reactors are used in long transmission lines to reduce the
electrical length of the lines.
Series capacitors are most suitable for the application when reduction of
effective line angle is the primary consideration. It increases the effective
natural load and improves the small signal stability and voltage regulation.
However, series compensation could cause subsynchronous resonance
problems. Static var compensators are used for direct and rapid control of
voltage.

11.14 POWER FLOW IN A LONG TRANSMISSION LINE

If the line is lossless, the sending-end voltage can be written as
Taking Vr as a reference and separating the real and imaginary parts, we get

Example 11.5 The ABCD constants of a loss less three-phase, 400-kV

transmission line are,
A = D = 0.85 + j0
B = 0 + j150
C = j0.001
(a) Obtain the sending end quantities and the voltage regulation when line
delivers a load of 750 MVA at 0.8 lagging power factor at 400 kV.
To improve the line performance, series capacitors, each having reactance
XC = –j50 ohms, are installed at both ends in each phase of the
transmission line.
(b) Determine the compensated ABCD constants.
(c) Determine the sending end quantities and the voltage regulation when
the compensated line delivers a load of 750 MVA at 0.8 lagging power
factor at 400 kV.
Solution (a) For uncompensated line
 …

(b) With series compensation, ABCD parameters of the compensated line

will be
(c) For compensated line

Example 11.6 A 3z 420 kV, 60 Hz transmission line is 463 km long and may
be assumed lossless. The line is energized with 420 kV at the sending end.
When the load at the receiving end is removed, the voltage at the receiving
end is 700 kV, and the per phase sending end current is 646.6 Ð90° A
(a) Find the phase constant b in radians per km and the surge impedance Z0
in W
(b) Ideal reactors are to be installed at the receiving end to keep VS = VR =
420 kV when load is removed. Determine the reactance per phase and the
required
3z kVAr.
Solution Vs = 420 kV, f = 60 Hz, l = 463 km, Vr = 700 kV.
(b) Vs = Vr = 420 kV

PROBLEMS
11.1 Calculate the performance of a 10-km long, 3-phase transmission line
delivering
2500 kVA at 0.8-p.f. lagging. The voltage at the sending-end being 33 kV,
50 Hz and
R = 0.531 ohm/km and L = 1.76 mH/km.
11.2 The input to a short 3-phase line of parameters R = 0.4 ohm and X = 0.4
ohm is 2000 kVA at a p.f. of 0.8 lagging. If the load voltage is 3000 V,
find the load power, p.f. and the source voltage.
11.3 A three-phase, 50-Hz line has a resistance of 8 ohm and a reactance of
11 ohm. It supplies a 0.8 lagging p.f. load at a voltage of 11 kV. Find the
load at which the source-end voltage equals the load-end voltage when a
25-microfarad capacitor is connected across the load in each phase.
11.4 Determine the sending end voltage, p.f., efficiency and regulation of a 3-
phase, 100 km, 50-Hz transmission line delivering 50 MW at a p.f. of 0.8
lagging and 132 kV to a balance load. The conductors are of copper, each
 having resistance 0.1 ohm/km, 2.0-cm outside diameter, spaced
equilaterally 4 m between the centres. Neglect the leakage and use (i)
nominal-T, (ii) nominal-p and (iii) exact solution methods.
11.5 A three-phase, 50-Hz transmission line is 400-km long having series
impedance of (0.15 + j0.78) ohm/km and a shunt admittance of 5 ´ 10–6
mho/km.
(a) Determine the A,B,C,D constants assuming (i) the line could be
represented by nominal-p or nominal-T and (ii) the exact
representation.
(b) Derive equivalent p and T circuits for the line.
(c) If the load on the line is 125 MW at 400 kV and 0.8 lagging power
factor, calculate the current, voltage and power factor at sending end.
Also, calculate the power angle.
(d) Calculate the charging current of the line under the no-load condition.
11.6 The A,B,C,D constants of a 3-phase transmission line are A = D = 0.936
+
j0.016, B = 33.5 + j138 ohm and C = (–0.9280 + j901.223) ´ 10–6 mho.
The load at the receiving end is 40 MW at 220 kV with power factor of
0.86 lagging. Find the magnitude of the sending-end voltage, current,
power, line efficiency and the voltage regulation. Assume the magnitude
of the sending-end voltage remains constant.
11.7 A 40-MW unity power factor load is supplied by a 3-phase line having
= 300Ð78° and = 0.0024Ð90°. The receiving-end voltage is 130 kV.
There is a load of 12 MW at unity p.f. at the middle of the transmission
line. Find the voltage at the generator-end and at the middle of the line.
11.8 A 3-phase overhead transmission line has resistance and reactance per
phase of 5 and 25 ohm, respectively. The load at the receiving end is 15
MW, 33 kV, 0.8-p.f. lagging. Find the capacity of the compensation
equipment needed to deliver this load with a sending-end voltage of 33
kV. Draw the receiving-end circle diagram.
11.9 Calculate the extra load of 0.8-lagging power factor which can be
delivered with the compensating equipment (of capacity as calculated in
Problem 10.8) installed, if the receiving-end voltage is permitted to drop
to 28 kV.
11.10 A one-phase, 50-Hz, 2-kV short transmission line may be represented
by an equivalent circuit having (a) total resistance/phase = 1.0 ohm, (b)
 total reactance/phase =
1.0 ohm. Sending-end voltage is 2 kV while receiving-end voltage is held
constant at 2 kV by means of a capacitor at receiving end. If the load at
receiving end is 10 kVA at 0.8-p.f. lagging, find the value of capacitance.
11.11 Using the nominal-p method, find the sending-end voltage and
voltage regulation of a 3-phase, 100 km, 50-Hz transmission line
delivering 25 MVA at 0.8-lagging
power factor to a balanced load at 132 kV. The line conductors spaced
equilaterally is of 4.0 m. Also calculate the A, B, C and D constants of the
line. The radius of conductors is 2 cm and having resistance of 0.1 W/km.
11.12 Find the following for a 3-phase transmission line delivering a load of
45 MVA at 132 kV and p.f. of 0.8 lagging:
(a) Sending end voltage
(b) Sending end current
(c) Sending power
(d) Efficiency of transmission line
Given A = D = 0.99Ð3°; B = 70Ð69° ohm; C = 4.0 ´ 10–4Ð90° mho.
11.13 If a line is terminated with its characteristic impedance Zc, find
(a) Voltage gain
(b) Current gain
(c) Complex power gain
(d) Efficiency Pr/Ps
Also calculate above if the line is lossless.
11.14 The ABCD constants of a lossless 3-phase, 500-kV transmission line
are
A = D = 0.86 + j0
B = 0 + j369.8
C = j0.002
(a) Obtain the sending end quantities and the voltage regulation when line
delivers 1000 MVA at 0.8 lagging power factor at 500 kV.
To improve the line performance, series capacitors are installed at both ends
in each phase of the transmission line. As a result of this, the
compensated ABCD constants become
where XC is the total reactance of the series capacitor. If XC = 100 W
(b) Determine the compensated ABCD constants.
(c) Determine the sending-end quantities and the voltage regulation when
line delivers 1000 MVA at 0.8 lagging power factor at 500 kV.
11.15 A 3-phase, 50 Hz line has a resistance of 8 ohm and a reactance of 11
ohm. It supplies a 0.8 lagging p.f. load at a voltage of 11 kV. Find the load
at which the source-end voltage equals the load-end voltage when a 25
microfarad capacitor is connected across the load in each phase.
 12
Insulators for Overhead
Transmission Lines
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Overhead transmission lines are supported on the towers. Since towers are at
ground potential, the lines must be insulated with the tower structure.
Insulators are used to insulate tower from the bare conductors. Ideal
insulators must have the following characteristics:

1. There should not be any pores or air spaces.

2. There should not be any impurities.
3. There should be perfectly homogeneous material.
4. Leakage current through insulators should be minimum.
5. Insulators should be able to withstand over-voltage and normal
working voltage.
6. It should be mechanically strong to bear the conductor load.

First-three are physical characteristics of the insulator but the 4th and 5th are
electrical characteristics. Last one is mechanical characteristic of the
insulators. Porcelain and toughened glass are two main materials used for the
construction of insulators for overhead transmission lines. Some other
materials such as polymers and other moulded materials are also used.
Porcelain is most widely used insulator material as it is cheap. It is
thoroughly verified and glazed before use. Glazing is necessary to keep the
surface free from dust and moisture. Porcelain consists of 20% silica, 30%
feldspar and 50% clay and having the dielectric strength of 120–280 kV/cm.
Any impurity will reduce the dielectric strength of the insulator. It is difficult
to manufacture a perfectly homogenous porcelain in the thickness required
and therefore, it is necessary to go for different pieces and cemented together.
Toughened glass, which is normally having dielectric strength of 1200
kV/cm, is another material used for insulators. The glass is toughened to
make skin more resistant to damage by chipping and arc. The main
advantages of glass insulators are:

High dielectric strength

Longer life
High thermal sock resistant thus reduced damage from the flashover
Lower coefficient of thermal expansion
Greater mechanical strength under the compression but in tension it is
same as porcelain
Fault can be easily seen from the naked eyes.

Instead of several advantages, it has some disadvantages such as:

Moistures are readily condensed on the surface.

It is expensive than porcelain.
Its resistance to continuous mechanical load and temperature changes
is poor compared to porcelain and toughened glass.

12.2 RATINGS
Insulators are rated by three voltages: working voltage (or rated voltage),
puncture voltage and flashover voltage. The working voltage rating is the
voltage at which an insulator is designed to bear the steady state voltage
stress. If the line voltage is VLL, the working voltage will be VLL/Ö3. The
flashover voltage is the voltage at which flashover occurs through air
surrounding the insulator. The puncture voltage is the voltage at which the
insulator breaks through between conductor and pin. It destroys the insulator.
This ratings is determined by applying the voltage while insulator is emerged
in oil. This is done because before the puncture, there will be flashover.
Flashover voltage is less than puncture voltage and higher than working
voltage of insulators. A safety factor is defined relating the flashover and
working voltages. Mathematically, it is written as

12.3 TYPES OF INSULATORS

There are four types of insulators which are used in overhead transmission
lines: sackle type, pin type, suspension type and strain type. Sackle type
insulators are normally used in
230–440-V lines. A sackle insulator looks like a dumbly shape and is used in
one unit.
For medium voltages, pin type of insulator is used. The pin type insulators
are small, simple in construction and cheap. However, the cost of such
insulators increases if the voltage rating is increased. Pin type insulators are
uneconomical for higher voltage. As its name, the pin or bolt is used to clamp
the insulator to cross arm on the pole. There should be sufficient thickness of
porcelain between line conductor and the insulator pin to give a safety factor
up to 10 against puncture. It is desirable to design the insulator such that
flashover voltage should occur before the puncture. Figure 12.1 shows a pin
type insulator. The groove at the top of insulator is used for conductor
placing. The insulator and pin must have a sufficient mechanical strength to
bear the weight of conductor, wind pressure and ice loading, if any. The
safety factor is different under wet and dry conditions. Pin type insulator is
designed in such way that it should have a sufficient spark over distance. For
11-kV and 33-kV lines, pin type of insulators are used. The maximum rating
of pin insulator of single unit is 50 kV, however for larger rating, multiple
units can be used.

FIGURE 12.1 Pin type insulator.

For higher voltage, string type of insulators are used and can be categorized
into suspension type and strain type. Suspension type of insulator, as shown
in Figure 12.2, consists of one or more insulating units. It is hung from cross-
arm and carrying power conductor at the lowest extremity. It is free to swing
and therefore larger cross-arm is required, than the pin type insulators. The
main advantages of suspension insulators are:

Economical for voltage above 33 kV.

Each insulator is designed for 11 kV and hence for any operating
voltage, a string can be made.
Failure of any unit can be replaced without changing the whole string.
Since it is allowed to swing in the air, mechanical stress at a point of
attachment is reduced.
Flexible in extension of voltage rating by adding more units.
Since the conductors lay below the cross-arm, the line outages due to
lightening strokes are reduced.

FIGURE 12.2 Suspension type insulator.

Strain insulators are similar to suspension type insulators in shape but they
are used in vertical plane rather than horizontal plane as suspension type of
insulators are used. Normally, strain insulators are used at dead ends or at
anchor towers. When the tension in the conductor is very high, two or more
insulators are used in parallel.

12.4 VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION ACROSS SUSPENSION

INSULATORS
Normally, the string units are similar in shape and size, the capacitance of
each unit can be taken as the same. The capacitance between metal part and
structure (at the earth potential) is formed which is not negligible because the
cross-arms are not longer. If the cross-arm length is long enough, the
capacitance between the metal structure and the earth (tower) can be
neglected. Under this condition, the current flows in each string will be the
same and the potential distribution will also be the same in each insulator.
But this assumption is not true and the current in lower string (near to line
conductor) is larger than the topmost string (near to earth) and this uneven
distribution of current causes the different voltage across the string. Let the
capacitance of each unit (also called mutual capacitance) is mC and defined a
ratio m as

Let us calculate the voltage across each string (unit). In is current through
capacitance between nth pin to the earth and in is current through nth string.
Vn is the voltage across
nth string and vn is the voltage between nth pin to the earth. From Figure
12.3, we can write for the first string near to earth as

…
 FIGURE 12.3 Voltage variation across suspension insulator.
Similarly,
i3 = I2 + i2 = v2~C + V2m~C
and
V3m~C = (V1 + V2)~C + V2m~C
From Equation (12.2), substituting the value of V2 we get

In the same way, we can find the voltage across each string.
It is convenient to use the general formula for getting the same. We write
in+1 = In + in
and
Vn+1m~C = vn~C + Vnm~C
or

If m = 5, the voltage across each unit in terms of voltage of top string will be
V2 = 1.2V1, V3 = 1.64V1, V4 = 2.408V1, 
This shows that the voltage across the unit nearest to the conductor is the
highest and therefore the unit near to the conductor is highly stressed and the
topmost string is less utilized. It is also to note that the capacitance formed
between the line conductor and the structure will not affect the voltage
distribution across the disc units. Therefore, it can be ignored in the
calculation.

12.5 STRING EFFICIENCY

Normally, efficiency is defined as a ratio of output to input. However, string
efficiency is a measure of utilization of material in the string. If the number of
units used in the string is n, the string efficiency is defined as
From this definition, if the voltage distribution is same across each unit, the
string efficiency will be 100%.
Example 12.1 A string insulator has 4 units and each unit is having
capacitance C. The pin- to-earth capacitance is C/10, find the voltages across
each unit of the string, and the string efficiency.
Solution Given that m = 10. Let voltage across the topmost unit (near to
earth) is V1. From Equation (12.2), the voltage across the second unit from
the top will be

Voltage across the third unit from the top will be

Similarly, using Equation (12.4), the voltage across the fourth unit from the
top will be

Since the line is operating at 33 kV, the total voltage across the string will be
33/Ö3 (=19.05) kV. That is
V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 = 19.05 kV
Therefore
Voltage across the topmost unit V1 = 3.76 kV
Voltage across the second unit from the top V2 = 4.14 kV
Voltage across the third unit from the top V3 = 4.93 kV
Voltage across the fourth unit from the top V4 = 6.21 kV

Therefore, the string efficiency is 76.69%.

12.6 METHODS TO IMPROVE STRING EFFICIENCY

String efficiency can be improved by the following four ways:

1. Increasing value of m
2. Grading of units
3. Static shielding
4. Conducting glazes

These are discussed now.

Increasing value of m. If the value of m is increased, which can be
achieved by increasing the cross-arm length so that the capacitance between
pin to earth is decreased, the voltage distribution across the unit can be
improved and thus higher efficiency can be achieved. However, increasing
the cross-arm length after certain value will not be economical.
Mathematically, we can achieve 100% efficiency (equal voltage across each
units), if the value of m is infinity. It is found that the value of m greater than
10 is not economical.
Grading of units. Since the current in each unit is different which is not
possible to eliminate, voltages across each unit can be equalized using the
different capacity units. As the current in the lowest string is highest, the low-
impedance unit (or high-capacitance unit) near to the conductor will improve
the string efficiency. This shows that if discs are arranged in decreasing order
of capacitance from bottom (near to the conductor) to top, the voltage across
each unit can be equalized. In other words, if the product of a capacitive
reactance to the current flowing through discs is the same, the voltage across
each unit will be the same. This is possible only if the capacitance of the
upper unit is less than that of the lower unit.
Let us calculate the relationship for different unit capacitance for equal
potential across each unit. Figure 12.4 shows the different capacitance units.
If the voltage across each unit is V, we can have relation for nth unit as
in+1 = In + in
and
V~Cn+1 = vn~C + V~Cn = nV~C + V~Cn
or
Cn+1 = nC + Cn (12.5)

FIGURE 12.4 Grading of units.

Grading of units is also called capacitance grading. This method of
improving the efficiency will result in the need for large stock of different
sizes of units, which outweighs the advantages of string insulators. Good
results can be obtained by using insulators of one size for most of the units
and larger units for the one or two adjacent to the line. In practice this method
is used for very high voltage lines.
Static shielding. In this method, current from pin to earth is equalized by
injecting current from the line to the pin, as shown in Figure 12.5, so that
equal current flows through the unit and therefore the voltage across each
unit can be the same. This is achieved by the
 FIGURE 12.5 Static shielding.
employment of a grading or guard ring, which usually takes the form of a
large metal ring surrounding the bottom unit, and connected to the line. Due
to this arrangement, capacitances between line to pin of the units are formed.
If the capacitance between link-pin n and guard ring is Sn, and the number of
units used are k, for the same voltage across each unit, then
in = in+1 or In = I¢n
and
nV~C = (kV – nV)~Sn
Hence

In practice, it is difficult to achieve. Nevertheless it is normally used and

advantage is gained partially. However, grading ring solves two purposes.
First, it equalizes the voltage drop across units and protects string from
flashover on the surface of insulator when used with arcing horns.
Conducting glazes. Since there are uneven voltages in each unit due to
unsymmetrical current, each mutual capacitance (also called self-
capacitances) could be shunted by a resistor of such a magnitude that the
capacitance currents were swamped by the effect of the leakage current
through the resistors. Then a more uniform voltage division can be obtained.
This can be achieved by coating insulators with a conducting glaze. This
method is practically impossible due to difficulty of producing glaze for long
time.
Example 12.2 A suspension type insulator is having 3 units and the value of
pin-to-earth capacitance is C. If the capacitance of top unit is 5C, find the
capacitances of each unit to make the string efficiency 100%.
Solution A 100% string efficiency means the voltage across each disc unit is
same. The values of C1, C2 and C3 (Figure 12.6) can be obtained using
Equation (12.5). These values can also be calculated using basic concept of
capacitance grading. Since voltage across C2 is same as C1, therefore we can
write V~C2 = V~C + V~C1. Thus C2 = 6C.
Similarly for lower unit, we can write V~C3 = 2V~C + V~C2. Thus C3 = 8C.

FIGURE 12.6 Example 12.2.

Example 12.3 A suspension type insulator is having 5 units and the value of
pin-to-earth capacitance is C. Find the line-to-pin capacitances to equalize the
voltage across each unit.
Solution The line-to-pin capacitances S1, S2, S3 and S4 as shown in Figure
12.7, can be obtained by using Equation (12.6). However, here the same is
calculated with basic principle. Let potential across each disc is V. The line
voltage will be 5 V. Potential of
point A will be V. For equal voltages across each unit, the current through
each disc having same capacitance will be same. Therefore, the current
through S1 will be same as current through pin-to earth capacitance. Hence
 FIGURE 12.7 Example 12.3.

Example 12.4 A string insulator has 4 units and each unit is rated for 12 kV.
Find the maximum line voltage on which it can be operated safely. The
mutual capacitance of unit is 10 times the capacitance between the pin to
earth. Find the string efficiency.
Solution Here m = 10; if rating of each insulator is 12 kV.
So, V2 = 1.1 V1; V3 = 1.31 V1, V4 = 1.651 V
12 = 1.651 V1
V1 = 7.268 kV
So V2 = 7.995 kV
V3 = 9.521 kV
Total voltage across line string = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 = 36.78 kV
\ Safe operating maximum line voltage =
= 63.71 kV
 PROBLEMS
12.1 A string of 5 insulator units has mutual capacitance equal to 10 times the
pin-to-earth capacitance. Find:
(a) Voltage distribution across various units as the per cent of total voltage
across string.
(b) String efficiency.
(c) Find the string efficiency if m = 5.
12.2 A string has a few insulator units and its self-capacitance is equal to 10
times the pin- to-earth capacitance. One unit is rated for 11 kV(rms). Find
the minimum number of insulator units for each phase supply voltage of
66 kV, 3z line.
12.3 A string of 6 suspension insulators is to be graded for obtaining uniform
voltage distribution across string. If the pin-to-earth capacitances are equal
to C and mutual capacitance of the top insulator is 10C. Find the mutual
capacitances of each unit in terms of C.
12.4 In a string of 4 suspension insulators, capacitances may be represented
as shown in Figure 12.8 (capacitances S1 being due to guard ring). Find
the voltage (as a percentage of total voltage) across each disc and string
efficiency. Given C¢ = 0.10C and S1= 0.05C.

FIGURE 12.8 Problem 12.4.

12.5 A string insulator has 5 units and each unit is rated for 11 kV. Find the
maximum voltage on which it can be operated safely. The mutual
capacitance of unit is 10 times the capacitance between the pin-to-earth.
 13
Design of Transmission Lines
13.1 INTRODUCTION
The main objective of designing a high-voltage transmission line is to
transmit electrical energy at the lowest cost and with required reliability. Both
electrical and mechanical design considerations are studied properly to see its
performance. The main electrical considerations are:
(a) Choice of voltage, size of conductors and spacing between conductors
(b) Calculation of line constants for determination of voltage regulation and
efficiency of the line at full load
(c) Calculation of corona loss
(d) Choice of the method of grounding
(e) Calculation of radio interference
(f) Stability consideration
(g) Electrostatic and electromagnetic effects
(h) Insulation coordination
(i) Protective system
(j) Choosing number and type of insulators
Since transmission lines are supported on the towers, their conductors form
the catenary. The factors affecting a mechanical design of overhead
transmission lines are:

1. Selection of line route

2. Types of towers/poles
3. Right-of-way
4. Ground and conductor clearance
5. Tower spacing, span length
6. Mechanical loading

Basically four types of supporting structures are used:

(a) Wood poles
 (b) Concrete poles
(c) Steel poles
(d) Aluminium poles
In order to specify the tension to be used in stringing the line conductors, the
values of sag and tension for different conditions must be known. The factors
affecting the sag of a conductor strung between supports are:

1. Weight of conductor per unit length

2. Load due to ice, snow, wind, etc.
3. Distance between the supports (span length)
4. Temperature
5. Conductor tension.

13.2 CALCULATION OF SAG AND TENSION

Supports at the same level
Figure 13.1 shows a wire AOB of length l supported at two towers A and B
and are
spaced L unit apart. Let O is the lowest point of the wire. Consider a length
OP of the curve length s.

FIGURE 13.1 Conductors supported at same level.

If w = weight/unit length, H = tension at point O and T = tension at point P,
the tension T can be resolved into horizontal and vertical components as
T sini = ws and T cosi = H
Then

tani =
In triangle shown in Figure 13.2, ds represents very small section and
therefore we have
(ds)2 = (dx)2 + (dy)2

FIGURE 13.2 A small section of catenary.

Substituting the value of tan i, we get

where A is the integration constant. With initial condition at x = 0, s = 0 we

find A = 0. Therefore,

At x = L/2, s = l/2, we obtain

Expanding the sinh [wL/(2H)] and ignoring higher order terms, we get
Integrating both sides, we obtain

where B is the integration constant and can be obtained with initial condition
at x = 0, y = 0. Thus, we get B = –H/w. Therefore, Equation (13.6) gives

It is equation of the sag that is called a catenary. Expanding the equation, we

get

This is a parabola. For the short span this equation is valid. Tension (T) at
point P will be
T2 = (T sin i)2 + (T cos i)2 = H2 + (ws)2
Substituting the value of s from Equation (13.3) and simplifying, we have
For short span and short sags, the difference between the maximum tension T
and the horizontal tension H is small. The tension will be the highest at the
conductor supports and will be minimum at the lowest point of catenary.
Thus

When x = L/2, y is equal to the sag or deflection d. Therefore, using Equation

(13.7), the sag (d), is

Using Equations (13.5) and (13.11), the length of wire (perimeter of

conductor) between span in terms of the span length and sag can be
calculated as

Supports at different levels (unsymmetrical span)

Let P1 and P2 are two points at heights h1 and h2 from the ground
respectively, as shown in Figure 13.3. If the point O is the lowest point, by
using Equation (13.11), we can write sags in two sections as

FIGURE 13.3 Supports at different levels.

where h is difference between the elevations of two supports. If the span
length is L,
x1 + x2 = L. Therefore

Using relation x1 + x2 = L and Equation (13.13), we get

If x1 is negative, the lowest point of the curve lies outside the actual span. It
must be noted that the lowest point is always be at a lower support side. If x1
is zero, the lowest point of the curve will be at a lower-support point.
Example 13.1 The weight of a overhead conductor of a line is 4.0 N/m. The
ultimate strength is 8000 N. If safety factor is 4 and span length is 160 m,
find (a) sag and (b) total length of the line between spans.
Solution Given that span length L = 160 m, weight w = 4.0 N/m and the
tensile strength is 8000 N. The working stress will be
(a) Using Equation (13.11), sag of the line

(b) Using Equation (13.5), total length of conductor in spans

Example 13.2 An overhead transmission line conductor has the following

data:
Weight = 0.35 kg/m;
Maximum allowable strength = 800 kg;
Safety factor = 2;
Span length = 160 m.
Supports are at different levels where one support is at 70 m from the ground.
Find the minimum clearance from the ground and the minimum point of the
catenary from the supports when the second support is at (a) 40 m and (b) 65
m.
Solution The working stress

(a) The difference in supports is h = 70 – 40 = 30 m. Using Equation (13.13),

the distance of minimum point from the lower support is

This shows that the minimum point lies outside of the span is 134.29 m from
the
lower span. Therefore, the minimum ground clearance is 40 m that is the
height of lower support.
(b) When the lower support is at 65 m, the level difference (h) is 70 – 65 = 5
m. Using Equation (13.13), the distance of minimum point from the lower
support is
Thus the minimum point lies inside the span that is 44.29 m from lower span.
The sag from lower support

The minimum ground clearance will be 65 – 0.86 = 64.14 m.

13.3 EQUIVALENT SPAN LENGTH AND SAG

There are several situations where the span length between the supports is not
same and therefore the tension in each span will be different. However, it is
not possible with suspension insulators since the insulator strings would
swing so as to equalize the tension in each span. It is impractical to dead end
and to erect each span separately. It is possible to assume a uniform tension
between dead-end supports by defining an equivalent span called ruling span
and make the calculations based on it. If the length Li is the ith span length,
the equivalent span or ruling span length

where n is the number of span of the line.

Sometimes it is not necessary to get the exact value of the ruling span. An
approximate equivalent span can be calculated as

where Lav is the average span length and Lmax is the maximum span length
in line. The line tension T can be estimated using the ruling span length and
then the sag for each span can be calculated.

13.4 EFFECT OF ICE- AND WIND-LOADING

The sag and tension of lines are different in normal weather conditions. Since
lines are designed for all the conditions, it is important to calculate the sag
and tension during the ice- and wind-loading conditions.
Effect of ice
In snowy areas, ice is deposited on conductors. Sometimes, thickness of ice is
more than the conductor’s diameter and its accumulation on the conductor
affects the design of the line:
(a) by increasing the weight per metre and
(b) by increasing the projected surface area subject to wind pressure.
Ice deposition may not be uniform but it can be assumed to be uniformly
distributed around the conductor, as shown in Figure 13.4. Due to ice, the sag
and tension of the conductor increase and therefore the line should be
suitably designed to take care of this effect.

FIGURE 13.4 Cross-sectional view of uniform ice around the conductor.

Let the diameter of a conductor is D and the thickness of ice is t, the cross-
sectional area of ice (Ai) will be the cross-sectional area of the ice along with
the conductor minus cross-sectional area of the conductor. The cross-
sectional area of ice

If the density of ice is ti (normally 915) kg/m3, the weight of ice acting
downward (assuming the ice is spread through out the span) will be
wi = r[(D + t)t]ti kg/m (13.19)
where diameter and thickness are in metres. If the weight per unit length of
the conductor is w and of ice is wi, the total weight per unit length wT = w +
wi.
Effect of wind
The effect of wind is taken horizontally across the projected area of the
conductor covered with ice, if present, as shown in Figure 13.5. Therefore, it
affects only to increase the transverse loading on the conductor. If D is
diameter of bare conductor in metre, t is thickness of ice in metre, projected
area for l-metre length will be (D + 2t)l. If the wind pressure is p kg/m2, the
wind loading will be
ww = (D + 2t)p kg/m (13.20)

FIGURE 13.5 Wind pressure on a conductor covered with ice.

The wind pressure depends on the shape of conductors. It is assumed to act
on (2/3)rd of the projected area for cylindrical surfaces while it acts on full-
face area in the square conductors. The wind pressure also depends on the
velocity of the wind, which can be calculated by using p = 0.006v2 kg/m2,
where v is the velocity of wind in km/hr. The effective load acting on the
conductor will be

where w and wi are per unit weight of conductor and ice respectively. The
loading is acting at an angle

to the vertical plane, as shown in Figure 13.6. The total sag and tension must
be calculated with an effective weight in case of ice- and wind-loaded lines.
 FIGURE 13.6 Vertical plan of wind pressure on a conductor.
Example 13.3 An ACSR conductor has the following data: normal copper
area = 120 mm2; size = (30 + 7)/6.30 mm; weight = 0.4 kg/m, tensile strength
= 1250 kg, safety factor = 5. If span length is 200 m, find
(a) Sag in still air
(b) Sag, if the conductor is covered with 0.5-cm thick ice (ice density of 915
kg/m3)
(c) Sag (total and vertical), if the conductor is covered with ice of 0.5-cm
thickness and a wind pressure of 10 kg/m2 is acting on the projected area.
Solution The size of (30 + 7)/6.30 mm means the conductor has 30
aluminium strands and 7 steel strands of diameter 6.30 mm each. The total
number of equal size strands will be 37 and the number of layers will be 4,
from Equation (10.1). From Equation (10.2), the total diameter of conductor
D = (2 ´ 4 – 1) ´ 6.30 = 44.1 mm = 4.41 cm
and the working stress

(a) Sag (d) in still air

(b) Using Equation (13.19), the weight of ice

wi = r[(D + t)t]ti = r[(4.41 + 0.5) ´ 10–2 ´ 0.5 ´ 10–2] ´ 915 = 0.706 kg/m
The total weight = 0.4 + 0.706 = 1.106 kg/m. Thus the sag

(c) The wind loading

ww = (D + 2t)p = (4.41 + 1) ´ 10–2 ´ 10 = 0.541 kg/m
The effective loading will be
The total sag will be

to the vertical. Thus the vertical sag will be 24.62 cos 26.07° = 22.11 m. This
is the same as in (b), because the wind pressure is acting in transverse
direction.

13.5 STRINGING CHART

Stringing chart is helpful in providing sag and tension at any temperature, if
the sag and tension is known for a particular temperature. The curves of sag
and tension with temperature variation are called the ‘stringing’ charts and
are useful in erecting the transmission line conductors at specified
temperatures and loading conditions.
At high temperature, sag in still air is more and tension is less. However in
case of low temperature, sag is less and tension is more. Let w, f, l, d and t
represent the load per unit length, the stress, the conductor length in span, the
sag and the temperature, respectively. The suffix 1 represents the quantities at
wind and ice loading (at low temperature, usually
–5.0°C) and suffix 2 denotes the quantities in still air at high temperature
(normally temperature at erection, no ice). Let A is the area of conductor, a
the coefficient of linear expansion, L the span length and E is the Young’s
modulus. The problem now is to calculate maximum working stress in the
conductor during fair weather and still air conditions.
For short span, we have derived

Since stress f = T/A, the length of conductor between the span at temperature
t1 is
Due to increase in temperature from t1 to t2, the increase in length is equal to
a (t2 – t1)l1 @ a (t2 – t1)L
At the same time, another effect of the increase in temperature is a reduction
in stress, which causes decrease in length. Young modulus is defined as

Thus decrease in length due to reduction in stress is

Therefore, length of conductor between spans at temperature t2 is

Substituting the values of l1 and l2 in Equation (13.22), we get

Simplifying Equation (13.23), we have

Equation (13.24) is a cubic equation of f2 and can be solved by using any

mathematical algorithm. After getting the value of f2, sag at temperature t2
can be calculated as

Thus the variation of sag with temperature can be plotted. Figure 13.7 shows
the plots of sag and tension with temperature variation that is known as
stringing chart.
 FIGURE 13.7 Variations of sag and tension versus temperature.

