UNIT –1 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE AND

SIMPLE SUGARS

Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Introduction to Food Science as a Discipline and Modern Developments
1.3 Carbohydrates in the Diet – Classification
1.4 Sugars : Chemistry, Functionality and their Role in Food Industry
1.4.1 The Functional Role of Sugars in Foods
1.5 Sweetener
1.6 Let Us Sum Up
1.7 Glossary
1.8 Answers to Check your Progress Exercises

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1.1 INTRODUCTION
_______________________________________________________________________

This first unit introduces the concept, scope and importance of food science and
technology as a discipline. It further presents a detailed discussion on carbohydrates in
the diet, their classification, functional properties and their uses in foods.

Objectives
After studying this unit you will be able to:
• appreciate the discipline of food science and the modern developments in this
subject area
• classify carbohydrates
• discuss the functionality of sugars in our food
• enumerate the different sweeteners and their functions
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD SCIENCE AS A DISCIPLINE AND
MODERN DEVELOPMENTS

As an undergraduate student you may have taken a course in food science and
technology. Do you recall, what did the study of food science and/or food technology
entailed? In this course, we begin our study by first defining what food science and
technology is.

Food Science is a discipline in which the biological and physical sciences and
engineering are used to study the nature of foods, the causes of their deterioration, and
the principles underlying food processing. It deals with acquisition of new knowledge to
elucidate the course of reactions or changes occurring in foods, whether natural or
induced by handling procedures.

Food Technology, on the other hand, is application of food science to the selection,
preservation, processing, packaging, distribution and use of safe, nutritious and
wholesome food. It is application of the principles and facts of science, engineering, and
mathematics to the processing, preservation, storage and utilization of foods.

If you look at the definitions carefully, you would realise that food science and
technology are inextricably linked. Because of their inter-linkages and commonality, you
would find that they are usually treated as one field of study in many universities.

Next, let us move on, to study the importance of this discipline in general and specific to
dietetics and food service management.
Paying attention to food science and technology - subject scope
Food science and technology has developed as a discipline to systematically organize and
link various kinds of knowledge which are necessary to inform human activity in
handling, processing, distribution and marketing of food. This also includes application
of science and technology to the processing, preservation, packaging, distribution and
utilization of foods and food products. The objective of the discipline is to develop a
basic scientific understanding of foods and food processing as determined through
biochemistry, chemistry, microbiology, physics and other sciences. Food science and
technology is the key to the conversion of raw agricultural materials into a wide variety
of properly processed and preserved foods, thus contributing to the well being, economy,
standard of living and progress of humanity.

Food science, you would realize, actually draws on research and applies principles and
practices from a broad spectrum of basic and applied sciences including biology (botany,
bacteriology, microbiology, mycology); chemistry (biochemistry, physical, analytical,
and organic chemistry); physics (rheology, thermodynamics, cryogenics, radiophysics,
ultrasonics); nutrition; psychology (sensory behaviors); medicine (metabolism,
toxicology, health and diseases) and economics.

Food technology applies the principles and concepts of engineering to problems of food
handling and processing and studies interrelationships between the properties of materials
and changing the methods of handling and manufacturing them.

The food business and food technology are practically inseparable. The food business
may be characterized as: vulnerable to spoilage, high volume, low margin, multiple
products, transportation intensive and end user marketing intensive. Since World War II,
the value added part of the food industry has steadily increased and in 1980, it surpassed
agriculture's contribution. There is a great emphasis on speed and efficiency in
production and on optimization of the food system from production through
consumption. It has even been predicted that nutrient delivery packages customized for
particular situations, will be developed to take the place of traditional meals. Related
research areas in this discipline include: biotechnology to produce new strains of plants
for foods and more efficient manufacture of food components; molecular and structural
properties of foods and how they affect the conversion, processing, distribution, storage
and acceptance of foods; biosensors to monitor food operations; and development of
robot technology in food manufacturing.

As you can see from our discussion above, the study of food science and technology can
be quite vast and pervasive. However, the following specific topics may comprise various
components of food science and technology courses. The areas covered within each of
these components are highlighted herewith.

1. Food analysis and chemistry

Investigation of the basic composition and physical, organic and biochemical
properties of food constituents at the molecular level; the changes that food
constituents undergo during processing and storage. These areas also involve changes
in texture, color, flavor, and determination of the effects of processing on the nutritive
value of foods. Techniques used by food analysts for proteins; carbohydrates; lipids,
fats and oils; colloids; enzymes; vitamins; emulsifiers; acids; oxidants; antioxidants;
pigments and flavors; secondary plant metabolites in food.

2. Food quality factors and their measurement

Appearance; textural, flavour, nutritional, sanitary and keeping factors; quality
standards, objective and organoleptic evaluation techniques and programs; consumer
acceptance; taste panels; complex changes in the physical and chemical structure of
the food as influenced by several intrinsic and extrinsic factors.

3. Nutritive aspects of food constituents and effect of processing and handling

Nutrient stability; effects on nutrients of agricultural practices, handling, processing
and storage of raw and processed foods including effects of cultivation, harvest,
cleaning, freeze preservation, heat processing, baking, extrusion, moisture removal,
fermentation, food additives, ionizing radiation; effects of home preparation and
 commercial foodservice practices; enrichment and protein complementation of foods;
improvement of nutritional quality through plant breeding and role of the government
in regulating nutritional value of the food supply.

4. Food microbiology, mycology and toxicology

Use of yeasts, moulds and bacteria in production of foods and food ingredients;
microbes in fermentation, processing and preservation; spoilage microorganisms;
indicators of food borne pathogens; detection, identification and physiology of
microorganisms of importance in foods; microbiological culture; monitoring, testing
and sampling methods; the development of methods for prevention of spoilage of
processed foods; tools of molecular biology in detection of microbes; psychotrophs,
thermophiles and radiation-resistant microorganisms; biology, culture and isolation,
and identification of important fungi; quantification of fungal toxins; food toxins and
toxicity.

5. Food processing and engineering

Fundamental engineering concepts such as momentum, heat and mass-transport
systems; engineering aspects of food processing plant operations and automation; unit
operations in food processing, food packaging materials, methods, testing and
evaluation; effects on shelf life; economics; process control, optimizing automation;
waste management; energy conservation and quality control.

6. Food product development

Food product development is often commodity related. This type of research needs to
be carried out in the pilot plants with the equipment that is usually smaller in scale
than commercial equipment. Development of newer food products with the
application of the knowledge of food science and technology and the evaluation of
their quality (sensory and nutritional) and marketability.

7. Commodity topics
 All aspects of food science and technology of specific commodity groups, including
milk and milk products (fluid milk and derivatives, ice cream and related products,
cheeses); meat, poultry and eggs; seafoods; fats, oils and related products; cereal
grains; legumes; oilseeds; vegetables and fruits; beverages; confectionary and
chocolate products.

8. Food safety and regulation

Food sanitation as related to public health and food plant processing; FDA and
USDA rules and regulations; food ingredient labelling; nutrition labelling; food law;
food additives; food borne diseases; detection; identification; governmental and
nongovernmental agencies concerned with food safety; current issues, such as
salmonella in eggs.

9. The food industry

Publications of major trade associations; industry standards; structure of the food
industry; international food corporations; information on allied industries e.g.
packaging (steel, aluminium, glass, paper, plastic); chemical manufactures
(acidulants, preservatives, enzymes, etc.); and food machinery and equipment
manufactures. Popular or consumer works on home processing or food safety and
marketing of food products and food prices.

10. Food processing unit operations

Food processing unit operations are involved in the engineering aspects of food
processing, packaging and storage. Heating, cooling, drying, concentrating, textural
measurement and separation are all processes that are often used during the
processing of food products and can be related to engineering principles.

In addition to the areas discussed above, few emerging trends and developments specific
to this subject area are highlighted next.
Emerging trends in the subject area
Increased concern about the nutritional content of technologically derived, refined foods
is expressed by both consumers and nutritionists. Dietary guidelines and nutrition
education, focus on partially replacing refined foods with whole grains, legumes and
other foods, which retain their biochemical integrity. Concern about food safety issues is
very strong. Food scientists are responding to these nutritional and safety concerns in a
variety of ways, including increased attention to food interactions and bioavailability of
nutrients, improved analytical and detection methods, and research and education in food
safety. New product development, particularly in the area of reduced-fat and reduced-
calorie products is predicted. New processing technologies such as high energy electric
pulse processing, freeze concentration and hydrostatic pressure processing show promise.
Also, food biotechnology is a growing area i.e. genetically modified food (GM food).

So, now you can understand and appreciate what the study of food science and
technology entails. Here, in this course entitled Principles of Food Science, you will find
a comprehensive coverage of the various components highlighted above. Some of the
components have been included in the Food Safety and Food Microbiology course.
Therefore, we recommend that you plan your study in such a manner that both the
courses are read side by side. This will help you get a comprehensive understanding on
various components of this discipline.

Check your progress Exercise 1

1. The two major underlying principles of consumer satisfaction are,
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Mention any two important emerging areas in Food Science and Technology?
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
 _________________________________________________________________
1.3 CARBOHYDRATES IN THE DIET -CLASSIFICATION

There is more carbohydrate (CHO) material than all other organic material in nature.
This is due to the fact that carbohydrates make up most of the organic structure of all
plants, as well as being present to some extent in all animals. In biological systems, they
perform a variety of functions, about which you may have already learnt in the Advance
Nutrition Course, Block 1, Unit 3, including their role as structural constituents.

Carbohydrates, are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, however, other elements
like nitrogen, sulphur and sometimes even phosphorus may also be present in
carbohydrates. Commonly, but not always, the hydrogen and oxygen in the carbohydrates
are present in 2:1 ratio as in water, from which the name carbohydrate (Carbon Hydrate)
was derived.

Carbohydrates are sometimes referred as “Saccharides”, which has its origin from the
Greek word Sakchron meaning sugar. The simplest carbohydrates are called sugars (or
monosaccharides) and these may link together to form more complex carbohydrates
(oligo- or poly-saccharides). You may have studied about the classification of
carbohydrates in the Nutritional Biochemistry and Advance Nutrition Courses. A simple
classification of carbohydrates is presented here as well in Box 1 for your knowledge.
Box 1
Class (Degree of
Sub-Group Components
Polymerization)
Sugars (1-2) Monosaccharides Glucose, galactose, fructose
Disaccharides Sucrose, lactose, maltose
Oligosaccharides (3-9) Malto-oligosaccharides Maltodextrins
Other oligosaccharides Raffinose, stachyose, fructo-
oligosaccharides

Polysaccharides (>9) Starch Amylose, amylopectin , modified

starches
Cellulose, hemicelluloses,
Non-starch
pectins, hydrocolloids
polysaccharides

Monosaccharides, are the simplest carbohydrate molecules. The most commonly

occurring monosaccharides in food are glucose, fructose and galactose. The formula for
glucose is C6H1206. It can be represented as shown in the figure 1.1a:
CH2OH
O H
OH
OH
OH
OH

Figure 1.1(a): α-D Glucopyranose

Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharide molecules join together with the
elimination of one molecule of water. They have the general formula C12H22011.
Examples of disaccharides are sucrose (glucose and fructose), lactose (glucose and
galactose) and maltose (2 molecules of glucose). Have a look at the figures 1.1b and 1.1c
for their structures.
CH2OH CH2OH
O H O H
OH OH
OH O OH
OH OH

Figure1.1 (b): Maltose

(α-D Glucopyranosyl (1-4) α-D Glucopyranose)
 CH2OH
CH2OH
O
OH
OH OH
OH O OH
OH
OH

Figure1.1 (c): Lactose

(β-D Galactopyranosyl (1-4) α-D Glucopyranose)
Polysaccharides, on the other hand, are made up of many monosaccharide molecules
(usually glucose), joined together. They have the general formula (C6H1005) n where ‘n' is
a large number. Examples of polysaccharides are starch, glycogen, cellulose, beta glucan
and pectin.

With a basic understanding of the classification of CHO, next we shall recall the sources
of carbohydrates in our diet. Basically, there are two main groups of carbohydrates -
starch and sugars - as you may already know. The main sources of carbohydrates in our
diet include starchy foods, such as cereals; pulses and potatoes and foods and drinks
containing sugars such as milk, fruits and vegetables, jam, confectionery, table sugar and
some soft drinks. At an average, starches account for almost 60% of the total
carbohydrate intake in the average diet and sugars form around 40%. In addition to
starches and sugars, you may have studied about fibre in the context of carbohydrates.
Well, fibre is the term given to a mixture of substances, mainly complex carbohydrates,
which cannot be digested in the small intestine in humans, but pass into the large bowel
where they are fermented by bacteria. Examples include cellulose, pectin, guar gum and
beta glucan. Fibre is defined as non starch polysaccharide (NSP). The substances that
make up fibre may have different actions in the body. A small amount of starch is not
digested, but passes into the large intestine where it may be fermented by bacteria. This is
known as ‘resistant starch' and may have properties similar to NSP.

Please note, in this unit we shall not go into the details of the structure and formula of
each of these categories of the carbohydrates. We have already covered this aspect in the
Nutritional Biochemistry Course. You may recall reading about the structure and
properties of each of these carbohydrates in Block 1, Unit 1 of the Nutritional
Biochemistry course. If you have not gone through the Nutrition Biochemistry course, we
suggest you take a break here and get your blocks/units related to Carbohydrates. Read
and understand these structures and their properties carefully. An understanding of these
structures/properties is crucial for your understanding of the functionality of
carbohydrates in the diet.

With the basic knowledge about carbohydrates, we are now ready to undertake a detail
study on each of these groups of CHOs i.e. sugars, starches and non-starch
polysaccharides. In this unit we shall however focus on sugars and sweeteners only.
Polysaccharides i.e. starches and non–starch polysaccharides are discussed in the next
unit.