13.6 SAG TEMPLATE

It is a plot of curves on transparent paper which is used for locating the tower
positions. In order to locate the position of towers, a suitable value of tower
support must be known, however there are no clear-cut guidelines for the
same and several alternatives may be tried. The ground clearance is
maintained which varies with a specific voltage level. Table 13.1 shows the
typical span length, ground clearance and clearance between phases.
Table 13.1 Span Length, Ground Clearance and Clearance between Phases
Span Minimum Clearance
Voltage length ground between
level (in clearance (in phases (in
metre) metre) metre)
400
80 4.6 0.2
V
11
100 4.6 1.2
kV
132 350–
6.1 3.9
kV 365
220 365–
7.0 5.13
kV 380
400
400 8.8 7.0
kV
The following empirical formula is used for determining the spacing of
aluminium conductor lines: where d is sag in metres and V is line voltage in
kV:

13.7 CONDUCTOR VIBRATIONS AND VIBRATION

DAMPERS
In addition to the horizontal swing due to wind pressure, overhead conductors
experience vibrations in the vertical plane. These vibrations can be broadly
classified as: resonant vibration or aeolian vibration and galloping (or
dancing).
Aeolian vibrations
Aeolian or resonant vibration is of low magnitude (up to 5 cm) and high
frequency (5–40 Hz) with a loop length of 1–10 m. It is caused by a vortex
phenomenon in light winds
(6–30 km/hr). The frequency f is empirically given by 50 ´ (v/D) where v is
wind velocity (km/hr) and D is conductor diameter (in mm). The length of a
loop (half wave length) depends on tension T (N) and conductor weight w
(kg/m) and is given by

These vibrations are common to all conductors and are more or less always
present. Since these vibrations are small in magnitude, these are less harmful.
However they may give rise to troubles at heavy anchor clamps and may
cause conductor failure. Two devices are used to solve these vibrations:
Armour rods or reinforcement and dampers. In Armour rods scheme, a spiral
layer of small round rods, preferably tapered at each end and larger in
diameter compared to conductor, surrounds the conductors. Armour rods also
provide the best protection against flashover. To minimize the effect of
resonant vibrations, dampers are used which absorb vibrational energy of the
conductor by hysteresis and inter-strand friction in the flexible damper cable.
There are several designs but stock-bridge damper, as shown in Figure 13.8,
is extensively used, which is simple too. It comprises of two hollow weights
fixed at both the ends of a short length of stranded steel cable suspended from
the conductor around midway between two nodes of vibrations, i.e. where the
amplitude of the vibration is maximum. There may be required additional
dampers to be installed in the lines.
 FIGURE 13.8 Stock-bridge damper.

Galloping (or dancing) of conductors

These vibrations are of low frequency (0.25–2 Hz) and high amplitude (up to
6 m) and are generally caused by asymmetrical layer of ice formation. It is a
self-excited type vibration. When an ice coated conductor is acted upon by a
light drift wind particularly where ground slopes at right angles to the line,
the wind travels up the slope and appears to get underneath the conductor and
initiate vibrations. These vibrations may cause flashover between conductors
of different phase. It is advisable to use the horizontal configuration to reduce
the impact of galloping or dancing of conductors.
If conductors are perfect circular, the effect can be minimized. Stranded
conductors can be wrapped up with PVC to make the conductor circular. To
reduce the effect of ice formation, the high I2R conductors can be used,
which is an economical solution.

PROBLEMS
13.1 A transmission-line conductor consists of a hard drawn copper (weighs
214 kg/km) of 240-mm2 cross-section (61/2.24 mm) and has a span of 200
m, the supporting structures being level. The conductor has an ultimate
tensile stress of 40 kg/mm2 and safety factor is 5. Ice density is 931.0
kg/m3. Find
(a) the sag in still air
(b) the sag with wind pressure of 1 kg/m and ice loading of 1 cm
(c) vertical sag in (b).
13.2 An overhead transmission line has a span of 300 m, the conductor
weighing
600 kg/km. Calculate the maximum sag if the ultimate tensile strength is
6000 kg. Assume safety factor = 4. Also calculate the length of the wire
 between the spans.
13.3 In problem 13.2, if supports are not at equal levels and having 1-m
difference in levels, determine the minimum sag point.
13.4 An overhead transmission conductor of silicon–bronze having an
ultimate tensile strength of 5000 kg/cm2 and the area of 2.5 cm2 when
erected between supports
600-m apart and having 20-m difference in level, determine the sag which
must be allowed so that the factor of safety shall be 2. Assume the wire
weighs 2 kg/m, ice loading 1 kg/m and wind loading is 1.5 kg/m. Also,
calculate the vertical sag.
13.5 Assume a radial ice thickness 1.0 cm, a wind pressure 40 kg/m2 of
projected area and a temperature of –5°C as the worst conditions, a factor
of safety of 2 being required under these conditions. Find the erection sag
and tension of a line at a temperature of 65°C in still air. The line has a
normal span of 300 m and conductor used is ACSR having the following
data:
Area = 240 mm2; overall diameter = 20 mm; weight = 1.0 kg/m; ultimate
strength = 8000 kg; coefficient of linear expansion = 18.44 ´ 10–5/°C;
modulus of elasticity = 9320 kg/mm2; ice weighs 910 kg/m3.
13.6 A transmission line conductor is having a diameter of 20 mm and
weighs 1.0 kg/m. The span is 280 m. The wind pressure is 40 kg/m2 of
projected area with ice coating of 10 mm. The ultimate strength of
conductor is 10000 kg. Calculate the maximum sag if the factor of safety is
2 and ice weighs 910 kg/m3.
 14
Corona and Radio
Interference
14.1 INTRODUCTION
The literal meaning of corona is a ring of light that appears around the sun.
This term is borrowed to describe the partial discharges that develop in the
presence of high electric field. Corona is one of the main concerns for power
transmission engineers because of the power loss it causes in the lines and the
noise it causes in radio and TV receptions.
If the potential difference is increased between two conductors spaced some
distance apart in air, at some potential a faint luminous glow of violet colour
will appear adjacent to the conductor surface with a hissing noise. There is
also formation of ozone gas. If the potential is further increased, the intensity
of glow and noise will increase. This phenomenon is known as corona, which
is due to the ionization of air near power conductor. Since free electrons are
normally present in the free space due to radio and cosmic rays, these
electron get accelerated due to the voltage of the power conductors and
collide with other molecules of air and they dislodge electrons from
molecules. Thus the number of electrons increases. This process is known as
ionization of air surrounding the conductor. Normally, the distance between
the conductors is sufficiently high compared to their radius, therefore, corona
occurs before flashover. Thus, the ‘corona’ is defined as a self-sustained
electric discharge in which the field intensified ionization is localized only
over a portion of distance between the electrodes (lines). In practice, a
flashover may occur with no or very little corona if ratio of conductor spacing
to the radius is less than 15. This ratio is always greater than 15 for overhead
lines.
The discharge process depends on the polarity of the applied voltage.
However in the case of ac, the polarity changes alternatively. In the case of
dc, the appearance of corona is different. The positive wire has more uniform
bluish white glow and on negative polarity wire reddish tufts or beads are
formed. The ac corona can be easily seen with stroboscope.

14.2 CRITICAL VOLTAGES

Consider a two-conductor transmission line, as shown in Figure 14.1. If the
charge density at conductor A is q coulomb/m and radius of each conductor is
r, the electricity field intensity at point P situated at x metre from the centre
of the first conductor A, is

FIGURE 14.1 Two-wire transmission system.

However, the electricity field intensity at point P from the centre of
conductor B having charge density – q coulomb/m (return path of current I),
is

Since both the fields are in the same direction, the total electricity field
intensity at point P is

If V¢ is the voltage of one conductor with respect to neutral plane, we can

write

Since d >> r, we get

It is to note that the value of V¢ for single-phase line is V/2 and for 3-phase
lines, it
is VL/Ö3, where VL is line-to-line voltage. From Equation (14.3), it is clear
that the field intensity (gradient) increases as x decreases. The gradient
(gmax) is maximum at the surface of conductor (x = r) and this will be

The value of potential gradient at which ionization of air takes place under
normal temperature (25°C) and pressure (76 cm of Hg) and without
impurities is equal to 30 kV (peak)/cm or 21.1 kV (rms)/cm and is denoted by
g0. Thus the voltage required to ionize the air

The dielectric strength of air at any temperature t°C and pressure b cm of Hg

will be given by g0d, where d is the air density correction factor and defined
as

Critical disruptive voltage

It is a voltage at which complete disruption of dielectric occurs. It
corresponds to the gradient at the surface of conductors equal to the
breakdown strength of air. This voltage can be calculated using Equation
(14.6), if the conductor is solid and smooth. Normally, stranded conductors
are used in the lines and their surfaces are not smooth. The breakdown
voltage will be somewhat less than smooth conductors. Due to irregularity of
surface, dust and dirt on its surface there is a further reduction in the
breakdown voltage. Allowing the surface irregularity factor m of the wire and
the air density correction factor, the critical disruptive voltage (phase to
neutral) will be

The values of m lie between 0.8 and 1.0. It should be noted that above
voltage is valid for a fair weather condition. In case of a foul and bad weather
condition, the value of Vc is decreased considerably. While calculating the
critical disruptive voltage for corona, the units of g0 and r must be taken
carefully.
Visual critical disruptive voltage
At critical disruptive voltage corona occurs, but it is not visible because the
charged ions in air must receive some finite energy to cause further ionization
by collision. When the voltage further increases at some point, the corona
becomes visible. This voltage is called visual critical disruptive voltage (Vv).
The gradient for critical visual corona is denoted by gv. The distance between
g0 and gv is called the energy distance. Peek gave the following empirical
formula for gv, which are function of radius of conductor. Now, we have

where d and r are in centimetres. The value of surface (or roughness) factor
mv is different from the m. As conductor surface is irregular and visual
corona occurs at some points of the conductor and is called local corona. The
surface factor mv is 0.72 for local corona and 0.82 for general (or decided)
corona.
Example 14.1 A 3-phase transmission line is having three conductors
equilaterally spaced 6-m apart. The diameter of each conductor is 2 cm. The
air temperature is 27°C and pressure is 72 cm of Hg. If the surface factor is
0.82 and irregularity factor is 0.90, find the critical disruptive and visual
critical disruptive voltages.
Solution Air density factor

and
Line-to-line critical disruptive voltage = 114.29 ´ = 197.95 kV
Using Equation (14.9), the critical visual disruptive voltage

14.3 CORONA LOSS

The ionized charges near the conductor surface take energy from the supply
system and thus there is a loss of some energy due to corona. This is resistive
loss. It is not possible to derive any formula for the exact loss that occurs due
to corona. Several researchers gave empirical formulas based on the
experiments for calculating the corona loss. Peek’s empirical formula for
corona loss under the fair weather condition is

where Vp is the phase-to-neutral operating voltage in kV and f is the supply

frequency in Hz.
For storm or foul weather, the value of critical disruptive voltage is taken as
0.8 Vc. Thus approximate real power loss due to corona under foul weather
conduction is
It was found that empirical formula given by Peek gives correct results if
1. Corona loss is predominant.
2. Frequency lies between 25 and 120 Hz.
3. Ratio Vp/Vc > 1.8.
4. The radius of conductor is greater than 0.25 cm.
When the ratio Vp/Vc is less than 1.8, Peterson’s formula holds good which is

where F is the factor which varies with the ratio Vp/Vc. Typical values for
different Vp/Vc in fair weather condition are
Vp/Vc 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.61.82.02.2
F 0.0120.0180.050.080.301.03.56.08.0
14.4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CORONA
The advantage of corona is that it works as safety valve in the event of high-
voltage steep waves due to switching or lightning surges. The energy of these
waves is dissipated in air as corona loss. Corona does have several beneficial
applications as in Van de Graaff generators, electrostatic precipitators,
electro-printing, electrostatic deposition and ionization counting.
The main disadvantage of corona is the power loss which occurs. It reduces
the efficiency of the lines. This loss is significant in the case of extra/ultra
high voltage (EHV/UHV) lines especially in bad weather conditions. The
capacitance of transmission lines increases due to increase in effective
diameter of conductors. The ionized air near conductor surface works as a
conducting medium. The increase in capacitance results in increased charging
current, which reduces the surge impedance loading of the line. Triple
frequency corona current induces the triple frequency voltage in the system
and these currents and voltages interfere with the communication system.

14.5 FACTORS AFFECTING CORONA LOSS

Since the corona is due to sustained ionization of air molecules, this will be
affected by the physical state of the atmosphere as well as by the conditions
of line. The relevant factors that affect corona are:

1. Number of ions
2. Size and charge per ion
3. Mean free path
4. Line voltage
5. d/r ratio
6. State of the conductor surface
7. Shape and size of the surface.

The above listed factors can be further classified into three subgroups:
(a) Atmospheric factors
(b) Electric factors
(c) Condition of line
The effect of various factors on corona loss is explained now.
Atmospheric factors
Temperature. From Equation (14.10), it is clear that corona loss is
dependent on air density correction factor d. This factor is directly appearing
in the loss formula however it also has impact on factor Vc which is directly
proportional to the air density correction factor (see Equation 14.7). Any
decrease in Vc will increase the corona loss significantly, as loss µ(Vp – Vc)2.
Thus effect of d on corona loss is very severe.
Since air density factor is inversely proportional to the function of
temperature
(see Equation 14.5), with any increase in temperature, d will be reduced and
thus corona loss will be increased. Also, a decrease in temperature will
increase the value of d which thus reduces the corona loss.
Pressure. Since air density factor is directly proportional to the pressure
(see Equation 14.5), with any decrease in pressure, d will be reduced and thus
corona loss will be increased. Also an increase in pressure will increase the
value of d and thus reduces the corona loss. Therefore corona loss is more in
hilly areas than the plain areas. Pressure also affects the term (Vp – Vc)2, that
influences corona loss. As the pressure increases so does Vc and thus reduces
corona loss.
Dust and dirt. Due to presence of dust and dirt, less voltage gradient is
required for sustained discharge. The critical disruptive voltage is reduced
due to dust and dirt and therefore the corona loss is more.
Rain, snow, hail and fog. Bad weather conditions such as rain, storm,
hails, etc. reduce the critical disruptive voltage and thus there is more corona
loss. Corona loss is less in a fair weather condition. In calculation, the critical
disruptive voltage under foul weather condition is taken as 0.8Vc, where Vc is
the critical disruptive voltage under fair weather condition.
Electrical factors
Frequency. Equation (14.10) shows that corona loss is proportional to (f +
25). If the frequency is more, corona loss will also be more. The corona loss
is less in dc-transmission system than the ac-transmission system. Due to
presence of harmonics, the corona loss is always higher.
Supply voltage. If the voltage supply is high, corona loss will be high. In
low-voltage lines, corona is absent due to insufficient field to maintain the
self-sustained ionization.
Effect of line conditions
Conductor configurations. Conductors of 3-phase overhead transmission
lines can be placed in either vertical configuration or horizontal
configuration. The field intensity at the middle conductor surface is higher
than the outer conductors. Thus the critical disruptive voltage for middle
conductor will be less than other two conductors and thus there will be more
loss in middle conductor. If they are equilaterally spaced, the average field at
each conductor will be same. Since the ground is an equipotent surface, the
field distribution is affected by the presence of earth. If conductors are placed
at more height, the corona loss will be less.
Diameter of conductor. Since corona loss is proportional to (Vp –
Vc)2Ö(r/d), it can be separated in two terms as:
Loss µ and Loss µ (Vp – Vc)2
If the radius of the conductor increases, the critical disruptive voltage Vc will
increase because Vc is directly proportional to r ln (d/r) as d >> r. Therefore,
from the first corona-loss relation, it is seen that an increase in conductor
diameter will increase the corona loss. However, the second term indicates
that the increase in diameter will increase Vc and thus will reduce corona
loss. The second term is more predominant than the first term. Thus the
increase in conductor diameter will reduce the corona loss.
Profile of conductor. Electric field around a conductor depends on the
shape of conductor. If the conductor is round, the field will be uniform
around the conductor but if it is flat or oval, the field will be more at sharp
ends. Thus corona loss in cylindrical conductors will always be less
compared to any other shapes.
Surface condition. If the surface is polished and uniform, the critical
disruptive voltage Vc will be more and thus there will be less corona loss. On
the other hand, if the conductor surface is rough, the corona loss will be
more.
Number of conductor per phase. For higher voltage lines, bundled
conductors are used. By using the bundled conductors the effective radius is
increased and thus the reduced field. The critical disruptive voltage Vc will be
more in the case of bundled conductors. Thus corona loss is reduced.
Heating of conductor by load current. There is no direct effect of
heating of conductor on the corona loss. However it has indirect effect in
reducing the corona loss. Due to heating of conductors, there is no
condensation of fog or dew, as presence of these increases the corona loss.
Conductor spacing. It is clear from Equation (14.7) that an increase in the
conductor spacing will increase the critical disruptive voltage. Since corona
loss is proportional to
(Vp – Vc)2Ö(r/d) the corona loss will be decreased considerably with the
increase in conductor spacing.

14.6 EFFECT OF CORONA ON LINE DESIGN

Since corona loss reduces the efficiency of lines, the transmission lines are
designed in such a way that the corona loss is small enough in a fair weather
condition. If a line has a critical disruptive voltage of about 10% above the
operating voltage, then it is quite satisfactory even though some corona loss
will take place under a foul weather condition. An increase in spacing and
diameter of conductors increase the critical disruptive voltage, thus reduces
the corona loss but it also increases the cost. In properly designed
transmission lines, the corona loss is usually insignificant in a fair weather
condition. The typical measured values range from 0.3 to 1.7
kW/conductor/km for 500-kV lines and from 0.7–17 kW/conductor/km for
765-kV lines.
Example 14.2 A 3-phase, 50-Hz, 220-kV transmission line consists of
conductors of
2.0-cm diameter and spaced equilaterally at a distance of 4 m. The line
conductors have smooth surface with value of m = 0.96. The barometric
pressure is 73 cm of Hg and temperature of 20°C. Determine the fair and
stormy weather corona loss per km per phase.
Solution Air density factor

Phase-to-neutral critical disruptive voltage will be

Since Vp is greater than Vc, corona will be present. Using Peek’s formula for
corona loss in a fair weather, we get

For rainy weather, the value of critical disruptive voltage will be taken as
0.8Vc. Thus the loss due to corona will be

14.7 RADIO INTERFERENCE

The radio interference, also called the radio influence, is a noise type that
occurs in the AM radio reception (0.5–1.6 MHz). It does not take place in the
FM band. Radio noise (RI or TVI) is usually expressed in milli-volt per metre
or in decibels above 1 mV/m. Corona noise includes interference with radio,
TV and other wireless reception. Corona undoubtedly also interferes with
carrier signals transmitted along EHV lines. In HVDC lines, the noise level is
higher under the positive conductor than the negative conductor. However for
ac transmission, lateral decay of radio noise is less steep than for dc lines.
The radio interference (RI) for both ac and dc EHV lines depends on the field
strength Emax and defined as

where C is constant. The exponent n has a value between 5 and 7 in a fair

weather and between 1.5 and 3.5 in rain. For the same voltage gradient, RI
level increases with the radius as
RI = Kr2 dB (14.14)
This relation is independent of conductor bundling.
If the power line is running along the same route as the communication line,
there will be an interference in the communication line due to both
electromagnetic and electrostatic effects. The electromagnetic effect produces
currents, which is superimposed on the communication signal, and thereby it
is distorted. However, electrostatic effect induces voltage in communication
line, which may be dangerous in handling the telephone receiver. Let us
consider these effects separately.
Electromagnetic effect
Figure 14.2 shows a 3-phase line with communication line conductors d and
e. If the balanced current through the power conductors are Ia, Ib and Ic then
Ia + Ib + Ic = 0
The flux linkage to conductor d due to current in conductor a will be

where D¥ is the infinity. The flux linkage to conductor e due to current in

conductor a will be
 FIGURE 14.2 Three-phase line with communication line.

The mutual flux linkage between conductor d and e due to current Ia

Similarly, mutual inductances Mb and Mc between conductor b and loop de

and between conductor c and loop de respectively will be

Since the currents are displaced by 120°, these mutual inductances have also
displacement
of 120°. The net mutual inductance M will be the vector sum of three mutual
inductances.

If I is current in the power conductor and frequency is f, voltage induced in

communication conductors d and e will be
V = j~MI volt/m
The value of M will be small if the distance between power line and
communication line is large. Generally, power conductors as systematically
spaced, M will be cancelled for power frequency. Presence of harmonics and
multiples of harmonics do not cancelled. Due to presence of harmonics, the
induced voltage may be dangerous.
Example 14.3 Show that the maximum critical disruptive voltage occurs
when the radius of conductor is (d/e)

Example 14.4 A 1z 50 Hz overhead power line is symmetrically supported

on a horizontal cross-arm. Spacing between the centres of the conductors (say
a and b) in 2.5 m. A telephone line is also symmetrically supported on a
horizontal cross-arm 1.8 m directly below the power line. Spacing between
the centres of these conductors (say, c and d) is 1.0
(a) Show that the mutual inductance per unit length between centre a-b and
centre
c-d is given by

where, e.g. Dad denotes the distance in metres between conductors a and d.
(b) Hence, compute the mutual inductance per kilometre between the power
line and the telephone line.
(c) Find the 50 Hz voltage per kilometre induced in the telephone line when
the power line carries 150 A.
Solution Flux linkage of conductor a.
 …

Flux linkage of conductor b

…
Electrostatic effect
Using the concept of image conductors, the potential of conductor d due to
charge q coulomb/m on conductor a will be

where ha, as shown in Figure 14.3, is the height of conductor a from the
ground.
The voltage between conductor a and image conductor a¢ will be

…
 FIGURE 14.3 Electrostatic effect.
where Va is voltage (phase to ground) of conductor a. Substituting the value
of q in
Equation (14.18) from above equation, we get

The potential of conductor d due to charges on the conductors b and c can

also be obtained in similar ways. The total potential will be the phasor sum of
all the potential as

The potential due to electrostatic effect in conductor e can also be computed.

PROBLEMS
14.1 Find the disruptive critical voltage and critical voltage for visual corona
of a 3-phase 50-km long line consisting of ACSR conductors of area 240-
mm2, spaced in a 3.5-m delta arrangement. Diameter of conductors is 2
cm. Temperature is 27°C and barometric pressure is 73 cm. Assume m =
0.85 and mv = 0.72. If the line is operated at 132 kV, find the coronal loss.
 What will be the losses in a fair weather and in storm if the line voltage is
220 kV?
14.2 A 3-phase overhead transmission line operates at 132 kV between
phases at 50 Hz. The conductors are arranged in a 3.0-m delta
configuration. What is the minimum diameter of a conductor that can be
used for no corona under a fair weather condition. Assume an air density
factor of 0.95 and irregularity factor of 0.85.
14.3 A conductor of 3-phase, 33 kV system having 2.0-cm diameter is passed
centrally through a porcelain bushing (relative permeability = 5) having
internal and external diameters of 3 cm and 9 cm respectively. Find the
maximum potential gradient in the air space between conductor and
porcelain and state whether corona will be present or not.
14.4 A conductor of 1 cm diameter passes centrally through a porcelain
cylinder of internal diameter 2 cm and external diameter 8 cm. The
cylinder is surrounded by a tightly fitting metal sheath. The permittivity of
porcelain is 5 and the peak voltage gradient in air must not exceed 34
kV/cm. Determine the maximum safe working voltage.
14.5 A 3-phase 60-Hz, 50-km long, 132-kV transmission line delivers a total
load of
25 MW at 0.8-p.f. lagging. The conductor arrangement is shown as in
Figure 14.4. The radius of each power conductor equilaterally spaced at
4.0 m apart is 1.0 cm. Calculate the induced voltage at fundamental
frequency in telephone circuit (shown in the figure as d and e) due to
electromagnetic effect. Also, determine the potential of telephone
conductors d and e above the earth due to electrostatic effect only.

FIGURE 14.4 Problem 14.5.

14.6 The single-phase power line of Example 14.4 is replaced by a 3z line on
a horizontal cross-arm in the same position as that of the original single-
phase line. Spacing of the conductors of the power line is D13 = 2D12 =
2D23 and equivalent equilateral spacing is 3 m. The telephone line
remains is symmetrically supported on a horizontal cross-arm 1.8 m
directly below the power line. Spacing between the centres of the
conductors (say c and d) is 1.0 m. If the current in the power line is 150A,
find the voltage per kilometre induced in the telephone line. Discuss the
phase relation of the induced voltage with respect to the power line
current.
 15
Insulated Cables
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Cables are normally used for a low-voltage application, where the overhead
line erection is impractical. Normally, cables are placed under the ground but
sometimes it is also hanged on towers. Cable can be classified in various
ways such as based on location, types of insulations used, number of
conductors used, based on shield, etc.
In overhead lines, inductance is more predominant whereas capacitance is in
the cables. The large charging current in high voltage cables limits the length
of its use and therefore overhead transmission lines are preferred for long
distance application. Since copper is normally used in cables, the cost of
conductor is high in the case of cable compared to overhead lines where
aluminium conductors are used. Another cost involved in cables is the cost of
insulation which is air in the case of overhead lines. The erection costs of
overhead lines are higher than that of the cable. In spite of some limitations,
cables are preferred over the overhead transmission lines, where:
(a) Public safety is involved.
(b) Scenic beauty of a city is important.
(c) Submarine crossing is there.
(d) Connections of substations, transformers, etc., are required.

15.2 CABLE CONDUCTORS

Earlier only stranded copper conductors were used in cables but now
aluminium is also used because it is cheaper than copper. However, any
saving in the cost must be compensated against its extra-insulation cost
required to surround the core. A comparison of copper and aluminium is
given in Table 15.1.
Table 15.1 Comparison of Copper and Aluminium Materials
Properties Copper Aluminium
Specific gravity 8.890 2.71
Young’s modulus 12700 kg/mm2 5600 kg/mm2
Ultimate tensile strength 40 kg/mm2 15 kg/mm2
Resistivity at 20°C 1.73 mW-cm 2.87 mW-cm
Resistance temperature 0.00426 per °C at 0.00380 per °C at
coefficient 0°C 0°C
Coefficient of linear expansion 16.6 ´ 10–6 per °C 23 ´ 10–6 per °C

Stranded conductors are used to provide a mechanical flexibility. Various

conductors are spiraled round the central conductor. If there is more than one
layer, alternate layers are spiraled in opposite direction to prevent bird caging
when conductor is bent. One complete turn of spiral measured across the axis
of cable is called lay. Spiraling increases the resistance as the length of each
spiraled conductor is greater than the central conductor and thus the weight of
cable. The size of conductors are represented as 19/20s, where the first
number stands for the number of strands used and the second number is the
standard wire gauge (SWG) of each strands. If it is shown as 19/2.9, the first
number represents the strands used and the second one the diameter of each
strand in millimetres. The different cross-sectional areas are used and they are
defined differently.
Nominal cross-section area is the area of one conductor in a plane
perpendicular to its length multiplied by the number of conductors. Actual
cross-section area is the cross-section of oblique cross-section due to cutting
of the stranded cable by a plane perpendicular to the core of cable multiplied
by the number of conductors. Equivalent cross-section is the cross-section of
a solid conductor of same length as the cable and having same resistance at
same temperature. Thus
Equivalent area < Actual cross-section area > Nominal cross-section area
Calculation of weight
If l is the lay and d is the pitch diameter of a particular layer, as shown in
Figure 15.1. The circumference of this layer is rd. The length of the
conductor along the spiral is hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle. The length
along the spiral l¢ is

If n is the number of layers (excluding central strand), the total number of

conductors
in each layer is 6n and pitch diameter of each layer is (2n + 1)D, where D is
the diameter of each strand. The length of the nth layer strands is

FIGURE 15.1 Lay of a cable.

If there are n layers, the central strand will be of length l and the nth layer-
strands have 6n strands and the length of each strand is l¢n. The sum of the
length will therefore is

Therefore, increase in weight can be calculated using area and density of

material.
Calculation of resistance
Since the cross-section area of each conductor is same, the total resistance R¢
is given by

If all the strands were of the same length l, the resistance R would be
proportional to
l/(3n2 + 3n + 1). Therefore, the change in the resistance is
Example 15.1 Calculate the increase in resistance and weight due to spiraling
of the conductor having diameter of each strand of 2 cm and number of layers
excluding central strand is one. Lays length is of 40 cm.
Solution For n = 1, the total number of strand will be 7 and therefore the
length is a strand of layer one, using Equation (15.1), is

The total length of strands in the lay will be 305.31(= 40 + 6 ´ 44.22) cm. If it
were not spiraled, the total length would be 280 (= 7 ´ 40) cm. Then

% Increase in weight = = 9.04%

Increase in resistance is calculated as:

Thus, there will be an increase of 8.9% in resistance.

15.3 INSULATING MATERIALS

Besides a cable conductor (used for transmitting power), insulation (to
insulate the conductor from earth or other phases) and external protection
(against mechanical damage, fire, chemical or other attack) are other
important parts of a cable. The main properties of insulating materials of
cables are:

1. High-insulation resistance
2. High-dielectric strength
 3. Good mechanical properties (elasticity and tenacity)
4. Immunity to chemical attacks over wide range of temperatures
5. Non-hygroscopic (i.e. free from moisture)
6. Being economical
7. Easy handling, manufacture and installation
8. Reasonably long life
9. Sufficiently low-thermal resistivity
10. Low relative permittivity and less tangent angle when used in ac
cables.

Various insulating materials used for cable are discussed below.

Vulcanized rubber. Ordinary rubber has a sufficient dielectric strength but
it easily absorbs the moisture contents and thus its dielectric strength is
reduced. The sulphur used in vulcanizing process has a high dielectric
strength and resistant to moisture absorption. The ordinary rubber is not too
elastic but a vulcanized rubber is elastic and resilient. Vulcanized rubber
insulated cables are normally used for low-voltage application such as wiring
of houses, buildings, factories, etc. There are different types of synthetic
rubber materials available such as butyl rubber, silicon rubber, neoprene and
styrene rubber.
Varnished cambric. A cotton cloth impregnated and coated with varnish is
known as varnished cambric. The varnish is oil with petroleum bitumen
added. The cambric is lapped on to the conductor in the form of a tape and to
allow for sliding on one turn over another as the cable is bent. The surfaces
are lubricated with a petroleum compound to have good finish. The dielectric
strength is about 40 kV/cm and the dielectric constant is 3 to 4. Terylene can
be used in place of cambric which is mechanically stronger and non-
hygroscopic. It can also be operated at much higher temperature.
Polyvinyl chloride. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a polymer and made from
acetylene during polymerization process. Different grades such as hard grade,
heat resisting, general-purpose type, etc., are possible which depends on the
plasticizer. PVC is inferior to the vulcanized rubber in respect of elasticity
and insulation resistance but is inert to oxygen, alkalis, acids, oils, etc. PVCs
are expensive than vulcanized rubber.
Impregnated paper. Insulating paper is lapped on the conductor until the
required thickness, which depends on the operating voltage of cable, is
achieved. It is then dried in heat and vacuum and impregnated with insulating
compound which should be such that it is plastic at ordinary temperature and
has no tendency to drain from higher-end to lower-end. Impregnated paper
cables have the advantages of marked durability, high dielectric strength, low
cost and low-electrostatic capacitance thus suitable for extra high voltages.
The compounds used are paraffinic or naphthaenic mineral oil with resin to
improve the impregnating quality. There should not be any voids in finished
cable.
Polythene. Polythene can be used for high-frequency cables as it has a low-
melting point. By cross-linking the molecules, new material is obtained
which does not melt. It is known as cross-linked polythene (XPLE). It has a
good impulse dielectric strength, inert to chemical reactions and has a high-
thermal dissipation property. Classification of insulating materials is given in
Table 15.2.
Table 15.2 Classification of Insulating Materials
Temperature
Class Materials
(°C)
Class Y
(formerly 90 Cotton, silk, paper without impregnation
O)
Cotton, silk, paper impregnated suitably or coated or immersed in
Class A 105
dielectric liquids
Consists of materials or combination of materials which by
Class E 120
experience or accepted test for 120°C temperature
Class B 130 Mica, glass fibre, asbestos, wood, etc.
Mica, glass fibre, asbestos, wood, etc., with suitable binding
Class F 150
substances at this temperature operation
Silicon, elastomer and combination of materials such as mica, glass,
Class H 180
fibre, etc., with suitable bonding substances such as silicon resin
Class C above 180 Mica, porcelain, glass and quartz with or without inorganic binder

Mechanical protective covering

Since insulating materials are mechanically weak, the power cables are
armoured with steel tapes or steel wires of having enough strength. Tapes are
very inflexible and are not suitable for installation where bending of cables is
a must and is on the supports above the ground. With ordinary main cable,
aluminium sheathing may be used which does not need additional armouring
and is usually finished with watertight protection such as rubber or PVC. All
cables whether armoured or not, have an external covering or serving. There
is some power loss in armouring. Normally, non-magnetic material is used as
armouring.

15.4 INSULATION RESISTANCE

Load current flows through cable conductor but leakage current flows
radially through insulating material, as shown by dotted lines in Figure 15.2.

FIGURE 15.2 Insulation material.

Let t = specific resistance of material; R = outer radius of insulation; and r =
radius of conductor (or inner radius of insulation). Consider a small annular
cylinder of width dx at distance x from the centre, as shown in Figure 15.3.
Since the leakage current flows from conductor to the sheath through the
insulation, the length through which the current is flowing is dx and the area
is 2rxl, where l is length of cable. The insulation resistance of the annular
cylinder is

FIGURE 15.3 A small annular cylinder.

Since the insulating material is from r to R, the insulation resistance is
obtained by integrating Equation (15.6) as
It can be seen from Equation (15.7) that the insulation resistance is inversely
proportional to the length of the cable. However, the resistance of conductor
is directly proportional to the length of conductor. Therefore, as cable length
increases, there is less insulation resistance and thus more leakage current.
This current is not useful. Therefore, the insulating material should have as
minimum leakage current as possible.

15.5 ELECTROSTATIC STRESS IN A SINGLE-CORE

CABLE
If the dielectric stress exceeds the dielectric strength of material surrounding
the conductors, the insulating material will rapture. For the design of low
value of electric stress, the cable size is more however for high value of
gradient, the dielectric loss will be more and there may be thermal breakdown
of the material. Therefore, a compromise between these has to be made. The
electric stress can be computed. Figure 15.4 shows the cross-section of a
single-core cable along with dielectric stress distribution.

FIGURE 15.4 A cross-section of a single-core cable.