1.4 SUGARS: CHEMISTRY AND FUNCTIONALITY

In this section we will learn about the simple carbohydrates called sugars. As you may
already know, those carbohydrates that cannot be hydrolysed into simpler forms are
known as ‘Monosaccharides’ or simple sugars. Monosaccharides may be made up of 3-8
carbon atoms. Chemically, these are Poly hydroxy aldehydes or ketones. Depending upon
the presence of aldehyde or ketone group in the structure, the carbohydrates may be
aldoses or ketoses, and depending upon the number of carbon atoms present in the
structure, these may be called as pentose (5 carbon monosaccharide) or a ketohexose (6
carbon monosaccharide) and depending upon the presence of aldehyde or a keto group, it
may be called a aldohexose or ketohexose. A list of commonly occurring aldoses and
ketoses is given below:
Box 2
 Aldoses Ketoses
Trioses Glycerose or glycerladehyde Dihydroxyacetone
C3H6O3
Tetroses Erythrose Erythrulose
C4H8O4 Threose
Pentoses Ribose Xyloketose
C5H10O5 Arabinose
Xylose
Hexose Glucose Fructose
C6H12O6 Mannose
Galactose
Heptoses Glucoheptose
C7H14O7 Galactoheptose
Mannoheptose

We will not dwell on the structure and properties of simple sugars here. Our focus in this
course is to understand the functional role of these molecules in our diet. Do look up the
structure and properties of CHO in the Nutritional Biochemistry block 1, unit 1. This
information, we repeat, is crucial for your understanding of the functions of sugars. But,
first let us look at the common sources of sugars.

The following Table depicts various sugars and their common sources:
Table 1.1 Classification of Sugars, Sources and Characteristics
 Classification End Products on Source, Function or Characteristics
Hydrolysis
Monosachharides
Pentoses
Ribose Ribose Derived from pentoses of fruits and nucleic acids of
meat products & seafood, does not occur in free forms in
foods, is an aldose
Xylose Xylose Is an aldose
Arabinose Arabinose Is an aldose
Hexoses
Glucose Glucose Fruits, Honey, Corn Syrup
Fructose Fructose Fruits, Honey, Corn Syrup
Galactose Galactose Does not occur in free form in foods
Mannose Mannose Does not occur in free form in foods
Disaccharides
Sucrose Glucose Is an aldose
Fructose Beet and cane sugars, molasses, maple syrup, comes in
many crystal sizes and grades
Lactose Glucose
Galactose Milk and milk products
Maltose Glucose Malt products, low concentrations in plants and
processed foods

Now, let us study about the functional role of sugars in food.

1.4.1 The Functional Role of Sugars in Food
From the consumer’s point of view, sugars are primarily associated with sweetness.
Sweetness is essentially a physiological sensation. Thus it has to be tested by human
testers; the sweetness of solutions of different concentrations is compared to that of
standard sugar solutions until they appear the same. The ratio of concentrations then
gives the sweetness ratio.
The most obvious role of sugar in foods is to impart sweetness, however, there are a
number of other roles these play in food systems. For example, in candy making, the
structural role of crystallization is usually critical. In baked products, sugar not only
contributes to the browning of the product, but it may serve to tenderize the product
through its action on both the gelatinization of starch and denaturation of protein. Sugars
have numerous other functions as well, which make them important ingredients in many
foods. They add flavor and functionality that enhances cooking, also contribute to a safe
and varied food supply. Replacement of many of the functions of sugars in foods cannot
be readily achieved by other ingredients. Let us get to know a little more about these
functions. We start with the basic function sweetness.

1. Sweetness
Sweetness is the most recognized functional property of sweeteners. Our preference for
sweetness, regarded as innate, is apparent soon after birth and prior to postnatal learning,
and decreases with older age. Sweetness is also associated with feelings of pleasure and
appreciation or reward, which contribute to the appeal of sweet foods. The combination
of sugars and fats in confections provide a sweet taste and texture that compliment each
other. In beverages, sucrose provides sweetness without altering the subtle flavours of the
beverage.

The Table below shows sweetness of several common sugars relative to sucrose:
Table 1.2 Sweetness of Sugars
Name Sweetness
Fructose 1.73
Invert sugar 1.30
Sucrose 1
Glucose 0.74
Maltose 0.32
Lactose 0.16

Look at Table 1.3. It shows solubility of some of the common sugars in water:
Table 1.3 Solubility of Sugars in Water
 Name Solubility in grams/100 ml water
D-Fructose Highly soluble
D-Galactose 10.3
D-Glucose anhydrous 83
Lactose 8
Lyxose Highly soluble
Maltose 108
D-Mannose 248
Raffinose 14
Sucrose 179
D-xylose 117

2. Texture
Sugars make an important contribution to the texture of foods, commonly referred to as
‘mouthfeel’. For example, glucose syrups in ice-cream provide body and texture,
perceived as smoothness. Adding sugar syrup helps to prevent lactose crystallization,
which would cause a sandy or grainy texture associated with frozen dairy products. In
candy making, controlling the rate and extent of sugar crystallization provides a vast
array of different textures. These range from the soft textures of fondants and fudges,
where crystallization is minimized, to hard candies where crystallization results in a
desired grainy or crystalline structure. Honey has a non-crystallization property, and can
therefore be used in confectioneries to maintain a soft and smooth consistency.

In bakery applications, sugars are used to impart flavor, aroma and color. During the
mixing process, excess gluten development can make doughs and batters rigid and tough.
Addition of sugar will ensure that gluten maintains an optimal elasticity, allowing the
dough to expand and rise properly. During mixing, flour protein is surrounded with
water, forming gluten strands. The strands have thousands of balloon-like pockets that
trap gases produced during leavening. These gluten strands are highly elastic, and allow
the batter to stretch as the gases expand. Sugars compete for water with gluten proteins,
inhibiting their development and allowing proper volume and tender texture.
Sugars allow the dough to rise at an optimal rate during leavening. The naturally
occurring irregular surface texture of the sugar crystals encourages yeast growth and
effectiveness by providing an immediate and easily accessible source of nourishment.
Under appropriate conditions, the yeast cells break down the sugar crystals, releasing
carbon dioxide that causes the dough to rise. Addition of shorteners to the dough allows
the air to get trapped in the naturally irregular sugar crystals. As the shortening and sugar
are creamed together, the trapped air cells get interspersed in the mixture. During baking,
these air cells expand with carbon dioxide and other gases from the leavening agents to
ensure just the right volume. The sugars naturally interact with proteins from the beaten
eggs to stabilize the foam structure. This makes the egg foam more elastic, allowing it to
expand as it takes up gases from the leavening process.

In bakery products, sugar is recrystallized as water is removed during baking, resulting in

a crisp texture. This crispness is increased by the effects of browning (Maillard reaction),
which takes place when reducing sugars and nitrogen-containing ingredients (e.g.
protein) are heated together. You will read about browning later in this section under the
appearance function.

Sugars also act to tenderize bakery products by slowing the rate at which starch
molecules become interlinked and proteins break down. Glucose, fructose, sucrose and
maltose are used in bread making to increase dough yield and prevent excessive
stickiness.

While baking unshortened cakes along with sugars help ensure the cakes "set" correctly.
As the temperature rises, egg proteins coagulate, or form bonds among each other. Once
egg proteins coagulate, the cake "sets," forming its solid, mesh-like structure. Sugars
disperse among the egg proteins and naturally interfere with the bond formations, raising
the temperature at which they form.

The heat of baking causes the starch in flour to swell from moisture absorption and set in
gelatinization. To create a fine, uniformly-grained cake with a soft, smooth crumb
texture, the "setting" must be delayed until the optimal amounts of gases are produced by
the leavening agents. Sugars are hygroscopic and act to slow the gelatinization process by
competing with starch for moisture. This maintains the viscosity of the batter until the
optimal amount of gases are produced by the leavening agents, ensuring good texture and
volume.

Surface cracking is desirable in most cookies. As sugars re-crystallize, it gives off heat
that evaporates the water absorbed during mixing. This combines with leavening gases to
expand and cause surface cracking of the dry surface.

We have just learnt about the textural contribution of sugars in our foods. Next, we shall
focus on the preservative functions of sugars. But, first we shall take a break and attempt
the exercises given under Check Your Progress in exercise 2. This will help you to assess
your understanding of functionality of sugars learnt so far. Do check your responses with
the answers given at the end of the unit.
Check your Progress Exercise 2
1. Fill in the Blanks:
a) Carbohydrates are classified into ……....…………..……………………………....
b) Two major sources of carbohydrates in our diet are ……………………………….
c) Fibre is the term given to a mixture of substances which
…….………………………………………………………………………………...
d) Resistant starch is………………………………………………………………
e) Honey is better than sugars in confectionery industry because of its
………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Discuss the role of sugars in:
a) Preparation of dough and batters
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
b) Formation of egg foam
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
c) Baking of cakes
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
d) Surface cracking in cookies
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

3. Preservation
In many products, sugars play an important role in preservation. The addition of
monosaccharides, such as glucose or fructose, to jams and jellies inhibits microbial
growth and subsequent spoilage. Sugars have a great affinity for water, thus slowing
moisture loss in foods, like baked foods and extending the shelf life of these products.
Both honey and invert sugar help to retain moisture due to their high fructose content, as
do sorbitol (sucrose alcohol) and corn syrup.

Sugars are added to canned vegetables both to maintain firmness and minimize oxidation
when the can is opened. Inhibiting oxidation reactions not only protects against
deterioration of texture and flavour, but also the loss of colour resulting from the
breakdown of pigments. The interaction between sugars and water controls the moisture
in products like cakes and biscuits, to prevent drying out and staleness.

The technique of superior osmotic dehydration which is likely to provide better tasting,
more nutritious, environmentally-friendly dried foods for consumers, relies on the
principle of osmosis (movement of water and dissolved substances through the
membrane to equalize this concentration difference). The principle of osmosis has been
used for some time in the food industry. Food material of plant or animal origin is
immersed in concentrated solutions of water, containing solutes such as sugar or salt.
There is a transfer of water out of the food (dehydration) and a simultaneous transfer of
solute into the food (impregnation). By controlling the extent of dehydration and
impregnation, it is possible to modify the functional properties of foods. There is a
growing interest by the food industry in the process of osmotic dehydration, with the goal
of extending the shelf life while enhancing the overall quality of the final products.

4. Fermentation
The production of chemicals by fermenting various sugars is a well-accepted science. Its
use ranges from producing beverage alcohol and fuel-ethanol to making citric acid and
xanthan gum for food uses. However, the high price of sugar and the relatively low cost
of competing petroleum-based fuel has kept the production of chemicals mainly confined
to producing ethanol from corn sugar - until now.

Ethanol has been made since ancient times by the fermentation of sugars. All beverage
ethanol and more than half of industrial ethanol is still made by this process. Simple
sugars are the raw material. Zymase, an enzyme from yeast, changes the simple sugars
into ethanol and carbon dioxide. The decomposition of sugar during fermentation is
identical with the reactions by which sugar begins to burn during respiration.

The fermentation reaction, represented by the simple equation,

C6H12O6 2 CH3CH2OH + 2 CO2

is actually very complex, and impure cultures of yeast produce varying amounts of other
substances, including glycerin and various organic acids. We can split sucrose into
glucose and fructose either by means of a strong acid, such as sulphuric acid, or by an
enzyme obtained from yeast, namely saccharase or invertase. In the production of
beverages, such as whiskey and brandy, the impurities offer the flavor. Starches from
potatoes, corn, wheat, and other plants can also be used in the production of ethanol by
fermentation. However, starches must first be broken down into simple sugars. An
enzyme released by germinating barley, diastase, converts starches into sugars. Thus, the
germination of barley, called malting, is the first step in brewing beer from starchy plants,
such as corn and wheat.
Sugars, which are used to activate yeast for fermentation, are important in the brewing
and baking industries. The type and the amount of sugar added to the dough in baked
products can increase dough yield by influencing the rate of fermentation. Sugars, such as
sucrose, glucose and fermentable corn syrups, significantly contribute to sweetness and
softness in white breads. In contrast, sugars are either omitted or used in much lower
amounts for hard crust breads. In these breads, yeast is activated by sugars that are
formed when enzymes present in the flour act on starch.

Sugars that remain after fermentation affect flavour, contribute to the colour and texture
of crusts (through non-enzymatic browning and caramelization reactions) and influence
overall texture of the product.

5. Appearance
The Browning Reactions are complex reactions which occur when foods are processed.
In some the brown flavour is highly desirable and is intimately associated in our mind
with the delicacy of the product. In coffee, maple syrup, the brown crust of bread and all
baked goods, potato chips, roasted nuts and many other processed foods controlled
browning is necessary. Yet in other foods, browning during processing is undesirable and
forms off flavour and dull appearance or even objectionable colors. In drying of fruits or
vegetables and in canning or concentrating orange juice, it is highly desirable to avoid
browning. The presence of carbohydrates in foods is intimately connected with the
browning, which occurs. Other compounds are sometimes important but they are the ones
which have some of the reactive groups of the reducing sugars and are similar to them in
properties. The pigments, which are formed, are high molecular weight polymers whose
constitution is difficult to determine. The browning reactions appear to be complicated
not only as to the final product but also as to the course of numerous reactions. It has
been exceedingly difficult to assess the chemistry of this change in the complex mixtures,
which is encountered in almost every food.

Two major types of non enzymatic browning reaction have been recognized to occur in
foods during processing.
 1. Maillard Reaction: Reaction of aldehyde and ketone groups of sugars with
amino compounds (mostly amino acids, peptides, proteins), independent of
the presence of oxygen.
2. Caramelization: the change which occurs in polyhydroxycarbonyl compounds
(sugars and sugar acids) when they are heated to high temperature
independent of the presence of oxygen.

Let us learn about these reactions/changes:

a. Maillard Reaction: The Maillard reaction sometimes called nonenzymatic,
nonoxidative browning is simply the reaction between the amino group of a protein or
peptide or amino acid and the reducing group of a reducing sugar at high temperature. An
amino group from a protein combines with an aldehyde or ketone group of a reducing
sugar to produce brown colour and aroma in a variety of foods, including fried foods and
baked goods such as breads. It is interesting that the type of sugar and the type of amino
acids will impart the "brown" color thus obtained. The color may range from a yellow to
red. The key here is the reducing sugar. Those that are effective reducing sugars are
fructose, glucose, maltose, galactose and lactose. Surprisingly, table sugar, or sucrose, is
not a reducing sugar. The reactivity of glucose on heating contributes to the subtle orange
red colour in bread crust that is a result of browning (Maillard reaction). Caramelization
of fructose produces a dark brown crust. Breads that contain sucrose often yield a darker,
rich-coloured crust than breads prepared with glucose.

b. Caramelization: Caramelization results from the action of heat on sugars at about

175º C. At high temperatures, sugars dehydrate, break down and polymerize into viscous
caramels, the chemical changes associated with melting sugars result in a deep brown
amber colour and new flavours. Examples are the browning of bread when toasted in
which, caramelization takes place under the oven heat, and the sugar adds a golden-
brown, flavourful and slightly crisp surface that tastes great and helps retain moisture in
the product or the darkening of maple sap when heated to make maple syrup. The
carmelization reaction is attributed to a range of browning reactions and flavor
developments. Once the melting point has been obtained, sugars will caramelize. Each
sugar has its own carmelization temperature. Galactose, sucrose and glucose all
carmelizes, around 160°C, but fructose caramelizes at 110°C and maltose caramelizes at
about 180°C. Caramel has a pungent taste, is often bitter, is much less sweet than the
original sugar from which it is produced, is noncrystalline, and is soluble in water. Both
extent and rate of the caramelization reaction are influenced by the type of sugar being
heated.

The brown pigments formed are called as ‘melanins’ or ‘melanoids’ which are
unsaturated polymers. In both cases a carbonyl or polycarbonyl compound is required.
When a food is extracted to remove the carbonyl compounds, browning is retarded or
eliminated. The plan showing the various steps of non-enzymatic browning is presented
in figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2: Plan showing various steps of non-enzymatic browning

It is obvious from figure 1.2, that browning may occur by compounds entering at any
point. In the first reaction, aldoses and ketose react with amines and the reaction is known
as Amadori reaction.

The product of the reaction can undergo number of fates depending upon the conditions
of the reactions as can be seen in figure 1.2. It can, in neutral or acidic media, lose water
and form a ring compound of the Schiff’s base of hydroxymethyl furfural, or furfural and
then eliminate the amine to form the free hydroxy methyl furfural or furfural. In the dry
state, it can form reductones which have high reduction potential. Or, finally, the product
can undergo fission to form small molecules such as acetol (CH3 COCH2OH),
pyruvaldehyde (CH3COCHO), diacetyl (CH3COCOCH3) and others. In the diagram
shown, it is obvious that all of those compounds react with amines to form aldimines or
ketimines or polymerize to aldols and similar large molecules, which subsequently react
with amines. The final brown pigments are produced that contain nitrogen.
The second browning reaction is caramelization. Sugars will show caramelization when
heated at relatively high temperatures. This type of reaction is markedly affected by high
pH. While the browning of these carbohydrates is not as rapid as in the presence of amino
compounds, it is accelerated in the presence of carboxylic acid, salts of these acids,
phosphates and metal ions. These accelerators are commonly present in foods. The
nitrogen free intermediates formed in carbonyl amino browning reactions are also
produced in non amino browning The formation of 1,2 enolization, furfural and
hydroxymethyl furfural by dehydration and sugar fission products has been demonstrated
in some of the model systems. It has also been shown that these intermediates will form
colored polymers in the absence of amino compounds. Thus this fits well in the above
Figure after Amadori rearrangement forming different nitrogen free polymers.

6. Freezing Point
Sugars are effective in lowering the freezing point of a solution, which is important in
manufacturing frozen desserts and ice-cream products. Monosaccharides and corn syrups,
containing a high proportion of low molecular weight sugars are most effective at
lowering the freezing point. This property ensures smaller ice-crystals and greater
smoothness of the product. The use of corn syrup sweeteners in sherbets also helps to
prevent crystallization of sugars and promotes a smoother product.

7. Antioxidant Activity
Many carbohydrates are excellent scavengers for metal ions. Glucose, fructose and sugar
alcohols (sorbitol and mannitol) have the ability to block the reactive sites of ions, such
as copper, iron and to a lesser extent, cobalt. This is characteristic of monosaccharides
and aids in food preservation by retarding catalytic oxidation reactions. Furthermore,
Maillard reaction products are known to have antioxidant properties in food systems. For
this reason, some mixtures of Maillard reaction products have been employed in the food
industry as food additives for biscuits, cookies and sausages.
8. Miscellaneous Applications
Sugars are used in Custards, puddings, pie fillings and meringues depending on the sugar
to perform vital chemical and physical functions.
a. Custards
While flour protein forms the structure of baked goods, custards are composed of egg
protein structures. If the egg white solidifies too soon during cooking, the liquid
ingredients form droplets in a process known as “Syneresis” or “weeping." Sugars delay
the coagulation of egg proteins and break up clumps of protein molecules, so they finely
disperse in the liquid mixture and provide a smooth and stable consistency.
b. Puddings, Sauces and Pie Fillings
When dry starch is added directly to a hot liquid, the particles on the outside tend to cook
first, lumping the raw starch particles. The lumps are unpalatable and prevent proper
thickening. Adding sugars to starches before the hot liquid ensures the starch particles
disperse evenly into the mixture.
c. Meringues
Egg whites beaten for a meringue hold air bubbles because the mechanical action of the
beaters partially coagulates the egg protein. Sugars make the protein structure more
adhesive and increase its ability to hold air bubbles, resulting in a stiffer, higher and more
stable form.
d. Icings
Sugars provide sweetness, flavor, bulk and structure to icings and frostings. In addition to
sweetness and flavor, icings also function as a barrier to moisture, extending the
freshness.
e. Frozen Dessert Applications
Sugars enhance the creamy texture and pleasing taste of frozen desserts such as ice
cream, ice milk, frozen custard and sherbet.

Reducing sugars, such as glucose, fructose, maltose and lactose are recommended for ice
cream. Somewhat higher proportions are used for lower fat desserts, such as ice milk and
sherbet, in order to counterbalance the reduced amount of butter-fat. When cream is
replaced with lower fat ingredients, such as milk or fruit puree, additional amounts of
sugars are necessary to ensure a smooth, creamy mouthfeel and balanced flavor.

Flavors and Mouthfeel: In frozen desserts, sugars balance flavor and mouthfeel. Since
low temperatures tend to numb the taste buds, sugars enhance flavors, thereby
eliminating the need for additional flavor ingredients. They also increase viscosity
(thickness), imparting a thick and creamy mouthfeel.

Check your Progress-Exercise 3

1. State whether the following statements are true or false.
a) Addition of sugars to jams and jellies slows down the moisture loss, which
extends their shelf life.
b) Maillard reaction and caramelization involve the reaction of reducing group of
sugar and amine.
c) In Amadori reaction, aldoses and ketoses react with carboxyl group.
d) The presence of an acid does not have an affect on the process of caramelization.
2. Fill in the blanks:
a) Sugars are added to canned vegetables to
………………………………………………………………………………………
b) The principle of osmosis involves
………………………………………………………………………………………
c) Sucrose can be split into its constituents by the action of ………..
…………………… or ……………………………………………………………
d) The dark pigments produced by Maillard Reaction are termed as…………………
e) Sugars are important constituents of frozen desserts as
they………………………………………………………………………………….
3. Explain the following in 1-2 lines:
a) Maillard Reaction
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
b) Caramelization
 ………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
c) Weeping
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
d) Amadori Reaction
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

______________________________________________________________________
1.5 SWEETENERS
_______________________________________________________________________

As a group, artificial sweeteners are classed as "non-nutritive". Thus, they provide sweet
sensation to the tastebuds, without raising blood sugar levels or insulin, and are useful for
weight-loss because they are calorie- and carbohydrate-free.

Artificial sweeteners, like saccharin, nutrasweet (aspartame) and the cyclamates, provide
sugar-like taste and they are far sweeter than the sugars themselves. Small amounts of
these synthetic chemicals can replace sugars. Artificial sweeteners provide taste
properties for those who wish to reduce calories, or those with illnesses like diabetes
whose body cannot tolerate sugars. The artificial sweetener, saccharine, was discovered
accidentally in the 19th century. A chemist tasted sweetness on his hands and his
observation led to the identification of a particular chemical 500 times sweeter than
sugar, which has served as a substitute for sugar for more than 100 years. The chemicals
shown in Figure 1.3 are all artificial sweeteners i.e. sugar
substitutes.
Figure 1.3: Artificial Sweeteners

Some of these are available as tablets, as sugar substitute and others appear as ingredients
in many food products, not just in 'diet' foods. Out of the compounds shown, aspartame
finds maximum use in the food and other products. The chemical name for aspartame is
N-L-α-aspartyl-L-phenylalanine 1-methyl ester, thus the name aspartame was extracted.
In 1965, James Schlatter, of the G. D. Searle pharmaceutical company, inadvertently
tasted an experimental compound that he had synthesized in an attempt to discover a
better gastric hormone inhibitor, an ulcer drug. This unexpected and fortunate event (for,
as we all know, we are instructed to limit exposure to chemicals with unknown
properties) led to the development, approval, marketing, and acceptance of the most
widely used "artificial" sweetener in the world called ‘aspartame’ more commonly
known by its trademark name, NutraSweet. However, one of the drawbacks of aspartame
is its instability to heat and acid. Some interesting concepts related to aspartame are
highlighted in the aspartame concept presented in figure 1.3.

Figure 1.4: Aspartame concept

Acesulfame-K (potassium salt of 6-methyl-1, 2, 3-oxathazin-4(3H)-one 2, 2 dioxide) is a

sweetener which is commonly used in dry mixes, table uses and chewing gum. It is 200
times as sweet as sugar and it is not metabolised and is thus non-caloric. Food products
often contain a mixture of sweeteners. This is because it has been found that they have a
synergistic effect whereby the sweetness of a mixture is greater than that of the individual
components. This means that less amount can be used to get the same apparent
sweetness.

Sucralose (1,6-dichloro-1,6-dideoxy-β-D-fructofuranosyl-4-chloro-4-deoxy-α-D-
galactopyranoside) is the only non-nutritive sweetener based on sucrose. Its structure is
shown in the figure 1.3 for your better understanding. It is selectively chlorinated and the
glycosidic link between the two rings is resistant to hydrolysis by acid or enzymes thus, it
is not metabolised. It is 400-800 times sweeter than sucrose. It is highly soluble in water
and is stable to heat.

Alitame (L-α-aspartyl-N-(2,2,4,4-tetramethyl-3-thietanyl)-D-alaninamide), as illustrated

in figure 1.3, is a sweetener based on an amino acid, like aspartame. It is 2000 times as
sweet as sugar and although it is metabolised, very little is needed and it is noncaloric. (1
g can replace 2 kg of sucrose). Alitame has a 'sweet and clean taste'.

The oldest artificial sweetener is saccharin (the calcium or sodium salt of 1, 2-

benzisothiazol-3(2H)-one 1, 1-dioxide) as shown in the figure 1.3, is used for over a
century. It is 300 times as sweet as sucrose, but many people don't like its bitter aftertaste.
It is also controversial as some animal studies showed that massive doses of saccharin
produced cancer. However, it was not banned as the evidence of harm to humans wasn't
there and the levels fed to rats were so high for its carcinogenic effect. It is widely used in
a variety of products and the health risk, compared to the risk of over-consumption of
sucrose, appear to be much lesser.

Another sweetener is cyclamate (sodium cyclohexylsulphamate). Have a look at its

structure as shown in the figure 1.3. It is only 30 times as sweet as sucrose, which does
not give it a strong competitive advantage.
Several minor sweeteners are under evaluation which were derived from natural sources:
For e.g., stevioside from a South American plant; glycyrrhizin from licorice root;
thaumatin, a mixture of proteins from a West African fruit.

The most interesting potential sweetener from a chemical point-of-view is left-handed

Sucrose. It is also called invert sugar. Let us learn about this natural sweetener.

INVERT SUGAR
Invert sugar is sucrose, which can be hydrolysed to split the disaccharide into its
component sugars, fructose and glucose. It is called invert sugar because hydrolysis of
sucrose causes the solution to alter the rotation of polarised light, an effect known as the
inversion of sucrose. This inversion takes place due to the presence of either enzyme or
acid. The fructose and glucose combination is much more soluble than the sucrose
crystals and so the consumer perceives syrup that is very sweet.

High Fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS) is manufactured from corn starch. The corn starch is
hydrolyzed by acid or enzyme and then the resulting glucose is "inverted" into fructose.
The percentage of inversion can be changed by altering the processing conditions. This is
another processing method in foods, particularly in the sweetener area.