Let the charge on the conductor surface be q coulomb/unit length, e the
permittivity of dielectric, R the inner radius of sheath or outer radius of
insulating material, r the radius of conductor, V the potential difference
between conductor and sheath. The electric field Ex at distance x from the
centre of the conductor can be written, using Equation (10.28), as

Potential difference V can be found out as

From Equation (15.9), it can be seen that the maximum stress occurs at the
surface of the conductor while the minimum stress occurs at the outer surface
of the insulation. Average stress is the amount of voltage across the insulation
material which is divided by the thickness of the insulation. Thus the
maximum electric stress at the surface of conductor
(x = r) is

From Equation (15.10), it can be seen that for a particular voltage V and the
overall size of cable R, there is one particular radius that gives the minimum
stress at the conductor surface. To find the optimal value of r such that Emax
is minimum, Equation (15.10) is differentiated with respect to r and equated
to zero as

Since the numerator of Equation (15.10) is a constant, the relation can be

found out by differentiating the denominator and equating to zero, we have
The plot of Equation (15.10) with the ratio r/R is shown in Figure 15.5. From
the figure, it is also seen that the minimum value of Emax occurs when r/R =
1/e.

FIGURE 15.5 Plot of Emax with r/R ratio.

As the value of r/R ratio is decreased or increased from 1/e, the electric stress
at the conductor will be increased. To know the stable region (r/R ratio
values), consider an impurity is at point Q due to design. Due to impurity, the
air gets ionized which is trapped due to manufacturing defects. If a thin layer
of impurity is at a distance x near the conductor, due to high electric stress it
may be ionized and the effective radius of the conductor now becomes (r +
x), as shown in Figure 15.6. Now the stress will be more compared to the
previous case when there is no impurity. Then the ratio (r + x)/R will shift to
Q¢, stress increases and finally leads to rapture. This design leads to unstable
operation.
 FIGURE 15.6 Cross-section of a conductor.
Let us now consider that the cable is designed in such a way that stress is at
point P (Figure 15.5). Due to impurity ionization, the effective radius of
conductor is (r + x). Now the stress will be less compared to the previous
case when there is no impurity. Then the stress is shifted to P¢, and the
ionization is reduced. This design leads to stable operation. Thus for
satisfactory operation of cable, we have

Example 15.2 A single-core cable has a conductor of diameter 3 cm and

inside diameter of lead sheath is 6 cm. If the cable is designed for operating
voltage of 33 kV (line-to-neutral), find:
(a) Maximum and minimum values of electric stress
(b) Optimal value of conductor radius for the smallest value of the
maximum stress.
Solution (a) From Equations (15.10) and (15.11), we get

(b) From Equation (15.14), for minimum Emax, the optimal value of the
conductor radius,
Example 15.3 Find the overall economic diameter of a single-conductor
cable working
at 11-kV voltage and having insulation of dielectric strength of 50 kV/cm
with safety factor of 2.
Solution Since the dielectric strength is 50 kV/cm and safety factor is 2, the
maximum stress allowed is 25 (=50/2) kV/cm. From Equation (15.15), we
have outer insulation
radius R as

Thus R = 1.20 cm and the radius of the conductor r = R/e = 0.44 cm.
15.6 GRADING OF CABLES
Since the electric stress distribution in insulating material is not uniform,
even at optimal size of conductor for given operating voltage and cable size,
the insulating material is not properly utilized. By grading, the utilization of
insulating materials can be improved. Grading means distribution of
dielectric material such that the difference between Emax and Emin is
reduced. Thereby a cable of same size can be operated for high voltage or for
the same operation voltage, the size can be reduced. Grading can be broadly
classified into two groups as:
(a) Capacitance grading (more than one dielectric materials are used)
(b) Intersheath grading (the same dielectric material is used but potentials at
certain radius are held constant by using metal sheaths).
15.6.1 Capacitance Grading
If the electric stress or gradient throughout the insulating material is the same
(Figure 15.7), the utilization factor is maximum. Ideally, it is possible only by
having the decreasing permittivity of insulation starting with a high value at
the surface of conductor. If q is charge per unit length, the gradient at point x
from the centre of the cable is
This can be realized by having infinite number of dielectric material of
varying permittivities (Figure 15.7). It is practically impossible. Normally,
two or three materials are used which do not give the constant gradient
through the cable but it improves the gradient distribution.

FIGURE 15.7 Uniform gradient.

Let us consider three materials be used with permittivities e1, e2 and e3
placed at between the distances r and r1, r1 and r2, and r2 and R
respectively, as shown in Figure 15.8. Let dielectric strength of the materials
be G1, G2 and G3.

FIGURE 15.8 Capacitance grading.

The main objective is to find the locations of these materials so that their
utilization can be better. The criterion may be based on the same safety
factors or the same working stresses.
For the same safety factor
Let the safety factor is F for all the materials. The value of e1 will be such
that the electric stress at the surface of conductor should be G1/F which can
be related as

The electric stress at the radius r1 should be G2/F and can be given by

Similarly at the radius r2, the electric stress should be G3/F and can be given
by

Thus material having the highest product of permittivity and dielectric

strength will be kept near the conductor. The operating voltage of cable can
be obtained as

In Equation (15.22), the value of q can be replaced by knowing the stress in

any of the Sections using Equation (15.20).
With the same maximum stresses
If all the materials are subjected to the same maximum stress, the stresses at
r, r1 and r2 should be same, as shown in Figure 15.9. The relationship can be
written as

Thus for the same maximum stress, the material having the highest
permittivity should be placed near the conductor and next highest is placed
after that and so on.

FIGURE 15.9 Stress distribution.

The operating voltage can be obtained using Equation (15.22) as

15.6.2 Intersheath Grading

Consider two metal sheath having radii r1 and r2 kept at potentials V2 and V1
respectively, as shown in Figure 15.10. The potentials at intersheaths are
maintained with the help of an auxiliary transformer. Due to this
arrangement, the stress distribution are forced to be lower than the gradient
without intersheath for the same operating voltage V and overall size of the
cable R. If the insulating material is homogeneous, using Equation (15.10),
the electric stress at the conductor surface is given by

Since the material is the same, the maximum stress must be same. Therefore,

FIGURE 15.10 Intersheath grading.

The stress can also be made to vary between the same maximum and
minimum value by choosing r1 and r2, such that

It is now necessary to represent the stresses in terms of operating voltage V,

conductor radius r and cable size R. For this calculation, the voltages V1 and
V2 in terms of V, r and R is required. From relation
or

From Equations (15.30) and (15.27), the maximum stress will be

If intersheaths are not present, the maximum stress is at conductor surface

and is equal to

Since the value of a is greater than unity, the ratio 3/(1 + a + a2) is less than
unity. This shows that the gradient due to intersheath is less than that of
without the intersheath. Hence, it is advantageous. Using Equation (15.24),
the operating voltage of the cable with intersheath can be given by

Grading of cables in practical system is difficult due to several reasons, such

as:
(a) Non-availability of varying permittivity of insulating materials.
(b) Change in the permittivity with time, which changes the distribution of
stress that may lead to rapture of insulating material at normal working
voltage.
(c) Damage of intersheath during laying or due to aging may lead to severe
stress.
(d) Charging current flows through the intersheath which may damage the
cable due to overheating.
(e) There may be resonance problem in intersheath grading due to
inductance of transformer and capacitance of cable.
(f) Grading may not be economical in low-voltage cables.
Due to these reasons, grading is avoided in modern practice in favour of oil-
and gas-filled cables.
Example 15.4 A single-core cable is having conductor diameter of 2 cm and
consisting of three A, B and C insulating materials of permittivities 5, 4 and 2
and permissible stresses of 50.0, 40.0 and 30.0 kV/cm respectively. If the line
is designed for 110 kV, find the minimum internal sheath radius of the cable.
Solution Since the stress at the cable core is highest followed by at the next
insulating material and so on, the placement of insulating material from the
conductor core will be A, B and C, respectively. Assuming the same safety
factor of unity for each material, from Equation (15.20), we get
e1rG1 = e2r1G2 = e3r2G3
From the relation, e1rG1 = e2r1G2, we can calculate the outer radius of
insulating material
A as,
Similarly, the outer radius of insulating material B can be calculated from
relation,
e2r1G2 = e3r2G3, as

By solving we get the outer radius of material C, R = 5.15 cm. This is the
outer sheath radius.
Example 15.5 Prove that the ratio of gradient with and without intersheath
will be
2/(1 + a), when there is only one layer.
Solution Let the intersheath is at r1 distance from the centre and at voltage
V1. If the core radius is r and the outersheath radius is R, then

Above relation can also be written as

If intersheaths are not present, the maximum stress is at the conductor surface
which is
equal to

15.7 CAPACITANCE OF A SINGLE-CORE CABLE

A capacitance is formed between a core and sheath, which is separated by
insulating material. The electric field at a point x from the centre of the core
is given, using Equation (9.28), by

where the charge on the conductor surface is q coulomb/unit length and e is

the permittivity of dielectric. If R is the inner radius of the sheath or outer
radius of the insulating material and r is the radius of conductor, potential
difference V can be calculated as

Therefore, the capacitance C can be given by

This capacitance is much more than the overhead transmission line due to the
following reasons:
(a) High value of permittivity of insulating material
(b) Distance between the core and the earthed sheath is small
(c) Small distances between the cores (phases) itself.

15.8 CAPACITANCE OF A THREE-CORE CABLE

In a three-core belted cable, two insulations are required: the conductor
insulation of thickness d and the belt insulation of thickness t, as shown in
Figure 15.11. The belt insulation is required, because with operating voltage
V, the conductor insulation is only suitable for V/2 voltage whereas the
voltage between the conductor and the sheath is V/Ö3.

FIGURE 15.11 Three-core belted cable.

Since conductors of the cable are not surrounded by isotropic homogeneous
insulation of a known permittivity, the capacitances cannot be easily
calculated; they are generally obtained by measurement. There are six
capacitances formed. Three capacitances will be formed between the phases
and are connected in the form of a delta, as shown in Figure 15.12, and
represented as C2. Other three capacitances are formed between each
conductor and sheath and represented as C1 in Figure 15.12.
 FIGURE 15.12 Capacitance of a three-core cable.
The capacitances formed between the phases can be represented in terms of
equivalent star connection, as shown in Figure 15.13. The values of
capacitances now become 3C2, where C2 is the capacitance between phases
represented in delta connection.

FIGURE 15.13 Equivalent star of delta.

Since the neutral point of star is at ground potential, if the supply is balanced,
the capacitances C1 are in parallel with 3C2, as shown in Figure 15.14. The
total equivalent capacitance between phases-to-sheath is C0 (=C1 + 3C2).
The value of C0 can be calculated with acceptable accuracy by following
empirical formula for circular conductors.

where er is the relative permittivity of the insulation, t the thickness of belt

insulation, d the diameter of the conductor and T the conductor insulation
thickness.
 FIGURE 15.14 Equivalent phase-to-sheath capacitance.
From Figure 15.14, it can be seen that two unknown values must be measured
to find out the capacitance per phase of the cable. In determining the
capacitances of the three-core cable, the common tests performed are:

1. Measure the capacitance Cx between the sheath and all the three
conductors joined together, as shown in Figure 15.15(a). With this
arrangement, the entire conductor-to-sheath capacitances will be in
parallel, therefore Cx = 3C1.
2. Connect any two cores to the sheath and measure capacitance Cy
between re-
maining conductor and sheath as shown in Figure 15.15(b). With this
arrangement, Cy = C1 + 2C2.

FIGURE 15.15 Capacitance measurements.

From these measurements, we get
3. Measure the capacitance Cz between two conductors by means of a
Schering bridge and connecting the third conductor to the sheath to
eliminate one of the C’1s, as shown in Figure 15.16. Thus

FIGURE 15.16 Measurement by Schering bridge.

Example 15.6 A 2-km long 3-core, 3-phase cable has capacitance 0.5
mF/km between two conductors bunched with sheath and the third
conductor. The capacitance between the conductors is also measured when
bunched together and the sheath and found to be
0.75 mF/km. Determine:
(a) Capacitance between phases
(b) Capacitance between conductor and sheath
(c) Effective per phase capacitance
(d) Capacitance between two conductors connecting a third conductor to
the sheath
(e) Charging current if the supply voltage is 11 kV, 50 Hz.
Solution From the measurement, we have
Cx = 3C1 = 0.75 or C1 = 0.25 mF/km
and
 Cy = C1 + 2C2 = 0.50
Therefore, (a) the capacitance between phases C2 = 0.125 mF/km and (b) the
capacitance between conductor and sheath, C1 = 0.25 mF/km.
(c) The effective per phase capacitance is

(d) The capacitance between two conductors connecting a third conductor to

the sheath, using Equation (15.41), is C0/2 = 0.3125 mF/km.
(e) The charging current per phase per km is

15.9 DIELECTRIC LOSS AND DIELECTRIC POWER

FACTOR
In a perfect dielectric (having infinite leakage resistance), if there is no flow
of leakage current, so will be no dielectric loss. But in practice, it is not
possible to get a perfect dielectric. In a cable, capacitances (C) are formed
between the conductors and the sheath, which are separated by insulating
material having leakage resistance Rs. The equivalent circuit can be
represented by a parallel combination, as shown in Figure 15.17.

FIGURE 15.17 Equivalent circuit of cable and its phasor diagram.

The dielectric loss due to loss in leakage resistance is
The cosine of the angle z is the power factor of dielectric which provides a
useful measure of the quality of the dielectric. The dielectric power factor,
which is different from the supply factor, represents the loss and therefore
tried to reduce it whereas it is tried to increase the power factor of supply
near to unity. The power factor of impregnated paper is approximately 0.003.
For a good dielectric, the value of z is very close to 90°. The angle d (in
radians) is called the dielectric loss angle, which is very small for a good
dielectric. Therefore
d » tan d » sin d » sin (90 – z) = cos z (15.43)
From the phasor diagram

The power factor of the dielectric of a cable depends on the quality of

insulating material, the electric stress and the frequency. It varies with the
temperature. With increase in temperature, the power factor increases and
thus there is more loss in the dielectric, which results into further increase in
temperature. If a cable operates under condition where change in power
factor with change in temperature is significantly large, the temperature
continues to increase until the insulation damage.
The dielectric power-loss in the cable is less when the applied voltage is dc.
In the case of ac, the dielectric loss consists of hysteresis loss which is much
larger than
the leakage loss. The total dielectric loss can be measured by the Schering
bridge (refer to Figure 15.16).

15.10 LOCATION OF FAULTS IN UNDERGROUND

CABLES
There are two types of faults in the cables: conductor failure and insulation
failure. Conductor failures, in general, are located by comparing the capacity
of the insulated conductors whereas insulation failures are located by fault
tests. In short cables, the faults are located by inspection of manholes,
listening the cracking sound, etc. In long cables, the locations of ground
faults are determined by the balance-bridge principle.
15.10.1 Murray Loop Test
It is one of the best methods for locating high-resistance faults in low-
conductor resistance circuits. This test is useful where more than one
conductor of same size in the cable are present. Figure 15.18 shows a Murray
loop. L is the length in cable conductor (MO and NO) and having the same
cross-sectional area. The fault is in the section NO at distance x from N.
Murray loop can be established if the conductor is broken at any point. In
order to avoid earth current, a galvanometer is connected as shown in the
figure. A battery is used to energize the bridge. The balance is obtained by
adjusting the resistances. If the unfaulted line and faulted line have the same
resistances per unit length, the following relation can be written at the
balance point:

Thus the location of fault can be determined.

FIGURE 15.18 Murray loop.

15.10.2 Varley Loop Test

This test is also used when there is a second conductor of the same size as the
one with the fault. A Varley loop is shown in Figure 15.19.
 FIGURE 15.19 Varley loop.
With the balance condition, we have

where rc is the conductor resistance in ohm per unit length. If the conductor
resistance is not known, it can be found out by changing the switch to S
position and measuring the resistance of the conductor 2L by using the
wheatstone bridge method.

15.11 CLASSIFICATION OF CABLES

Cables can be classified according to voltage, location of use, insulation
material used, etc. Table 15.3 shows the classification of cables:
Table 15.3 Classification of Cables
Based on location (a) Underground
(b) Submarine
(c) Aerial
According to voltage (a) Low voltage or LT cables (up to 1000 volt)
(b) High voltage or HT cables (up to 11 kV)
(c) Super tension or ST cables (up to 33 kV)
(d) Extra-high voltage or EHT cables (up to 132 kV)
(e) Extra-super voltage power cables (above 132 kV)
According to types of (a) Rubber and rubber like compound (VIR cables)
insulation
(b) PVC cables
and protective covering
(c) Lead sheathed cables
(d) Paper insulated lead covered cables
(e) Paper insulated aluminium covered cables
(f) Paper insulated lead covered steel armoured
cables
(g) Varnished cambric cables
(h) Oil-filled cables
(i) Gas-filled cables
(j) External pressure cables
According to the number of (a) One-core
conductors or cores (b) Two-core
(c) Three-core
(d) Three-and-a-half core
(e) Four core
Based on protective finish (a) Metallic (a lead sheath)
(b) Non-metallic (plastic)
Presence or absence of (a) Shielded (Hochstadter or type H)
metallic
(b) Nonshielded
shield over the insulation
According to construction and (a) Belted cables
arrangement of conductors (b) Solid cable
and insulation (c) H type
(d) SL type
(e) HSO type

PROBLEMS
15.1 Find the overall diameter of a one-core cable and its most economical
core diameter when working on a 400-kV, 3-phase system. The peak
permissible stress in dielectric is not to exceed 300 kV/cm.
15.2 Find the maximum working voltage of a one-core lead sheathed cable
joint with conductor of 2-cm diameter and sheath of 6-cm inside diameter.
Two insulating materials are used: Inner maximum working potential
gradient 60 kV/cm, relative permittivity 4; outer maximum working
potential gradient 40 kV/cm, relative permittivity 3.
15.3 A 3-phase metal sheathed cable 1-km long gave the following results on
a test for capacitance:
(a) Capacitance between two conductors bunched with the sheath and the
third conductor 0.5 mF.
(b) Capacitance between bunched conductors and the sheath 1 mF. With
 sheath insulated, find the capacitance (i) between any two cores, (ii)
between any two bunched conductors and the third conductors and (iii)
calculate the charging current per phase per km when connected to 11-
kV, 50-Hz supply.
(c) Find the capacitance to neutral.
15.4 Prove that for a concentric cable of given dimensions and given
maximum potential gradient in the dielectric, the maximum permissible
voltage between the core and the sheath is independent of the permittivity
of the insulating material.
 16
HVDC Transmission and Facts
Technology
16.1 INTRODUCTION
In earlier days, dc power was used but due to limitations of low-voltage dc
systems, ac systems became popular. With increasing interconnection and
loading of power system, the following factors impose limitations on the
amount of power to be transmitted over ac lines.
(a) Reactive power loss: The requirement of reactive power in transmission,
generation and distribution is of major concerns in ac system. Depending
upon the loading of transmission lines, the reactive power loss which is
defined as the sum of the reactive power generation (due to capacitance of
line) and absorption (due to inductance of line) varies. During light load
condition, the reactive power absorbed by the line inductance is less than the
reactive power generated by the line capacitance. This situation is reversed in
the case of peak-load condition. Thus, to maintain the voltages (within the
limits) at both the end of the line, the reactive supports are required.
(b) Stability: An ac system must operate in synchronism. Power transfer in
line is governed by P12 = (V1V2/x) sin (d1 – d2), where V1 and V2 are
voltage magnitudes at the two ends of the line whereas d1 and d2 are the
voltage angles. The power flow from bus-1 to bus-2 (P12) is dependent on
the line reactance (x). During steady-state power flow, the difference between
voltage angles may be 90° but during transient it is small, and beyond this,
the system becomes unstable. Stability imposes serious limitation on the
distance of power transmission.
(c) Current-carrying capacity: Even during the no-load at the receiving end,
due to capacitance of the line, ac current flows (called charging current) from
the sending end. The charging current is more predominant in the case of
cable, due to high capacitance. Therefore, it is not possible to build cables for
longer distance. The length of cable, when charging current becomes equal to
the thermal current limit is known as critical length. This is not possible to
use cables more than its critical length.
(d) Operation and control: It is not possible to connect to different frequency
ac systems. At the same time, ac power cannot be smoothly controlled
without use of any extra device. Current in ac systems flows according to
impedance.
Advent of high-voltage semiconductor devices has made it possible to go for
high- voltage dc (HVDC) transmission for long-distance power transfer.
Through semiconductor devices, it is also possible to control the ac power
over the line. Flexible ac transmission systems (FACTS) are the name given
to the application of power electronics devices to the control of flows and
other quantities in power systems. Semiconductor technology enabled the
manufacture of powerful thyristors and later new elements such as the gate
turn-off thyristor (GTO) and insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT).
Development based on the semiconductor devices first established high-
voltage dc transmission (HVDC) technology as an alternative to long
distance ac transmission. HVDC technology, in turn, has provided the basis
for the development of FACTS equipment which can solve problems of ac
transmission. FACTS devices, by controlling the power flows in the network
without generation rescheduling or topological changes, can improve both
static and dynamic performances considerably.

16.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF HVDC

TRANSMISSION
Advantages
The main advantages of HVDC transmission over HVAC transmission are:
(a) Requires less space compared to ac for same voltage rating and size
(b) Ground can be used as return conductor
(c) Less corona loss and radio interference (RI)
(d) No charging current
(e) Cheaper for long-distance transmission
(f) No skin and Ferranti effect
(g) Asynchronous operation possible
(h) No switching transient
(i) No transmission of short-circuit power in case of fault
 (j) Power control possible
(k) No compensation problem
(l) No stability problem
(m) No reactive power-loss
(n) Low short-circuit current
(o) No technical limit for transfer of power except thermal limit and
(p) Fast fault clearing time.
Disadvantages
(a) High cost of terminal equipments: HVDC transmission system requires
converters at both the ends and those are very expensive than ac equipments.
Converters also have less overload capability. But the total cost of dc system
is less compared to ac system for long- distance transmission. Figure 16.1
shows the comparative costs of ac and dc overhead transmission lines
(including terminal equipments) with distance. The cost curve of dc
transmission intersects the cost curve of ac transmission at distance that is
known as breakeven distance. This distance is about 600–800 km.

FIGURE 16.1 Cost comparison of ac and dc lines.

(b) Introduction of harmonics: Converters generate considerable amount of
harmonics both on ac and dc sides. Some harmonics are filtered out but some
harmonics still enter into the system and affect the apparatus. These
harmonics may also interfere with com-munication system.
(c) Blocking of reactive power: DC lines block the flow of reactive power
from one end to another end. These reactive powers are required by some
load that must be fulfilled by the inverters.
(d) Point-to-point transmission not possible: It is not possible to tap dc power
at several locations in the line. Wherever power is to be tapped, a control
station is required and coordinated with other terminals. This increases the
complexity and cost of the system. However, there is no problem in the case
of ac line. When the power is controlled at both the ends of the line, it is
called two-terminal dc system or line. If there are more than two control
stations in the line, it is known as multi-terminal HVDC system.

16.3 TYPES OF HVDC LINKS

HVDC links can be classified into three categories: monopolar, bipolar and
homopolar. Monopolar lines have only one conductor normally operated at
negative polarity to reduce the corona loss. Here, earth is used as return path.
Figure 16.2(a) shows a monopolar line.
In bipolar type of links, two conductors (poles) are needed. One pole
operates at negative polarity and the other operates at positive polarity, as
shown in Figure 16.2(b). The main advantage of bipolar links compared to
monopolar links is that it can be operated as single monopolar in the case of
fault in any line. In normal operation, there is no current through ground but
is grounded because of its operation as monopolar in the event of faults in
any line. The rating of bipolar links is expressed as ± X kV, where X is the
voltage magnitude of each line in kV.
Homopolar lines have two or more conductors having the same polarity.
Normally negative polarities are used due to less corona loss and radio
interference. Ground is always used as return path, as shown in Figure
16.2(c). In this case also, it can be operated as single monopolar link in case
of fault in anyone line.
 FIGURE 16.2 Types of HVDC links.

16.4 MAIN COMPONENTS OF HVDC TRANSMISSION

Main components of HVDC transmission are discussed now.
Converters. Converters are the main part of the HVDC system. Each
HVDC line has at least two converters, one at each end. Sending-end
converter works as rectifier (converts ac power to dc power), however
converter at the receiving-end works as an inverter (converts dc power to ac
power). Several thyristors are connected in series/parallel to form a valve to
achieve higher voltage/current ratings. Bridge converters are used for HVDC
application. The current rating of converter stations can be increased by
putting:

Valves in parallel
Thyristors in parallel
 Bridges in parallel
Some combinations of above

Voltage rating of converter station is increased by:

Valves in series
Bridges in series
Thyristors in parallel
Combination of above

The main requirements of the valves are:

(a) To allow current-flow with low-voltage drop across it during the
conduction phase and to offer high resistance during non-conducting
phase
(b) To withstand high-peak inverse voltage during non-conducting period
(c) To allow a reasonably short-commutation margin angle during inverter
operation
(d) Smooth control of conducting and non-conducting phases.
Normally, a six-pulse operation is adopted in HVDC systems but sometimes
a 12-pulse is also used. Figure 16.3 shows the components of a 12-pulse
operational HVDC system.

FIGURE 16.3 Components of HVDC transmission.

Converter transformers. For a 6-pulse converter, a conventional 3-phase
or three single-phase transformers are used. However, for a 12-pulse
converter configuration, following transformers are used:
(a) Six single-phase two winding
(b) Three single-phase three winding
 (c) Two 3-phase two winding.
In converter transformer, it is not possible to use winding close to yoke since
the potential of its winding connection is determined by conducting valves.
Hence, the entire winding is completely insulated. As leakage flux of a
converter transformer contains very high harmonic contents, it produces
greater eddy current loss and hot spots in the transformer tank. In case of a
12-pulse configuration, if two 3-phase transformers are used, one will have
star–star connection and second will have star–delta connection to give phase
shift of 30° so that operation of two-bridge converter can give 12-pulse.
Since fault current (due to fault across valve) is predominantly controlled by
transformer impedance, the leakage impedance of converter transformer is
higher than the conventional transformer. Online tap changing is used to
control the voltage and reactive power demand.
Smoothing reactors. As its name, these reactors are used for smoothing
the dc current output in the dc line. It also limits the rate of rise of the fault
current in the case of dc line short circuit. Normally, partial or total air cored
magnetically shielded reactors are used. Disc coil type winding are used and
braced to withstand the short circuit current. The saturation inductance should
not be too low.
Harmonic filters. Harmonics generated by converters are of the order of pn
± 1, where p is number of pulses and n is integer. Filters are used to provide
low-impedance path to the ground for the harmonic currents. They are
connected to the converter terminals so that harmonics should not enter the ac
system. However, it is not possible to protect all harmonics from entering the
ac system. Magnitudes of some harmonics are high and filters are used for
them only. These filters also provide some reactive power compensation at
the terminals.
Overhead lines. As monopolar transmission scheme is most economical,
the first consideration is to use ground as return path for dc current. But use
of ground as conductor is not permitted for longer use and a bipolar
arrangement is used with equal and opposite currents in both poles. In the
case of failure in any poles, ground is used as a return path temporarily. The
basic principle of design of dc overhead lines is almost same as ac lines
design such as configurations, towers, insulators, etc. The number of
insulators and clearances are determined based on dc voltage. The choice of
conductors depends mainly on corona and field-effect considerations.
Reactive power source. As such converter does not consume reactive
power but due to phase displacement of current drawn by converter and the
voltage in ac system, reactive power requirement at a converter station is
about 50–60% of real power transfer, which is supplied by filters, capacitors
and synchronous condensers. Synchronous condensers do not only supply the
reactive power but also provide ac voltages for natural commutation of the
inverter. Due to harmonics and transients, a specially-designed machine is
used.
Earth electrodes. The earth resistivity at upper layer is higher (~4000
ohm-m) and electrodes cannot be kept directly on the earth surface. The
electrodes are buried into the earth where resistivity is around 3–10 ohm-m to
reduce transient over-voltages during line faults and also gives low-dc
electric potential and potential gradient at the surface of earth. The location of
earth electrodes is also important due to:
(a) Possible interference of dc current ripple to power lines, communication
systems of telephone and railway signals, etc.
(b) Metallic corrosion of pipes, cable sheaths, etc.
(c) Public safety.
The electrodes must have low resistance (less than 0.1 ohm) and buried up to
500 m into the earth.

16.5 SELECTION FOR CONFIGURATION FOR

CONVERTERS
For a particular pulse number, p, there are several possible ways to realize.
The number of pulsations or ripples of dc voltage per cycle of ac voltage is
known as pulse number of a converter. If q is the number of valves in a
commutation group and r of these are connected in parallel and s of them are
connected in series, the pulse number can be given by
p = qrs (16.1)
A group of valves in which only one valve conducts at a time (neglecting the
overlap) is known as a commutation group. The suitable configuration of
converters is decided on following requirements:

1. High pulse number

2. PIV/Vdo should be as low as possible
 3. Vdo/E should be as high as possible
4. Transformer utilization factor (TUF) should be near to unity.

The first requirement gives the low-harmonic generation. But the pulse
number is limited, as it increases the numbers of valves and thus the cost. The
second requirement indicates
the utilization of valve. Each valve must withstand the peak inverse voltage
(PIV) of the converter. It is always preferred if a converter configuration
provides less PIV and at
the same time it should produce higher dc voltage (Vdo). The ratio Vdo/(PIV)
gives the utilization efficiency of the valve. It can be calculated as follows:
If there are q valves in a commutation group, each valve will conduct for 2r/q
period in an ac cycle. The average maximum dc voltage output of the
converter is

where Em (=EÖ2 ) is the peak value of alternating voltage and ~ (=2rf) is

supply frequency in radian/second. If there are s numbers of series valves, the
dc output is

If q is even, and when the valve with a phase displacement of 180° is

conducting, we obtain PIV = 2Em. On the other hand, if q is odd, PIV occurs
when the valve with a phase displacement of r ± (r/q) is conducting and is
equal to.
Third consideration is the ratio of Vdo/E should be as high as possible to have
a high-dc output voltage. Using Equation (16.3), we get

The fourth criteria is the transformer utilization factor. It is defined as the

ratio of transformer rating (valve side or secondary side) to the dc power
output. This value should be as low as possible. The current rating of
transformer is given by

where Id is the dc current in dc link. The transformer rating will be

Thus TUF can be calculated using Equations (16.3) and (16.7) as

This shows that TUF is a function of q only. The optimum value of q is 3. For
a 6-pulse converter, various values are presented in Table 16.1.
Table 16.1 Different Configuration of 6-Pulse Converters
Serial
qr s PIV/VdoVdo/ETUF
no.
1 213 1.047 2.700 1.571
2 231 3.142 0.900 1.571
3 312 1.047 2.340 1.481
4 321 2.094 1.169 1.481
5 611 2.094 1.350 1.814

From the table, it can be seen that serial numbers 1 and 3 are suitable but
TUF is better for the serial number 3. Since ac supply is 3-phase and
commutation group of three valves can be easily arranged. The current rating
of transformers can further be increased by a factor of Ö2 while decreasing
the number of winding by a factor 2. For a six-pulse converter, Graetz circuit
is the best circuit, as shown in Figure 16.4.

FIGURE 16.4 3-Phase bridge conveter (Graetz circuit).

For a 12-pulse converter, the same analysis can be performed and it is found
that two
6-pulse converters connected in series by two transformers with phase
displacement of 30° are the best choice. That is, if one transformer is in star–
star, another should be in star–delta.

16.6 ANALYSIS OF CONVERTERS

A 6-pulse converter circuit as shown in Figure 16.4 is analyzed. To make
analysis simpler following assumptions are made:
 1. Power sources (or sinks) consisting of balance sinusoidal emf of
constant voltage and frequency in series with equal lossless
inductances.
2. The dc current is constant, i.e. ripple free.
3. Valves have zero forward resistance when on (conducting) and
infinite resistance when off (not conducting).
4. Ignition of valves at equal intervals of 60° (1/6 of the cycle).

Different cases depending on the conduction of valves in a commutating

group can be analyzed separately. If at all instants, only one valve in a
commutating group conducts, there will be no overlap. In this case two
valves conduct: one valve from upper-commutation group and second from
lower-commutation group. This case is also known as two-valve conduction.
Due to leakage inductance the current cannot be changed suddenly and
therefore commutation from one valve to another is not instantaneous and it
takes finite time for current transfer. This time is known as overlap angle.
There will be more than two valves conduction at sometimes. It may be 3 or
4 valve conduction.
16.6.1 Without Overlap
Under this assumption, the transfer of current (commutation) between valves
on the same side of the bridge (upper or lower) takes place instantaneously.
Although, this assumption is not correct due to the presence of source
reactance. The numbering of valves in Figure 16.4 is done in the sequence in
which they are fired. Each valve conducts for 120° and the interval between
consecutive firing pulse is 60° during normal state. A pair of valves (one
from upper group and another from lower group) remains in conduction for
60°. Each cycle of ac supply voltage is divided into six intervals, where a pair
of valves conducts for 60°. For example, valves 6 and 1 conduct for 60° and
thereafter valves 1 and 2 for the next 60°, and so on.
Taking eba as reference voltage, as shown in Figure 16.5, the other voltages
can be written as:
…

FIGURE 16.5 Phasor voltages.

where Em is the peak voltage magnitude of phase to neutral voltage.
A valve can only be fired if the voltage appearing across it is positive and
there is a gate signal available. Let us consider valves 1 and 2 are conducting.
Voltage appearing at the cathode of valve 3 is ea since valve 1 is conducting
(see Figure 16.4) and eb at the anode of valve 3. Valve 3 conducts only when
the voltage eb is greater or equal to ea, i.e. when voltage eba is positive. This
is known as the commutation voltage of valve 3. Valve 3 can now
be fired using gate pulse with any delay angle a which is a∞ after the zero
crossing of the commutation voltage of valve 3. Since no overlapping is
assumed, when valve 3 is fired,
the current instantaneously transfers from valve 1 to valve 3 and now valves
2 and 3 will continue to conduct for another 60°. Figure 16.6 shows the
conduction of valves 2 and 3.
In valves 2, 3 conduction case, we have

FIGURE 16.6 Valves 2 and 3 conduction.

where in is the instantaneous current through valve n. ia, ib and ic are the
phase a, b and c currents respectively.
Since the pair of valves 2 and 3 conduct for 60° and valves 3 and 4 conduct
for next
60°, for the dc output voltage, only one interval can be considered. If the
delay angle is a°,
the instantaneous dc voltage ebc will appear across dc terminal from a to 60
+ a. The average dc voltage will be given by

Equation (16.9) can also be represented in terms of the rms line-to-line

voltage (ELL) as
When delay angle or the firing angle is zero, Equation (16.9) can be written
as

Therefore, Equation (16.9) can again be written as

Vd = Vdo cos a (16.11)
This equation indicates that the average dc voltage across the bridge will vary
with firing angle a. The dc output voltage is maximum when a is 0° and zero
at a = 90°. When the voltage across the bridge is positive, it acts as rectifier
and when it is negative, it is known as inversion operation of bridge. Figure
16.7 shows the valve conduction sequence and dc output voltage waveform.