In food systems, acid and enzymes hydrolyze and invert the sugars into their component
monosaccharides. The implications of this are that, any product, which has an acid
compound, may bring about the hydrolysis of sucrose into fructose and glucose. This is
particularly important, if the product is heated. Fructose and glucose being reducing
sugars (whereas sucrose is not), enhance browning. They are more soluble and more
hygroscopic than sucrose. Crystallization of sugar can be a problem, in a variety of
products. For example, in the candy industry.

Table 1.4 depicts the relative sweetness of the various sweeteners. It is the standard to
compare the sweetness of a product to sucrose. Sucrose is 100 and is the standard for
comparison.
 Sugars and sweetners Rating
Fructose 140
HFCS 120-160
Sucrose 100
Glucose 70-80
70DE corn syrup 70-75
Regular corn syrup 50
Maltose 30-50
Galactose 32
Lactose 20
High conversion corn syrup 65
Regular conversion corn syrup 50
HFCS-90% 120-160
HFCS-55% >100
HFCS-42% 100
Invert Sugar 50
Sorbitol 50
Xylitol 100
Saccharin 30,000-50,000
Sucrol [Dulcin] 20,000
Honey 97
Molasses 74
Sorghum Syrup 69
Corn Syrup 30
Aspartame 180x
Sucralose 600x
Saccharin 300x

Well then, you have a wide range of sweeteners to choose from. Which sweetener to
select? Is aspartame better or saccharine? Very often we are confronted by such issues.
The bootom line is look for the following considerations while selecting a sweetener:
 ¾ the desired taste profile of the food
¾ the interaction between sugars and/or sweeteners
¾ the interaction between sugars and sweeteners and other ingredients
¾ the cost of sugars/sweeteners

Check Your Progress-Exercise 4

1. Fill in the blanks:
a) Artificial sweetners are classed as ‘non-nutritive’ because they
…………………………………................................................................................
b) The chemical name of Aspartame is………………………………………………..
c) An example of invert sugar is………………………………………………………
d) Arrange the following sweetners in increasing order of sweetness.
Glucose, Sucrose, Invert sugar, Fructose, Saccharin, honey, Aspartame
………………………………………………………………………………………
e) A few considerations to be kept in mind while selecting sweetener are
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
f) The most commonly used sweetner is……………………………………………..
g) The comparative sweetness ranking of other sweetners is made by considering the
sweetness of sucrose as…………………

1.6 LET US SUM UP

Food Science and Technology are so inextricably linked that usually these are treated as
one field of study. While Food Science deals with the study the nature of foods, the
causes of their deterioration and the principles underlying food processing, Food
Technology is the application of food science to the selection, preservation, processing,
packaging, distribution and use of safe, nutritious, and wholesome food. It is the
application of the principles and facts of science, engineering, and mathematics to the
processing, preservation, storage, and utilization of foods with the final aim of delivery of
safe, nutritious and cost effective food to the customer.

The simplest carbohydrates are called sugars (or monosaccharides). In this unit you learnt
about the major use of sugars in the food industry that is to provide the sweetness in
different products. Apart from that, the sugars have a number of other functions in the
food systems. An important function of the sugars is their involvement in the process
known as non-enzymatic browning, which is desirable in various food products,
especially in bakery products, but undesirable in other. However, in the patients, who are
not able to metabolise sugars (particularly Diabetics), various sugar replacers, also known
as artificial sweeteners, are available (with low to no calorific value), the major player of
artificial sweetener is aspartame.

________________________________________________________________________
1.7 GLOSSARY
________________________________________________________________________

Biosensors : A device that uses biological materials to monitor the

presence of various chemicals in a substance.
Caramelization : Formation of dark colored complexes when sugars are
heated at high temperature
Complex : Also known as Polysaccharides. Made up of many
Carbohydrates monosaccharide units joined together in a linear or
branched fashion
Invert sugar : Hydrolysed sugar to produce the constituents ie., glucose
and fructose
Modified starches : Modification of starch structure by physical / chemical
means to attain a particular functional property(ies)
Monosaccharides : Simplest form of carbohydrates which can not be
hydrolysed further into smaller units.
Reducing sugar : Sugars with free aldehyde or ketone group, capable of
 reducing cupric to cuprous form in alkaline medium

1.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check your Progress-Exercise 1

1 The major underlying principles of consumer satisfaction are: (any two of the
following):
• Safety
• Organoleptic properties
• Affordability
• Nutrition

2. The emerging areas in Food Science and Technology are: (any two of the
following):
• Food Safety
• High energy electric pulse processing
• Freeze concentration
• Hydrostatic pressure processing

Check Your Progress-Exercise 2

1. a) Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, Polysaccharides
b) Starches and Sugars
a) cannot be digested in small intestine
b) undigested starch which passes into large intestine, where it is fermented
by bacteria
c) non-crystallization property.

2.
a) Addition of sugar ensures that gluten maintains an optimal elasticity allowing the
dough to rise and expand properly.
b) Sugars interact with proteins from the beaten eggs to stabilise the foam structure,
making it more elastic.
c) In cakes, the egg proteins coagulate to form a mesh-like structures. Sugars
disperse among the egg proteins and raise the temperature at which the form.
They also slow gelatinization process by competing with starch for moisture,
which maintains viscosity of batter and ensures good texture and volume.
d) Re-crystallization of sugars gives off heat that evaporates the water absorbed
during mixing. This combines with leavening gases to expand and cause surface
cracking of the dry surface of cookies.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1.
a) True
b) False
c) True
d) False

2.
a) maintain firmness and minimize oxidation
b) movement of water and dissolved sustances through the membrane
c) H2SO4 or Zymare
d) Melanins
e) Balance flavor and mouthfeel.

3.
a) Reaction of aldehyde and ketone compounds with amine groups, mostly amino
acids, peptides and proteins at a high temperature is referred to as Maillard
reaction. It is also called as non-enzymatic, non oxidative browning.
b) Caramelization is the change which occurs in polyhydroxycarbonyl compounds
when heated to high temperatures at about 175oC.
c) The early solidification of egg-whites resulting in the formation of droplets of the
liquid ingredients is referred to as weeping.
d) Amadori reaction is the reaction of aldoses and ketoses with amines.

Check Your Progress-Exercise 4

1.
a) Calorie and carbohydrate-free
b) N-L-X aspartyl-L- phenylalanine 1-methylester
c) Sucrose
d) Invert sugar, honey, Glucose, Sucrose, Frustose, Aspartame, Saccharin
e) taste profile of food, interaction between sugars, sweetners and other ingredients,
and cost.
f) Aspartame
g) 100.
UNIT –2 Food Polysaccharides and their Applications

Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Characteristics and Functional Properties of Native and Modified Starches
2.2.1 Starches
2.2.2 Modified starches
2.3 Food Hydrocolloids – An Introduction
2.3.1 Classification of Hydrocolloids
2.4 Non-Starch Polysaccharides
2.4.1 Cellulose
2.4.2 Carboxy methyl cellulose
2.4.3 Hemicellulose
2.4.4 Pectin
2.5 Algal Polysaccharides
2.5.1 Agar
2.5.2 Alginate
2.5.3 Carrageenan
2.6 Seed Gums
2.6.1 Locust Bean
2.6.2 Guar Gum
2.7 Exudate Gums
2.5.1 Gum Arabic
2.5.2 Gum Ghatti
2.5.3 Gum Karaya
2.5.4 Gum Tragacanth
2.8 Microbial Polysaccharides
2.7.1 Xanthan
2.7.2 Gellan
2.7.3 Curdlan
2.7.4 Dextran
2.7.5 Pullulan
2.9 Let Us Sum Up
2.10 Glossary
2.11 Answers to Check your Progress Exercises

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In the last unit we read about the simple sugars i.e. monosaccharide,
di/oligosaccharides. Continuing with our discussion on carbohydrates, in this unit we
will focus on polysaccharides. You would be surprised to learn that polysaccharides can

1
 be produced from a wide range of sources namely plants, algae, microbes, yeast etc.
You may already know that plants contain two main types of polysaccharides. They are
the starch and non-starch polysaccharides (NSP) commonly referred to as dietary fibre.
In addition food polysaccharides also include exudates gums, seed gums, microbial
polysaccharides, algal polysaccharides. We shall learn about these food polysaccharides
in this unit. What are the characteristics, properties and functions of food starches?
What are modified starches? What is their role in our food? These are the issues
discussed in the first part of this unit. Next, the unit focuses on non-starch
polysaccharides (NSP), microbial polysaccharides, algal polysaccharides, exudates
gums. Different food polysaccharides – their structure, properties and functionality - are
described in this unit. You will find this unit quite comprehensive and perhaps a bit
exhaustive. Read the contents carefully and make notes to facilitate your understanding
of polysaccharides.

Objectives
After studying this unit you will be able to:
• define starches and modified starches
• explain the structural components and properties, functionality of starches in our
food
• discuss the role of modified starches in the food industry and in home use
• present the classification of NSP
• describe the structure, properties and functions of different NSPs in our food.

2.2 CHARACTERISTICS AND FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF NATIVE

AND MODIFIED STARCHES

In this section we will read about starch and modified starches. We will first look at the
structural components of starch and go on to talk about its properties and finally a
detailed discussion on the varied uses of starch in our food. The next sub-section will
focus on modified starches.

2
2.2.1 Starches
Can you name a few common food sources of starch in our diet? Yes potato, wheat, rice,
corn (maize), tapioca, pasta etc. are some of the common food sources of starch in our
diet. Table 2.1 presents the percentage of starch in some of the foods/food items.
Table 2.1: Starch percent in different foods
Food Starch (%)
Baby foods 3-5
Beverages (bottlers emulsion) 0.2-0.3
Butter sauces 0.3-0.5
Cake mix and icing 0.3-0.5
Pourable 1.5-2.3
Spoonable 2.8-5.0
Gum candy 5-12
Harvard style beets 2-4
Marshmallows 0.5-1.0
Pie crust 0.5-1.2
Pie filling 3-5
Canned 4.5-6.5
Cooked 5-8
Instant 3-7

Starch is the major carbohydrate reserve in plant tubers and seed endosperm where it is
found as granules. Starch is second only to cellulose in abundance as one of the main
carbohydrates synthesized in plants. Starch also represents the primary energy source
(60-80%) for many animals including humans. It’s a very valuable ingredient to the food
industry, owing to its versatility, consistent supply and relatively inexpensive cost. Starch
is mainly used as a thickener but it can also function as an adhesive, binder,
encapsulating agent, film former, gelling agent, water binder, texturizer, fat sparing agent
with numerous other applications in the food and non food areas. We will learn about
these various functions of starches in this section. But, first an understanding of its
structure is important. Let us learn about the structure.
2.2.1.1 The Starch Granule – Structure and Characteristics
Starch is a polysaccharide, a chain of many glucose molecules. There are two types of
glucose chains in starch. One is a simple chain called amylose, and the other is a complex
branched form called amylopectin as indicated in figures 2.1(a) and 2.1(b).

3
 Figure 2.1(a): Representative Partial Structure of Amylose

Figure 2.1 (b): Representative Partial Structure of Amylopectin

4
Starch granules, primarily, are made up of amylose (20-30%) and or amylopectin (70-
80%) molecules arranged radially. Each granule typically containing several million
amylopectin molecules, made up of several million glucose units, accompanied by a
much larger number of smaller amylose molecules, made up of 500 to 20,000 glucose
units in each chain. Amylopectin is the major component of most of the starches and is
responsible for the organization of the granules. Amylopectin (without amylose) can be
isolated from 'waxy' maize starch (is so termed because when the kernel is cut the new
surface appears as vitreous or waxy), whereas amylose (without amylopectin) is best
isolated after specifically hydrolysing the amylopectin with pullulanase.

Lets get to know a bit more about amylase and amylopectin, the building blocks of
starch.

A. Amylose
Amylose molecules have molecular weights ranging from 104-206. Amylose can form an
extended shape (hydrodynamic radius 7-22 nm) but generally tends to wind up into a
rather stiff left-handed single helix or form even stiffer parallel left-handed double helical
junction zones. The interior of the helix contains only hydrogen atoms and is lipophilic,
while the hydroxyl groups are positioned on the exterior of the coil as can be seen in
figure 1a. Most starches contain about 25% amylose. The two high amylose corn
starches that are commercially available have apparent amylose contents of about 52%
and 70-75%.

B. Amylopectin
Amylopectin forms a branched structure with about 30 glucose units in a chain between
branches. There are usually slightly more 'outer' unbranched chains (called A-chains)
than 'inner' branched chains (called B-chains) as indicated in figure 2.2(a). There is only
one chain (called the C-chain) containing the single reducing group.

5
As indicated earlier, each amylopectin molecule contains up to two million glucose
residues in a compact structure. The branched structure of the amylopectin makes the
molecule somewhat striped in appearance, with the knotted branch points all in a row,
and the smooth chains separating them. These molecules are so large that this stripped
appearance shows up under the light microscope, forming what appears to be “growth
rings” in the starch grain as can be seen in figure 2.2(b).

6
 Figure 2.2: The amylopectin molecule

The salient properties of amylopectin and amylose are summarized in Table 2.2.

7
Table 2.2: Properties of Amylopectin and Amylose
Properties Amylose Amylopectin
General studies Essentially linear Highly branched
Average chain length(glucose 20-25 20-30
residues)
Degree of polymerization 10-1000 10,000-100,000
Molecular weight 104-106 106-108
Reaction with iodine Intense blue Red violet
λmax (maximum of iodine Approx. 660nm Approx.540nm
starch complex)
Conversion into maltose (%)
a) with β-amylase Approx.100 Approx. 55
b) with isoamylase, then with β- Approx. 100 Approx.105
amylase
Iodine affinity (%) 19-20 1
Blue value 1-4 0.05
X-ray analysis High degree of crystallinity Amorphous
Solubility in water Variable Soluble
Stability in aqueous solution Retrogrades readily Stable

In plants, starch is packaged in granules, which vary in their shape and size, when
isolated from different sources. The size of these granules varies from 2-150µ. The larger
granule gelatinizes more easily while the smaller ones have better dispensability. In
general, the granules from tubers are larger and spherical whereas those from cereals are
small and polyhedric. The granules from legumes may be of kidney shaped.