FIGURE 16.7 Conduction sequence and dc output voltage waveform.

Although delay angle a can vary from 0 to 180°, the delay angle can ®not be
less than certain minimum limit (say 5°) in order to ensure the firing of all the
series-connected thyristors. Similarly, the upper limit of the delay angle is
also restricted due to the turn-off time of a valve. The delay angle a is not
allowed to go beyond (180° – c), where c is called extinction angle. It is also
known as minimum margin angle, which is typically 10°. However, in normal
operation of inverter, it is not allowed to go below 15°. The values of c
between 15° and 20° are typically used.
AC current waveform. If the reactance of a smoothing reactor is very
large, the output dc current can be assumed as constant (ripple free). It means
that there is no harmonics in dc current. The ac current, which flows in the
secondary winding of transformer, is shown in Figure 16.8.
 FIGURE 16.8 AC current waveform.
Since current is not a sinusoidal current, there is harmonics in the converter
transformer. The rms value of the fundamental component of the current
using Fourier analysis is given by

The rms value of the current (not the rms value of fundamental component of
current) can be calculated as

This shows that I is increased by times as compared to It in Eq. (16.7).

The rms value of hth harmonics is given by

where h = np ± 1 (n is an integer and p is the pulse number)

Effect of firing angle on voltage waveforms. The effect of firing-angle
delay on the voltage waveforms is shown in Figures 16.9(a) and (b).
Moreover the voltage across valve 1 is shown in Figure 16.9(c).
Power factor. Neglecting other harmonics component, the ac power
supplied by the converter

where cos z is the power factor.

Using Equation (16.10), the dc output power is given by

Ignoring the losses in the converters, ac power will be equal to dc power.

Therefore, substituting the value of I1 in Equation (16.15) from Equation
(16.12) and equating with Equation (16.16), we get

FIGURE 16.9 Different voltage waveforms.

This equation shows that when delay angle increases, the power factor
reduces and thus more reactive power requirement. Voltage waveforms on
full inversion (without delay) are shown in Figure 16.10.
The real and reactive powers in different modes of operation are shown in
Figure 16.11.
16.6.2 With Overlap
The shift of current from one conducting valve to another conducting valve is
not sudden due to leakage inductance of converter transformer and the supply
system. The duration when current is shared by conducting valves is called
overlap angle and is measured by the overlap (commutation) angle u. Figure
16.12 shows the conduction patterns of the valves.
The value of u can be different. Based on the overlap angle, three modes of
converter operation is classified as:

FIGURE 16.10 Voltages in inverter mode.

 FIGURE 16.11 Power factor.

FIGURE 16.12 Conduction with overlap.

Mode 1 (Two-and-three valve conduction for u < 60°) where two valves
conduct for
u – 60° and three valves conduct for u degree.
Mode 2 (Three-valve conduction for u = 60°) where three valves conduct
during each interval for 60°.
Mode 3 (Three-and-four valve conduction for u > 60°) where three valves
conduct for (120° – u) and four valves conduct for (u – 60°).
The analysis of mode-2 and mode-3 is out of the scope of this book. Here
only mode-1 is analyzed. Figure 16.13 shows, valves 1, 2 and 3 are
conducting. Prior to this, valves 1
and 2 were conducting and valve 3 was fired. Current i1 flowing through
valve 1 will not be shifted to valve three. When valves 1 and 3 are
conducting, the voltage at positive terminal of the bridge is (ea + eb)/2 which
is equal to – ec/2. The commutation from valve 1 to valve 3 is shown in
Figure 16.14.

FIGURE 16.13 Three valves conduction.

 FIGURE 16.14 Commutation from valve 1 to valve 3.
The instantaneous output voltage at the dc terminal of the bridge is

The average dc voltage can be obtained by taking average over period of 60°.
Thus

Equation (16.18) can be written as

or

From Figure 16.13, we can write voltage equation using KVL as

Since dc current is always Id, we have i1 = Id – i3. Integrating, we get

Solving, we get

where A is an integration constant. This can be obtained by using initial

condition, at ~t = a, i3 = 0. Therefore

At ~t = a + u, i3 = Id, Equation (16.23) becomes

where Rc is called equivalent commutation resistance and is given by

Equation (16.25) can be represented by an equivalent analogous circuit

consisting of one variable dc source with resistance Rc, as shown in Figure
16.15.

FIGURE 16.15 Equivalent circuit of rectifier.

Current and voltage waveforms of a 6-pulse bridge rectifier operation are
shown in
Figure 16.16. Figure 16.16(a) represents dc positive and negative terminal
voltages across the rectifier output, whereas Figure 16.16(b) shows the dc
output voltage. The voltage across valve-1 is shown in Figure 16.16(c).
Figure 16.16(d) shows the currents in valves of upper group and lower group,
whereas Figure 16.16(e) shows the phase a line current.
Inverter operation. The analysis of inverter operation is not different from
the rectification. However, inverter equations are normally expressed in terms
of the angle of advance b (=r – a) or the extinction angle c(=b – u).

FIGURE 16.16 Waveforms of a 6-pulse bridge rectifier.

Current and voltage waveforms of a 6-pulse bridge inverter operation are
shown in Figure 16.17. Figure 16.17(a) represents dc positive and negative
terminal voltages across the inverter output, whereas Figure 16.17(c) shows
the dc output voltage. The voltage across valve-1 is shown in Figure
16.17(b). Figure 16.17(d) shows currents in valves of upper group and lower
group, whereas Figure 16.17(e) shows the phase a line current.
The dc output voltage in inverter operation can be given by
 …

FIGURE 16.17 Waveforms of a 6-pulse bridge inverter.

The dc voltage Vdoi is taken as negative because the inverter uses opposite
polarity. From Equation (16.25), we get,
Vdi = –Vdoi cos(r – b) + RcId = Vdoi cos b + RcId………………(16.27)
Similarly, we can also write
 Vdi = Vdoi cos c – RcId………………(16.28)
Equations (16.27) and (16.28) can be represented by an equivalent analogous
circuit consisting of one variable dc source with resistance Rc, as shown in
Figure 16.18.

16.7 HVDC CONTROL

Controlling the firing angle of valves can control the output of converters and
thereby the power control over HVDC link. The power control is one of the
best features of HVDC system. The ideal control system for an HVDC
converter should have the following features.

FIGURE 16.18 Equivalent circuit of inverter.

1. Control should not be sensitive to normal variation in voltage and

frequency of the ac supply system.
2. Control should be fast, reliable and easy (simple).
3. There should have continuous operating range from full rectification
to full inversion.
4. Control should be such that it should require less reactive power.
5. Under steady-state conditions, the valve must be fired symmetrically.
6. Control should be such that it must control the maximum current in
the link, and limit the fluctuation of current.
7. Power can be controlled independently and smoothly which can be
done by controlling the current and/or the voltage simultaneously in
the link.
8. Control should be such that it can be used for protection of line and
converter.

From Figure 16.15 and Figure 16.18, a two terminal HVDC link can be
represented as equivalent circuit which is shown in Figure 16.19.
 FIGURE 16.19 Equivalent circuit of HVDC link.
Here, Rcr, Rci are the commutation resistances of rectifier and inverter
respectively. Rl is the resistance of smoothing reactor and line. The dc link
current can be obtained as

In Equation (16.29), negative sign is used when c is used in place of b, in the

numerator. For maintaining safe commutation margin, c is used as control
variable instead of b. To control power in a two-terminal dc link it is
desirable to have current control in one converter and voltage control in the
second converter. From Equation (16.29), the increase of power in the link
can be achieved by either (a) reducing a, which will also improve the power
factor or
(b) increasing c or b, which will worsen the power factor and higher loss in
the valve- snubber circuit. Therefore, it is required to operate the inverter at
minimum c. The operation of minimum extinction angle at the inverter and
constant current control at rectifier results in better voltage regulation than
the operation with minimum a at rectifier and current control at inverter. To
avoid commutation failure, it is economical to operate inverter at constant
extinction angle (CEA) control. However, the main problem with CEA
control is the negative resistance characteristics of the converter which makes
it difficult to operate stably if connected with a weak ac system. Under
normal condition, rectifier operates at constant current (CC) control and
inverter at constant extinction angle (CEA) control. With this control, let us
examine the effects of ac voltages on the dc link current.
(a) Increase in rectifier-end ac voltage: Due to this, current in link increases
which can be seen from Equation (16.29). To control the current, rectifier-end
controller increases the delay angle a while the inverter-end controller
maintains a constant extinction angle (CEA). Increase in a will worsen the
power factor and generally is controlled up to some fixed angle and thereafter
tap changer is used.
(b) Increase in inverter-end ac voltage: Due to this, the current in link
reduces and to maintain the constant current in the link, angle a is reduced up
to amin, which is required for the complete firing of the valve thyristors. If
still current in link is less than the reference current, the tap changer is to be
operated to increase the ac voltage at rectifier.
(c) Decrease in inverter-end ac voltage: Due to decrease in inverter voltage,
dc current in the link increases and to control the current, the rectifier-end
controller increases the delay angle a. Increase in a will worsen the power
factor and generally is controlled up to certain angle and thereafter tap
changer is used.
(d) Decrease in rectifier-end ac voltage: Decrease in rectifier voltage
decreases the dc current. To maintain this current, a is to decrease but limited
to amin and then tap changers is to be used to increase the current. If further
decreased, rectifier characteristic falls below and CEA characteristic will not
intersect and Id will be zero. Therefore, inverter is also equipped with
constant current controller.
A smooth transition from CEA to CC takes place whenever the link current
starts falling. To avoid the clash of two current controllers, the current
reference at inverter end is kept below the current reference at rectifier end.
The difference between their current settings is called current margin and it is
normally 10% of the rated current of the link. The power reversal in the link
can be obtained, without altering the current direction, by the reversal of dc
voltage, which can be achieved by increasing the delay angle at the station
initially operating as rectifier while reducing the delay angle at the station
initially operating as inverter. Thus, it is necessary to have both CEA and CC
controllers at both the stations. Figure 16.20 shows the control characteristics
of both the stations.
From Figure 16.20, it can be seen that each station control characteristic has
three parts (Table 16.2):
 FIGURE 16.20 Controllers characteristics.
Table 16.2 Types of Station Control Characteristic
Station- Station- Controller
I II type
Minimum
AB HG
a
Constant
BC GF
current
CEA
CD EF (minimum
c)

The point P is the operating point. Figure 16.21 shows the operating point
after the power reversal. The basic control characteristic is modified due to
several problems. During the ac faults at the inverter end, commutation
failure is caused and it is important to reduce the stress on the inverter valves
which can be achieved by a low-voltage-dependent current limit (LVCL) to
rectifier control characteristic. Figure 16.22 shows a control characteristic
including a voltage-dependent current-order limit (VDCOL).

FIGURE 16.21 Power reversal controllers’ characteristics.

 FIGURE 16.22 Modified controllers’ characteristics with VDCOL.
There are two basic firing schemes: individual phase control (IPC) and
equidistant pulse control (EPC). IPC was used in early HVDC converters and
has now been replaced by EPC. These control schemes are explained below.
16.7.1 Individual-phase Control
This control scheme can be achieved by two ways: constant-a control and
inverse-cosine control. In individual-phase control (IPC), firing instants are
determined individually for
each valve in steady state with respect to the earliest firing instant (i.e.
voltage crossing).
The constant delay angle in rectifier operation is normally determined from a
negative feedback current loop, as shown in Figure 16.23. Whereas at the
inverter end, the individual firing scheme requires the following for safe
operation with minimum reactive power requirements.

FIGURE 16.23 Negative feedback current loop.

(a) Calculation (a continuous) of the available voltage integral for
commutation.
(b) A continuous calculation of required voltage integral for safe
commutation.
Optimum firing is achieved when (a) and (b) coincides.
Time integral of commutating voltage is equal to the overall voltage change
produced by commutating current ic.
During large or small system disturbances, actual current at the end of
commutation period is different from the magnitude anticipated by controller
and compensation is made for the rate of change of current. Thus equation
used as a basis for a predictive constant extinction angle control is

The main advantage of this control is to achieve the highest dc voltage under
asymmetrical and distorted waveform. The major drawback of this scheme is
the aggravation of the harmonic instability problem in the system with low
short-circuit ratio. This is mainly due to perturbation in the zero crossing by
distortion in system supply voltage which shifts the instants of firing pulses.
However, the harmonic instability can be overcome by several measures such
as using filters, firing control independent of zero crossing and changing the
ac network behaviour with harmonics.
16.7.2 Equidistant Pulse Control (EPC)
The firing pulses, in this scheme, are generated at equal intervals of 1/(pf)
through a ring counter in steady state. There are three variations of the EPC
schemes:
(a) Pulse frequency control (PFC)
(b) Pulse period control
(c) Pulse phase control (PPC)
The main drawbacks of the EPC schemes are:

1. Under unbalanced voltage conditions, EPC results in less dc voltage

compared to IPC.
2. Higher negative damping contribution to torsional oscillations when
HVDC is the major transmission from generating stations.

16.8 CONVERTER FAULTS

According to the origin of the malfunction, converter faults can be divided
into three broad groups:

1. Faults due to malfunction of valves and controllers.

(a) Arc backs (or back fire) in mercury valves only
(b) Arc through (or fire through or short through)
(c) Quenching (arc quenching or arc chopping)
(d) Misfire
2. Commutation failure in inverters (or break through), i.e. failure to
complete commutation before commutating emf reverses.
3. Short circuit within converter stations.

The voltages across valves during rectifier and inversion operation are shown
in Figure 16.24 and the malfunction can be explained through this.

FIGURE 16.24 Valve voltages: 1. inverse voltage period; 2. blocking period; 3. conduction
period.

16.8.1 Arc Back

This mis-operation, which is conduction in the inverse voltage period of
valves, occurs mainly in rectifiers because inverse voltage period in rectifiers
are much more than that of inverters that can be seen in Figure 16.24. It is the
most common and serve malfunction
in mercury valve rectifier and random in nature. On average, it is one or two
arc back
per valve/month. Modern thyristors do not suffer from arc backs. Factors that
increases the arc back are:
 1. High PIV
2. High voltage jump, especially of the jump at arc extinction
3. High rate of change of current at the end of conduction
4. Over current
5. Impurity of anode and grid
6. High rate of rise of inverse voltage.

Factors 1 and 2 can be reduced by having low voltage whereas having low
current can reduce factors 3 and 4. These reduce power handling/valve and
increase the cost of converter. Factors 2 and 3 can be improved by using
small (a, b, c, d) but they are larger for control operation (momentary).
Factor 6 is minimized by use of RC damper in parallel to each valve.
However, factor 3 can be improved with high u.
This malfunction of valves results into line-to-line short circuit and
sometimes 3-phase short circuit. It also generates some harmonics.
16.8.2 Arc Through
This is also known as fire through or short through. It occurs during blocking
period of valve that is when the voltage across the valves is positive. Since
the positive voltage across the valve is more during the inverter operation, the
chance of this malfunction is also more in inverters than the rectifiers. It is
similar to commutation failure. This malfunction is mainly due to

failure of negative grid pulse

early occurrence of positive grid pulse
sufficient high-positive transient over voltage on grid or anode.

The main problems with arc through are that

It reduces delay angle (a).

It introduces dc component into transformer current.
It changes harmonic components.
Short circuit occurs once/cycles until arc-through is removed or the
bridge is bypassed.

16.8.3 Misfire
As its name, it is a failure of valve to ignite during a scheduled conducting
period whereas arc through is the failure to block a valve during a scheduled
non-conducting period. This can occur either in rectifier or in inverter but it is
more severe when occurs in inverters. It may be either due to negative gate
pulse or positive anode to cathode voltage or fault in valves. The effect of
misfire in inverter is similar to commutation failure and arc through. Let
valves 6 and 1 are conducting and valve 2 fails to ignite. Valves 6 and 1
continue to conduct and thereafter valve 3 will conduct and dc short circuit
occurs for smaller durations. There is a small jump of voltage at the
beginning of short-circuit and large jump at the end of short-circuit.
16.8.4 Quenching
It is a premature extinction of valve in normal conduction period. This
malfunction has the same effect as misfire (almost) and causes short-circuit
of dc terminal.
16.8.5 Commutation Failure
This fault, which is more common in an inverter, is the result of a failure of
the incoming valve (due to insufficient extinction time) to take over the direct
current before the commutating voltage reverses its polarity. It is not due to
malfunctioning of valve but due to ac or dc condition outside the bridge. It
causes decrease in dc current, low ac voltage
(due to ac short circuit). The failure of two successive commutations in the
same cycle is called double commutation failure.
To illustrate the commutation failure, let us take example that valves 1 and 2
are conducting and now valve 3 has to be ignited to take the complete current
of valve 1 which is in the upper limb of converter. If current in incoming
valve 3 diminishes to zero, the current in valve 1 will continue to carry full
link current. Firing of valve 4 (next in sequence) will result in short circuit of
the bridge, as both valve of same arm will conduct. If the commutation from
valve 2 to valve 4 is successful, only valves 1 and 4 will conduct. Firing of
valve 5 (in sequence) will be unsuccessful as voltage across it is negative and
valves 1 and 4 will still continue. Now valve 6 will be fired and if
commutation from valve 4 to 6 is successful, valves 6 and 1 will conduct
which is normal pattern of conduction. Thus a single commutation failure is
self-clearing.
The double commutation failure is more severe and should be averted which
depends on the current control of link and the magnitude of ac voltage.
Converter differential protection can also be used. The initial rate of rise of
current in inverter is limited by smoothing reactor and the current at rectifier
end limits the current in persistent commutation failures.
Example 16.1 A 6-pulse bridge connected converter is fed from 238 kV/110
kV transformer which is connected with 3-phase, 238 kV, 50 Hz supply.
Calculate the direct voltage output when the commutation angle (overlap
angle) is 20° and delay angle
(a) 30 degree, (b) 90 degree and (c) 150 degree.
Solution Using Equation (16.20), the output voltage is given by

where

Negative sign shows the output voltage has negative polarity and works as
inverter.
(c) For a = 150°, the dc output voltage is

Example 16.2 Find the effective commutation resistance of a 6-pulse

rectifier, which is fed from 400 kV, 3-phase ac voltage, when the dc current
in HVDC link is 1 kA and the rectifier dc voltage is 500 kV at firing angle of
20°.
Solution Using Equation (16.25), the dc voltage is given by
Therefore, we have
500 = 540.19 cos 20 – (Rc ´ 1.0)
Thus Rc = 7.61 ohm.
Example 16.3 A 6-pulse bridge inverter is fed from 500-kV dc voltage. Find
the ac voltage output of the inverter if the advance angle is 20° and extinction
angle is 10°.
Solution Using Equation (16.26), the dc voltage is given by

16.9 INTERCONNECTION OF HVDC TRANSMISSION

INTO AC SYSTEMS
Since it is efficient and economical to have ac generation and distribution but
for transmission and control of power, HVDC links can be used. The main
areas of application based on the economics and technical performances, are:
(a) Long-distance bulk power transmission
(b) Underground or submarine cables
(c) Asynchronous connection of ac system with different frequencies
(d) Control and stabilize the power system with power flow control.
Based on the interconnection, three types of HVDC links are possible:

1. HVDC transmission system, where bulk power is transmitted from

one point to another point over long distance.
2. Back-to-back dc link, where rectification and inversion is carried out
in the same converter station with very small or no dc lines. This is
basically used to control the power and stabilize the system. It is also
 used, sometimes, to connect two different frequencies systems.
3. Parallel connection of ac and dc links, where both ac and dc lines run
parallel. It is mainly used to modulate the power of ac line. Due to its
fast control, the dc line can improve the transient stability of the
system.

16.10 FLEXIBLE AC TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS (FACTS)

TECHNOLOGY
With the development of modern power systems, it becomes very important
to control the power flow along the transmission corridor. The normal
evolutionary process in late 1970s by introducing power electronics based
control for reactive power has been greatly accelerated by more recent
developments in the electric power industry, which have aggravated the early
problems and highlighted the structural limitations of power systems in a
greatly changed socio-economical environment. The desire to find solutions
to these problems and limitations led to focuss technological developments
under the Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS).
The gate-turn off thyristor (GTO) and insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT)
are more promising switching devices presently and potentially available in
the near future. However in longer future (10 years or more), MOS-controlled
thyristor (MCT) devices will be competitive to GTO and IGBT devices. A
comparison of various power switching devices is presented in Table 16.3.
Table 16.3 Comparison of Power Semiconductor Devices
SI
Thyristor GTO IGBT MCT MOSFET
thyristor
Maximum voltage rating (V) 8000 6000 1700 2500 3000 1000
Maximum current rating (A) 4000 6000 800 800 400 100
Voltage blocking [(Symmetrical/
S/A S/A A A S/A A
asymmetrical)]
Gating Pulse CurrentVoltageCurrent Voltage Voltage
Conduction drop (V) 1.2 2.5 3 4 1.2 Resistive
Switching frequency (kHz) 1 5 20 20 20 100
Development target maximum voltage
10 10 3.5 5 5 2
rating (kV)
Development target maximum current
8 8 2 2 2 0.2
rating (kA)
Note: SI, static induction thyristor; MOSFET, MOS field effect transistor; S, Symmetrical; A,
Asymmetrical.
At present, the most high-voltage transmission lines are operating below
thermal ratings due to constraints such as voltage and transient stability
limits. Power electronics based FACTS technology can enhance transmission
system control and increase line loading in some cases all the way up to
thermal limits, thereby without compromising reliability. Based on these
capabilities, bottlenecks can be eliminated, line capacity can be increased,
and reliability can be improved. These capabilities allow transmission system
owners and operators to maximize asset utilization and execute additional
bulk power transfers, with immediate bottom-line benefits. Moreover,
FACTS devices can also enable companies to avoid or minimize the time-
consuming, source-intensive process of constructing new transmission
facilities and concentrate instead on maximizing profitability of existing sets
as the market for transmission services expands.
Several energy companies are realizing the benefits of FACTS installations.
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) installed the first static synchronous
compensator (STATCOM) in 1995 to strengthen ties between its Sullivan
substation and the rest of its network while avoiding more labour and space-
intensive installation of an additional transformer bank. The device provides
instantaneous control of transmission voltage and increasing capacity to
provide TVA with greater flexibility in bulk power transactions. It also
increases reliability and damps out major grid oscillations.
Thereafter, in 1998, installation of the first unified power flow controller
(UPFC) was completed at the Inez substation owned by American Electric
Power (AEP). The device employs dual back-to-back voltage-source
converters with a STATCOM and a static synchronous series compensator
(SSSC) coupled to a dc link capacitor, enabling it to function as an ideal ac-
to-ac power converter. It represents the first controller capable of providing
complete control of all the three basic transmission system parameters
(voltage, line impedance, and phase angle) simultaneously. AEP installed the
UPFC as the first major element in a regional reinforcement. It is mitigating
line loading and low-voltage problems caused by rapid growth in area far
from the company’s generating sources. It also ensures that a new, high-
capacity l38-kV line carries its share of regional load.
Up to now, installed FACTS equipments have been put forward over time
due to a significant advantages of FACTS devices, its potential benefits
together with the rapid developments of modern power electronics
technology. Consequently, as power semiconductor devices continue to
improve, the cost of FACTS controllers continues to decrease. Large-scale
use of FACTS technology is eventually an assured scenario.

16.11 OBJECTIVES OF FACTS

The basic transmission challenge of the evolving deregulated power system
(competitive power market), whatever final form it may take, is to provide a
network capable of delivering contracted power from any supplier to any
consumer over a large geographic area under market forces-controlled, and
thus continuously varying patterns of contractual arrangements. Due to cost,
right-of-way, and environmental problems, the network expansion is
restricted.
The FACTS initiative was originally launched to solve the emerging system
problems in the late 1980s due to restrictions on the construction of
transmission line, and to facilitate the growing power of export and import
and wheeling transactions among utilities, with two main objectives:
(a) To increase the power transfer capability of transmission systems
(b) To keep power flow over designated routes.
The first objective implies that power flow in a given line can be increased up
to the thermal limit by forcing the necessary current through the series line
impedance if, at the same time, stability of the system is maintained via
appropriate real-time control of power flow during and following system
faults. The second objective implies that the power flow can be restricted to
select (contracted) transmission corridors by controlling the current in a line
(by, for example, changing the effective line impedance and phase angle),
while parallel and loop-flows can be mitigated.
The achievement of the two basic objectives would significantly increase the
utilization of existing (and new) transmission assets, and could play a major
role in facilitating deregulation with minimal requirements for new
transmission lines. The implementation of the above two basic objectives
requires the development of high-power compensators and controllers. N.G.
Hingorani, in 1988, first defined the concepts of Flexible AC Transmission
Systems (FACTS), “FACTS controllers can control the interrelated
parameters that govern the operation of transmission systems including series
impedance, shunt impedance, current, voltage, phase angle and the damping
of oscillations at various frequencies below the rated frequency”. They are
having many benefits to the power system in terms of operation, control and
transmission line planning and finance.
In summary, the FACTS controllers offer the following advantages:

Control of power flow in transmission corridors by controlling line

impedance, angle and voltage.
Optimum power flow for certain objectives.
Increase the loading capability of lines to their thermal capabilities,
including short term and seasonal. This can be accomplished by
overcoming other limitations, and sharing of power among lines
according to their capability.
Increase the system security through raising the transient stability
limit, limiting short-circuit currents and overloads.
Provide secure and controllable tie line connections to neighbouring
utilities and regions thereby decreasing overall generation reserve
requirements on both the sides.
Damp out of power systems’ oscillations, which could damage
equipment and limit useable transmission capacity by rapidly
modulating the effective impedance in response to power system
dynamics.
Prevent cascading outages by limiting the impacts of faults and
equipment failures.
Provide greater flexibility in sitting new generation.
Upgrade of lines.
Reduce reactive power flows, thus allowing the lines to carry more
active power.
Reduce loop flows.
Increase utilization of the lowest cost generation. One of the principal
reasons for transmission interconnections is to utilize the lowest cost
generation. When this cannot be done, it follows that there is not
enough cost-effective transmission capacity. Cost-effective
enhancement of capacity will therefore allow increased use of the
lowest cost generation.

16.12 BASIC TYPES OF FACTS CONTROLLERS

After years of rapid development, many types of FACTS devices have been
put forward. Some of them are already brought into the operation or under
construction. However, much work is still needed to fully make use of the
new characteristics of FACTS devices. Presently, the studies on FACTS are
mainly focused on the FACTS devices, power flow modulation and control,
stability enhancement and oscillation damping. Figure 16.25(a) shows the
general symbol of FACTS controller.
FACTS controllers, in general, can be divided into four categories:

1. Series controllers: This controller could be of variable impedance,

such as capacitor, reactor, etc., or power electronics based variable
source of main frequency, sub-synchronous and harmonic frequencies
to serve the desired need. In principle, all the series controllers inject
voltage in series with the line. Even variable impedance, multiplied by
the current flow through it, represents an injected series voltage in the
line. As long as the voltage is in phase quadrature with the line
current, the series controller only supplies or consumes variable
reactive power. Any other phase relationship will involve handling of
real power as well. Figure 16.25(b) shows a typical series FACTS
controller.
2. Shunt controllers: As in the case of series controllers, the shunt
controllers may be of variable impedance, variable source, or a
combination of these. In principle, all the shunt controllers inject
current into the system at the point of connection. Even variable shunt
impedance connected to the line voltage causes a variable current
flow and hence represents injection of current into the line. As long as
the injected current is in phase quadrature with the line voltage, the
shunt controller only supplies or consumes variable reactive power.
Any other phase relationship will involve handling of real power as
well. Figure 16.25(c) represents a schematic diagram of shunt FACTS
controller.
3. Combined series–series controllers (Figure 16.25d): This could be a
combination of separate series controllers, which are controlled in a
coordinated manner, in a multi-line transmission system. Or, it could
be a unified controller, in which series controllers provide
independent series reactive compensation for each line but also
transfer real power among the lines via the power link. The real power
transfer capability of the unified series–series controller, referred to as
interline power flow controller, makes it possible to balance both the
real and reactive power flow in the lines and thereby maximize the
 utilization of the transmission system. Note that here the term
‘unified’ means that the dc terminals of all the controller converters
are all connected together for real power transfer.
4. Combined series–shunt controllers (Figures 16.25e and 16.25f): This
could be a combination of separate shunt and series controllers, which
are controlled in a coordinated manner or a unified power flow
controller with series and shunt elements. In principle, combined
shunt and series controllers inject current into the system with the
shunt part of the controller, and voltage in series in the line with the
series part of the controller. However, when the shunt and series
controllers are unified, there can be a real power exchange between
the series and shunt controllers via the power link.

FIGURE 16.25 (a) General symbol for FACTS controller; (b) series controller; (c) shunt
controller (d) unified series-series controller; (e) coordinated series and shunt controller; and
(f) unified series-shunt controller

16.13 FACTS DEVICES

16.13.1 Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM)
STATCOM is a static synchronous generator operated as a shunt-connected
static VAr compensator (SVC) whose capacitive or inductive output current
can be controlled independently of the ac system voltage. Figure 16.26 shows
a simple one-line diagram of STATCOM. For the voltage-source converter,
its ac output voltage is controlled such that it is just right for the required
reactive current flow for any ac bus voltage and dc capacitor voltage is
automatically adjusted as required to serve as a voltage source for the
converter. STATCOM can also be designed as an active filter to absorb
system harmonics. In this scheme converters are used, whereas in SVC
thyristors are used.

FIGURE 16.26 Simple one-line diagram of STATCOM based on (a) a voltage-sourced

converter,
(b) a current-sourced converter.
It is a 3-phase inverter that is driven from the voltage across a dc storage
capacitor and whose three-phase output voltages are in phase with ac system
voltages, the current flow causes to lead (or lag) and the difference in the
voltage amplitudes determines how much current flows. Therefore,
controlling the voltage can change reactive power and its polarity. The
performance of STATCOM is superior to SVC because the most reactive
power, that can be delivered, is voltage times current whereas in the case of
SVC, it is the square of the voltage divided by the impedance. If the voltage
is depressed, the STATCOM can still deliver high level of reactive power by
using its over-current capability. In the case of SVC, the reactive power
capability steeply falls off as a function of the square of the
voltage just when it is needed most. In addition, a STATCOM, equipped with
a large dc capacitor or storage device, can continue to deliver some energy
for short time just as a synchronous condenser. However, STATCOM does
require gate-turn off (GTO) thyristors which is costly compared to the normal
thyristors. A comparison of STATCOM and SVC is given in Table 16.4.
Table 16.4 Comparison between a STATCOM and SVC
STATCOM SVC
It acts as a voltage source behind a reactance. It acts as a variable susceptance.
It is sensitive to a transmission system
It is insensitive to transmission system harmonics.
harmonic resonance.
It has a larger dynamic range. It has smaller dynamic range.
It generates less harmonics. It generates more harmonics.
It has faster response (within ms) and better per- Its performance is slow during the
formace during transients. transients.
Both inductive and capacitive regions of operation
It operates mostly in capacitive region.
are possible.
It can maintain a stable voltage even with a very It has difficulty in operating with a very
weak ac system. weak ac system.
It can be used for small amount of energy storage.
Temporary overload capacity translates into
improved voltage stability.

16.13.2 Static Synchronous Generator (SSG)

SSG is a self-commutated static switching power converter commuted with a
static synchronous electric energy source (such as battery, flywheel, super
conducting magnet, large dc storage capacitor). It is operated to produce a set
of adjustable multiphase output voltages, which may be coupled to an ac
power system for the purpose of exchanging independently controllable real
and reactive power. Simple model of SSG is shown in Figure 16.27.

FIGURE 16.27 Model of SSG.

16.13.3 Static VAr Compensator (SVC)

SVC is a shunt-connected static VAr generator or absorber whose output is
adjusted to control capacitive or inductive current so as to maintain or control
specific parameters of the electrical power system (typically bus voltage
magnitude). SVC is based on a thyristor without the gate turn-off capability.
It includes separate equipment for leading and lagging VAr. SVC is
considered as a lower cost alternative to STATCOM, although this may not
be the case if the comparison is made based on the required performance and
not just the MVA size. A simple model of SVC is shown in Figure 16.28. A
comparative performance of SVC and STATCOM is given in Table 16.4.

FIGURE 16.28 SVC system.

16.13.4 Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR)

TCR is a shunt-connected, thyristor-controlled inductor whose effective
reactance is varied
in a continuous manner by partial-conduction control of the thyristor valve.
TCR is a
subset of SVC in which conduction time and hence, current in a shunt reactor
is controlled by a thyristor-based ac switch with firing angle control. Simple
model of TCR is shown in Figure 16.29.
16.13.5 Thyristor Switched Reactor (TSR)
TSR is a shunt-connected, thyristor-switched inductor whose effective
reactance is varied in a stepwise manner by full or zero conduction operation
of the thyristor valve. TSR is another
subset of SVC. TSR is made up of several shunt-connected inductors, which
are switched in and out by thyristor switches without any firing angle
controls in order to achieve the required step changes in the reactive power
consumed from the system. Use of thyristor switches without firing angle
control results in lower cost and losses, but without a continuous control. A
simple model of TSR is shown in Figure 16.29.
16.13.6 Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC)
TSC is a shunt-connected, thyristor-switched capacitor whose effective
reactance is varied in a stepwise manner by full or zero conduction operation
of the thyristor valve. TSC is also a subset of SVC in which thyristor based
ac switches are used to switch in and out (without firing angle control) shunt
capacitors units, in order to achieve the required step change in the reactive
power supplied to the system. Unlike shunt reactors, shunt capacitors cannot
be switched continuously with variable firing angle control. Simple model of
TSC is shown in Figure 16.29.
16.13.7 Static VAr Generator or Absorber (SVG)
SVG is a static electrical device, equipment, or system that is capable of
drawing controlled capacitive and inductive current from an electrical power
system and thereby generating or absorbing reactive power. Generally
considered to consist of shunt connected, thyristor-controlled reactor(s) and
thyristor-switched capacitors. The SVG is simply a reactive power (VAr)
source that, with appropriate controls, can be converted into any specific or
multipurpose reactive shunt compensator. Thus, both the SVC and the
STATCOM are static VAr generators equipped with appropriate control
loops to vary the VAr output so as to meet specific compensation objectives.
A simple model of SVG is shown in Figure 16.29.

FIGURE 16.29 Simple models of SVG, SVS, TCR, TSR and TSC.
16.13.8 Static VAr System (SVS)
SVS is a combination of different static and mechanically switched VAr
compensators whose outputs are coordinated. A simple model of SVS is
shown in Figure 16.29.
16.13.9 Thyristor-controlled Braking Resistor (TCBR)
TCBR is a shunt-connected thyristor-switched resistor, which is controlled to
aid stabilization of a power system or to minimize power acceleration of a
generating unit during disturbances. TCBR involves cycle-by-cycle switching
of a resistor (usually a linear resistor) with firing angle control of a thyristor-
based ac switch. For lower cost, TCBR may be thyristor switched without
firing angle control. However, with firing control, half-cycle by half-cycle
firing control can be utilized to selectively damp low-frequency oscillations.
Simple model of TCBR is shown in Figure 16.30.

FIGURE 16.30 Simple model of TCBR.

16.13.10 Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC)

SSSC is a static synchronous generator operated without an external electric
energy source as a series compensator whose output voltage is in quadrature
with, and controllable independently of the line current for the purpose of
increasing or decreasing the overall reactive voltage drop across the line and
thereby controlling the transmitted electric power. The SSSC may include
transiently-rated energy storage or energy-absorbing devices to enhance the
dynamic behaviour of the power system by additional temporary real power
compensation, to momentarily increase or decrease the overall real (resistive)
voltage drop across the line. Without an extra energy source, SSSC can only
inject a variable voltage, which is 90° leading or lagging with the current. A
simple model of SSSC is shown in Figure 16.31.

FIGURE 16.31 Simple model of SSSC.

16.13.11 Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC)

IPFC is a combination of two or more static synchronous series compensators
which are coupled via a common dc link to facilitate a bi-directional flow of
real power between the ac terminals of the SSSCs, and are controlled to
provide independent reactive compensation for the adjustment of real power
flow in each line and maintain the desired distribution of reactive power flow
among the lines. The IPFC structure may also include a STATCOM coupled
with the IPFC’s common dc link, to provide shunt reactive compensation and
supply or absorb the overall real power deficit of the combined SSSCs.
16.13.12 Thyristor-controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC)
TCSC is a capacitive reactance compensator, which consists of a series
capacitor bank shunted by a thyristor-controlled reactor in order to provide a
smoothly variable series capacitive reactance. The TCSC is based on
thyristors without the gate turn-off capability. It is an alternative to SSSC
(discussed earlier) and like an SSSC, it is a very important FACTS controller.
A variable reactor such as a thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR) is connected
with a series capacitor. When the TCR firing angle is 180°, the reactor
becomes non-conducting
and the series capacitor has its normal impedance. If the firing angle reduces
from 180°,
the capacitive impedance increases. On the other end, when the TCR firing
angle is 90°, the reactor becomes fully conducting, and the total impedance
becomes inductive, because
the reactor impedance is designed to be much lower than the series capacitor
impedance. With 90° firing-angle, the TCSC helps in limiting fault current.
The TCSC may be a single, large unit, or may consist of several equal or
different-sized smaller capacitors in order to achieve a superior performance.
A simple model of TCSC is shown in Figure 16.32.

FIGURE 16.32 Simple model of TCSC and TSSC.

16.13.13 Thyristor-switched Series Capacitor (TSSC)

TSSC is a capacitive reactance compensator, which consists of a series
capacitor bank- shunted by a thyristor-switched reactor to provide a step-wise
control of series capacitive reactance. Instead of continuous control of
capacitive impedance, this approach of switching inductors at firing angle of
90° or 180° but without firing angle control could reduce cost and losses of
the controller. It is reasonable to arrange one of the modules to have
thyristor- controlled, while others could be thyristor-switched. A simple
model of TSSC is shown in Figure 16.32.
16.13.14 Thyristor-controlled Series Reactor (TCSR)
TCSR is an inductive reactance compensator, which consists of a series
reactor shunted by a thyristor-controlled reactor in order to provide a
smoothly variable series inductive reactance. When the firing angle of the
thyristor-controlled reactor is 180°, it stops conducting, and the uncontrolled
reactor acts as a fault current limiter. As the angle decreases below 180°, the
net inductance decreases until firing angle of 90°, when the net inductance is
the parallel combination of the two reactors. A simple model of TCSR is
shown in Figure 16.33.
16.13.15 Thyristor-switched Series Reactor (TSSR)
TSSR is an inductive reactance compensator, which consists of a series
reactor shunted by a thyristor-controlled switched reactor in order to provide
a step-wise control of series inductive reactance. This is a complement of
TCSR, but with thyristor switches fully on or off to achieve a combination of
stepped series inductance. A simple model of TSSR is shown in Figure 16.33.
 FIGURE 16.33 Simple model of TCSR and TSSR.

16.13.16 Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)

UPFC is a combination of static synchronous compensator (STATCOM) and
a static synchronous series compensator (SSSC), which are coupled via a
common dc link, to allow bidirectional flow of real power between the series
output terminals of the SSSC and the shunt output terminals of the
STATCOM, and are controlled to provide concurrent real and reactive series
line compensation without an external electric energy source. The UPFC, by
means of angular unconstrained series voltage injection, is able to control,
concurrently or selectively, the transmission line voltage, impedance and
angle or, alternatively, the real and reactive power flow in the line. The UPFC
may also provide independently controllable shunt reactive compensation.
Additional storage such as a super-conducting magnet connected to the dc
link via an electronic interface would provide the means of further enhancing
the effectiveness of the UPFC. As mentioned before, the controlled exchange
of real power with an external source, such as storage, is much more effective
in controlling the system dynamics than modulation of the power transfer
within a system. A simple model of UPFC is shown in Figure 16.34.

FIGURE 16.34 Simple model of UPFC.

16.13.17 Thyristor-controlled Phase Shifting Transformer (TCPST)

TCPST is a phase shifting transformer adjusted by thyristor switches to
provide a rapidly variable phase angle. In general, phase shifting is obtained
by adding a perpendicular voltage vector in series with a phase. This vector is
derived from the other two phases via shunt-connected transformers. The
perpendicular series voltage is made variable with a variety of power
electronics topologies. A circuit concept that can handle voltage reversal can
provide phase shift in either direction. This controller is also referred to as
thyristor-controlled phase angle regulator (TCPAR). A simple model of
TCPST is shown in Figure 16.35.

FIGURE 16.35 Simple model of TCPST or TCPAR.

16.13.18 Interphase Power Controller (IPC)

IPC is a series-connected controller of active and reactive power consisting,
in each phase, of inductive and capacitive branches subjected to separately
phase-shifted voltages. The
active and reactive power can be set independently by adjusting the phase
shifts and
the branch impedances, using mechanical or electronic switches. In a
particular case
where the inductive and capacitive impedance form a conjugate pair, each
terminal of the IPC is a passive current source dependent on the voltage at the
other terminal.
16.13.19 Thyristor-controlled Voltage Limiter (TCVL)
TCVL is a thyristor-switched metal-oxide varistor (MOV) used to limit the
voltage across its terminals during transient conditions. The thyristor switch
can be connected in series with a gapless arrester, or part of the gapless
arrester (10–20%) can be bypassed by a thyristor switch in order to
dynamically lower the voltage limiting level. In general, the MOV would
have to be significantly more powerful than the normal gapless arrester, in
order that TCVL can suppress dynamic over-voltages, which can otherwise
last for tens of cycles. A simple model of TCVL is shown in Figure 16.36.
16.13.20 Thyristor-controlled Voltage Regulator (TCVR)
TCVR is a thyristor-controlled transformer, which can provide variable in-
phase voltage with continuous control. For practical purposes, this may be a
regular transformer with a thyristor-
controlled tap changer [Figure 16.37(a)] or with a thyristor-controlled ac-to-
ac voltage converter for injection of variable ac voltage of the same phase in
series with the line
[Figure 16.37(b)]. Such a relatively low-cost controller can be very effective
in controlling the flow of reactive power between two ac systems.

FIGURE 16.36 Simple model of TCVL.

FIGURE 16.37 Simple model of TCVR.

Table 16.5 shows the summary of control attributes for various FACTS
controllers.
Table 16.5 Control Attributes for Various FACTS Controllers
FACTS Control attributes
controllers
Voltage control, VAr compensation, damping oscillations and voltage
STATCOM
stability
SVC, TCR, TCS Voltage control, VAr compensation, damping oscillations, transient and
and TRS dynamic stability, and voltage stability
TCBR Damping oscillations and transient and dynamic stability
SSSC, TCSC,
Current control, damping oscillations, transient and dynamic stability,
TSSC, TCSR
voltage stability, and fault current limiting.
and TSSR
Active power control, damping oscillations, transient and dynamic stability
TCPST
and voltage stability.
Active and reactive power control, voltage control, VAr compensation,
UPFC damping oscillations, transient and dynamic stability, voltage stability and
fault current limiting.
TCVL Transient and dynamic voltage limit.
Reactive power control, voltage control, damping oscillations, transient
TCVR and IPFC
and dynamic stability and voltage stability.

PROBLEMS
16.1 Find the best values of q, s and r for a 12-pulse converter configuration.
16.2 If a 6-pulse bridge rectifier is operating from 220-kV voltage supply
through the transformer. Find the output voltage of the rectifier when the
firing (delay) angle is
(a) 0° (b) 15° and (c) 90°. Assume there is no source reactance.
16.3 If the delay angle and commutation angle of a 6-pulse bridge converter
is 15° and 10° respectively, find the secondary voltage of a transformer
when the dc output voltage of converter is 500 kV.
16.4 In a HVDC link the dc current is 1 kA and the rectifier-end dc voltage is
500 kV when delay angle is 15°. Find the commutation reactance if the
rectifier ac voltage is 400 kV.
16.5 A 6-pulse bridge inverter is fed from 500-kV dc voltage. Find the ac
voltage output of the inverter if the delay angle is 160° and commutation
angle is 5°.
 17
Distribution Systems
17.1 INTRODUCTION
Electrical power (which is normally ac power except some non-conventional
sources) can be generated by several methods from various energy sources.
There are several advantages of having ac generation. Normally, the
generating stations are very far from the load centres. Generated power is
transmitted over the high-voltage long transmission lines. However the
utilization of power is restricted to low voltage because the high capital cost
of appliances at high voltage, difficulties in maintenance, safety, etc. The
power supply required by the various appliances may be dc or ac depending
upon the use. However, ac distribution of supply is common.

17.2 EFFECT OF VOLTAGE ON TRANSMISSION

EFFICIENCY
The main advantages of transmitting power over transmission lines on high
voltage are:
(a) Cost of conductor is reduced for given power.
(b) Voltage drop in lines is reduced.
(c) Efficiency of transmission line is increased.
Let V be the line to neutral voltage and I be the current lagging V by an angle
z, the power transmitted by each phase will be
P = VI cos z……………………………………………………(17.1)
If Pl is the power loss in each conductor due to flow of current in the
conductors of transmission line having the resistance R per phase, then
Pl = I2R……………………………………………………(17.2)
Therefore, the power loss in each conductor in terms of operating voltage V
and transmitted power P, using Equations (17.1) and (17.2), will be
From Equation (17.3), we can conclude that power loss in conductors will be
minimum with high voltage and high power factor. If resistivity, length of
line and cross-sectional area of conductor are t, l and A respectively, the
resistance will be

Since the cost of conductor depends on the weight, which is proportional to

the volume, the increase in voltage and power factor will save the cost of
conductor for a given power transfer over a particular length of line.
From Equation (17.1), it is clear that at high voltage operation the current will
be low for the same power transmitted. The voltage drop in the line will be
IZ, where Z is the impedance of the line. Therefore

Thus it is evident from Equation (17.6) that high voltage and high power
factor will reduce the line voltage drop. The transmission efficiency for
delivering per phase power P will be

Therefore, using Equation (17.4), we get

This shows that at higher voltage and higher power factor, the efficiency will
be higher.
The same derivation is also valid for dc power transmission where power
factor is unity. Thus, a high-voltage transmission increases the efficiency,
reduces the line drop and the cost of conductors of transmission lines.
However, there is a limit to increase the voltage level, which is due to
increased cost of insulation, switchgear, transformers and terminal
equipments. Therefore, an economic study is performed to select the
operating voltage level, which is based on the level of power transmission.

17.3 COMPARISON OF VARIOUS TRANSMISSION AND

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Nowadays, dc distribution system is phased out in almost every country.
However, some applications of dc power still exist, whereas in transmission,
both dc and ac exist. Therefore, it is beneficial to analyze various possible
distribution systems, which are:
(a) DC 2-wire system (monopolar operation)
(b) DC 2-wire system with mid-point earthed (bipolar operation)
(c) DC 3-wire (homopolar operation)
(d) AC 1-phase, 2-wire
(e) AC 3-phase, 3-wire
(f) AC 3-phase, 4-wire
Some other possible arrangements are:
(a) AC single-phase, 2-wire system with mid-point earthed
(b) AC single-phase, 3-wire system with neutral cross-section of 1/2 of the
outers
(c) AC 2-phase, 4-wire system
(d) AC 2-phase, 3-wire system.
But these configurations are not common and therefore not compared. For the
comparison of various systems, certain assumptions made are:
(a) The power transmitted is the same in all the cases.
(b) Distance of transmission lines is the same.
(c) Power loss is same in all the cases.
(d) The lines should have the same insulation level.
Two cases based on the equal maximum potential difference (a) between any
conductor and earth and (b) between any two conductors are considered here:
17.3.1 Equal Maximum Potential Difference between any Conductor
and Earth
Let the voltage V is the maximum potential difference between any conductor
and the earth and I1 is the line current.
(a) DC 2-wire system: Figure 17.1 shows the 2-wire dc system without mid-
point earthed. If R is the resistance of each conductor having cross-sectional
area of a, then

FIGURE 17.1 DC 2-wire system.

Power transmitted P = VI
and

(b) DC 2-wire system mid-point earthed: Figure 17.2 shows the dc 2-wire
mid-point earthed system. If R1 is the resistance of each conductor having
cross-sectional area of a1, then

FIGURE 17.2 DC 2-wire mid-point earthed system.

Power transmitted P = 2VI1
and

If power loss is same in both the cases (a) and (b), then from Equations (17.8)
and (17.9), we get

Since the resistance is inversely proportional to the area of cross-section,

Equation (17.10) can be written in terms of area of cross-section as

Since the number of conductors required in both the cases is two, the ratio of
volume of conductors will be

Thus the volume of the conductor required in the case of dc 2-wire mid-point
earthed is only (1/4)th that of the dc 2-wire system. Although, in the
monopolar operation, ground is used as return path. But here one conductor is
assumed for this purpose. If only one conductor is used in case (a), the saving
of conductor volume will be 1/2 only. It can be seen as

(c) DC 3-wire system: Figure 17.3 shows the dc 3-wire system. The current in
the return circuit is twice the line current. Assume the balance condition, the
power transmitted is
P = 2VI2

FIGURE 17.3 DC 3-wire system.

If the current density is same in all the cases, the area of return conductor is
twice the outer conductors. Therefore, the resistance of return conductor is
half of the outer conductors. The loss in return conductor is .
Therefore

Since resistance is inversely proportional to the area of cross-section, a2 = a.

Taking the area of cross-section of return wire double that of the outer wire,
the ratio of volume of conductors in dc 3-wire system to that of dc 2-wire
system will be

In case when bipolar dc 3-wire system with return conductor is used, the
return conductor current will be zero under the balance condition. The cross-
section area of return conductor may be half of the outer conductor.
Moreover there will be no loss in return conductor during the balance
condition. Therefore, Equation (17.14) gives

The ratio of resistance (R2/R) is 2 and the ratio of cross-sectional area (a2/a)
is 1/2.
Thus, the ratio of volume of conductors in dc 3-wire system to that of dc 2-
wire system will be

(d) AC single-phase, 2-wire system: Figure 17.4 shows the ac single-phase, 2-

wire system with mid-point earthed. It is also possible to have single phase
with neutral return. Since the
 FIGURE 17.4 AC single-phase, 2-wire system.
maximum voltage is V between conductor and earth, the rms voltage between
the conductor and earth is V/Ö2, as

where R3 is the resistance of each conductor having cross-sectional area of a3

and I3 is the current in each conductor. If power transmission is the same as
dc 2-wire system with conductor return, we have

The ratio of area of conductors is

Since both the systems require the same number of conductors,

(e) Three-phase, 3-wire system: Figure 17.5 shows a 3-phase system

consisting of 3 wires. If the maximum voltage between the conductor and
earth is V, the rms voltage is V/Ö2. Thus the power transmitted is
 …

FIGURE 17.5 Three-phase, 3-wire system.

and line-to-line voltage is

If the power transmitted in this case is equal to the dc 2-wire system, then, we
have

For the same loss as compared to dc 2-wire system, we get

The ratio of cross-sectional area of conductors is

(f) Three-phase, 4-wire system: Figure 17.6 shows a 3-phase, 4-wire system.
In this case one extra line is increased as compared to 3-phase, 3-wire system.
Under balance condition there will be no current in the neutral wire. In
practice, the cross-section area of

FIGURE 17.6 Three-phase, 4-wire system.

neutral wire is generally kept half of the line wires. Therefore, the
comparison will be done in the same manner as done for ac 3-phase, 3-wire
system, i.e. the ratio of resistances for each wire of the dc 2-wire system and
that of this will remain the same as in Equation (17.21).

where R5 is the resistance of line conductors.

The ratio of cross-sectional area of conductors is

Since the required number of conductors in this case is 3 and a half,

17.3.2 Equal Maximum Potential Difference between any Two

Conductors
In the underground cables, the insulation requirement is based on the voltage
between conductors. Now comparison of required conductor volume is based
on the equal maximum potential different between any two conductors with
assumption that power transmitted and power loss are the same.
(a) DC 2-wire system: Figure 17.7 shows the dc 2-wire system with potential
difference V between two conductors.
 FIGURE 17.7 DC 2-wire system.
Then
Power transmitted = VI and Power loss = 2I2R
(b) DC 2-wire system mid-point earthed: Figure 17.8 shows the dc 2-wire
mid-point earthed system. If R1 is the resistance of each conductor having
cross-sectional area of a1, then

FIGURE 17.8 DC 2-wire system mid-point earthed.

Power transmitted P = VI1 and Power loss Pl = 2I12R1

Since power transmitted and power loss are the same, the volume of
conductor required in the dc 2-wire system and this system would be the
same.
(c) DC 3-wire system: Figure 17.9 shows the dc 3-wire system with a
common return path. This is a homopolar configuration. Then
P = VI2

FIGURE 17.9 DC 3-wire system.

If the current density is the same in all the cases, the area of return conductor
will be twice that of the outer conductors. Therefore, the resistance of return
conductor will be half that of the outer conductors. The loss in return
conductor is . Then

Since the power transfer in this system is the same as that of the dc 2-wire
system, the ratio of their currents is unity. For the same loss, using Equation
(17.25), we get

Therefore, the ratio of volume of conductors in this case and in dc 2-wire

system is

A similar analysis can be made for the bipolar operation of the dc system,
where return path current is zero under the balance condition and thus there is
no loss in return path. It is also assumed that the cross-section of return path
is half of the outer conductors. Thus

Thus the ratio of volume of conductors in this case and in dc 2-wire system
is:
(d) Single-phase 2-wire system: Figure 17.10 shows the ac single-phase, 2-
wire system with mid-point earthed. It is also possible to have single phase
with neutral return. Since the maximum voltage is V between conductors. The
rms voltage between the conductors will be V/Ö2.

FIGURE 17.10 AC single-phase, 2-wire system.

If power factor = cos z, then

Equating power transmitted in this case and the power transmitted through
the dc 2-wire system, we get

For the same losses in these two cases, we get

Substituting the value of current from Equation (17.28), we have

Since the number of conductor used is the same as in the dc 2-wire system,
the ratio of volume is
(e) Three-phase, 3-wire system: Figure 17.11 shows the 3-phase system
consisting of
3-wire. If the maximum voltage between the conductors is V, the rms voltage
will be V/Ö2. Thus the power transmitted is Ö3(V/Ö2)I4 cosz.

FIGURE 17.11 Three-phase, 3-wire system.

If power transmitted in this case is equal to the dc 2-wire system, we have

If R4 is the resistance of each conductor, the power loss is

The ratio of cross-sectional area of conductors is

Since required number of conductors in this case is 3, we get

(f) Three-phase, 4-wire system: Figure 17.12 shows the 3-phase, 4-wire
system. Only difference is one extra line as compared to the previous case.
Under balance condition, there is no current in the neutral wire. In practice,
the cross-section area is generally kept half of the line wires. Therefore, the
comparison will be done in the same manner as done in the ac 3-phase, 3-
wire system, i.e. the ratio of resistances for each wire of the dc 2-wire system
and that of this will remain the same.

where R5 is the resistance of line conductors.

FIGURE 17.12 Three-phase, 4-wire system.

The ratio of cross-sectional area of conductors is

Since required number of conductors in this case is 3 and a half, we have

It should be noted that if the neutral wire was having the same cross-section
area, then the Equation (17.32) would become 2/cos2z.
Summary of both the comparisons are given in Table 17.1.
Table 17.1 Comparison between the Two Systems
Volume of conductor required
Systems Equal maximum potential Equal maximum potential difference
difference between conductor between two conductors other than
and earth neutral
DC 2-wire 1 1
DC 2-wire (mid-
0.5 1
point earthed)
DC 3-wire
2.0 4.0
(homopolar)
DC 3-wire 0.625 1.25
(bipolar)
Single-phase, 2-
wire (mid-point 1/(2cos2z) 2/(cos2z)
earthed)
Three-phase, 3-
wire 1.5/(cos2z) 1.5/(cos2z)
Three-phase, 4-
wire 1.75/(cos2z) 1.75/(cos2z)

On the basis of comparison shown in Table 17.1, we conclude the following:

(a) The dc transmission is economical compared to the ac transmission.
Normally, we use ground as return, the monopolar, bipolar and
homopolar are the most suitable ones.
(b) For the distribution system, normally 3-phase, 3-wire system is the best,
which is preferred due to greater efficiency of polyphase generation and
convenience.
(c) Although, in the ac distribution, power factor is involved whereas its
voltage can be stepped up to down as per need through transformers.

17.4 CONDUCTOR SIZE

Choice of conductor size depends upon whether the line is a feeder or a
distributor. A feeder in a distribution network is a circuit carrying power from
a main substation to a secondary substation such that the current loading is
the same throughout its length. A distributor, on the other hand, has variable
loading along its length due to service connections, tapped off at several
positions. The voltage at consumer’s terminal must be maintained within
±5% for satisfactory operation of appliances. Therefore, in case of distributor,
the allowable voltage drop decides the cross-section of the conductor,
whereas cross-section of a feeder is decided on its current-carrying capacity.
For transmitting the power through feeder and to choose most economical
cross-section or current density, the annual financial loss is to be worked out.
The cross-section, which gives minimal annual financial loss, is to be
adopted. This is known as Kelvin’s law.

17.5 KELVIN’S LAW

Kelvin’s law gives the cross-section of a feeder conductor based on an
economic balance between capital cost and operating cost (running cost). The
annual capital cost includes interest and depreciation, cost of conductors,
insulators, supports and their erection, etc., if the feeder is carried on
overhead line. For underground cables, it consists of cost of conductors,
insulation and cost of laying the cable. For a particular voltage, the cost of
insulation is constant and does not change with the cross-sectional area. For
overhead lines, the cost of support and erection may be partly constant and
partly proportional to the cross-section. The cost of conductor is directly
proportional to the area of the cross-section of both the cables and overhead
lines. Thus the annual capital cost can be represented as (C1 + C2a), where
C1 and C2 are the constants and a is the cross-section of conductor.
The running cost of a feeder is the cost associated with the energy wasted in
the conductor and not the total input cost (fuel cost). The annual cost of
energy wasted in the conductor is due to its resistance, and due to dielectric
loss in the insulation and sheath loss in underground cables, which is very
small in low-voltage application compared to the loss in resistance. Since
ohmic loss is inversely proportional to the area of cross-section (because
resistance is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area), the annual
cost of energy wasted can be represented as C3/a, where C3 is a constant.
Thus the total annual cost (C) will be sum of the annual capital cost and the
cost of energy wasted per annum:

From Equation (17.33), for economical area of cross-section of the feeder, the
total annual cost must be minimum.
For minimum condition:

This shows that the variable part of annual capital charges must be equal to
the cost of annual losses due to energy wastage in conductor for the most
economical working. It is Kelvin’s Law. Figure 17.13 shows the cost
variation with respect to cross-section area of conductor.

FIGURE 17.13 Cost variation with respect to cross-section area of conductor.

From Figure 17.13, it can also be seen that the minimum of the curve C1 +
C2a + (C3/a) lies when C2a = C3/a. From Kelvin’s law, several factors have
not been considered but it is theoretically possible to apply this law. Main
limitations of this law is discussed now.
Limitations of Kelvin’s law

1. As annual charges depend partly on the area of cross-section and

partly it is constant, the total annual capital cost (C1 + C2a) is not
strictly true especially for underground cables.
2. The calculation of energy waste is difficult because load on the feeder
is not constant. The cost of generation depends, up to some extent, on
the load factor and load factors for losses may be difficult to
determine correctly especially in case of cables due to sheath loss.
Moreover, the losses like dielectric and hysteresis also occur with
high-voltage system and are dependent on load. Even if the load
factor is estimated with a fairly good degree of accuracy, it may not
suffice to calculate the unit of energy wasted. The load factor gives
the average current from maximum current but heating is proportional
to the rms current. Since
The quantity (load factor ´ form factor)2 is known as the loss load factor or
the load factor for the losses. There is also an empirical formula to
calculate the load loss factor (LLF) and is given by
Load loss factor (LLF) = 0.2(LF) + 0.8(LF)2 (17.35)
The loss load factor is also given by

where Im is the current for which a feeder is to be designed.

1. Kelvin’s law does not consider the physical aspect of problem such as
line resistance, voltage drop, temperature rise, mechanical strength,
etc.
2. The loss due to corona is not considered which may be very high for
small diameter of conductor, bad weather condition and high-voltage
operation.

Kelvin’s law is practically not true but useful in providing the rough idea
about the conductor’s cross-section. In case of cable, the deviation is
significant as explained above. After considering the temperature rise and
voltage drop, chances of acceptable result of Kelvin’s law for overhead lines
(not for underground cables) are up to 30 kV.
Example 17.1 The cost of a 3-phase overhead transmission line having the
cross-section area a cm2 is Rs (500 + 2000a) per kilometre. Calculate the
most economical current
density for the conductor if the rate of interest and depreciation is 12% per
annum and the
cost of energy wasted is 5 paise per kWh. The resistivity of the conductor
may be taken as 1.7 mW-cm. Take load factor of 12%.
Solution Maximum loss in the line = 3I2R, where I is the maximum current.
Since the load factor for losses (load-loss factor) = 12% = 0.12,
Annual average line-loss = 0.12 ´ 3I2R watt
Annual line-loss during the whole year = 0.12 ´ 3I2R ´ 8760 ´ 10–3 kWh

and
Variable part of the annual fixed cost of the conductor = 2000 ´ a ´ 0.12
= Rs 240a
Hence, from Kelvin’s Law

Example 17.2 For a 3-phase 110-kV transmission system, the daily load
cycle is given below:
(a) 30 MW for 5 hours at 0.8-p.f. lagging
(b) 15 MW for 10 hours at 0.9-p.f. lagging
(c) 8 MW for 9 hours at unity p.f.
If the cost of the line per km is Rs (3000 + 16000a), where a is the cross-
sectional area in cm2 and interest and depreciation cost on the capital cost is
10%, find the most economical cross-section area of the conductor. The cost
of energy is 50 paise per kWh and the resistance of the conductor is 0.17/a,
where a is in cm2.
Solution Load currents for different loads are:
…

and interest and depreciation on the capital, that is

Annual fixed cost = (3000 + 16000a) ´ 0.10 = Rs (300 + 1600a)
Therefore, from Kelvin’s Law

17.6 INFLUENCE OF VOLTAGE ON THE SIZE OF A

FEEDER AND A DISTRIBUTOR
The electric energy is supplied to consumers through a distribution system. A
distribution system can be subdivided into three distinct parts: feeders,
distributor and service mains. Feeders and distributors are explained in the
previous sections. The service mains are small conductors, which deliver
power to the consumer’s premises up to the metering point. Figure 17.14
shows the feeders, distributors and mains. SA and SB are the feeders, AB, BC,
CD and DA are the distributors, and power coming out of distributors is the
service mains.

Figure 17.14
To see the effect of voltage on the cross-section of the feeder and distributor,
let us assume that the system voltage is increased n times. Take power factor
at unity in the case of ac.
(a) Feeders: Since the feeders are designed based on the current density, it
is assumed to be the same for normal voltage and with increased voltage.
If power delivered is P at voltage V, the current I will be P/V. If the
voltage increases to n times, then
I¢ = P/(nV) = I/n. For the same current density, the cross-section can be
made
1/n times the original value.
(b) Distributor: Since the distributors are designed based on the voltage
drop, it is assumed to be the same for normal voltage and with increased
voltage. If I is
the current which causes a voltage drop v volts in it, its resistance R is v/I.
If the voltage is increased to n times its original value, then voltage drop
is nv. The current flowing in the second case is I/n, therefore, the drop =
IR¢/n = nv = nRI, where R¢ is the resistance in the second case. Therefore,
R¢ = n2R. Thus for the same percentage of the voltage drop, the cross-
section can be made 1/n2 times the original value.
17.7 RADIAL AND RING-MAIN DISTRIBUTORS
If a distributor is connected to the supply system from one end only, it is
called radial system of distribution. This is also true for the feeders i.e. if a
feeder is connected to the supply system from one end only that feeder is
called radial feeder. Figure 17.15(a) shows a radial distribution system. The
main drawbacks of this system are:

1. Distributor nearest to the substation is highly loaded.

2. Severe voltage variation to the consumers far away from the
substation due to load variations.
3. Consumers are dependent on a single feeder and a single distributor
and a fault on either of them causes interruption of supply to all the
consumers away from the fault.

The difficulties of a radial system can be overcome by using a ring-main

system. A ring main is the name given to a distributor or feeder, which is
arranged to form a closed loop. It may have one or more feeding points.
Figure 17.15(b) shows the ring-main distributing system.

FIGURE 17.15 Radial and ring-main distribution systems.

17.8 INTERCONNECTORS
Sometimes between the two points of a ring main, the potential difference
becomes very high which can be reduced by increasing the cross-section of
the feeder ring or by joining those points which have high potential
difference by an interconnector. Since increasing the cross-section requires
the replacement of older ring main and also more volume of conductor, inter-
connectors provide economy and are frequently used. Interconnected
distribution system and system with interconnectors are different. In the
interconnected distribution system, different feeding stations (more than one)
are connected by interconnected feeders. However interconnectors are used in
distributors to reduce the potential difference between any two points. Figure
17.16 shows the interconnected distribution system and interconnectors.
17.9 METHODS OF FEEDING DISTRIBUTORS
A distributor may be fed at one end or at both ends. If it is fed at both ends, it
may have either equal voltages or unequal voltages at both the ends. The
loads may be either
(a) concentrated loads or (b) uniformly distributed loads or (c) concentrated
and uniformly distributed loads. Concentrated loads are the loads which act at
a particular point, whereas distributed loads are those loads which act on all
points of a distributor. In practice, there are no ideally distributed loads but
densely concentrated loads can be treated as distributed loads for analysis
purpose. Since the voltage drop is the main criteria for designing the
distributors, the procedures for evaluating voltage drop at various points are
discussed in the following sections.

FIGURE 17.16 Interconnected distribution system.

17.9.1 DC Distributors with Concentrated Loads Fed at One End

Consider a dc distributor is fed from the one end (AA¢) only, as shown in
Figure 17.17(a). Three concentrated loads I1, I2 and I3 are connected at
points a, b and c at distance l1, l2
 FIGURE 17.17 DC distributor with concentrated loads.
and l3, respectively. Wire AB is go-conductor, whereas A¢B¢ is the return-
conductor. If the resistance per unit length of conductors is r¢, resistance of
sections Aa, ab and bc are
r¢1 = r¢l1, r¢2 = r¢(l2 – l1), r¢3 = r¢(l3 – l2)
Voltage-drop in sections is shown in Table 17.2.
Table 17.2 Voltage-drop in Sections
Voltage-
Sections
drop
r¢1(I1 + I2
Aa + I3) =
r¢1i1
r¢2(I2 + I3)
ab
= r¢2i2
bc r¢3I3 = r¢3i3
r¢1(I1 + I2
A¢a¢ + I3) =
 r¢1i1
r¢2(I2 + I3)
a¢b¢
= r¢2i2
b¢c¢ r¢3I3 = r¢3i3

where i1, i2 and i3 are the currents in sections Aa, ab and bc respectively.
Now, we get voltage at the load point bb¢
Vb = VAA¢ – VAb – VbA
= V – (i1r¢1 + i2r¢2 + i1r¢1 + i¢2r¢2)
= V – 2r¢1 i1 – 2r¢2 i2
= V – (i1r1 + i2r2)
= V – S ir (17.36)
where r (=2r¢) is the resistance per unit length of both go and return
conductors. In general, voltage at any point can be calculated by (V – S ir).
Figure 17.17(b) shows the current distribution at various points in the
distributor, whereas Figure 17.17(c) indicates the voltage-drops in various
sections of the distributor.
This analysis can also be done based on considering the single equivalent
conductor for return and go conductors. The equivalent representation is
shown in Figure 17.18.