With our knowledge of amylose and amylopectin let us move on to understand the
properties of starches.

2.2.1.2 Starch Properties

Gelatinization and retrogradation are the basic properties of starches. What are these
properties and its application in food industry, let’s find out.

A. Starch Gelatinisation: Starch is insoluble in cold water but in warm water it swells
until its gelatinization temperature begins to lose its structure and leaches out its

8
constituents. This act of converting into a substance like jelly is called gelatinization.
Gelatinization is a phenomenon which takes place in the presence of heat and moisture.
Cooking the starch to 1000 C disrupts H-bonding and causes swelling of the granule and
solubilization of the constituent starch polymers. The suspension increases in viscosity,
becomes less opaque and eventually forms a paste. This process is referred to as
gelatinization. During gelatinisation, water is absorbed and as a result, the starch
granule swells irreversibly to several times of its size.

Let us learn about starch gelatinization in more details. Undamaged starch granules are
insoluble in cold water but can imbibe water reversibly i.e. they can swell slightly and
then return to their original size on drying, when starch is heated with excess of water, the
molecular order of the granule is gradually and irreversibly destroyed at the gelatinisation
temperature, which is approximately in the range of 60-70°C for most of the starches.
Amylose is preferentially leached out of the network and gets solubilized, however, some
leaching of amylose can also occur prior to gelatinization. When further heated, starch
granules are disrupted and partial solubilization is achieved. Total gelatinization usually
occurs over a temperature range with larger granules generally gelatinizing first. At
temperatures below 100° C, true molecular solution is not achieved and the swollen
hydrated granules consisting of mainly amylopectin remain. Continued heating of starch
granules in excess water results in further granule swelling, additional leaching of soluble
components (primarily amylose) and eventually, total disruption of granules especially
with the application of shear forces,. This phenomenon results in the formation of a starch
paste. The melting temperature of the crystallites is 190°C. Gelatinization is an
endothermic process (10 mJ/mg), i.e. a chemical reaction accompanied by the absorption
of heat.
B. Starch Retrogradation: The starch paste or solution obtained after the gelatinisation is
not stable and generally produces a viscoelastic, firm and rigid gel. Structural
transformation occurs during storage. As starch pastes are cooled and stored, the starch
becomes progressively less soluble. In dilute solution, starch molecules will precipitate,
with the insoluble material being difficult to redissolve by heating. The collective
processes of dissolved starch becoming less soluble are called retrogradation.

9
Retrogradation of cooked starch involves constituent polymers, amylose and
amylopectin, with amylose undergoing retrogradation at a much more rapid rate than
does amylopectin. Upon cooling, the dispersed starch polysaccharides re-associate.
Concentrated amylose solutions rapidly gel on cooling to room temperature.
Subsequently, some of the amylose molecules slowly crystallize. The gel can only be
melted at 160°C. The amylopectin with gelatinized granules can also crystallize but this
association can be reversed by heating to 70°C. Thus after retrogradation of a starch-
water mixture, a partially crystalline polymer system is again obtained.

After studying the structure, properties of starches we now move on to the functions of
starches.

2.2.1.3 Functional Properties of Starches

You already know that starch is a major source of energy (calories) in grains and tubers,
and foods made from them. However, when starch is added to products as an ingredient,
it is the functional properties of the starch that are usually important, not the calories. Let
us learn about these functional properties of starches.

Starches (being versatile and cheap) have an enormous number of food uses, including
adhesive, bindings, clouding, dusting, film forming, foam strengthening, anti-staling,
gelling, glazing, moisture retaining, stabilizing, texturizing and thickening applications as
highlighted in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3: Functions of Starches

10
 Functions of starch Examples
Thickener Puddings
Sauces
Pie fillings
Binder Formed meats
Breaded items
Encapsulation, Emulsion stabilizer Flavours
Bottlers emulsion
Coating Candles
Water Binder Cakes
Free flowing/ Bulking agent Baking powder
Releasing agent Candy making
Fat replacer Salad dressing
Baked goods
Dairy products

Starch is the main thickener in gravies, sauces and puddings. You learnt under the
properties that starch absorbs water, and becomes a gel when cooked. As the starch
swells up with water, the amylose leaches out, and the amylopectin forms the gel. Some
starches have higher amylopectin content, and make better gels than those containing lots
of amylose. Remember, higher the amylose content lower is the swelling power and
smaller is the gel strength for the same starch concentration. As a thickener (as opposed
to a gel) it is the amylose that has the main function. The long water-soluble chains
increase the viscosity, which does not change much with change in temperature. Amylose
chains tend to curl up into helices (spirals) with the hydrophobic parts inside. This allows
them to trap lipids (oils and fats) molecules inside the helix, as well as aroma molecules.

Because starches are so good at absorbing water and bulking/swelling up, they are
important in the “mouth feel” of many food products, and are used as fat substitutes.
Swelling power is determined after heating the starch in excess water and is the ratio of
the wet weight of the sedimented gel formed to its dry weight. It will depend on the
processing conditions (temperature, time, stirring, centrifugation) and may be thought of
as its water binding capacity. This water binding ability of starches (high but relatively
weak) can provide body and texture to food stuffs. Starches are added to processed meat
(hot dogs, sausages etc.) as a filler, binder, moisture retainer, and fat substitute. They are

11
used in extruded cereals, ready-to-eat breakfast cereals and snacks to hold the shape of
the material.

A significant proportion of starch in the normal diet escapes degradation in the stomach
and small intestine and is labeled 'resistant starch' but this portion is difficult to measure
and depends on a number of factors including the form of starch and the method of
cooking prior to consumption. Resistant starch should be considered a dietary fiber and
can be defined as the sum of starch and products of starch degradation not absorbed in
the small intestine of healthy individuals. It serves as a primary source of substrate for
intestinal microflora, which make important vitamins (and intestinal gas) and has several
important physiological roles. Resistant starch has been categorized as physically
inaccessible (RS1), raw ungelatinized starch (e.g. in banana; RS2), thermally stable
retrograded starch (e.g. as found in bread, especially stale bread; RS3) and chemically
modified starch (RS4). Many functional derivatives of starches are marketed including
cross-linked, oxidized, acetylated, hydroxypropylated and partially hydrolyzed material.
For example, partially hydrolyzed (i.e., about two bonds hydrolyzed out of eleven) starch
(dextrin) is used in sauces to control viscosity.

So far we have studied about the native starches. You may have heard about modified
starches. What are modified starches? The next section deals exclusively with modified
starches- the types, characteristics and functions.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1. List a few applications of starches in the food industry.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. What do you understand by the terms retrogradation and gelatinization?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

12
3. Fill in the blanks:
(i) ---------------------- component in the starch is responsible for the organization of
starch granules.
(ii) The growth rings in the starch grain are due to --------------------------- .
(iii) The sum of starch and products of starch retrogradation not absorbed in the small
intestine of healthy individuals is referred to as ------------------------------- .
(iv) The measurement of resistant starch depends upon -------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------- .
(v) Swelling power of the starches is the ratio of --------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------- .

2.2.2 Modified Starches

In your opinion, what would be an ideal starch for all industrial uses including in food
use? Well, one would think an ideal starch for most of the foods should be able to
produce a smooth texture with a heavy bodied consistency but no gel phase, have a bland
flavour, give a clean transparent solution and paste, retain its thickening power at high
temperature, high shear and low temperature. Unfortunately, native starches cannot
satisfy this wide range of desirable properties. The shortcomings encountered for
different applications could be the lack of free flowing properties of water repellence of
the starch granules, insolubility or failure of the granules to swell and develop viscosity
after cooking, cohesive or rubbery texture of the cooked starch particularly of waxy corn,
potato and tapioca starch, the sensitivity of the cooked starch to breakdown during
extended cooking when exposed to shear or low pH, the lack of clarity and the tendency
of starch sols from conventional cereal starches to become opaque and gel when cooled
etc.

The native starches are, therefore, modified to overcome one or more of the above
shortcomings thus expanding the usefulness of starch for myriad of industrial
applications. Food starches, which have one or more of their original characteristics
altered by treatment in accordance with good manufacturing practice, are therefore,
referred to as modified starches.

13
Food scientists have developed a number of modified starches by reactions on granular
starches. What are these modifications? Let’s find out.

2.2.2.1 Modification of Food Starches

Positive attributes of starches can be greatly improved and/or negative characteristics
diminished by slight and relatively simple modifications. Modifications of native starch
are designed to change one or more of the following properties:-

(i) Gelatinization temperature and cooking characteristics.

(ii) Solid viscosity relationships.
(iii) Retrogradation characteristics.
(iv) Ionic character.
(v) Resistance to changes in viscosity of pastes due to acid conditions, mechanical
shear, high temperature.

Modification of native starch can be either physical or chemical. Chemical modification

includes reaction of starch with acid or alkali and is called acid modified starch and
oxidized starch, respectively. Hydrolysis was a commonly used method of modification
since long time and vinegar as well as amylolytic enzymes were used for this treatment.

Starch modification can also be induced by modifying the processes of starch

biosynthesis by targeting and manipulating specific enzymes using transgenic
technologies, thus leading to the production of novel materials with dedicated
commercial applications.

In the case of starches treated with heat in presence of acid or alkali, the alteration is a
minor fragmentation; similarly, when the starch is bleached, the change is essentially in
color only. Oxidation involves the deliberate production of carboxyl group in the
molecule. Treatment with reagents, such as orthophosphoric acid results in partial
substitution in the 2, 6 or 3 position of the anhydroglucose unit unless the 6-position is
occupied for branching. In case of cross bonding, where a polyfunctional substituting
agent such as phosphorous oxychloride connects two chains, the structure can be

14
represented by starch –O-R-O- starch (where R=Cross bonding group and starch refers to
the linear and/or branched structure). The commercial sample can be specified by the
parameter specific for the particular type of modification and also may be further
specified, as to the loss on drying, sulfated ash, protein and fat.

Improved performance of starches may be realized by physical and chemical

modifications. The major physically modified starch is pre-gelatinised starch. It swells in
cold water giving an instant paste. It is used in all cases where a cold water paste is
needed such as in convenience foods. In applications requiring specific and narrow
process and product requirements, chemically modified or “TAILOR MADE” food
starches have been the most successful.

A brief summary of various modified starches is presented in Table 2.4.

Table 2.4: Preparation and properties of modified starches

15
 Product Methods Properties Uses

1 Acid Conc. Starch Low paste viscosity, Candy, textile laundry

modified slurry + 1-3% disintegrates easily,
(Thin boiling) acid; about more soluble, higher
0
50 C, 12 hr GT, higher gel
strength

2 Oxidized Slurry + Lower GT, easy Oxidized starch has

(thin boiling) alkaline pasting, low paste been applied in foods
sodium viscosity, more as coating and sealing
hypochlorite, soluble, cold sol agents in confectionery,
pH 8-10, 21- fluid and clear as emulsifier, as dough
380C conditioner for bread,
as gum Arabic (a NSP)
replacer and as binding
agent in batter
application.

Provides excellent
3 Esters Slurry + acetic Lower GT, swells
stabilizing and
Acetate anhydride; easily, higher peak
0 thickening performance
<50 C viscosity, resistant to
for use in baked,
reassociation, cold
frozen, canned, dry
sol fluid and clear,
foods, gravies etc.
freeze thaw stable

4 Phosphate Starch+ -do-, Used as emulsifiers for

monoester phosphate salt; vegetable oil in water
(anionic) 120-1400C Being ionic, systems and as pudding
susceptible to salts. starches and thickening
At 0.07DS, swells in agents.
cold water.
Hydroxypropyl
5 Ethers – Slurry + alkali -do-
starches find
+ ethylene
Hydroxyethyl Ether linkage not application as coffee
oxide
starch, cleaved by acid, whiteners, thickener in
hydroxypro- alkali, oxidation, a multitude of food and
pyl starches hence can be used food related products.
under drastic The outstanding
conditons. Non- storage stability and
ionic, so unaffected freeze/thaw properties

16
 by electrolytes. of these starches make
them a premier product
for the food industry.

6 Cationic Slurry + -do- Not often used for food

starch halogenated or purposes.
Tertiary apoxy Active even at low
amino alkyl alkylamine + pH. At 0.07 DS,
ethers NaoH; 40- swells in cold water.
450C, 6-12 hr, If very high DS,
then acid thermoplastic

7 Cross bonded Mixed Paste viscosity Because of

anhydride remarkable stable to commercially
phosphorous cooking, important viscosity-
hypochlorite temperature, acid, textural properties, it is
trimeta- shear,‘short’ non- often employed in
phosphate, cohesive gel. If conjunction with other
epichlorohydri highly cross-linked, types of modification
n + alkali + does not swell. such as oxidation,
heat. phosphorylation and
esterification

8 Pre Slurry drum Swells in cold All (convenience

gelatinized dried, foods)
extrusion

GT ; Gelatinisation temperature DS ; Degree of substitution

A detailed discussion on the various uses of modified starches follows.

2.2.2.4 Uses of modified starches in food and confectionery industries

Visit a grocery shop and look out for products such as the instant desserts, jelly beans,
salad dressings, tomato and pizza toppings, canned soups etc. You would be surprised to
learn that all these and many such products have modified starches as ingredients.
Modified starches are used in a variety of products. Many types are available and have
different functions depending on the way in which the starch has been modified. Few

17
examples of products containing modified starches and how it works is illustrated
herewith.
Types of starches and their action
Product Modified Starch How it does work?