FIGURE 17.18 Single conductor for go and return conductors.

17.9.2 DC Distributors with Concentrated Loads Fed from Both the

Ends
Ends maintained at equal voltages
Figure 17.19 shows a distributor with three concentrated loads which is fed
from both the ends with equal voltages. Only equivalent representation of
both return and go conductors is
 FIGURE 17.19
shown here. Let us assume that current I2 consists of current x from end A
and remaining current (I2 – x) flows from end B as shown in Figure 17.19.
Currents in each section can be represented in terms of load currents and x.
Potential at b calculated from both ends is the same. Therefore
VA – i1r1 – i2r2 = VB – i3r3 – i4r4
Since VA = VB, we have
i1r1 + i2r2 = i3r3 + i4r4
or
(I1 + x)r1 + xr2 = (I2 – x)r3 + r4(I2 + I3 – x)
Current in each section is also given in Figure 17.19. Simplifying above
equation, we get the value of x. Therefore, the value of current from both the
ends can be calculated as
IA = I1 + x and IB = I2 + I3 – x
It should be noted that the value of x might be negative. The minimum
potential point will have the currents from both the ends. In Figure 17.19, the
current at b is from both the ends and thus it is the minimum potential point.
Ends maintained at unequal voltages
When VA and VB are not equal but known, x can be determined with the
following
equation:
VA – i1r1 – i2r2 = VB – i3r3 – i4r4
or
 VA – (I1 + x)r1 + xr2 = VB – (I2 – x)r3 + r4(I2 + I3 – x)
17.9.3 DC Distributed Load Fed at One End
Figure 17.20 shows the uniformly distributed load of i amp/unit length. If r is
the resistance per unit length of loop of the distributor, the total current fed
from end A will be il ampere, where l is the length of loading. Let us consider
an element of length dx at distance x from

FIGURE 17.20 Uniformly distributed load.

end A. The tapped current in this element will be idx but it is not the current
carried by this section. The current carried by small section will be (l – x)i.
The resistance of the section will be r dx. Thus the voltage-drop at distance x
from A is i(l – x) r dx. Total drop over length x will be

Equation (17.37) represents a parabola. The voltage-drop is shown in Figure

17.20. Total drop over length l is

where I is the total current fed from end A and R is the total loop resistance of
the distributor. It is noted that total drop in the case of uniformly distributed
load fed at one end is equal to that produced by the total load assumed
concentrated at the middle point.
17.9.4 DC Distributed Load Fed from Both the Ends
Figure 17.21 represents the uniformly loaded distributor fed from both the
ends. If the voltage at both the ends is same, the minimum potential point is
at l/2. Therefore, the distributor could be imagined to have two equal lengths
of l/2 for the voltage-drop calculation. The current supplied from each end is
il/2 and voltage drop at mid-point of distributor is

Figure 17.21 illustrates the advantage of feeding the distributor at both the
ends as the drop is (1/4)th the drop when the distributor is fed from one end
only. The figure also shows the current distribution in the distributor and the
voltage-drop along the distributor.

FIGURE 17.21 Current distribution in the distributor and voltage-drop along the distributor.
In the concentrated load case, the power loss in distributors can be easily
calculated after knowing the currents in each section because the resistance of
each section is known.
Power loss in the case of distributed load fed from one end is calculated now.
Since the power flow in elemental dx is (l – x)i, whereas the loss in this
section is ((l – x)i)2 r dx,
The power loss in the distributor fed from both the ends can be calculated
firstly for half of the line and then can be doubled it. The current in any small
element in the half of the section is i[(l/2) – x]. Thus

This can also be concluded that in the case of feeding from both the ends (at
equal voltage), the loss is reduced by (1/4)th that of the fed from one end
only.
17.9.5 DC Ring Mains Distributor
In the ring main distribution, the supply is either fed from one point or from
more points but the distributors get the supply from both the ends. For the
calculation of voltage drop, the ring main distributors are decomposed into
the equivalent distributor fed from both the ends, as shown in Figure 17.22,
and the same analysis can be done as done in the earlier sections.

FIGURE 17.22 DC ring mains distributor decomposed into equivalent distributor.

17.9.6 DC Ring Main Distribution with Interconnector

Double ring distributors or ring distributor with interconnector is used to
reduce the voltage-drop between some points. The voltage-drop is calculated
using the Kirchhoff’s law, Thevenin equivalent, etc. Figure 17.23 shows the
ring main distributor with an inter-connector. In the figure, it is assumed that
the current in section AB is x and the interconnector is y. Thus the current in
each section can be calculated using Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL). Using
Kirchhoff’s voltage law, two equations can be obtained for two loops.
Therefore the unknowns x, y and the current fed from a source can be
calculated.

FIGURE 17.23

17.10 DC THREE-WIRE DISTRIBUTORS

Fed at one end
Figure 17.24 shows the dc 3-wire distributors with five loads. To calculate
the voltage drop and voltages at different points, currents in each section
must be calculated using KCL. Using KCL, currents in different sections are
shown in Table 17.3. In some sections it can be known by looking at the
network, such as in section BA and A¢D the current is I1, in section BD it is I2.

FIGURE 17.24 DC 3-wire distributors with five loads.

Table 17.3 Sections and the Currents Passing through Them
Section Current
BA
and I1
A¢D
CB I1 + I2
DE I1 + I4
I1 + I2 +
Ca
I3
I1 + I4 +
Eb
I5
(I2 + I3)
E¢P – (I4 +
I5)
I2 + I3 –
C¢E¢
I4
D¢C¢ I2 – I4
D¢B¢ I2

Knowing current in each section, we can easily calculate the voltage drop
because the resistance of each section is known. Thus the total loss can also
be evaluated. It should be noted that the current direction is very important
for the voltage-drop whether it is positive or negative.
Fed from both the ends
Figure 17.25 shows the dc 3-wire distributor fed from both the ends with
voltages V and V1 which may be equal or unequal. Such distributors are best
dealt with by first considering the positive outer alone, as shown in Figure
17.26(a) (as a 2-wire distributor) and finding the point of minimum potential
and current distribution and thereafter the negative outer is considered
separately, as shown in Figure 17.26(b). The current in various sections of
neutral wire are obtained using KCL. The voltage across various load points
can also be obtained in similar manner.

FIGURE 17.25 DC 3-wire distributor fed from both the ends.

 FIGURE 17.26 Two-wire distributor as in Figure 17.25.

Example 17.3 A distributor AB is fed from both the ends, as shown in Figure
17.27. The loop resistance of the distributor is 0.5 ohm/km. Calculate the
minimum voltage and its location, and currents in various sections if (a)
voltage at A and B are equal to 230 volt,
(b) voltage at point A is 230 volt and at B it is 234 volt.

FIGURE 17.27 Example 17.3.

Solution Let current from the end A is IA and from the end B it is IB. The
total current is
IA + IB = 30 + 50 + 20 = 100 A
Let the x amp current at load point D is fed from the end A and remaining
current
of load point D, (50 – x) is fed from end B. Currents in sections AC, CD, DE,
EB are
(30 + x), x, (50 – x) and (50 – x + 20) amp, respectively. The voltage at point
D can be written as

(a) If VA = VB = 230 volt, x = 18 A. The current at load D from the end B is

32
(=50 – 18) A. This shows that the current of load D is met from both the
ends and thus point D will be the minimum potential point. The potential
at D is
(b) If VA = 230 volt and VB = 234 volt, x = –14 A, this shows that the current
in section CD is 14 A from C to B. Load point C is the minimum
potential point because the load is met from both the end-currents. The
potential at C is

…
When VA = VB = 230 When VA = 230 volt and VB = 234
volt volts
Section Current Section Current
48 (from A to
AC AC 16 (from A to C)
C)
18 (from C to
CD CD 14 (from D to C)
D)
32 (from E to
DE DE 64 (from E to D)
D)
52 (from B to
EB EB 84 (from B to E)
E)

Example 17.4 If the resistance of a distributor (both return and go) is 0.005
ohm/m and the distributed load in section DE is 1 A/m, find the current
distribution and minimum voltage in the distributor, as shown in Figure
17.28, when (a) both the ends are at same potential and (b) potential
difference between the ends A and B is 4 volt.

FIGURE 17.28 Example 17.4.

Solution Total load = 20 + 40 + 1 ´ 50 + 40 = 150 A. Let I is the current
flowing from the end A. The current in sections AC, CD and EB are I, (I – 20)
and (I – 150), respectively. The current in section DE at any distance x from
D is (I – 60 – x). The voltage drop between A and B is
 (a) When both the ends are at equal potential, i.e. VA – VB = 0, we have I =
63.75 A and the current from the end B is 86.25 (=150 – 63.75) A.
Currents in sections AC, CD and EB are 63.75 A, 43.75 A and –86.25 A,
respectively. At point D, 3.75-A current is flowing into section DE. This
is completely taped in a length of 3.75 m because the current distribution
in section DE is 1 A/m. Hence the minimum point voltage is 3.75 m from
D toward E, i.e. 103.75 m from the end A.
(b) When the potential difference is 4 volt, i.e. VA – VB = 4, we have I =
67.75 A and the current from the end B is 82.25 (=150 – 67.75) A.
Currents in sections AC, CD and EB are 67.75 A, 47.75 A and –82.25 A,
respectively. At point D, 7.75-A current is flowing into section DE. This
is completely taped in a length of 7.75 m because the current distribution
in section DE is 1 A/m. Hence the minimum point voltage is 7.75 m from
D toward E, i.e. 107.75 m from the end A.
Example 17.5 A 2-wire dc ring main, having the loading at points C, D and
E, is fed at point B from a feeder AB, as shown in Figure 17.29. If the cross-
section area of the feeder is a cm2 and that of the distributor is b cm2, find
the values of a and b for minimum volume of copper in the system. Given
that the maximum drop from A does not to exceed 10 volt. The length of the
feeder AB is 500 m and the length of distributors BC, CD, DE and EB are
200, 150, 120 and 70 m, respectively. Take resistivity of copper = 1.7 mW-
cm.
 FIGURE 17.29 Example 17.5.
Solution For solving such problems, one current should be assumed in one
section of the distributor near to the feeding point. The total current which
flows from A to B is 300 A (=150 + 50 + 100). Let the current I flows in
section BE from B to E. Therefore, the currents in other sections ED, DC and
CB are (I – 100), (I – 150) and (I – 300), respectively. If r is the resistance per
unit length, the voltage equation using KVL in loop BEDCB can be written
as:
I ´ 70r + (I – 100) ´ 120r + (I – 150) ´ 150r + (I – 300) ´ 200r = 0
Solving this, we get I = 175 A.
Since the current at the point comes from both the sides, it will be the point of
minimum voltage. The maximum voltage drop should not exceed 10 volt
(given). The resistance of feeder AB (rF) (both go and return) will be

Similarly drop in distributor BC will be

Since VF + VBC = 10, VF = 10 – VBC. Then

For the minimum volume of the copper,

Solving this and ignoring the negative value, we get VBC = 2.985 volt.
Therefore,

Example 17.6 Find the percentage change in the volume of copper required
with and without interconnector AB for the same voltage drop between points
A and B of the distributor, as shown in Figure 17.30. Assume, all the
conductors have the same cross-section area and same resistivity. The length
of sections AC, CB, BD, DE, EA and AB are 100, 150, 100, 200, 50 and 200
m, respectively.
 FIGURE 17.30 Example 17.6.
Solution (a) When there is no interconnector: Let current x in the section AC
is flowing from A to C. Thus, the currents in other sections are:
SectionCurrent
x
CB –
30
x
BD –
40
x
DE –
55
x
EA –
75
If r is the resistance per unit length, using KVL in loop ACBDEA, we have
100 ´ xr + (x – 30) ´ 150r + (x – 40) ´ 100r + (x – 55) ´ 200r + (x – 75) ´ 50r
=0
Solving, we get, x = 38.75 A. This shows that the current in sections AC and
CB are respectively 38.75 and 8.75 A. Now, the voltage drop from A to B is

where a1 is the cross-section of distributors and t is the resistivity of

conductors.
(b) When there is an interconnector AB: Let current x flows from A to C and
current y from A to B. Currents in various section are:
SectionCurrent
AC x
AB y
x –
CB
30
x+
BD y –
40
x+
DE y –
55
x+
EA y –
75
Using KVL for loop ACBA, we have
100 ´ xr + (x – 30) ´ 150r – y ´ 200r = 0
or
2.5x – 2y = 45………………………………………… (2)
Using KVL for loop AEDBA, we have
(x + y – 40) ´ 100r + (x + y – 55) ´ 200r + (x + y – 75) ´ 50r + y ´ 200r = 0
or
3.5x + 5.5y = 187.5…………………………………………(3)
Solving equations (2) and (3), we get x = 30 A and y = 15 A. Now,

where a2 is the cross-section of all the sections when the interconnector is

present. For the same voltage drop between A and B, using equations (1) and
(4), we have the following relation
When there is no interconnector, the volume of copper
v1 = (100 + 150 + 100 + 200 + 50)a1 = 600a1
When the interconnector AB is present, the volume of copper
v2 = (100 + 150 + 100 + 200 + 50 + 200)a2 = 800a2
Therefore,

Therefore, the percentage change is 22.9% (saving).

Example 17.7 A 3-wire distributor is shown in Figure 17.31 having five
loads. If the supply voltage is 220 volt, find the voltage across load points.
The resistance of outers is
1 ohm/km and the neutral has 1/2 cross-sectional area of the outers. The
section lengths aC, CB, BA, B¢D¢, D¢C¢, C¢E¢, E¢P, A¢D, DE and Eb are
respectively 100, 100, 150, 50, 50, 50, 50, 200, 100, 50 m.

FIGURE 17.31 Example 17.7.

Solution Since the neutral cross-section area is half that of the outers, the
resistance will be double that of the outers, i.e. 2 ohm/km. The current
distribution in the section and the drops are:
Resistance Current Voltage-drop
 Section (ohm) (A) (volt)
BA 0.15 10 1.5
A¢D 0.20 10 2.0
CB 0.10 30 3.0
DE 0.10 30 3.0
aC 0.10 50 5.0
Eb 0.05 60 3.0
C¢E¢ 0.05 20 1.0
D¢C¢ 0.05 0 0.0
B¢D¢ 0.05 20 1.0
PE¢ 0.05 10 0.5
It should be noted that the direction of current is very important while
calculating the voltage drop. Therefore,

Example 17.8 A train is running from station A and is crossing another train
standing at
2 km from station B. The loading due to running train is 500 A, while at
standing it takes
50 A (Figure 17.32). What will be the position of running train for having
minimum potential at a point in the section having distance 10 km between
stations A and B, if both the ends are maintained at equal dc potentials?

FIGURE 17.32 Example 17.8.

Solution Let when moving train A is at point P (x km from station A), be the
minimum potential point. If the resistance of the section is r ohm/km, the
potential at point P is
VP = V – Irx = V + 2r(I – 550) + (8 – x)(I – 500)r
where V is the potential of both the stations, I is the current assumed to flow
from station A. The current that flows from station B is (I – 550).
Simplifying, we get

Hence x = 2.9 km.

17.11 AC DISTRIBUTION
In ac distribution, the effect of power factor of load and the reactance of line
are to be considered. The voltage drop is due to the combined effects of
resistance and reactance.
In Chapter 10, the calculation of voltage drop for transmission lines has been
discussed
for calculating the regulation. The main difference in voltage-drop calculation
in distribution system compared to transmission system neglects the
capacitive effect of line. In the case
of distributors, it is very less. One specialty in ac voltage-drop calculation is
to use
all impedances, currents and voltages in phasor rotation taking voltage (or
current) as reference and the same methods as were used in dc distribution
are applicable to ac distribution, too.
It should be noted that all the calculations are normally carried out on single-
phase basis and the power factors of the loads may either referred to supply
(or some other points such as receiving end) voltage or referred to the
respective load points.

17.12 AC DISTRIBUTOR WITH CONCENTRATED LOADS

Power factor with respect to receiving end
Consider a distributor with two loads I1 and I2 at power factors cosz1 and
cosz2 respectively, as shown in Figure 17.33. Taking voltage at point C (VC)
as reference, the phasor diagram is shown in Figure 17.34.

FIGURE 17.33 A distributor with two loads.

FIGURE 17.34 Phasor diagram.

If the resistance of section BC is R1 + jX1 and of section AB is (R2 + jX2), the
voltage drop in section BC will be (R1 + jX1) and in section AB it will be
(R2 + jX2), where
where and are complex voltage drops in sections BC and AB,
respectively.
Power factor with respective load points
If the power factors are with respective load point voltage, the power factor
angle z2 is with respect to voltage VB, whereas power factor angle z1 is with
respect to voltage at point C, i.e. receiving-end voltage. For calculating the
voltage drop, in this case, first the voltage at the respective load is to be
determined. Then the actual power factor angle with respect to the reference
point is determined to calculate the voltage at other points.
Example 17.9 Figure 17.35 shows a 1-phase line having resistance and
reactance (go and return) as 0.06 and 0.1 ohm/km. The lengths of section AB
and BC are 1.0 km each. The voltage at the farther end is 220 volt. Find the
voltage at the sending end and the phase angle difference between the
voltages of two ends (load angle), if
(a) power factors of the loads are with reference to farther-end voltage
(b) power factors of the loads are with reference to the voltages at the load
points.

FIGURE 17.35 Example 17.9.

Solution (a) Taking voltage at the receiving end as reference: The current at
points B
and C are:
= 100 (0.8 + j0.6) A and = 100(1.0 + j0.0) A
Resistance of section BC and AB are
= (0.06 + j0.10) ohm and = (0.06 + j0.10) ohm
Then
Drop in section BC = ICZBC = 100 ´ (0.06 + j0.10) = (6 + j10) volt
The potential at point B is
= 220 + (6 + j10) = 226 + j10 = 226.22Ð2.53° volt (i)
Current in section AB = IB + IC = (180.0 + j60.0) A
and
Voltage drop in section AB = (IB + IC) ZAB
= (180 + j60) ´ (0.06 + j0.10)
= 4.8 + j21.6
Therefore, voltage at point A is
= + 4.8 + j21.6
= (226 + j10) + (4.8 + j21.6)
= 230.8 + j31.6
= 232.95Ð7.80° volt
Thus the voltage at the sending-end 232.95 volt and the angle difference is
7.80° with receiving-end voltage.
(b) When the power factors are with respect to respective load point
voltages: Taking the receiving-end voltage as reference in this case, too, the
voltage at point B is the same as equation (i), we have
= 220 + (6 + j10) = 226 + j10 = 226.22Ð2.53°
Power factor angle of the load at point B is cos–1(0.8) = 36.87° (lead) with
respect to the voltage VB. Thus the power factor angle with reference to
common reference VC is –36.87
– 2.53 = 39.40°. Therefore,
= 100 [cos (39.40) + j sin (39.40)] = 100 (0.773 + j0.635)
and
Current in section AB = + = 177.3 + j63.5 A
Therefore,
Voltage drop in section AB = (IB + IC) ZAB
= (177.3 + j63.5) ´ (0.06 + j0.10)
= (4.284 + j21.54) volt
Now, voltage at point A is
 = VB + 4.284 + j21.54
= (226 + j10) + (4.284 + j21.54)
= 230.284 + j31.54
= 232.43Ð7.80°
Thus the voltage at the sending end will be 232.43 volt and the angle
difference is 7.80° with the receiving-end voltage.

17.13 THREE-PHASE, FOUR-WIRE DISTRIBUTION

SYSTEM
Some loads are single phased and some are 3-phased. AC distribution system
normally is a
3-phase, 4-wire system. Fourth wire is used as the return conductor for all the
three phases, which is connected to the star point of the load and neutral of
the supply system. The current through it is zero under balance condition but
practically it is not possible however utilities try to balance the load on each
phase. Moreover, it is necessary to balance the loads otherwise it will result
in unbalance voltages which is dangerous to the induction motors.
Three-phase, 4-wire system can be analyzed based on the single-phase. The
neutral current is the phasor sum of all the phase currents. The potential e of
the load star point can be obtained using Miliman’s theorem as,

17.14 SUB-MAINS
Figure 17.36 shows a sub-mains arrangement. Service mains are conductors
between a distributor and the metering point of the consumers’ premises.
There are possibilities of several connections of consumers from one service
mains; it is called sub-mains. The diameter of conductors of sub-mains is
more than the normal service mains.
 FIGURE 17.36 Sub-mains.

17.15 STEPPED AND TAPERED MAINS

When a series of loads are tapped off from the mains, it is obvious that the
current along the length will vary, as shown in Figure 17.37(a). If the area of
cross-section is same throughout a distributor in view of its current carrying
capacity, much copper will be required. It is seen that the cross-section area
should not be according to the fixed current density but criterion is a fixed
voltage drop. Let us consider a distributor, as shown in Figure 17.37(b) with
two loads I1 and I2 tapped off at points A and B respectively. Let the lengths
and cross-section area be l1, a1 for FA and l2, a2 for AB. Then

FIGURE 17.37 Stepped and tapered mains.

or

where vt is the total drop, which should be fixed. Thus

Practically, it is economically not possible to manufacture conductors of

varying cross-section. However, more joints are involved if conductors of
different cross-section are used. But it is technically desirable to have
minimum joints. The most important objection of this method is that future
additions to the system may completely alter the distribution of current in
sections, and sometimes it may be useless to use stepped conductors.

PROBLEMS
17.1 One train is running from station A and is crossing another train standing
at 3 km from station B. The loading due to the running train is 600 A,
while at standing it is 50 A. What will be the position of the running train
for having minimum potential at a point in the section having distance 8
km between stations A and B, if both the ends are maintained at equal dc
potentials?
17.2 An electric train taking a constant current of 500 A moves on a section
 of line between two substations 10-km apart and maintained at 600 and
590 volt, dc respectively. The track resistance is 0.05 ohm/km both go and
return. Find the point of minimum potential along the track and current
supplied by two substations at that instant.
17.3 In a 2-core dc distributor cable 400-m long supplies there are
concentrated loads of 120, 80, 50 and 120 A at 50, 150, 200 and 300 m,
respectively from the end A. Determine the position of the lowest voltage
when the cable is fed at 250 volt from both the ends.
17.4 In a dc 3-wire network, as shown in Figure 17.38, calculate (i) the
potential difference between D and D¢ (ii) the power dissipated in the
conductor and (iii) the total power supplied to the loads. The conductor
resistances of sections aC, CB, BA, PE¢, E¢C¢, C¢D¢, D¢B¢, bE, ED, are 0.2, 0.4,
0.6, 0.4, 0.4, 0.4, 0.6, 0.4 and 0.5 ohm, respectively. Take supply voltage =
250 V.

FIGURE 17.38 Problem 17.4.

17.5 In a dc network, as shown in Fig. 17.39, power fed at point A which is
kept at
240 volt and loads of 50 A, each are tapped at points B, C and D.
Resistances marked are for both go and return. Find the voltages at various
load points.

FIGURE 17.39 Problem 17.5.

17.6 A 1-phase distributor has a total resistance of 0.2 ohm and a reactance of
0.3 ohm. At the mid-point A, a current of 100 A at 0.8-p.f. leading and at
the far-end B, a current of 100 A at 0.8-p.f. lagging is tapped. If the voltage
 at the midpoint is 200 volt find the voltage at the supply-end and also its
phase angle with respect to voltage at the far-end when (i) the power
factors are with respect to respective voltages at the load points (ii) the
power factors are with respect to voltages at the midpoint.
17.7 Compare the ratio of weights of copper with and without interconnector
CE for
the same voltage drop between the points A and D of the network, as
shown in
Figure 17.40. The length of sections AB, BC, CD, DE and AE are 100, 150,
200, 250 and 200 m, respectively. The length of the interconnector is 350
m. All conductors have common cross-section in both the cases.

FIGURE 17.40 Problem 17.7.

17.8 Compare the conductor weight in a cable distribution system for a low-
voltage network with (i) dc 3-wire system and (ii) ac 3-phase, 4-wire
system. Neglect losses in the middle conductors (which are half the cross-
section of respective outers) and assume the same voltage (to neutral) at
the consumer’s terminals, same percentage loss, unity power factor and
balance loads in both the cases.
17.9 A 3-phase distribution system is shown in Figure 17.41. Power is
supplied at A at a line voltage of 11 kV and balanced loads of 25 A per
phase at 0.8-p.f. lagging and
35 A per phase at 0.9-p.f. lagging are taken at B and C. The impedances of
the feeders are: ZAB = 5 + j9 ohm, ZBC = 6 + j10 ohm and ZCA = 4 + j8
ohm. Calculate the voltages at B, C and D and the current in each branch.
Load at mid-point D of section BC is 10 A at unity p.f. Power factors are
assumed with respect to voltage at A.
FIGURE 17.41 Problem 17.9.
 18
Power Substations
18.1 INTRODUCTION
Normally large power-generating stations are built far away from load
centres. There are a number of transformations and switching stations built
between generating stations and the ultimate consumers. These are generally
known as substations. A typical substation may include the following
equipments: transformers, circuit breakers, disconnecting switches, station
buses and insulators, reactors, capacitors, current and potential transformers,
grounding system, lightning arrestors and spark gaps, wave traps, protective
relays, station batteries, etc.

18.2 TYPES OF SUBSTATIONS

A substation or switching station functions as a connection and switching
points for transmission lines, subtransmission feeders, generating units, and
transformers. Depending upon the purpose, the substations may be classified
into five categories:

1. Generating substations or step-up substations: Normally the

generating voltages are limited and need to be stepped up to the
transmission voltage so that large amount of power can be transmitted
economically over long. Each generating unit is connected to
generating transformers to increase the secondary voltage up to
transmission voltage levels.
2. Grid substations: These substations are located in the intermediate
points between the generating stations and load centres. The main
purposes of these substations are to provide connections of low-
voltage lines, some compensating devices, etc.
3. Secondary substations: These substations are connected with the main
grid substation with the help of secondary transmission lines. The
voltage at these substations is stepped down to the subtransmission
voltage (primary distribution voltage). Some large power consumers
 are also connected to these substations.
4. Distribution substations: These are made where the subtransmission
voltage (primary distribution voltage) is to be stepped down to the
supply voltage. These substations feed power to the actual consumers
through distributors and service lines.
5. Special purpose substations: Some special substation for bulk power
and some industrial loads are set up. Traction substations and mining
substations are the examples of these. Special design considerations
are required in these substations such as load distribution in phases in
traction substation and safety precautions in the mining substations.
Some mobile substations are also used for construction purposes,
which are temporary as mobile.

Depending upon the physical features, the substations can also be of four
types:

1. Outdoor type: Normally outdoor substations are used for 33-kV

voltage and above for cost and safety reasons. The air clearances
required are large. All equipments lie open in the air however control
and monitoring is performed inside the control rooms.
2. Indoor type: The equipments of these substations lie in a room. The
operating voltages are normally 400 V and 11 kV. These substations
are located in big cities.
3. Pole mounted or open or kiosk type: As its name, these substations
are mounted on the poles. These substations are very simple and
cheap as no building for housing the equipments are required.
However, these substations are of low capacity usually having up to
500-kVA transformer.
4. Underground type: These are used when the space is not available.
Whole substation is made underground. The size of the substation can
be high or low depending upon the capacity.

In a substation, there may be several transformers and several incoming and

outgoing lines. The highest voltage rating of transformer and transmission
lines are the rating of a substation. If a substation is of 220 kV, it means there
is a transformer of high-voltage side of 220 kV or a line of 220 kV or both.
The substation design aims to achieve a high degree of continuity, maximum
reliability and flexibility, to meet these objectives with the highest possible
economy.
18.3 BUS-BAR ARRANGEMENTS
Substation bus-bars are the most important part of the substation structure
since they carry high amount of energy in a confined space and their failure
would have very drastic repercussions on the power supply continuity.
Therefore the bus system must be built to be electrically flexible and reliable
enough to give continuous service. It must have adequate capacity to carry all
loads and robust construction to withstand foreseeable abnormal electro-
mechanical forces.
Bus-bars may be either of rigid or of strain type. Low voltage and medium
voltage bus bars are usually of the rigid bus type using copper or aluminium
bars or tubing as the phase conductors with pedestal type insulator supports.
Higher voltage bus-bars use strain type that is an overhead system of stranded
aluminium (ACSR) or copper conductors strung between supporting
structures and supported by strain insulators. This arrangement is more
economical than the rigid type arrangement. Substations of the EHV class
(voltage levels of 345 kV, 400 kV, 500 kV, 765 kV) and UHV class (voltage
levels of 1100 kV, 1500 kV) are usually of strain bus design. The advantages
of rigid type bus compared to strain type bus design are presented as follows:

The rigid bus design employs less steel and simple low-level
structures.
The rigid conductors are not under constant strain.
The pedestal type bus supports are usually easier in maintenance and
cleaning.
The rigid bus has low profiles, which provides good visibility of the
conductors and apparatus.
Due to larger diameter of pipes, corona loss is extremely less.

The disadvantages of rigid bus bars are:

It is comparatively expensive due to higher cost of tubing and the

connections.
It usually needs more supports and insulators.
It is more sensitive to structural deflections which may lead to
 possible damage.
It requires usually more ground space than strain type.

Combination of rigid and strain bus constructions are sometimes used in

conventional arrangements, up to 765 kV, to benefit from both types. The
comparisons of materials used in bus-bars at different voltages are given in
Table 18.1.
Table 18.1 Bus-bar Materials
Voltage levels Rigid type (aluminium pipe diameters Strain type overhead
(in kV) in mm) wires
33 40 –
66 65 37/2.79 mm ACSR
132 80 37/4.27 mm ACSR
220 80 61/3.99 mm ACSR
61/4.27 mm ACSR
400 100
duplex

18.4 SUBSTATION BUS SCHEMES

The choice of the bus schemes or arrangements depends on the relative
importance assigned to such items as safety, reliability, voltage level,
simplicity of relaying, flexibility of operation, least cost, ease of maintenance,
available ground area, location of connecting lines, ease of rearrangement,
and provision of expansion.
18.4.1 Single Bus Scheme
Figure 18.1 shows a typical single bus scheme. It is commonly used scheme
for a voltage of 33 kV or lower and has a simple design. It is used in small
outdoor substations having relatively a few outgoing or incoming feeders and
lines. The main advantage of single bus scheme is its low cost. However, it
has several disadvantages, such as:
 FIGURE 18.1 Single bus scheme.
(a) Dependence on a single bus can cause a serious outage in the event of
bus failure.
(b) Difficult to do any maintenance.
(c) Bus cannot be extended without completely de-energizing the
substation.
(d) It can be used only where loads can be interrupted or other supply
arrangements.
With single bus arrangement there are a lot of arrangements possible. If it is a
terminating substation, the arrangement can be seen in Figure 18.2.

FIGURE 18.2 Terminal station scheme.

In single bus-bar with bus sectionalizer scheme, the bus bar is normally
divided in two sections with help of a breaker and isolators as shown in
Figure 18.3. The incoming or outgoing circuits are distributed evenly on the
sections. When double feed is provided to any single load, it is preferred to
have one circuit from each section where each section behaves as a separate
bus bar. Differential protection can be used for tripping the faulty section.
 FIGURE 18.3 Single bus scheme with bus sectionalizer.

18.4.2 Double Bus with Double Breaker

This scheme, as shown in Figure 18.4, is useful for most of the purposes
where the loads and continuity of supply justify additional costs. The main
advantages of this scheme are:

FIGURE 18.4 Double bus double breaker scheme.

(a) Each circuit has two dedicated breakers.
(b) It has flexibility in permitting feeder circuits to be connected to either
bus.
(c) Any breaker can be taken out for maintenance.
(d) It is more reliable than single bus scheme.
The main drawbacks of this scheme are that it is most expensive, and it may
lose half the circuits for breaker failure if circuits are not connected to both
buses.
18.4.3 Double Bus with Single Breaker
This scheme uses two main buses and connected with two disconnecting
switches, as shown in Figure 18.5. In this scheme, a bus tie-circuit breaker
(also called bus coupler) is used as it enables a load change over from one
bus to another. The main advantages of this scheme are:

FIGURE 18.5 Double bus single breaker scheme.

(a) It permits some flexibility with two operating buses.
(b) Either bus 1 or bus 2 may be isolated for maintenance.
(c) Circuit can be transferred readily by use of bus-tie breaker and the
isolators.
However main drawbacks of this scheme are:
(a) One extra breaker is required.
(b) Four isolators are required per circuit.
(c) Bus protection may cause loss of substation when it operates if all
circuits are connected to that bus.
(d) High exposure to bus fault.
(e) Bus-tie breaker fault takes entire substation out of service.
(e) It does not permit breaker maintenance without causing stoppage of
supply.
18.4.4 Main and Transfer Bus
The main and transfer bus, as shown in Figure 18.6, is used for mostly in
distribution substations. The transfer bus is a standby for emergency use. In
this scheme several circuit breakers are saved, however one extra breaker is
provided to tie the main and transfer bus together when the need arises. The
main advantages of this scheme are its low initial and ultimate cost. Any
breaker can be taken out of service for maintenance and potential devices
may be used on the main bus for relaying. The main drawbacks of this
scheme are: switching is somewhat complicated when maintaining a breaker,
failure of a bus or any circuit breaker results in shut down of entire
substation, and requires an extra breaker.

FIGURE 18.6 Main and transfer bus.

18.4.5 Ring Bus

This scheme is also known as mesh scheme. Figure 18.7 shows a ring bus
scheme. It requires only one circuit breaker per circuit. Moreover, each
outgoing circuit has two sources of supply. The main advantages of this
scheme are:
(a) low initial cost,
(b) flexible operation for breaker maintenance,
(c) any breaker can be taken out for maintenance without interrupting load,
(d) it requires only one breaker per circuit,
(e) it does not use main bus,
(f) each circuit is fed by two breakers,
(g) all switching is done through breakers.
 FIGURE 18.7 Ring bus or mesh scheme.
The main disadvantages are:
(a) If fault occurs during a breaker maintenance period, the ring will be
divided into two sections.
(b) Automatic reclosing and protective relaying circuitry is complex.
(c) It requires potential devices on all the circuits since there is no definite
potential reference point. These devices may be required in all the cases
for synchronizing, live line or voltage indication.
(d) Breaker failure during a fault on one of the circuit causes loss of one
additional circuit owing to operation of breaker failure relay.
18.4.6 Breaker-and-a-Half with Two Main Buses
Breaker-and-a-half scheme is an improvement of double-bus double-breaker
scheme to save the cost of breakers. In this scheme, three breakers are used in
series between the main buses, as shown in Figure 18.8. Under normal
operating condition, all breakers are closed and the main buses are energized.
To trip a circuit, two associated circuit breakers must be opened. The main
drawback of this scheme is its complicated protection since it must be
associated with the central breaker with the feeder whose breaker is taken out
for maintenance. The advantages of this scheme are:
(a) Most flexible operation
(b) High reliability
(c) Breaker failure of bus side breakers removes only one circuit from
service
(d) All switching is done with breakers
(e) Simple operation and no disconnect switching required for normal
operation
(f) Either main bus can be taken out of service with supply interruption
(g) Bus failure does not remove any feeder circuit from service.
 FIGURE 18.8 Breaker-and-a-half scheme.

18.4.7 Double Bus-bar with Bypass Isolators

This is a scheme similar to main and transfer bus, where transfer bus is also a
main bus. The transfer from bus 1 to bus 2 is done through the isolators. With
this scheme as shown in Figure 18.9 any bus can act as main bus and second
bus as transfer bus. The main advantage of this scheme is that any breaker
can be taken out of service without interrupting the supply of any feeder. This
scheme is very simple and economical.

FIGURE 18.9 Double bus with bypass isolators.

18.5 SUBSTATION LOCATION

Location of distribution substation depends on the several technical factors
such as voltage levels, voltage regulation considerations, subtransmission
costs, substation costs, and the cost of primary feeders, mains and distribution
transformers. Some non-technical factors such as availability of land, public
safeties, etc., are also important. The most economical position of the
substation is at the centre of gravity of the loads to be supplied. As far as the
industrial and commercial substations are concerned, they are normally
located near to or within the premises of the consumer.
To select an ideal location for a distribution substation, following rules
should be observed:
1. Locate the substation as much as close to the load centre of its service area
so that the sum of the load times distance of the substation is minimum.
2. Locate the substation such that proper voltage regulation can be obtained
without taking extensive measures.
3. Select the substation location such that it provides proper access for
incoming subtransmission lines and outgoing primary feeders and also
capable to handle the future expansion.
4. Selected location should be in accordance with the electricity rule and land
use regulation.
5. The selected substation should help minimize the number of customers
affected by any service discontinuity.

18.6 SUBSTATION EQUIPMENTS

A substation has several equipments: transformers, circuit breakers,
disconnecting switches and fuses, station buses and insulators, reactors,
capacitors, current and potential transformers, grounding system, lightning
arrestors and gaps, line traps, protective relays, station batteries, etc. The
main substation equipments are briefly discussed below:
18.6.1 Circuit Breaker
Circuit breaker (CB), which normally gets signal from protective relays to
operate, is an automatic switch which can interrupt the fault current. For a
single-phase operation, such as traction etc., ‘single pole’ circuit breakers are
used. The part of circuit breaker connected to one phase is called the pole.
Three-pole circuit breaker is used for a 3-phase operation. Each pole of the
circuit breaker consists of one or more interrupter or arc extinguishing
chambers. An interrupter, which encloses a set of fixed and moving contacts,
is mounted on the insulators. Arc is produced due to separation of contacts
and is interrupted by a suitable medium and by suitable techniques for arc
extinction.
The circuit breakers can be classified on the basis of rated voltages such as
low-voltage CB (up to 1 kV) and high-voltage CB (more than 1 kV). Based
on the medium of arc extinction, the circuit breakers are classified as follows:
(a) Air breaks circuit breaker (used up to 12 kV) and miniature circuit breaker
(up to 600 V) where air at atmospheric pressure is used.
(b) Oil circuit breaker (bulk oil or tank type)(used for 3.6 kV to 12 kV),
where dielectric oil is used.
(c) Minimum oil circuit breaker (for 3.6–245 kV), where dielectric oil is
used.
(d) Air blast circuit breaker (for 245–1100 kV), where compressed air is
used.
(e) SF6 circuit breaker (for 36–420 kV), where SF6 gas is used.
(f) Vacuum circuit breaker (up to 36 kV), where vacuum is used.
Based on the mode of arc extinction, circuit breakers can be classified as
high-resistance interruption or low-resistance (or zero point) interruption. The
circuit breakers are decided based on the voltage and fault current of the
place where it should be installed. The voltage rating of CB is normally from
1.05 to 1.10 times more than normal operating voltage. For example, the
rating of CB for 400 kV line would be 420 kV.
Most of the EHV circuit breakers are provided with auto reclosure. It has
been verified that 90% faults (arcing faults) are transient in nature and the
arcs in the fault can be extinguished by de-energizing the line by
simultaneous opening of circuit breakers of either both the ends or single end
of the line. Since transient faults disappear after a short duration, the circuit
breaker can be closed and continuity of supply can be restored. Normally,
only one reclosing attempts are allowed. If fault persists, the circuit breaker
will be in open position.
18.6.2 Isolators and Fuses
An isolator (disconnecting switch) operates under no-load condition and does
not have any current breaking and making capacity and used for
disconnecting the circuit breaker from live part of the maintenance. Isolators
are used in addition to circuit breakers which can make and break circuit
under normal- and short-circuit conditions. The position of isolators is shown
in Figure 18.10. For opening a circuit, the circuit breaker is opened first and
then isolator is operated. In addition to isolators and circuit breakers, another
device called load break switch (or load interrupting switch) combines the
functions of an isolator and switch. These are used for breaking the load
current.

FIGURE 18.10 Isolator positions.

A fuse is the simplest current-interrupting device for protection of excessive
currents due to overload or fault. They are normally used up to 600-V
installations. High rupturing capacity cartridge (HRC) fuses are more reliable
and give better discrimination and accurate characteristics. Sometimes these
are superior to the circuit breakers.
18.6.3 Lightning Arrester
It is also known as surge arrestor which is normally connected between
phase and ground at the substation, as shown in Figure 18.10, to protect the
substation equipments from lightning and switching surges. Surge arrestors
offer low resistance to the high voltage surge for diverting to the ground.
After discharging the surge energy to ground, it blocks the normal current
flowing to ground by offering a high-resistance path.
18.6.4 Reactors and Capacitors
To limit the line charging current, long-distance EHV lines are connected
with line reactors at both the ends. These reactors are permanently connected
to the line. Besides these, there are bus reactors and tertiary reactors which
are connected with switches. These are used during light-loading conditions
and at the line charging. Bus reactors are connected at the substation bus
whereas tertiary reactors are connected in the tertiary winding of the
transformers. By using these reactors the Ferranti effect is reduced.
Capacitors are normally connected in low-voltage systems. During the peak-
load conditions, the system voltage falls and therefore capacitive reactive
power is required. In EHV system, it is preferable to use the static VAr
system because it takes care of reactive power which can supply both leading
and lagging reactive powers. In distribution system or in sub-transmission
system, capacitors are connected to improve the power factor of the system.
18.6.5 Current and Potential Transformers
Current transformers (CTs) and potential transformers (PTs) are very
common in the substation. They are used for either measuring purpose or for
giving the input to the relays. The connection of CT and PT is shown in
Figure 18.10.
18.6.6 Grounding
A proper grounding is must for safe and reliable operation of the substation.
All the power systems operate with grounded neutral due to several
advantages. The neutral earthing is one of the most important features in
substation design. It is discussed in next chapter.
Apart from those mentioned above, other equipments in the substation are
substation transformers, substation batteries which provide the dc power to
all the control equipments, protective relays, wave traps, measuring
equipments, etc.
 19
Grounding Systems
19.1 INTRODUCTION
Due to defective electrical apparatus and some other reasons, electricity
causes electric-shock hazards for human being and animals. Therefore, it is
common practice to connect the electric supply system to the ground at
suitable points. Grounding is of major concern to increase the reliability of
supply service, as it provides stability of voltage conditions, prevents
excessive voltage peaks during the disturbances. Grounding is also a measure
of protection against lightning. It is to be noted that the terms ‘ground’ and
‘earth’ cannot be used interchangeably. The proper reference ground may
sometimes be the earth itself, but most often, with small apparatus, it is its
metallic frame or grounding conductor.

19.2 RESISTANCE OF GROUNDING SYSTEMS

The ground resistance of an electrode system is the resistance between the
electrode system and another infinitely large electrode in the ground at
infinite spacing. The soil resistivity, which is an electro-physical property, is
the deterministic factor in evaluating the ground resistance. The resistivity of
soil depends on the type of soil, its moisture content and dissolved salts.
There are effects of grain size and its distribution and effect of temperature
and pressure. It is not possible to get the homogeneous soil and therefore an
apparent resistivity is defined for an equivalent homogeneous soil. Moisture
content of the soil, which varies with seasons, reduces its resistivity.
Therefore, the grounding system should be installed nearest to the permanent
water level, if possible, to minimize the effect of season variation on the soil
resistivity.
The soil resistivity increases as the temperature decreases with a discontinuity
at the freezing point. It also depends on the amount of salt dissolved in its
moisture which reduces the resistivity remarkably. Different salts have
different effects on the soil resistivity. Distribution of grain size has an effect
on the manner in which the moisture is held. The finer the graining, the lower
will be the resistivity. High pressure results in lower value of resistivity.
19.2.1 Resistance of Driven Rods
One of the simplest and cheapest forms of electrodes is the driven rod. Its
ground resistance (R) could be calculated if its space is approximated to that
of an ellipsoid of revolution having a major axis equal to twice the rod’s
length (l) and a minor axis equal to its diameter d; then

where t is the earth resistivity. For the cylindrical rod with hemisphere end,
the equation for R becomes

If the rod is assumed carrying current uniformly along its length, we have

The resistance of a single rod is in general not sufficiently low and therefore
it is required to use a number of rods connected in parallel. The distance
between the rods should be as large as possible to minimize the overlap
among their areas of influence. In practice, it is very difficult. One of the
approximate methods is to replace a rod by a hemispheric electrode having
the same resistance. The resistance of n rods in parallel is thus found to
exceed (1/n) of that of a single rod because of their mutual screening. The
screening coefficient h for n electrodes in parallel is defined as

19.2.2 Resistance of Grounding Point Electrode

The simplest possible electrode is a hemisphere, as shown in Figure 19.1. The
ground resistance can be calculated as considering an infinite number of thin
hemispherical shells of soil. Consider each shell with radius x and thickness
dx, the total resistance up to a large radius r1 is
 FIGURE 19.1 A hemisphere electrode.
As r1 = ¥, Equation (19.5) becomes

where c is the electrostatic capacitance of the electrode combined with its

image above the earth’s surface. This relation is applicable to any shape of
electrode.
19.2.3 Grounding Grids
In high-voltage substations, a common method for obtaining a low-ground
resistance is to use interconnected ground grids. A typical grid system is
comprised of bare solid copper conductors buried at a depth of 30–60 cm,
spaced in a grid pattern. At each junction, the conductors are securely bonded
together. The size of grid conductors required to avoid fusing under the fault
current I is estimated as

where a is copper cross-section (circular mils), t is the fault duration

(seconds), Tm is the maximum allowable temperature and Ta is the ambient
temperature.
A grid not only effectively grounds the equipment but also has the added
advantage of controlling the voltage gradient at the surface of the earth to the
values safe for human contacts. Ground rods may be connected to the grid for
further reduction in the ground resistance when upper layer of soil resistivity
is higher than the soil underneath.
Resistance to ground and mesh voltages of grounding grids
The resistance to ground determines the maximum potential rise of the
grounding system during a ground fault. The following equation for grid
resistance can be used:

where L is the total length of all conductors, A the total area of the grid, d the
grid conductor diameter, and K1 and K2 are the factors presented
geographically as functions of length-to-width ratio of the area.
Mesh voltage represents the maximum touch voltage to which a person can
be exposed at the substation. It is the potential difference between grid
conductor and a point at the ground surface above the centre of grid mesh.
The mesh voltages of ground-grounding grids can be calculated as

where I is the current flowing into the ground and Km is a coefficient that
takes into account the effect of n number of grid conductors and their spacing
S, diameter d and depth of burial h which is defined as,

Ki is an irregularity correction factor, to allow for ground non-uniformity

current flow from different part of grid and can be calculated as
Ki = 0.65 + 0.172n (19.12)
Conductor length required for gradient control
The step voltage Estep can be calculated as

where Ks is a coefficient that takes account of the effect of number, spacing S

and depth of burial h of conductors and calculated as
The tolerable step voltage with duration t, Estep, which is the voltage
between any two points on the ground surface that can be touched
simultaneously by the feet, is

where ts is the resistivity of ground beneath the feet, in ohm-metre, taking its
surface treatment into account.
The tolerable touch voltage, Etouch, which is the voltage between any point
on the ground, where a person may stand and any point that can be touched
simultaneously by either hand, is

The graphical representation of step, touch and transferred voltages are given
in Figure 19.2.

FIGURE 19.2 Step, touch and transferred voltages.

19.3 DESIGN PRINCIPLES OF SUBSTATION GROUNDING

SYSTEM
The grounding of a substation is very important as it provides the ground
connection for the system neutral, the discharge path for surge arrestors and
ensures safety to operating personnels. It also provides low-resistance path to
ground to minimize the rise in ground potential which depends on the fault
current magnitude and grounding system resistance. It is very difficult to
achieve low-resistance substation ground in deserts and rocky areas. The
grids are the most convenient means of obtaining a suitable ground
connection. Sometimes ground rods are also used to further reduce the
resistance. The size of grid and number and length of driven rods depend on
the substation size, nature of soil and the ground resistance required.
The grid system usually extends over the entire substation yard and
sometimes several metres beyond. The grounding conductors should have
low impedance and carry prospective fault current without fusing or getting
damaged, taking account of future expansion of connected power system.

19.4 NEUTRAL GROUNDING

In the design of power system, the grounding of generators, transformers and
transmission schemes is very important as it has a considerable bearing on
the levels of transient and dynamic over-voltages stressing the equipment
insulations. Ground affects the short circuit current of power system and thus
the rating of switchgear needed to cope with them. The words ‘earthing’,
which is used in UK and ‘grounding’, which is used in USA, have the same
meaning. It should be noted that the equipment ‘earthing’ (connecting the
body of equipment to the earth for safety precautions) is different from the
neutral-point earthing. There are several methods of neutral grounding such
as resistance grounding, low reactance for effective grounding, tuned
reactance, solid grounding and grounding through a high- impedance
transformer. Each of these methods has its own merits and demerits. The
main advantages of neutral grounding are given below:
(a) The phase voltages on healthy lines are limited to phase to ground
voltage during the fault.
(b) Earth fault protection can be used easily.
(c) The high voltages due to transient line-to-ground fault are eliminated.
(d) Neutral earthing reduces the impact of lightning by discharging the
stroke to earth.
(e) Arcing grounds are reduced or eliminated.
(f) By using resistance or reactance earthing, the earth fault current can be
 reduced.
(g) Greater safety to the personnel.
(h) It provides stable neutral point.
(i) It improves reliability, economy and performance of the system.
There are some advantages to operate the system with isolated neutral such as
(a) With single line to ground fault, it is possible to operate the system.
(b) Due to absence of zero sequence currents, the radio interference is
minimized.

19.5 UNGROUNDED SYSTEM (ISOLATED SYSTEM)

A temporary fault creates an arc between an overhead line and ground. This
arc extinguishes and restrikes in repeated and regular manner. This
phenomenon is known as arcing ground which is very common in
ungrounded system. A simple explanation is given as follows.
Figure 19.3 shows a 3-phase system with isolated neutral. When there is no
fault, the inherent distributed capacitances of the line get charged to the
respective phase voltages. The charged capacitances of phase c get
discharged through the fault F between phase c and ground. These
capacitances again get charges in opposite direction and again discharged.
Such repeated charging and discharging of line to ground is called arcing
grounds. This produces severe voltage oscillations reaching three to four
times normal voltage. The problem of arcing ground can be solved by
earthing the neutral through Peterson coil or arc suppression coil connected
between neutral and earth.

FIGURE 19.3 A 3-phase isolated neutral system.

When a fault occurs in a phase of line, the voltage of healthy phases of line is
increased to Ö3 times of the phase voltages. This causes severe stress on the
insulation of the equipments connected to the system. To understand this
phenomenon, let us consider a fault in line c (Figure 19.3). Before the fault,
the phase voltage are Va, Vb, Vc and the charging currents will be leading to
the respective voltages, as shown in Figure 19.4.

FIGURE 19.4 Phasor diagram.

Due to fault on phase c, the voltage of phase c with respect to earth becomes
zero (assuming zero-fault impedance). The voltage of phases a and b
becomes Ö3 times the normal phase voltages which can be seen from Figure
19.4(b), where point N is moved to c. The line-to-line voltages Vac and Vcb
remain unchanged. The value of fault current (vector sum of Iac and Ibc)
becomes three times the normal phase charging current. The charging current
from healthy phases is

where xc is the capacitive reactance of line to the ground and Ic is the phase-
charging current during the normal condition.
The increase in the voltage can be eliminated by using a reactor of suitable
size between the neutral and the ground. If the value of inductance is such
that the fault current If balances exactly the charging current, this type of
grounding is known as resonant grounding or Peterson coil or ground fault
neutralizer.

19.6 RESONANT GROUNDING

Figure 19.5 shows a resonant grounded 3-phase system. If the fault current If
is equal to 3Ic, there is no current. Theoretically, in the fault it is very small
and therefore no arc is maintained and the fault is extinguished.
The per phase charging current (Ic) is

FIGURE 19.5 Resonant grounding.

Ic = Vph~C (19.17)
where Vph is the phase voltage before the fault and C is the charging
capacitance.
The total charging current after fault is 3Ic. If L is the inductance to be
connected between the neutral point and the earth, then

Arc suppression coil

Although resonant grounding reduces the line interruption due to transient
line-to-ground (LG) fault and thus reduces the possibility of developing a 2-
phase or 3-phase fault. The location of fault in the line is not fixed and
therefore a variable inductor is required. Arc suppression coil, which is an
iron-cored reactor provided with tappings, is used. This provides the selection
of reactance depending upon the length of line and the capacitance to be
neutralized. The continuous rating of the coil is equal to the maximum earth
fault current but due to the double line to ground fault, the fault current may
be higher. To avoid this condition, a circuit breaker is connected, as shown in
Figure 19.6.
Circuit breaker is normally opened and it is closed after a time lag when the
fault current exceeds the rating of coil which is sensed by relay through CT.
Due to closing of CB the current flows through the parallel path.

19.7 SOLID GROUNDING OR EFFECTIVE GROUNDING

In this case neutral is directly connected to ground without any intentional
impedance between neutral and ground. Due to line to ground fault on any
phase, the potential of that

FIGURE 19.6 Arc suppression coil connection.

phase becomes the neutral potential whereas the potential of healthy phases
remains approximately unchanged. From phasor diagram, it is evident that
the total charging current is equal to the charging current of healthy phases.
The fault current in phase c will be totally inductive and will completely
cancel the charging current. Hence the arcing grounds are substantially
reduced. The coefficient for earthing is less than 80%. For circuits above 22
kV, the solid grounding is used as there are enough charging current. Figure
19.7 shows the solid grounding and is phasor diagram during fault in phase c.

FIGURE 19.7 Solid grounding.

Nowadays the term ‘effectively grounded’ is most widely used instead of the
term ‘solidly grounded’. IEEE definition of effective grounding is as “A
system or portion of system can be said to be effectively grounded when for
all points on the system or specified portion thereof the ratio of zero-
sequence reactance to positive sequence reactance is not greater than 3 and
the ratio of zero-sequence resistance to positive sequence reactance is not
greater than 1 for any condition of operation and for any amount of generator
capacity”.

19.8 RESISTANCE GROUNDING

For the voltage level between 3.3 kV and 22 kV, the ground current is not
large to use the reactance grounding. And also, the ground fault current, for
solid grounding become very high. Hence in practice the neutral point is
connected with resistance and is called resistance grounding. To limit the
fault current, high resistance is used which saves the power loss and improves
the stability of the system during the fault. For the circuit below 3.3 kV, there
is no need to use external resistance because the earth fault current is limited
due to inherent ground resistance, i.e. 1.5 ohm. Figure 19.8 shows the
resistance grounding.

FIGURE 19.8 Resistance grounding.

In resistance grounded systems, the power loss during the line to ground
faults is the main consideration. In practice it is common to set the value of
resistor such that the fault current is limited to the full rating of the largest
generator or transformer. Normally, resistor value
(in ohm) is given by

where I is the full load current of the largest machine in amperes. Peterson
gave the following formula for the most favourable value of resistor:
where Ca, Cb, Cc are the capacitances of each phase to earth.

19.9 REACTANCE GROUNDING

Between the voltage 3.3 kV and 22 kV, the solid grounding is not used due to
excessive fault current and therefore resistance or reactance grounding must
be used. To limit the fault current, ‘resistance’ is popular in UK, whereas
‘reactance’ is popular in Europe. The reactance connected between neutral
and ground provides the lagging current which neutralize the capacitive
current. There is no set rule for using either resistance or reactance in the
neutral. Whenever the charging current is high such as for cables, EHV
transmission lines, capacitors, etc., the reactance grounding is used.
Otherwise, resistance grounding is preferred. The reactance grounding lies
between the solid grounding and resonant grounding. The grounding of solid
and reactance is decided by the following relations:

For solid grounded system, < 3.0

For reactance grounded system, > 3.0

where X0 and X1 are the zero and positive sequence reactance, respectively.
If a solidly grounded system has X0/X1 > 3.0, the system is presumed to be
reactance rather than solidly grounded.

19.10 EARTHING TRANSFORMER

Normally neutral point of generator or transformer is available. In some
cases, it is not available such as delta connection, bus-bar points, etc. The
most common method is to use a zig-zag transformer. This transformer does
not have a secondary winding. Two identical windings are wounded
differentially on each limb of the transformer so that total flux in normal
condition is negligible. Therefore, the transformer draws very little
magnetizing current. Since the grounding transformers are of short time
rating (10 seconds to 1 minute), the sizes of such transformers are small
compared to power transformers. Figure 19.9 shows a zig-zag transformer
connection.

FIGURE 19.9 Zig-zag transformer for neutral grounding.

19.11 NEUTRAL GROUNDING PRACTICE

The main grounding practices are enumerated below:
(a) Normally one neutral ground is provided at each voltage level between
generator voltage level and distribution voltage level. It is desirable to
have one ground at each level.
(b) The grounding is provided at the source end rather than load end.
(c) When several generators at a generating station are operating in parallel,
only one generator neutral is grounded. If more generators are grounded,
the zero sequences current will cause more interference. Normally two
grounds are available in a generating station but only one is used at a
time.
(d) If several generators are connected to a common neutral bus which is
connected to ground directly or through reactance, the neutral point of
one generator is connected with neutral bus through a circuit breaker.
(e) When there are one or two power sources, no switching equipment is
used in the grounding system.
(f) The main station earthing should be separate from the earthing for
lightning protection.
(g) The resistance of earth and the current path should be low enough so as
to prevent voltage rise between neutral and earth.
(h) For low voltage up to 3.3 kV and for high voltage above 22 kV solid
 grounding is used, whereas for voltage between 3.3 kV and 22 kV, a
resistance or reactance grounding is used.
Example 19.1 Determine the value of inductance of arc suppressor coil to be
connected between the neutral and ground to neutralize the charging current
of overhead line having the line to ground capacitance equal to 0.2 mF. If the
supply frequency is 50 Hz and the operating voltage is 132 kV find the kVA
rating of the coil.
Solution For the resonant condition, using Equation (19.20), we have

PROBLEMS
19.1 A 220-kV, 3-phase, 50-Hz transmission line of 150 km consists three
conductors equilaterally spaced with 7 m and having effective diameter of
3 cm. Find the inductance and MVA rating of the Peterson coil in the
system.
19.2 Line-to-ground capacitance of an overhead transmission line operating
at 50 Hz is
1 mF. Find the reactance to neutralize the capacitance of:
(a) 100% of the line length
(b) 95% of the line length
(c) 90% of the line length.
 20
Power System Restructuring
20.1 INTRODUCTION
There is growing dissatisfaction with limited incentives for efficient
operation faced by a cost-of-service regulated or government-owned electric
utility. According to this view, even if scale of economies in the production
of electricity exists, the mode of production chosen by the firm does not
allow them to be realized because of the incentives for input choice provided
by the regulatory process or by state-ownership. In addition, the regulated
utility and regulatory body joint decision-making process and the state
owned-enterprise decision-making process have historically had difficulty in
making economically efficient new generation capacity investment decisions,
both in terms of the size and fuel type of the generating facility.
Although privatization is often part of the restructuring process, in all of the
developed countries where it has taken place, there are state and privately-
owned companies competing in the electricity generation market. Some of
these countries only have municipally-owned distribution companies, and
others have only privately-owned distribution companies. There are even
some countries where the distribution sector is composed of a combination of
privately-owned and government-owned companies. The market structure
and the rules governing the operation of the electricity industry in these
countries are not the direct result of independent actions by market
participants—generators, retailers and customers. Consequently, it is perhaps
a misnomer to call these markets competitive. Instead, they are the outcome
of a deliberate government policy to restructure (and often privatize) the
industry. The final form of the electricity industry in US is the result of joint
decisions by the state regulatory commissions and legislatures, as well as the
market participants. In addition, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
(FERC) must also approve all state restructuring plans.
All of these restructurings are consistent with the view that competition
should be introduced into the electricity supply industry wherever it is
technologically feasible. Only those portions of the production process most
efficiently supplied by a single firm remain regulated. The prevailing view is
that the technologies for electricity generation and retailing are both such that
competition is feasible. As discussed above, economies of scale in generation
are exhausted at levels of production significantly below the current levels of
industry output. It is also difficult to imagine that there are increasing returns
to scale in electricity retailing, assuming that all retailers have equal access to
the distribution network and electricity from the wholesale generation market.
On the other hand, because competition in the transmission and distribution
of electricity would require duplication of the current network, these two
portions of the electricity supply industry are thought to be the only portions
that possess the features of a natural monopoly. Therefore, the transmission
and distribution sectors of the electricity supply industries in most of the
countries are regulated.
Restructuring of electric supply industries (ESI) is taking place all over the
world in different rates and shapes. Different terms are also appearing in the
literatures which confuse the readers. Restructuring includes both
privatization and deregulation (competition). Deregulated power market is
also known by different names, viz. re-regulated market, open power market,
competitive power market, vertically unbundled power system, open access
etc. Commonly used terms in power system are as follows

Competition: In competition two or more entities are vying for the

same business or opportunity. In power system, competition can be
introduced in generation and distribution businesses.
Deregulation: The better word is re-regulation which creates changes
to encourage competition wherever it is possible. In power system,
deregulation is more frequently used; however re-regulation is very
common in economics and regulatory aspects. Deregulation is a
restructuring of the rules and economic incentives that the government
sets up to control and drive the ESI.
Restructuring: In ESI, it is disassembly of the original structure and
re-assembly into another form or cooperatives are created for better
efficiency and performance.
Open access: A common way for a government to encourage
competition in ESI is an open access of wire business (transmission
and distribution), which provides a way for competing generators to
reach the customers.
These deregulation processes have been developed after debate, with
opposition by private and state monopolies that have defended the vertically
integrated model. The most discussed deregulation has been the British one,
with growing interest in the Norway model and much attention has been paid
to actions in the United States, especially California State. There is greater
experience in South America, especially Chile, where pioneer deregulation
has been in place for several years.

20.2 NEED FOR REGULATION OF EARLY ELECTRIC

POWER UTILITIES
When utilities operate, develop and manage their functions under the rules
and laws laid down by the government, then these are called regulated
utilities. Nearly all the industries in all nations are regulated up to some
extent. Airlines and auto-manufacturing businesses are very competitive
whereas nuclear related industries are highly regulated. There were several
reasons for regulated power utilities.
Standardization of electric business. Early power system development
witnessed the different operating voltages and frequencies due to which
interconnections were not possible. Loads were localized and generators were
built near load centres. Due to scale of economies of larger generators, the
importance of interconnections was realized along with other benefits. The
power developments were mostly in the hands of private investors. With
proper regulation, the government had to control the power development in
one standard all over the country.
Huge Investment with high risk. The investment in the power sector was
huge due to rapid growth in electricity consumption. It was very difficult for
the private investor to invest where the future was uncertain. The
establishment of electric utilities required huge capital for infrastructure. At
the same time, it was realized that there should be some assured rate of return
on the investment. In turn, the government guaranteed them a fair return on
their investment through regulated rates. The government authorities
overseeing the utility define a rate schedule of prices the utility must charge.
The concept behind these prices, cost recovery and a regulated rate of return,
means that prices will be fixed by the government so that the utility is certain
to recover all its costs and its permitted profit.
Simple buying process. The cost of generation of electricity is different
for different generation. It also involves the transmission and distribution of
power to reach the final consumers. The location of the consumer may be
different, and therefore the actual cost to deliver power to different
consumers is different due to involvement of long transmission and
distribution lines and power loss. The cost of delivery of power also changes
with time as system losses change during the day. By regulating the electric
utilities, the government could manage the same tariffs in a region which is
very simple to understand.
Least cost operations. Loads on the generators are varied throughout the
day due to change in the demand of electricity. It is very much desired to
operate the power system in the least cost manner. It is only possible when
electricity is regulated and belongs to the same utility. Least cost operation
could only be achieved if there is sufficient generation with the utility. The
government defines how the utility computes costs and sets its prices.
Meeting social obligations. Electricity is one of the basic needs for the
social and economic development of a nation. The cost of supplying
electricity to the rural consumers is very high, which may not be affordable.
On the other hand, supplying electricity to the rural people at even urban
rates would not be non-profitable to utility. For the social uplift of the people,
it is must that the Government takes steps to ensure that electricity reaches to
all. It is obligatory for the utilities to serve the people for two reasons.

To guarantee that all consumers are offered service in a non-

discriminatory way.
To assure that the grid is eventually extended to all places where it is
needed.

Reduction in acquiring land and right-of-way. Acquiring land for

making generating station was not so easy without government intervention.
The right-of-way for erecting transmission and distribution lines was another
hurdle. The regulation gave utilities recognition and limited support from the
local government in approving the ROW and easements.
The main characteristics of the traditional electricity utilities are the
following.

1. Monopoly franchise: Only the national or regional electric utility was

permitted to produce, transmit, distribute and sell commercial electric
 power within its service territory.
2. Obligation to serve: The utility had to provide electricity for the needs
of all consumers in its service area, not just to those that were
profitable.
3. Regulatory oversight: The utility’s business and operating practices
had to conform to the guidelines and rules laid down by government
regulators.
4. Regulated rates: The electric utility’s rates were either set or regulated
in accordance with government regulatory rules and guidelines.
5. Assured rate of return: The government guaranteed that regulated
rates would provide the electric utility with a “reasonable” or “fair”
profit margin above its cost.
6. Least cost operation: The electric utility was required to operate in a
manner that minimized overall revenue requirements.