Instant Desserts Enables the product to Starch is added in a pre-

thicken without requiring gelatinized form which swells in
heat. cold water, thickening the product
without the use of heat.

Jelly Beans Produces a very strong gel Starch is treated with an acid to
coating. produce very strong gel. This
forms the shell of the jelly bean.

Salad Dressing Helps to stabilise an oil-in- French dressing the hydrophobic

water emulsion. part of the starch wraps around
the oil droplet, so the hydrophilic
(water loving) part of the starch is
in contact with the water. This
keeps the oil droplets suspended
in the water.
Tomato and Pizza Produces a gel which Starch is treated with a chlorine
Toppings thickens on heating, solution. This produces a get
preventing the topping from which thickens on heating and
boiling over. prevents the topping from spilling
over. On cooling the topping
flows.

Battered Fish Improves the adhesion of Oxidation of starch can improve

the coating. its binding properties, which can
be used to increase the stickiness
of foods, such as batter applied to
fish.

Canned Soups Prevents the product from Bonding starch with phosphate
separating on standing. allows the starch to absorb more
water and helps keep the
ingredients of the soup together.

Uses of oxidised starches are further illustrated herewith.

Oxidised starch finds a number of uses in the food industry where a neutral tasting, low
viscosity ‘body builder’ is required as in lemon curd manufacture, in salad creams and
mayonnaises etc. Oxidised starch has been used to replace gum arabic a NSP, in gum-
drop and pastille types of confectionary since it has good film forming properties.

18
Oxidised starches prepared from corn and waxy amaranth starch under conditions
optimised for development for film forming ability were compared with gum arabic and a
known substitute of gum arabic for encapsulation of a model flavour compound, vannilin.
It was found that in making jelly and marmalade, the gelatinising rate and stability of the
product was increased when 5% of sodium alginate was added to the oxidised starch.
Attempts were made to replace gum arabic in gumdrops with oxidised waxy maize
starch.

With the uses of modified starches, we come to an end on our discussion on native and
modified starches. We will take up the next important constituent–non-starch
polysaccharides (NSPs) – in the next section. Non-starch polysaccharides are primarily
hydrocolloids. What do we mean by hydrocolloids? So then we start our discussion with
an introduction to hydrocolloids in the next section. But first let’s take a break. After the
break answer the exercises given in check your progress exercise 2. This will help you
consolidate your knowledge regarding modified starches.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. What do you understand by the term ‘modified starch’?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. List a few shortcomings of native starches which make it unacceptable in certain
food applications.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. Give the uses of the following modified starches in food applications:
(i) Oxidized starch
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(ii) Starch acetates
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

19
(iii) Starch phosphates monoesters
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(iv) Hydroxypropyl starches
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. Fill in the blanks:
(i) Native starches can be modified by the processes such as -----------------------------
---------------------------------------------- .
(ii) ----------------------------- starch has applications in the production of convenience
foods.
(iii) Specific reagents of ---------------------------- starch have been approved by FDA to
make paperboard.

_____________________________________________________________________

2.3 FOOD HYDROCOLLOIDS – AN INTRODUCTION

What are food hydrocolloids? Food hydrocolloids are hydrophilic polymers of vegetable,
animal, microbial or synthetic origin that generally contain many hydroxyl groups and
may be polyelectrolytes. They are naturally present or added to control the functional
properties of aqueous foodstuffs. Most important among these properties are viscosity
(including thickening and gelling) and water binding but also significant are emulsion
stabilization, prevention of ice recrystallization and organoleptic properties. Some of the
important food hydrocolloids are listed below:

• Alginate
• Carboxymethyl Cellulose
• Guar gum
• Gum Arabic
• Xanthan Gum
• Carrageenan

20
All hydrocolloids interact with water, reducing the diffusion and stabilizing it.
Interaction between hydrocolloids and water depend on hydrogen bonding and, therefore,
on temperature in the same way as water cluster formation. Water binding affects texture
and processing characteristics, prevents syneresis and may have substantial economical
benefit. In particular, hydrocolloids can provide water for increasing the flexibility
(plasticizing) of other food components. These can also affect ice crystal formation and
growth so exerting a particular influence on the texture of frozen foods. Most of the
hydrocolloids are used to increase viscosity, to stabilize foodstuffs by preventing settling,
phase separation, foam collapse and crystallization.

Hydrocolloids are extremely versatile and are used for many other purposes including:
(a) Production of pseudoplasticity (i.e. fluidity under shear) at high temperatures to
ease mixing and processing followed by thickening on cooling,
(b) Liquefaction on heating followed by gelling on cooling,
(c) Gelling on heating to hold the structure together (thermogelling), and
(d) Production and stabilization of multiphase systems including films

The hydrocolloids not only have the functional properties but also have nutritional
characteristics. Most polysaccharide gums are not metabolized in the upper digestive tract
but pass into the large intestine with little or no change. Some sugars get converted to
short chain fatty acids that are eventually absorbed and metabolized. However most gums
function as soluble dietary fibre and provide negligible calories. For this reason, these
have been particularly useful in recent years as zero-calorie fat replacers, especially in
high fat systems, such as dairy products and salad dressings. Gums are used in low
calorie foods to thicken or improve body, cover flavours, provide bulk, aid in carbonation
retention and control ice crystal formation.

Hydrocolloids, together with other dietary fibres are increasingly being seen as
contributing to a number of health effects. Some of the hydrocolloids are common bulk
forming laxatives. These are used to modify diarrhoea. Also, the symptoms of
diverticular disease are alleviated by increasing intakes of dietary fibre. In a variety of

21
diabetic subjects, both guar gum and pectin reduce blood glucose level and insulin
response. Maximal response is observed in obese diabetics. The mechanism of action of
dietary fibre in general, and gel forming polysaccharides in particular, on serum
cholesterol through the binding of bile acids in the gut may impart hypocholesteremic
effect i.e. cholesterol lowering effect of dietary fibre.
With the basic understanding about food hydrocolloids let us move on to the
classification of hydrocolloids which is presented next.

2.3.1 Classification of Hydrocolloids

Hydrocolloids, based on their solubility, thickening and gelling properties in water, are
categorized into two major classes. These are:
• Natural gums
• Modified or semi synthetic gums
A brief review follows.
A. Natural Gums: These are derived from various plant as well as microbial sources and
are divided into the following four basic categories:
1. Seaweed gums: Agar, Alginate, Carrageenan
2. Tree extracts: Gum Arabic, Gum ghatti, Gum karaya, Gum tragacanth.
3. Seed or root gums: Guar gum, Locust bean gum
4. Microbial fermentation gums: Xanthan gum, Pullulan, Dextran, Curdlan

B. Modified or Semi-synthetic Gums: These are natural polymers, which are

chemically modified to give a new product with improved functional properties. These
also fall into several different areas but the most commonly used include: carboxymethyl
cellulose, methyl cellulose, hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose,
ethyl hydroxyethylcellulose, microcrystalline cellulose, hydroxybutylmethyl cellulose.

Each gum has it own functional properties and is considered on individual basis for its
use in food industries. The usefulness of most gums is based on their ability to modify the
basic property of water. Some gums swell completely in water, while others swell
partially and dissolve partially in water. Some dissolve in hot water, while others are

22
soluble in cold water. These solutions or dispersions are important in food application
because they add body or textures to a food product, thus imparting the proper thickness
or gel character or mouth feel in a particular product. They help to stabilize the
suspensions (solids dispersed in water), emulsions (oil dispersed in water), and foams
(gas dispersed in water).
The use of the gums in various foods may affect the following functional properties:
1. Water-binding capacity
2. Rheological properties
3. Capacity to form film or gel
4. Osmotic pressure
5. Capacity to bind flavor compounds
6. Hygroscopicity
7. Chemical reactivity
8. Sweetening and taste enhancement
9. Resorption

These properties have numerous technological and application capabilities that include
thickening, emulsification, stabilization of emulsions and foams flow properties, texture,
softness retention, browning, fermentability, control of microbial and enzymatic
modifications and stabilization of taste and flavor. Table 2.5 shows the multiple functions
of the gums in the food industry:
Table 2.5: Functions of Gums

23
 Function Example
Adhesive Bakery glaze
Binding agent Sausages
Calorie control agent Dietetic foods
Crystallization inhibitor Ice cream, sugar syrups
Clarifying agent Beer, wine
Clouding agent Fruit juice
Coating agent Confectionery
Emulsifier Salad dressing
Encapsulating agent Powdered flavors
Film former Sausage casings, protective
coatings
Flocculating agent Wine
Foam stabilizer Whipped toppings, beer
Gelling agent Puddings, dessert
Molding Gum drops, gelly candies
Protective colloid Flavor emulsifiers
Stabilizer Beer, mayonnaise
Suspending agent Chocolate milk
Swelling agent Processed meats
Thickening agent Jams, pie fillings, sauces
Water binding (prevents Cheese, frozen foods
syneresis)
Whipping agent Toppings, icings

Other than the classification based on their solubility, thickening and gelling properties in
water, hydrocolloids are also classified based on their functions as indicated in Table 2.6.

Table 2.6: Classification of hydrocolloids by function

24
Hydrocolloids Thickener Gelling agent Stabilizer
Guar gum + - -
Locust bean gum + - -
Pectin - + +
Alginate + + +
Agar - + +
Carrageenan - + +
Cellulose + - -
Gum tragacanth + - -
Gum arabic + - -
Starches + - +
Xanthan gum + - +

The discussion above presented a detailed overview on the classification of

hydrocolloids. It must be clear to you now that gum ghatti, gum karaya, gum tragacanth (
classified as exudate gums) locust bean gum, guar gum (classified as seed gums) and
pullulan, xanthan, curdlan, dextran etc.(microbial polysaccharides) along with
conventional nonstarch polysaccharides such as cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin
which are cell wall polysaccharides are all food hydrocolloids. Now let us study about
each of these food hydrocolloids separately. We start our discussion with NSPs,
particularly the plant cell wall polysaccharides.

2.4 NON-STARCH POLYSACCHARIDES

Earlier in this unit we summarized the classification of carbohydrates. We presented a

brief review on starch, a polysaccharide often termed as complex carbohydrate. Besides
starch, a mixture of substances called non starch polysaccharide (NSP), also constitute
carbohydrates. This section focuses on the study of NSP.

Dietary fibre, a term familiar to all of us, is also known as non-starch polysaccharides
(NSP). It is the name given to a group of materials found in the cell walls of plants which
give the plant its structure and form. It includes those carbohydrates that are not digested
or absorbed, but pass through to the colon where bacteria ferment them for energy,
thereby stimulating their growth. Because the term ‘dietary fibre’ describes a nutritional

25
concept rather than a component of diet, it has been suggested that the term be phased out
and replaced with the term ‘NSP’ but this has been difficult because the word fibre is so
widely used. Examples of NSP include cellulose, pectin, gums, beta-glucans etc. In this
section we will learn about these different non-starch polysaccharides. The major
polysaccharides in the plant cell wall are cellulose, carboxymethyl cellulose,
hemicellulose and pectin. Let’s learn about them. We start with the plant cell wall
polysaccharides, cellulose.

2.4.1 Cellulose
Cellulose is found in plants as microfibrils (2-20 nm diameter and 100–40,000 nm long).
These form the structurally strong framework in the cell walls. Cellulose is mostly
prepared from wood pulp. Structurally, cellulose is a β1→4 linked glucan, as you can see
in the figure 2.3.

26
 Figure 2.3: Structure of Cellulose

Let us take a close look at the functional properties of cellulose and how these serve an
important role in various food applications.

Functionality
Cellulose has many uses as an anticaking agent, emulsifier, stabilizer, dispersing agent,
thickener and gelling agent, but these are generally subsidiary to its most important use of
holding water. Dry amorphous cellulose absorbs water becoming soft and flexible. Some
of this water is non-freezing but most is simply trapped. Less water is bound by direct
hydrogen bonding if the cellulose has high crystallinity but some fibrous cellulose
products can hold on to considerable water in pores and its typically straw-like cavities.
As such water is supercoolable, this effect may protect against ice damage. Cellulose can
give improved volume and texture, particularly as a fat replacer in sauces and dressings
but its insolubility means that all products will be cloudy.

Swelled bacterial cellulose (eg. Acetobacter xylinum) exhibits pseudoplastic viscosity,

like xanthan gels but this viscosity is not lost at high temperatures and low shear rates as
the cellulose can retain its structure. Where individual cellulose strands are surrounded by
water, they are flexible and do not present contiguous hydrophobic surfaces.

27
About one third of the world's production of purified cellulose is used as the base
material for a number of water-soluble derivatives with predesigned and wide ranging
properties. Methylcellulose (made by methylating about 30% of the hydroxyl groups) is
thermogelling i.e. forming gels above a critical. Such gels break down on cooling causing
the minimum solubility for non-polar gases. Hydrophobic saccharides become less
soluble as the temperature increases. This property is useful in forming films as barriers
to water loss and for holding on to small gas bubbles. Hydroxypropyl cellulose possesses
good surface activity but does not gel as it forms open helical coils. Another important
derivative of cellulose is carboxymethylcellulose. Let us learn about its properties and
food applications.

2.4.2 Carboxymethyl Cellulose (CMC)

CMC is a linear, long-chain, water-soluble, anionic modified polysaccharide. It is a
derivative of cellulose formed by its reaction with alkali and chloroacetic acid. Its
structure is presented in the figure 2.4. Purified CMC is a white to cream colored,
tasteless, odorless and free-flowing powder. This latter characteristic is maintained only
by adequate packaging, as the material readily absorbs atmospheric moisture.