20.3 MOTIVATION FOR POWER SYSTEM

RESTRUCTURING
The electricity supply industry, since the 1980s, has been undergoing rapid
and irreversible changes, reshaping the industry that for a long time has been
remarkably stable and had served the public well. A significant feature of
these changes is to allow for competition among generators and to create
market conditions in the industry which are seen as necessary to reduce costs
of energy production and distribution, eliminate certain inefficiencies, shed
manpower, and increase customer choice. The reasons for deregulation are
different in different countries. Many countries made the changes due to the
failure of the state to adequately manage electricity companies. In other
countries, the force behind this has been the lack of public resources to
finance the required investment for the development. The World Bank took
initiative to give loans to the utilities with a condition to start deregulation
processes. Hence, a great variety of organizational forms is emerging.
The main reasons behind the restructuring are given below:
High tariffs. The electricity price in several countries/states is much more
and it was expected that the price will drop after deregulation. Service may
improve as a result of the restructuring, but there is also a serious concern in
many countries about falling maintenance standards. Competition breeds
innovation, efficiency, and lowers costs but also leads to short-termism. For
example, the electricity in the state of California was more than 50% above
the national average before deregulation. It was also the case with several
Latin American countries.
Encourage innovations. A competitive power industry will provide
rewards to risk takers and encourage the use of new technologies and
business approaches. The regulated monopoly scheme was unable to provide
incentives for innovation since the utility had little motivation to use new
ideas and technologies to lower costs under a regulated rate of return
framework. The lack of competition also gave electric utilities little incentive
to improve service, and in countries such as India and China, the standards of
service were generally very low. A more commercial ethos could be helpful
in improving standards of service to customers.
Better customer choice. The main drive for electric industry
restructuring in the classic case of the UK came from the government’s belief
that the advantages of competition among energy suppliers, and wide choice
for electricity consumers, outweighed the benefits of the long established
arrangement. Although restructuring of the power industry inevitably results
in some new problems, governments and consumers in many countries
believed that the benefits of the restructuring would outweigh potential
problems.
Change in generation economies of scale. The change in generation
economies of scale that occurred throughout the 1980s was an important
stimulus to industry restructuring. The advances in gas turbine technology led
to more efficient small turbines and generators. As a result, smaller
generators could nearly match the efficiency of very large units, particularly
if run on natural gas rather than coal. The price of natural gas declined and
the prohibition on gas burning for electricity generation was removed in this
period.
Improve in managerial efficiencies. Restructuring of the government-
owned electricity industry encouraged privatization, although privatization
does not have to be part of a restructuring effort. In the 1980s and early
1990s, several Western governments were of the view that private
organizations could do a better job of running the power industry and that
higher operating efficiencies and reduction of manpower could be achieved
by privatization. Private utilities also refuse to subsidize rates and have a
greater interest in eliminating power thefts and managerial or workplace
inefficiencies. In other countries either ownership or responsibility for
various functions was transferred to co-operative, or to private organizations,
or to new types of public corporations, or quasi-governmental entities that
could act like market sensitive economic agents. Ownership and functional
restructuring have therefore taken many different forms. Incremental
involvement of private capital, which has played an important role in Asia,
can be considered as private sector participation rather than privatization.
Better experience of other deregulated market. The industries like oil
and gas, airlines, banking, auto-manufacturing etc. had already showed very
good performance. Although electricity is a different type of commodity
which cannot be stored in bulk quantity and also related to the interconnected
grid management, it is expected the electric supply industries will also show
the good results as other deregulated industries. In UK, oil and gas industry
was deregulated before the electric supply industry. After looking at the
performance of other sectors, the ESI was deregulated. The other problem
experienced was that the market participants were less and there was some
market power which is not good for any deregulated market. Due to this, the
volatility of the price was much more during the early days of deregulation.
Pressure from financial institutions. The electricity supply industries in
the developing countries are in the red and require huge financial
assistance/loan from foreign financial institutions like the World Bank, the
Asian Development Bank etc. Knowing the situation of ESI that it is difficult
to get the loans back from these industries, financial institutions are providing
the loans/assistance with condition. These conditions are nothing but to
restructure their operational and managerial structure.
Lack of public resources for future development. As the economic
development of developing countries is faster than the other developed
countries, the resource required is also enormous. The governments are
unable to concentrate much on electric sectors as there are several other
sectors where much attention is required. Due to limited resource, the
electricity sector is now open to private investors which required some
regulation to be changed. Restructuring of ESI gave an opportunity to the
private investors to build, own and operate in the electricity business.
Need for regulation changed. The basic need of regulation was to
provide risk-free investment to build infrastructure, which is no more
important. Now, a power system grid, which comprises generation,
transmission and distribution, is in a mature state. The network is expanded
to reach each customer. The revenue obtained from the existing set-up can be
used for future extension and development of the systems. Now, technology
is almost matured and there is only incremental addition in the system.
Therefore, there is little risk in the investment.
Some other forces behind the restructuring are:

Global economic crises

Overstaffing in the regulated electric industry
Political and ideological changes
Rise in environmentalism

20.4 WHAT IS TRANSFORMING?

Vertically integrated system as shown in Figure 20.1 is broken into three
distinct businesses (generation, transmission and distribution) by separating
vertically (cutting horizontally) to provide competition in generation and
distribution businesses. For effective competition, there should be a large
number of market participants and therefore generation and distribution
businesses are separated horizontally (cutting vertically) as shown in Figure
20.2. After unbundling and creating competition, the regulated cost based
generation becomes unregulated price-based generation. The monopolistic
behaviour of the electricity industry will become competitive. In monopoly
system, electricity was assumed as service where end-users are known as
consumers, but in competitive electricity market, electricity is now a
commodity which is used by customers. The main difference is that
consumers get privilege whereas customers get choice. It is also seen that in
several countries, engineers are becoming lawyers or managers. Figure 20.3
shows competitive market structure.
As the electric utility industry progresses from a cost-based regulated
structure to a price-based unregulated system, suitable measures will be
needed to successfully make this transformation.
FIGURE 20.1 Vertically integrated electricity market.

FIGURE 20.2 Vertically unbundled power system.

 FIGURE 20.3 Competitive market structure.

20.5 POTENTIAL PROBLEMS AND KEY ISSUES IN

DEREGULATION
The operational and control of the restructured electricity market poses
technical challenges far more complex than the conventional monopolistic
market. The complexity arises due to involvement of several market entities,
satisfaction of many types of contractual obligations, separation of primary
and ancillary services and varying models of market management. Some of
the technical challenges include the following.

Congestion management
Market power
Some suppliers at disadvantages
Non-performance of obligations
Price volatility
Loss of operating flexibility
Pricing of energy and transmission services
Available transfer capability calculations
Ancillary services management
Congestion management. The power flow pattern in the deregulated
environment is different from that in existing regulated ones. All parties will
try to get the benefits of cheaper source and greater profit margins, leading to
overloading and congestion of certain transmission corridors. This may well
exceed the thermal, voltage and stability limits, thereby undermining the
system security and reliability. A condition when operating limits of any
apparatus in the system is violated, the system is called congested system.
More often, it is related to exceeding the power flow of the lines. Congestion
in a transmission system, whether vertically organized or unbundled, cannot
be permitted except for very short duration, for fear of cascade outages with
uncontrolled loss of load. Some corrective measures such as outage of
congested branches (lines or transformers), using FACTS devices, operation
of transformer taps, re-dispatch of generation and curtailment of pool loads
and/or bilateral contracts can relieve congestion.
Market power. Market power is the ability to profit by moving the market
price away from the competitive level. Most of the firms have some market
power and this causes no significant problems if the amount is small. Market
power raises the price and thereby transfers wealth from consumers to all the
suppliers in the market. It also creates inefficiency in the market. A supplier
may have an unfair, nearly monopolistic, competitive advantage
(i.e. excessive market power) for having major share or locational advantage.
Electricity is different from other commodity. It cannot be stored in bulk
quantity, power generated must be consumed at that time and also related to
the grid operation. In competitive power market, marginal generator can
exercise the market power. The main causes of market power are:

Large generator capacity

Network constraints
Additional opportunity to create intentional congestion

The factors that determine the market power are:

Market concentration
Demand elasticity
Style of competition
Forward contract
Geographical extent of market
 Different approaches to study the market power are:

Ex-post analysis of recently restructured market

Market concentration analysis (ex-ante studies)
Market simulation (ex-ante studies)
Equilibrium modelling (ex-ante studies)

Monopsony power is a market power exercised on the demand side with the
intention of lowering the market price. An independent system operator can
exercise by interrupting loads or by curtailments. Monopsony power can be
an effective and beneficial method for combating market power but can also
be abused.
Some suppliers at disadvantages. Some suppliers may be at a
competitive disadvantage due to operating or economic constraints such as
significant start-up times and costs; minimum output levels, run times and
down times; and restrictive fuel constraints. To the extent that these suppliers
can be accommodated so they have a more realistic opportunity to compete
(i.e. by awarding some contracts two days ahead as well as one day and one-
hour ahead), a lower cost outcome may be attained. Non-conventional energy
producers may also suffer due to cost and other constraints.
Non-performance of obligations. In order to run a fair electricity
market, all suppliers that submit bids in response to solicitations should be
obligated to accept a contract if awarded. Thus, submitted bids should be
considered executed contracts if they are accepted and awarded. In some
cases, the system operator may award a day-ahead forward contract in which
the supplier receives the higher of its own bid price or the day ahead forecast
market clearing price for its scheduled output; deviations from its schedule
would be priced at the actual market clearing price. The failure of the supplier
to perform some contracted services could result in serious consequences for
the power system. For example, the failure of a supplier that was awarded a
contract for operating capacity, to provide reserve energy during a system
disturbance could sacrifice system security. In these cases, a non-
performance penalty may need to be imposed on the supplier for not meeting
the contractual obligations.
Price volatility. Due to several reasons, the price of electricity is not the
same thoughout the day. It is very volatile, especially during the peak hours.
The main reasons for this volatility are system constraints, market model,
market power, imperfect competition, unavailability of cheaper resources etc.
The number of suppliers in an electricity market is limited, therefore they can
intentionally increase the price. There should be some mechanism to reduce
the volatility of price. There may be future contracts, option contracts,
contract for differences etc.
Loss of operating flexibility. Regulated electric utilities have reasonable
degree of flexibility in scheduling supply to serve customer load reliably and
economically. In deregulated market environment, the number of participants
is more and their intention is to get maximum profit from the market. During
any disturbance, reduction or increase in their power supply/demand may not
be possible and may raise several disputes. A rigid bidding system could
conceivably reduce this flexibility and compromise either reliability or
economics or both. System operator should have very accurate load forecast,
clear rules and regulation etc. to meet these challenges.
Pricing of energy and transmission services. For the proper
management of any electricity utility, it is important to have a source of
income to meet its expenses. It is also important that the electricity industry
should have some income for future expansion work. In regulated electricity
industries, there are two different types of charges: Fix charges and running
charges, which are fixed for a few months, are same in a geographical area.
However, in the deregulated market, there is only one charge based on the
market clearing price, which varies throughout the day and may be different
at different nodes of the system. Energy pricing and transmission wheeling
charges are the centre of debate for quite some time and there is no clear cut
way to impose these. The main aim of framing these pricing is given below.
(i) The users must readily understand.
(ii) It must be equitable as between different users.
(iii) It should also be such as to encourage users to improve the power
factor.
(iv) It should also be such as to encourage users to improve load factor or
to transfer their demand from peak to off-peak hours.
(v) It can be modified from time to time.
(vi) Use of electricity is encouraged so that the economy of utilities is
improved.
Available transfer capability calculations. NERC (North American
Reliability Council) has defined ‘Available Transfer Capability (ATC) as a
measure of power transfer capability remaining in the physical transmission
network for further commercial activity over and above the already
committed uses’. In other words, it is the additional amount of power that can
be transferred over the network with margins for a range of uncertainties and
contingencies when power is injected and extracted at the specified seller and
buyer buses, respectively.
Power transactions between a specific seller bus/area and a buyer bus/area
can be committed only when sufficient ATC is available for that interface,
and then the power companies may reserve the transfer rights as per their
need. Thus, any commercial transaction is restricted by the ATC so as to
ensure the system security. Hence information about the ATC is to be
continuously updated and made available to the market entities through
internet based open access same time information system (OASIS). The
methods required for computation of ATC must be fast and accurate. This
computation becomes much more complex during the system disturbances.
Ancillary services management. Ancillary services (AS) are defined as
all those activities on the interconnected grid that are necessary to support the
transmission of power while maintaining reliable operation and ensuring the
required degree of quality and safety. This includes the following.

Reserve capacity
Ten minute start-up reserve capacity
Ten minute non-spinning quick start reserve capacity
Ten minute response spinning reserve capacity
Regulation of frequency and tie-line power flows
Voltage and reactive power control
Ensuring system stability
Transmission reserves
Black start capability

As per NERC definition, an ancillary service is an interconnected operation

service that is necessary to affect a transfer of electricity between purchasing
and selling entities and which a transmission provider must include in an
open access transmission tariff. In regulated system, AS is an integral part of
electricity supply whereas in deregulated market, it varies with market
structure. In several countries, there is a parallel for AS. Since it is directly
related to the system security and stability, a proper ancillary services
management is required.

20.6 QUESTION TO BE ANSWERED BEFORE MOVING

TOWARDS DEREGULATION
Given the competitive market forces, initiatives towards deregulation by
countries, the electric supply industry, all over the world, is poised for
deregulation and restructuring. In the debate of competitive power market,
two questions have consistently arisen. How can system reliability and
security be maintained; and how can economic efficiency be assured? From
this debate, the concept of independent system operators as an unbiased
coordinator to balance reliability with economics has emerged. There are
several other questions to be answered before moving for deregulation which
include the following.

What are the key issues in moving towards deregulation?

Is deregulation good for our society?
What are the implications for the current industry participants?
What type of new participants will be seen and why?
What should be the structure of market and operation?
How might an electricity transaction of future look like?

20.7 MILESTONES OF DEREGULATION

From 1980 onwards, a major transformation took place throughout the
electric power industry in South America. The first was Chile which made
efforts in 1980 to restructure its electricity sector. The year-wise milestones
of restructuring are given below.

1982: Chile
1990: UK
1992: Argentina, Sweden and Norway
1993: Bolivia and Colombia
1994: Australia
1996: New Zeeland
1997: Panama, El Salvador, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and
Honduras
1998: California, USA and several others.
 .
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 .
Answers to Problems
Chapter 3
3.1…3266.12 W in 4-W resistor
1070.92 W in 5-W resistor
2141.83 VAr in 10-W inductor
6693.30 VAr in 4-W capactor

3.2…

3.4…S1 = 1 + j0.5;……S2 = 2 + j0.4…Power base is 100 MVA for all

elements
3.5…New Voltage base for transformers = 33 kV
Base voltage for line = 113.44 kV
New Base voltage for motors = 33 kV
pu impedance of transformers = 0.0684
Xm1 = 0.55,……Xm2 = 0.826,……Xm3 = 0.3305
pu impedance of line = 0.388
3.6…Xg1 = 0.686,……Xg2 = 0.457,……Xm1 = 1.026, Xm2 = 0.684
3.7…j0.002066 pu

3.8…
3.9…(a) pu values of reactances
 Generator G = j0.2 pu
TR–1 = j0.2 pu; TR–2 = j0.15 pu; TR–3 = j0.16 pu
TR–4 = j0.2 pu.
Line–1 = j0.1 pu, Line–2 = j0.5407 pu
Motor = j2.5 pu
Total load in pu = 0.0874 + j5.7 ´ 10–3 pu

(b) Vt = 20.94 kV
Eg = 20.98 kV
Chapter 4
4.1…(a) 1248 MWh……(b) 50 MW……(c) 3120 MWh……(d) 1468.24
MWh
4.2…758.59 kVA
4.3…(b) 3.6 kWh……(c) 0.81;…150 W;…680 W; 0.22
4.4…(a) Rs 281.25 ´ 105……(b) Rs 298.58 ´ 105……(c) Rs 19.50 ´ 105
4.5…(a) 2100 kW;……1602.08 kW; 0.7629……(b) 1.0, 1.0, 0.385
(c) 1.381……(d) 0.724……(e) (i) 100 kW……(ii) 5110 kWh……(iii)
0.84
4.6…(a) 80 MW……(b) 50%……(c) 1920 MWh……(d) 40 MW……(e)
4800 MWh
(f) 2560 MWh……(g) 80%
4.7…(a) 0.73……(b) 64747 kW
(c) One unit for 8760 hrs, Two units for 7135.2 hrs, Three units for
2637.34 hrs.
(d) 4747.2 kW
Chapter 6
6.1…(a) 1920.83 m3/s
6.2…Maximum power = 1709.97 MW
Average power = 801.11 MW
 Load factor = 0.468
Chapter 10
10.1…1.46R;…1.723R;…1.248R;…1.704R
10.2…LA = 0.623 mH/km, LB = 0.770 mH/km

10.3…L = 2 ´ 10–7 ln H/m/phase

F/m/phase
10.4…1.353 mH/km
10.5…LA = 1.902 – j0.179 mH/km = LC
LB = 1.85 mH/km
10.6…0.617 mH/km
10.7…1.46R;…1.723R;…1.248R;…1.704R
10.8…Cn = 16.3 pF/m/phase
L = 0.694 mH/km
10.9…(a) 10.04 pF/m/phase
(b) 19.94 pF/m/phase
10.10…9.652 pF/m
10.11…31.027 ´ 10–6 coulomb/km
10.12…CAN = 18.3 pF/m
CBN = 13.64 pF/m
49.1 mA/km
10.13…CAN = CBN = 12.56 pF/m
0.0217 A/km
10.14…Cn = 11.71 pF/m/phase;
0.467 A/km/phase
10.15…0.018 mF/km/phase;…1.361 A/km/phase
10.16…L = 1.402 mH/km/ph
L = 1.055 mH/km/ph
(Bundle conductor)
10.17…C = 8.23 pF/m/phase
C = 10.8 pF/m/phase
(Bundle conductor)
10.18…(a) 0.614 mH/km
0.192 W/km
(b) 18.87 nF/km
0.236 A/conductor/km
Chapter 11
11.1…Regulation = 1.78%; Efficiency = 98.46%
11.2…3335.41 volt; 0.8095 (lag)
11.3…614.25 kW
11.4…150.32 kV;…. 0.835;……88.67%;…. .14.54% for nominal-T.
3150.38 kV;…0.837;….. .88.35%;…. .14.57% for nominal-r
146.62 kV;…. 0.792;……95.96%;…. .11.71% for exact
11.5…(a)…(i)…Nominal-r…………………………Nominal-T
A = 0.6906 Ð4.98∞ = D…………A = D = 0.6906 Ð4.98∞
B = 268.29 Ð81.15∞ W……… …B = 317.7 Ð79.11∞ W
C = j20 ´ 10–4 mho………………C = j16.88 ´ 10–4 mho
…………. (ii)…A = D = 0.7057 Ð4.38∞
B = 285.14 Ð80.3∞ W
C = j18.0 ´ 10–4 mho

(b) Z = 285.11 Ð80.3∞ W; mho (Equivalent-r)

Z = 167.59 Ð78.6 W, Y = j17.9 ´ 10–4 mho (Equivalent-T)

(c) 353.01 A;…375 kV;……0.588 (lead); 15.9°
(d) 415.46 A
11.6…228.2 kV; 114.77A; 41.45 MW; 0.865; 10.83%
11.7…141.14 kV; 135.60 kV
11.8…50.81 mF
11.9…1493.1 A
11.10…11.07 mF
11.11…137.3 kV; 4.64%
11.12…(a) 151.97 kV Ð7.39 (c) 39.59 MW
………(b) 179.66 Ð-25.17 A (d) 90.93%
11.13…(a) e–al (b) e–al (c) e–2al (d) e–2al
when lossless (a) 1 (b) 1 (c) 1 (d) 1
11.14…(a) = 359.19 Ð19.56° kV, = 794.75 Ж1.32°, Reg = 44.68%
……….(b) A = D = 0.96, B = j39.2 C = j0.002
……….(c) = 306.441.2 Ð6.786°, = 891.14 Ж5.65° A, Reg = 10.576%
11.15…614.25 kW
Chapter 12
12.1…(a) 0.1385 V;….1524 V;…0.1815 V;…0.2287 V;…0.2988 V (Top to
bottom)
……….(b) 66.92%
12.2…6
12.3…11C; 13C; 16C; 20C, 25C
12.4…19.29%, 17.19%, 27.66%, 35.86%, 69.71%
12.5…36.81 kV (phase to neutral)
Chapter 13
13.1…(a) 0.557 m…(b) 3.86 m to 42.38° from vertical plane…(c) 2.85 m
13.2…4.5 m;…300.18 m
13.3…141.66 m from lowest end
13.4…237.81 m from lowest support
13.5…20.76 m,…541.9 kg
13.6…4.802 m
Chapter 14
14.1…100.23 kV to neutral; 110.98 kV to neutral; no corona loss at 132 kV
coronal loss at 220 kV 1039.34 W (fair weather); 3177.19 (bad weather)
14.2…1.492 cm
14.3…30.475 kV/cm, corona present
14.4…65.99 kV to neutral
14.5…36.32 volt; Vd = 6.315 Ð-171.16∞ kV above earth.
14.6…5.011 V/km
Chapter 15
15.1…4.18 cm
15.2…101.03 kV
15.3…(i) 0.085 mF (ii) 0.39 mF (iii) 1.17 A
………(c) 0.33 mF

15.4…V = Emax r ln
Chapter 16
16.1…q = 3,…s = 4,…r = 1
16.2…(a) 297.1 kV (b) 286.98 kV (c) 0
16.3…395.51 kV (line-to-line)
16.4…21.78 ohm
16.5…388.58 kV (line-to-line)
Chapter 17
17.1…4.125 km from station A
17.2…5.2 km from station A; 260 A from end A –240 A from end B
17.3…Point E
17.4…(i) 232.8 V…(ii) 795.4 W…(iii) 13454.6 W
17.5…VB = VD = 238.5 volt; Ve = 236.0 volt
17.6…(a) 217.44 Ð7.92∞…(b) 217.33 Ð6.34°
17.7…W1 : W2 :: 0.715 : 1
17.8…(a) : (b) :: 1 : 0.933
17.9…VB = 10.55 Ж1.66∞ kV… … … VD = 10.52 Ð-2.04∞ kV
… … VC = 10.54 ÐЖ1.94∞ kV… … …(line-to-line)
… … IAB = 27.42 – j14.04
… … IBD = 7.42 + j0.96
… … ICD = 3.58 – j0.96
… … IAC = 34.08 – j16.52
Chapter 19
19.1…2.49 H;…20.62 MVA
19.2…(a) 1061.03 ohm…(b) 1116.88 ohm…(c) 1178.9 W
 Index
ABCD constants, 198
network in parallel, 200
network in tandem, 200
AC distributors, 376
Air-density factor, 262
Air preheater, 73
Ampere’s law, 150
Ancillary services, 417
Arc suppression coil, 402
Arcing ground, 400
Attenuation constants, 210
Available Transfer Capability (ATC), 417

Base load stations, 57, 91

Binding energy and mass defect, 110
Biomass power, 15
Boiler, 72
feed pumps, 73
feed water, 73
Boiling water reactor, 115
Bridge converter, 307
Bundled conductors, 166
Bus-bar arrangements, 384
breaker and a half scheme, 390
double bus bar with bypass isolators, 391
double bus with double breaker, 387
double bus with single breaker, 388
main and transfer bus, 388
ring bus, 389
single-bus scheme, 386

Cables, 274
capacitance, 290
classification of, 297
conductors, 275
dielectric loss, 294
electrostatic stress, 280
grading of, 283
insulated, 274
location of faults in, 295
CANDU reactor, 116
Capacitance, 174
cables, 290
 effect of earth, 184
single-phase line, 174
symmetrically spaced 3-phase lines, 180
symmetrically spaced 3-phase, double circuit line, 180
unsymmetrically spaced 3-phase lines, 177
unsymmetrically spaced 3-phase, double circuit, 183
Characteristic impedance, 211
Circle diagram, 221
Coal, 81
anthracite, 81
bituminous, 81
lignite, 81
semi-anthracite, 81
sub-bituminous, 81
Coal mills, 73
grates and strokes, 73
Cogeneration, 20
bottom cycle, 21
topping cycle, 21
Coincidence factor, 46
Combined-cycle gas-power plant, 132
features of, 132
integrated gasification of, 134
Combined heat and power, 21
Combustion turbine, 23
Commutation failure, 325
Commutation group, 305
Commutation resistance, 316
Compensation of lines, 225
q-, 225
by sectioning, 225
series, 226
shunt, 225
Z0, 225
Compression ratio, 139
Condenser, 75
Conducting glazing of insulators, 242
Conductors, 147
Conductor vibrations, 257
Congested system, 415
Congestion management, 414
Connected load, 44
Contribution factor, 46
Conventional energy sources, 8
Converter analysis, 307
with overlap, 312
without overlap, 308
Converter configurations, 305
Converter faults, 323
 arc back, 324
arc through, 324
commutation failure, 325
misfire, 324
quenching, 325
Converter transformers, 304
Cooling tower, 76
Corona, 260
advantages of, 264
disadvantages of, 264
Corona loss, 264
effect on line design, 267
factor affecting, 265
Critical disruptive voltage, 261

DC 3-wire distributor, 367

fed at both end, 367
fed at one end, 367
DC distributors, 361
concentrated loads of, 361, 362
distributed loads of, 363, 364
DC ring main distributor, 365
with interconnector, 366
Demand factor, 44
Deregulated power market, 408
Dielectric loss, 294
Dielectric power factor, 294
Diesel engines, 18
Diesel engine alternator, 143
Distributed generation, 21
applications of, 22
opportunities of, 24
technologies, 23
Distribution system, 3, 342
AC, 1-phase, 2-wire system, 347, 351
AC, 3-phase, 3-wire system, 348, 350
AC, 3-phase, 4-wire system, 349, 352, 378
comparison, 344
conductor size of, 354
DC, 2-wire system, 345, 350
DC, 3-wire system, 346, 350
DC, 2-wire system mid point earthed, 345, 350
effect of voltage on efficiency, 342
primary distribution system, 3
secondary distribution system, 3
Distributor, 359
Diversity factor, 45
group, 45
load, 46
 peak, 45
Draught systems, 74

Earthing transformer, 405

Economizers, 74
Effective grounding, 402
Electric field intensity, 173
Electrical power, 25
apparent, 28
complex, 28
instantaneous, 26
reactive, 27
real, 27
Electricity cost, 106
Electromagnetic effect, 268
Electrostatic effect, 271
Energy load curve, 51
Equidistance pulse control, 323
Excitation system, 78
Extra high voltage transmission, 2

FACTS controllers, 330

series, 330
series-series, 331
series-shunt, 331
shunt, 330
FACTS devices, 332
FACTS technology, 327
objectives of, 329
Fast-breeder reactor, 118
Feeder, 354
Ferranti effect, 216
Flow duration curve, 88
Fluidized-bed combustion, 82
Flux linkages in a composite conductor, 155
Forebay, 95
Fossil fuels, 103
adverse effect of, 103
Four-stroke engine, 140
advantages, 140
Fuel cells, 12, 23
Fusion reactor, 119

Gas-cooled reactor, 117

Gas power, 19, 125
Gas power plants, 19, 125
advantages of, 127
closed cycle, 130
 combined cycle, 132
open cycle, 130
Gas turbine, 131
plants, 126
Gas turbine cycle, 127
intercooling of, 129
regeneration of, 128
reheating of, 129
Generalized circuit constants, 198
Geothermal power, 14
GMD, 155
isochronous, 141
mutual, 155
non-isochronous, 141
self, 155
Governing system, 80
Governors, 141
Grading of cables, 283
capacitive, 283
intersheath, 286
Grading of insulators, 240
Grounding grids, 397
Grounding resistance, 395
driven rods, 396
point electrode, 396
Grounding system, 394, 395
design principles of, 399
Guy’s theorem, 168

Harmonic filters, 304

Heat rate, 69
Heavy water cooled and moderated reactor,116
High voltage dc transmission, 2, 299
advantages and disadvantages of, 300
components of, 303
interconnection into ac systems, 327
HVDC control, 318
constant extinction angle, 320,
current control, 320
equidistance pulse control, 323
individual phase control, 322
HVDC links, 302
Hydro power, 18, 85
Hydro turbines, 96
Francis, 97
impulse type, 96
Kaplan, 97
Pelton, 97
propeller, 97
 reaction types, 96
Hydroelectric power plants, 85
advantages of, 86
classifications of, 90
drawbacks of, 86
generators, 98
high-, medium- and low-head plants, 92
low-, medium- and high-capacity plants, 91
main components, 93
micro, mini, small and super hydro plants, 92
prime movers, 96
pumped storage plants, 90, 98
run-of-river plants, 92
selection of sites for, 86
tidal power plants, 91
valley-dam plants, 93
water conduit system, 95
Hydrograph, 89
unit, 89
Hydrology, 87

Individual phase control, 322

Inductance, 149
of a conductor, 151
due to external flux linkages, 152
due to internal flux linkages, 151
one-phase two-wire, 157
three-phase double circuit, 161
three-phase line, 159
Inductors, 149
Ingnition, 141
compression, 141
spark, 141
Insulated cables, 274
Insulating materials, 277
Insulation resistance, 279
Insulators, 234
pin-type, 235
ratings of, 235
suspension-type, 235
types of, 235
Integrated duration curve, 51
Integrated gasification combined cycle plants, 134
Interconnection of power system, 57
Interconnectors, 360
Interline power flow controller, 336
Interphase power controller, 339
Inverter operation, 316
Isolated system, 400
Kelvin’s law, 355
limitations of, 356

Least cost operation, 409

Load curve, 51
daily, 51
energy, 51
monthly, 51
Load duration curve, 51
Load factor, 47
daily, 47
monthly, 47
plant, 47
Long transmission lines, 209
equivalent T-representation, 215
nominal r-representation, 213
Loss factor, 46

Magnetic field intensity, 150

Magneto-hydrodynamic power 16
Market power, 415
Mass curve, 88
Maximum demand, 44
Medium transmission lines, 203
ABCD constants, 204, 206
nominal r-representation, 205
nominal T-representation, 203
Microturbines, 23, 134
Monopsony power, 415
Murray loop test, 295

Neutral grounding practice, 405

Neutral grounding, 399
Non-conventional energy sources, 8
Nuclear physics, 107
Nuclear power, 20, 103
economics of, 105
effect of radiation of, 121
pros and cons of, 104
radioactive waste of, 121
Nuclear power plants, 103
components of, 107
fuel sources of, 112
pros and cons of, 104
reactors, 111, 112
selection of site for, 105
Nuclear reactors, 111
components of, 111
meltdown, 122
 safety, 123
types of, 112

Peak load stations, 57, 91

Peak percentage curve, 51
Peak’s formula, 264
Per-unit representation of transformer, 34
Per-unit systems, 32
advantages of, 35
impedance diagram, 36
Peterson’s formula, 264
Phase constant, 210
Phasor notation, 26–27
Pin-type insulators, 235
Plant
capacity factor, 47
use factor, 47
Potential difference, 174
in a group of conductors, 176
due to line charge, 174
Power
system development, 1
transfer capability of line, 224
triangle, 29
Power factor, 26, 52
Power factor correction, 53
constant KVA demand, 55
constant KW demand, 53
Power flow in transmission line, 218, 228
receiving-end power, 219
sending-end power, 220
Pressurized water reactor, 113
Propagation constant, 210
Proximity effect, 168
Pulse number, 305
Pump storage plants, 90, 98

Radial and ring main distributors, 359

Radio interference, 268
Rankine cycles, 66
actual, 67
ideal, 66
Reactance grounding, 404
Reactive power in line, 223
Reciprocating engine, 23
Regenerative cycles, 69
Regulated utilities, 409
Reheat cycle, 68
Renewable energy sources, 8
Reserves, 48
Reservoir, 95
Resistance grounding, 403
Resonant grounding, 401
Right-of-way, 410

Sag templates, 256

Short transmission lines, 196
regulation in ABCD constants, 202
Skin effect, 167
Smoothing reactors, 304
Solar power, 10
solar constant, 10
solar photovoltaic, 10
Solid grounding, 402
Spillway, 96
STATCOM, 332
Static shielding of insulators, 241
Static synchronous generator, 333
Static synchronous series compensator, 336
Static VAr
compensator, 333
generator/absorber, 335
systems, 335
Steam power plant, 18, 64
air and gas circuit, 70
Clasius’s law, 65
cooling water circuit, 71
efficiency of, 82
feed water and steam circuit, 71
first law of, 65
fuel and ash circuit, 70
layout of, 69
lubricating system in, 83
main flow circuits, 70
main parts, 71
second law of, 65
selection of sites for, 64
start-up procedures for, 83
thermodynamic cycles, 65
Steam turbines, 74
classification of, 75
Stepped mains, 379
Storage, 88
depression, 88
detention, 88
String efficiency, 239
method of improvement in, 240
Stringing chart, 255
Structure of power system, 2
Sub-mains, 378
Substation bus-schemes, 385
breaker and a half scheme, 390
double bus bar with bypass isolators, 391
double bus with double breaker, 387
double bus with single breaker, 388
main and transfer bus, 388
ring bus, 389
single bus scheme, 386
Substation equipment, 144, 392
capacitors, 393
circuit breakers, 392
isolators and fuses, 392
lightning arrestor, 393
reactors, 393
Substation location, 391
Substations, 383
types of, 383
Superheaters and reheaters, 74
Surge impedance, 211
loading, 211
Surge tank, 95
Suspension type insulators, 235
System
air-intake, 141
cooling, 142
exhaust, 142
fuel oil, 143
lubricating oil, 142–143
starting, 142

Tailrace, 95
Tapered mains, 379
Tariffs, 43, 58
block-rate tariff, 59
flat-rate tariff, 59
kVA maximum demand tariff, 59
kWh and KVArh tariff, 59
maximum demand tariff, 59
power-factor tariff, 59
sliding-scale tariff, 59
two-part tariff, 59
Thermal power, 18, 64
air and gas circuit, 70
Clasius’s law of, 65
cooling water circuit, 71
efficiency of, 82
 feed water and steam circuit, 71
first law of, 65
fuel and ash circuit, 70
layout of, 69
lubricating system in, 83
main flow circuits, 70
main parts, 71
second law of, 65
selection of sites for, 64
start-up procedures for, 83
thermodynamic cycles, 65
Three-phase systems, 32
Thyristor controlled breaking resistor, 335
Thyristor controlled phase shifting transformer, 339
Thyristor controlled reactor, 334
Thyristor controlled series capacitor, 337
Thyristor controlled series reactor, 337
Thyristor controlled voltage limiter, 339
Thyristor controlled voltage regulator, 339
Thyristor switched capacitor, 334
Thyristor switched reactor, 334
Thyristor switched series capacitor, 337
Thyristor switched series reactor, 338
Tidal power, 13
Transformer utilization factor, 306
Transmission line analysis, 194
Transmission line classification, 195
long, 209
medium, 203
short, 196
Transmission line design, 245
catenary, 248
effect of ice loading, 252
effect of wind loading, 252, 253
equivalent sag, 251
equivalent span lengh, 251
sag, 246
supports at different levels, 249
tension, 246
Transmission line parameters, 146
Transmission line performance, 194
effect of transformer, 223
efficiency of, 194
regulation of, 194
Transmission line representation, 149
Transmission systems, 3
bulk supply system, 3
subtransmission, 3
Transposition of lines, 160
Trash rack, 96
Turbo-alternators, 76
cooling, 77
faults, 78
protection, 77
Two-stroke engine, 140
advantages, 149

Ungrounded system, 400

Unified power flow controller, 338
Uranium, 122
Utilization factor, 48

Varley loop test, 296

Vibration dampers, 257
aeolian vibration, 257
dancing of conductor, 258
galloping, 258
Visual critical disruptive voltage, 262
Voltage distribution across insulators, 237

Wind mills, 9
Wind power, 8
Wind turbines, 9