Figure 2.4: Structure of Carboxymethyl Cellulose

Let us look into the properties of CMC, to determine their usefulness in food
applications.

Functionality

28
CMC is soluble in cold water and mainly used for controlling viscosity without gelling.
As its viscosity drops during heating, it may be used to improve the volume yield during
baking by encouraging gas bubble formation. Its control of viscosity allows uses as
thickner, phase and emulsion stabilizer (e.g with milk casein), and suspending agents.
CMC can be used for its water-holding capacity as this is high even at low viscosity,
particularly when used as Ca2+ salt. Thus it is used for retarding staling and reducing fat
intake into fried foods.

CMC is compatible in solution with most common food ingredients including protein,
sugar, starches and other hydrocolloids. Like other water-soluble gums it forms films by
casting and evaporating the water from solutions and clear films may be obtained. Better
strength and flexibility of such films result when they are prepared with high viscosity
type CMC.

In common with other linear water-soluble polymers, cellulose gum solutions are
pseudoplastic that is the viscosity decreases as the rate of shear increases. Some of the
food applications of CMC are highlighted in Table 2.7.
Table 2.7: Food applications of CMC
Industry/Food Function Properties utilized
Baked goods Adhesion, fat exclusion Film formation, viscosity
Beverages Body, texturizer, Rheological, dispersant
stabilizer
Frozen desserts Texturizer, stabilizer Crystal growth retarder,
inhibition
Low fat, low calorie Fat & sugar substitute Rheological
Foods
Milk & yoghurt Stabilization Interaction with milk
drinks protein, dispersant
Pet foods Binder, lubricant Adhesion, rheological
Sauces, syrups & Stabilization, thickening Rheological
Toppings

2.4.3 Hemicellulose
In plant cell walls, the most abundant compound present is α-cellulose with long fibers
embedded in a matrix of cementing compounds (matrix polysaccharides). These

29
compounds are alkali soluble and are called as hemicelluloses. They constitute about 20-
30% of plant cell walls.

Hemicellulose is defined as a large polysaccharide, which helps give structure to plant

cells. Hemicellulose gives fruits and vegetables crisp, chewy, fibrous characteristics that
partially remain after cooking. Along with pectin, it forms an amorphous matrix in which
cellulose fibrils from the plant cell walls are embedded. It has the chemical formula of
C6H10O5 and consists of a chain of D-xylose sugar units which has side chains of units of
other sugars branching off it as shown in figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5: Structure of Hemicellulose

When compared with cellulose, it has lower degree of polymerization, more readily
soluble in acid and alkali and non-fibrous. On hydrolysis, it predominantly yields xyloses

30
and other monosaccharides. Hemicelluloses include xylan, glucuronoxylan, arabinoxylan,
glucomannan and xyloglucan. It is easily hydrolyzed by dilute acid or alkali or enzyme
hemicellulase (such as endo-xylanase, beta-xylosidase, and alpha-L-arabinofuranosidase
for hemicellulose). Important sources of hemmicellulose include seed coats of corn,
cereal brans, wheat oats, barley and rice. Other possible sources are skins of sugar beets,
potatoes and tomatoes.

There are two forms of hemicellulose - Hemicellulose A and B - Hemicellulose A is

precipitated upon neutralization of an alkaline extract, essentially linear polymers, while
Hemicellulose B precipitates on addition of ethanol to the neutralized extract (to a final
concentration of 60-70%). Now let’s understand the various nutritional effects of
hemicellulose, followed by its application in the food system.

Nutritional effects
Hemicelluloses are classified under the category of soluble dietary fibers. Hemicellulose
is an indigestible complex carbohydrate that absorbs water. It is good for promoting
weight loss, relieving constipation and controlling carcinogens in the intestinal tract. A
commercial product (β-glucans based) possess the ability to reduce serum cholesterol.
Oat and barley β-glucans when taken in foods reduce postprandial serum glucose levels;
reduce insulin response and serum cholesterol levels. Hemicellulose can be converted to
a number of value-added fermentation products such as fuel ethanol, xylitol, butanediol,
and lactic acid.

Food Applications
The hemicelluloses find their application in food systems as emulsifer, stabilizer and
binder in flavor bases, dressings and pudding mixes. These may also be used as a
potential bulking agent. These are good source of dietary fiber and stimulate the immune
system. Its properties suggest usefulness as a low-viscosity thickener and / or emulsion
stabilizer, for eg. corn oil / water emulsions are stabilized by corn fiber gum. It also finds
potential usefulness in pourable dressings. It may also act as a fat replacer / mimetic.

31
2.4.4 Pectin
The word pectin is derived from a Greek word which means to “congeal or solidify”.
Pectin is an acidic structural polysaccharide, found in fruit and vegetables and mainly
prepared from 'waste' citrus peel and apple pomace (skin). Pectin is present as a structural
polysaccharide in the middle lamella and primary cell wall of higher plants. Its structure
is presented in the figures 2.6 (a) and (b). Pectin is a polygalacturonic acid ester along
with rhamnose, arabinose and galactose.

Pectin is also industrially extracted from apple and citrus pomace and traded
internationally in purified and standardized forms. There are three main types of pectin -
Low Methoxy Pectin (<50% methylester groups), High Methoxy Pectin (>50%
methylester groups) and amidated Pectin.

Figure 2.6 (a): Pectin: Smooth Structure

32
 Figure 2.6 (b): Hairy Structure

Pectin is generally soluble in water and insoluble in most organic solvents. Pectin
solutions show relatively low viscosities than other plant hydrocolloids and consequently
has limited use as a thickener. Low-ester pectin forms gels in the presence of calcium and
other divalent metal ions. These properties of pectin contribute to the functionality of
pectin, which is discussed next.
Functionality
Pectins are mainly used as gelling agents, but can also act as a thickener, water binder
and stabilizer. Low methoxyl pectins (<50% esterified) form thermoreversible gels in the
presence of calcium ions and at low pH (3 - 4.5), whereas, high methoxy pectin’s rapidly
form thermally irreversible gels in the presence of sufficient (e.g. 65% by weight)
sugars, such as sucrose and at low pH (<3.5). The lower the methoxy content, the slower
is the setting. The degree of esterification can be reduced using commercial pectin
methylesterase, leading to a higher viscosity and firmer gelling in the presence of Ca2+
ions. Highly acetylated pectin from sugar beet is reported to have considerable
emulsification ability due to its more hydrophobic nature, but this may be due to
associated protein impurities.

As with other viscous polyanions such as carrageenan, pectin may be protective towards
milk casein colloids, enhancing the properties (foam stability, solubility, gelation and
emulsification) of whey proteins whilst utilizing them as a source of calcium. Some food
applications of pectin are summarized in table 2.8

33
Table 2.8: Food Applications of Pectin

Product group Function of pectin Pectin level (%)

Jams, jellies and preserves Gelling agent, thickener 0.1-1.0
Bakery fillings and glazing Gelling agent, thickener 0.5-1.5
Fruit preparations Thickener, stabilizer 0.1-1.0
Fruit beverages and sauces Thickener, stabilizer 0.01-0.5
Confectionery Gelling agent, thickener 0.5-2.5
Diary products Stabilizer, gelling agent 0.1-1.0

The discussion above focussed on dietary fibres, particularly the plant cell wall
polysaccharides. It would be interesting for you to know that there are seven major
categories of fibers including cellulose, hemicellulose, pectic substances, gums,
mucilage, algal polysaccharides, and lignin. Cellulose, hemicellolose, pectin etc. are plant
cell polysaccharides. Cellulose is the most common of these fibers. Gums are actually
substances secreted by plants in response to injury. Mucilages are also water-soluble, and
are used by plants to protect seeds. Algal polysaccharides are extracted from algae. These
all are classified as dietary fibres (also referred to as non starch polysaccharides). Next,
we shall focus on algal polysaccharides and learn about the different algal
polysaccharides, their structure and function.

Check your Progress Exercise 3

1. Explain the following terms:
a) NSP
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
b) Food hydrocolloids
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. List a few important uses of food hydrocolloids.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

34
3. What are the functional properties of gums that are considered to be important in
food industries?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. How does cellulose differs from starch?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. Fill in the blanks:
a) The most important use of cellulose is its -------------------------------- .
b) The calcium salts of CMC, because of its water holding capacity, is used for ------
-------------------------------------------------------------- .
c) The food applications of hemicelluloses are ---------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
d) The main types of pectin are ----------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------ .

2.5 ALGAL POLYSACCHARIDES

The main algal polysaccharides include agar, alginate and carrageenan. Let us get to
know about them.

2.5.1 Agar
Agar is a polysaccharide found in the cell walls of some red algae and is unusual in
containing sulfated galactose monomers. Certain marine algae of the class
Rhodophyceae, called Red Sea weeds are the source of this polysaccharide. Some of the
chief algal sources are Gelidium cartilagineum, Gracilaria conferroides and Pteroclaia
capillcea. The structure and composition of the agar extract of Gelidium amansii showed
that it is composed of two major fractions – agarose, a neutral polymer and agaropectin,
a charged, sulfated galactan (Galactose, 3-6-anhydrogalactose). The ratios of these two
polymers vary widely and the percentage of agarose in agar-bearing seaweeds ranges

35
from 50% to 90%. The composition of agar is discussed herewith along with the
structure as shown in the figure 2.7.

Composition: Agar we learnt consists of a mixture of agrose and agropectin. Agrose has
a linear polymer structure consisting of alternating D-galactose and 3,6-anhydro-L-
galactose as shown in figure 2.7. Agaropectin is a heterogeneous mixture of smaller
molecules that occur in lesser amounts. Their structures are similar but slightly branched
and sulfated, and they may have methyl and pyruvic acid ketal substituents

Figure 2.7: Structure of Agar and Agarose

We will briefly discuss the main properties of Agar, i.e. gelation and viscosity and its
food applications next.

Agar we have learnt is a polysaccharide found in the cell walls of some red algae and is
unusual in containing sulfated galactose monomers. It requires nothing but extraction and
purification to become agar. It is sometimes chemically modified into agarose for special
applications. Agarose is the gelling component. Agar added to media simply gels them
into a convenient solid form. In tropical countries it is sometimes used as a gelatin
substitute for "jelly-like" desserts, about which you shall read in the sub-section on food
applications. Now let us learn about the gelation and viscosity properties of agar.

Gelation: Agar gels can be formed in very dilute solutions containing a fraction of 1%
agar. In fact gelation is perceptible at concentrations as low as 0.04%. These gels are
rigid, brittle, have well defined shapes and sharp melting and setting points. pH

36
noticeably affects the strength of agar gels; as the pH decreases, gel strength weakens
down to a pH of 2.5.

Viscosity: The viscosity at temperatures above its gelation point is relatively constant at
pH values of 4.5 to 9.0 and is not greatly affected by age or ionic strength within the pH
range 6.0 to 8.0. Once gelation begins, however, viscosity at constant temperature
increases with time.
Having looked at the properties of agar, we move on to the food applications of agar.

Food Applications
The bakery industry has been the largest user of agar because of its heat- resistant gel
properties. Confectionary products, such as agar jelly candies, marsh mallows and sweet
potato-sugar-agar confections employ agar at 0.3 to 1.8% to give the desired technical
effects. Agar is also used in the manufacture of canned meat, fish and poultry products to
prevent damage to the contents during transit and storage. In dairy products, such as
Neufchatel process cheese, cream cheese and fermented milk products improved textures
and stability are obtained with the use of agar. Superiority of Agar over gelatin have been
described in the fining of wines, juices and vinegar. Difficulties encountered in clarifying
fruit wines by traditional method were overcome by using a 0.5% solution of agar or a
1% of solution of sodium alginate.
We move on to the next algal polysaccharide i.e. alginate next.

2.5.2 Alginate
Alginates are produced by brown seaweeds (Phaeophyceae, mainly Laminaria).
Alginates or algin, is a generic term for the salts and derivatives of alginic acid. Alginate
is a copolymer of 1 → 4 linked β-D-mannuronic acid (M) and α-L-guluronic acid (G).
Figure 2.8 presents the structure of alginate. This acid polysaccharide or gum occurs as
the insoluble mixed calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium salt in the
Phaeophyceae brown seaweeds.

37
 Figure 2.8: Structure of alginate

The commercially available alginates are white to cream coloured powders. 1% alginic
acid solution gives a pH value of 2.9 while it is 2.3 and 7.5 for 1% solutions of propylene
glycol and sodium alginate respectively. Alginic acid is essentially insoluble in cold or
hot water, but it does swell quite strongly. Alginic acid salts (K, Na, NH4+ Ca, and Na+
Ca) and propylene glycol alginates are soluble in cold or hot water and form stable
solutions. The major properties of alginate include pH, solubility and viscosity.

Let us now focus on the various food applications of alginate.

Food Applications

One of the most unusual properties of the alginates has been the ability of soluble
alginate salts to produce attractive, edible gels or jellies. This has been used for
production of dry powder to give a quick setting gel. The sodium alginate stabilizers
possess good water-holding properties, are readily dispersible in ice-cream mixes, and
contribute good body properties and excellent texture production. Addition of sodium
alginate (less than 0.5%) increased the viscosity of mixes significantly. The presence of
sodium alginate also minimizes surface hardening and improves the texture of the
processed cheese. The addition of about 0.15% sodium alginate is sufficient to thicken
cream and to act as a stabilizer \upon whipping.

38
The oxidative rancidity in the quick frozen fish can be prevented by block freezing fish in
alginate jelly. Alginate films when applied on edible meat as a coating composed of a
slurry of corn starch and sodium alginate, enabled to improve the texture and juiciness
and in some cases, color, appearance and odor as well. The film forming properties of
calcium alginate has been used as a food packaging or coating material since it is edible
in nature and it is more extensively being used as a synthetic sausage casing.

Sodium alginate helps in aiding cloud retention and inhibits clarification in orange squash
and crush. It has been used as the most efficient stabilizer in the fermentable fruit milk
beverages. Blend of alginate and phosphate is effective as a stabilizer for cocoa powder
in chocolate milk drinks. In beer, this acts as an auxiliary fining agent for a perfect
clarity. Propylene glycol alginate has the advantage of constant quality, unlimited
availability and high resistance to acid degradation, hence been used for long in salad
dressings.

Finally, we shall study about the third algal polysaccharide i.e. carrageenan.

2.5.3 Carrageenan
Carrageenan is a collective term for polysaccharides prepared by alkaline extraction (and
modification) from red seaweed (Rhodophycae). Carrageenan is a sulfated galactose
polymer. It’s a β-D-galacto pyranose linked glycosidically through positions 1 and 3 to
α-D-galactopyranose residues linked glycosidically through positions 1 and 4, as
illustrated in the figure 2.9(a).

It was first produced commercially from the red algae, Chandrus crispus, found along the
northeast shores of the U.S and Canada and referred to as Irish mosh extract. Carrageenan
is of 3 major types –kappa, iota and lambda as shown in the figure 2.9 (b). These not only
vary in composition but also in properties

39
 Figure 2.9(a): Structure of Carrageenan

Figure 2.9 (b): Structure of various Carrageenans

40
We shall not go into the details of the properties of carrageenan in this section. Our focus
here is to learn about the food applications of carrageenan. So let us get to know about
these applications.

Food Applications
Carrageenan consists of a family of hydrocolloids, which have different properties and it
has a wide variety of uses. Some examples of properties, which are important for food
formulations, are:
• Gel clarity and high gelling temperatures, thus important in cake glazes and water
dessert gels. Firm, quick setting gel, which is valued in, processed cheese system.
• Ability to adjust the texture and the melting point, thus provides the texture
needed when carrageenans are used to replace fat in ground meats.
• Low hot viscosities at elevated temperatures, thus useful UHT systems.
• Increases milk solid contents thus makes system economical because of the
interaction with milk protein.
• Synergism with locust bean gum and starch, this allows a variety of gel tortures,
melting gels, and non-melting gels to be produced.
• Kappa-carrageenan used at a concentration of 0.02-0.03% holds cocoa particles in
suspension and prevents cream separation.
• Lamda-carrageenan at a concentration of 0.05% produces thickening and
stabilization.
• Sodium salts of Lamda and Kappa-carrageenan at a concentration of 0.01-0.035%
gives improved dough characteristics and allows incorporation of higher levels of
nonfat milk solids.

Our discussion on algal polysaccharides ends now. We shall learn about the seed gums
next. But first let us recapitulate what we have learnt so far.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1. Fill in the blanks:
(i) --------------- , -------------- and ------------------- are the main algal polysaccharides.

41
(ii) The agar extract is composed of two major fractions ------------ and ---------------- .
(iii) --------------- is a copolymer of 1 → 4 linked β-D-mannuronic acid (M) and α-L-
guluronic acid (G).
(iv) Carrageenan is a ----------------------- polymer.
(v) The three major types of carrageenan are -------------------, ---------------------- and
--------------- .
2. Discuss the food applications of the following:
(a) Agar
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(b) Alginate
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(c) Lamda and Kappa-carrageenan
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.6 SEED GUMS

Polysaccharides derived from plants and seeds have been in use for thousand of years.
Seed gums are a group of polysaccharides with the following properties:
• Seed gums are light to dark cream colored amorphous powder characterized by
forming viscous or clear solutions when dispersed or dissolved in cold or hot
water.
• They produce low to high viscosity depending upon the source and manufacturing
process. They have property of forming high viscosity even at low concentration
(4500-8000 cP at 1% w/v) where cP=centipoise, measure scale of viscosity.

42
 • Seed gums are stable over a wide range of pH(3-9). The nonionic nature of the
polymer is responsible for almost constant viscosity of the solution.
• They have excellent compatibility characteristic with organic, inorganic substance
including certain dyes and various constituents of food.
• They show effective settling (flocculation) properties even at lower concentration.

The common seed gums include locust bean gum and guar gum. We shall learn about
these seed gums next.

2.6.1 Locust Bean Gum

Locust bean gum (also called Carob bean gum) is extracted from the seed (kernels) of the
carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua). Structurally, locust bean gum is composed of
Galactomannan galactose: mannose in a ratio of 1:4. Have a look at the figure 2.10
which indicates β-linked mannan (1 → 4) linkage and a side chain α (1→6) linkage.

43
 Figure 2.10: Structure of Locust Bean Gum ( figure showing a section of the
structure)

Properties
Locust bean gum is slightly soluble in room temperature water and must be heated to 75
to 85oC for complete hydration and viscosity development. Maximum viscosity develops
when the gum is heated to about 95°C, then cooled. Texture modification of carrageenan
water gels is achieved through the incorporation of locust bean gum. Synergistic viscosity
results from the combinations of locust bean and Xanthan gum. A thermally reversible
gel is formed when locust bean gum and Xanthan are heated to above 130oF and cooled.

Food Applications
Locust bean gum has multiple applications in food industry. Let us focus on a few of the
important ones:
• Locust bean gum has been used as a basic ice cream stabilizer. The addition of
carrageenan with locust bean gum results in homogenous ice cream mix dispersions.
It specifically retards ice crystal growth by forming structured gel at solid/liquid
interface
• Cream cheese and similar products are major outlet for locust bean gum. Besides
controlling moisture in the end product, a unique texture effect is realized from the
use of locust bean gum.
• Locust bean gum is used as an ingredient in specialty products such as salami,
sausage and bologna. Due to the viscosity imparted by the gum, extrusion and
stuffing is facilitated. The water retention property of the gum reduces finished
product weight loss during storage.
• Bread flour supplemented with locust bean gum produces dough with constant
properties and enhanced water-binding characteristics. Moreover, yields are improved
and the baked products remain soft and palatable for a longer time.
• Syneresis-resistant dessert gels have been prepared from locust bean gum, potassium
and calcium-sensitive carrageenans. In this, long storage times at accelerated
temperatures resulted in a minimum of syneresis.

44
2.6.2 Guar Gum
Guar Gum is derived from seed of legume Cyamopsis tetragonalobus resembling
soyabean plant. Guar gum is composed of Galactomannan Galactose : mannose in the
ratio 1:2. Try and identify the following linkages as shown in the figure 2.11.

β 1 → 4 linked mannan backbone

α 1 → 6 linked galactose

Figure 2.11: Structure of Guar Gum

The food applications of guar gum are highlighted next.

Food Applications
• Guar imparts smoothness to ice cream by promoting small ice crystals during the
freezing process.
• Guar gum in the dressing of cottage cheese processing promotes curd integrity by
friction reduction or turbidity, which allows the curd to slip during processing.

45
• Guar influences baked goods in both dough and finished product. Guar in tomato
based sauces helps to maintain a desirable color as well as imparting body and
stabilizing the system.
• Guar gum imparts a desirable gloss or sheen to canned pet foods. Removal of the pet
food from the can is also facilitated by the friction reduction function of agar.

Check Your Progress Exercise 5

1. What are seed gums? What are its characteristic properties?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Enlist a few food applications of the following seed gums:
(a) Locust bean gum
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(b) Guar gum
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2.7 EXUDATE GUMS

Most exudates gums come from compounds produced when the plant is wounded and
these substances seal the wound. Most widely used exudate gum is 'gum Arabic' exuded
from wounded trees of Acacia. Gum ghatti, gum karaya and gum tragacanth are the other
exudates gums. We will learn about these gums – their structure and function – in details
next.

2.7.1 Gum Arabic

46
Gum Arabic or Gum Acacia is the oldest and best known of the natural gums. Gum
Arabic is the natural exudate produced by various species of the thorny Acacia trees and
the stems and branches of Acacia Senegal (L.) wild or of related species of Acacia. Gum
arabic is a complex and variable mixture of arabinogalactan, oligosaccharides,
polysaccharides such as Glucuronic acid and 4-O-methyl glucuronic acid and
glycoproteins.

Let us now study more about this complex compound by understanding its properties.

Properties
Gum Arabic is unique among the natural hydrocolloids because of its extremely high
solubility in water and can yield solutions of up to 55% concentrations. Solutions below
10% gum Arabic, show low viscosities and Newtonian rheology. The gum arabic is
stable in acid solutions and products such as citrus oil emulsions exhibit good shelf
stability. The addition of electrolytes to gum Arabic solutions results in a reduction of the
viscosity even in a very dilute solution. This lowering is much more pronounced in more
concentrated solutions. Gum Arabic is a very effective emulsifying agent because of its
protective colloid functionality and has found wide spread use in the preparation of
varied oil-in-water food emulsions over a wide pH range and in the presence of
electrolytes without the need for a secondary stabilizing agent. Gum Arabic has broad
range of compatibility with most gums and starches and with most carbohydrates and
proteins as well. It is incompatible with few gums such as sodium alginate and gelatin.

Gum Arabic has multifarious food applications, which are highlighted herewith.

Food Applications
• A major use for gum Arabic is in the confectionery industry where it has two
important functions; to retard or to prevent crystallization and to emulsify and
keep the fatty components evenly distributed. It finds applications in confections

47
 like jujubes and pastilles, where the major content in high and the mixture content
comparatively low.
• Gum Arabic is used widely in the soft drink industry as an emulsifier in the
preparation of flavor emulsion concentration. Because of its protein component,
gum arabic functions as an emulsifier and stabilizer in soft drink emulsion, a
segment of the market that consumes 30% of the total gum supply. The
functionality of inferior types of gum arabic for use in liquid emulsions could be
improved by the addition of small amounts of whey protein concentrate selected
for this purpose. The foam stabilizing abilities of Gum Arabic is used in beer and
soft drinks to give the “Lace curtain” effect on the sides of the glass when the beer
is consumed.
• Gum Arabic is used in the bakery industry for its comparatively low water-
absorption properties. In addition, it has favorable, adhesive properties for use in
glazes and toppings and imparts smoothness when used as an emulsion stabilizer.
• Gum Arabic has been used in preparing dry, powdered and stable oil-soluble
vitamins for use as food supplements. The oil-soluble vitamins, gum Arabic, an
anti-caking agent such as calcium or magnesium stearate, an antioxidant and a
chelating agent were combined, dried, and pulverized to obtain a product in which
the vitamins are stable.
• Gum Arabic has been used as a non-caloric bulking agent and bodying agent in
diabetic foods and in low carbohydrate baked goods for dietetics.
• Gum Arabic, in combination with Xanthan gum in a 10:1 ratio, was used in
preparing stabilized whipped or aerated low calorie products such as butter,
margarine, toppings spreads, and frozen desserts.
• Gum Arabic has been used to solublize water-insoluble materials such as
antioxidants, butylated hydroxyl anisole (BHA) is made water dispensable and
soluble by coating one part BHA with one part of glyceryl mono-oleate and two
parts gum arabic.
• Most dry package products, such as desserts and pudding mixes, beverage
powders, cake mixes, soup bases, etc. contain encapsulated flavors to ensure
flavor stability, longer shelf life and superior product quality. Such flavors are

48
 made by various spray-drying methods in which a mixture or emulsion of the
flavor and a gum in water are dried rapidly. The flavor becomes coated with a
film of the gum, thereby sealing and protecting it from further change until it is
released when in the final preparation of the food product.

2.7.2 Gum Ghatti

Gum ghatti, also known as Indian gum, is amorphous, translucent exudates of the
Anogeissus latifolia tree of the Combretaceae family. Gum Ghatti is composed of
glucuronomannoglycan (uronic acid and mannose). The gum has a glassy fracture and the
color of the exudates varies from very light brown to dark brown, with the higher colored
material yielding a higher and better grade of gum.

In this, we will focus our attention on a very important property of gums referred to as
‘viscosity’ and the effets of pH. Gum ghatti does not form true aqueous solutions but
form viscous dispersions in water (having a pH of about 4.8) at concentrations of about
5% or higher and exhibits typical non-Newtonian behaviour common to most
hydrocolloids. The viscosity remains more or less constant upto pH 7 and then drops off
gradually down to pH 12. At all pH values, viscosity increases noticeably overtime upon
ageing. The gel fraction of ghatti, responsible for its viscous behaviour, is predominantly
calcium salt. Removal of the calcium ions reduces the viscosity; however, the original
viscosity cannot be restored by the addition of calcium ions.

As for the food applications of gum ghatti, in foods, it has been effectively used as an
emulsifier and stabilizer in combination with lecithin in butter- containing pancakes and
waffle syrups. It has also been used as a flavor fixative for specific applications.

2.7.3 Gum Karaya

Gum karaya (sterculia gum) is the dried gummy exudate from Sterculia urens Roxburgh
and other species of Sterculia (Family: Sterculiaceae) or from Cochlospermun gossipium
or other species of Cochlospermun kunth (Family: Bixaceae). Gum karaya is also known

49
as Indian tragacanth. Structurally, Gum Karaya is acetylated rhamnogalacturonan
(rhamnose and galacturonic acid).

After having knowledge about the composition of gum karaya, let us study its properties
and various food applications

Properties
Gum karaya is water-swellable rather than water-soluble and absorbs water very rapidly
to form viscous colloidal dispersions at low concentrations. At higher concentrations (20
to 25%), gum karaya exhibits strong adhesive properties. Gum karaya dispersions are
stable, however, will lose viscosity gradually if solutions are not preserved by the
addition of preservatives.

Food Applications
• The water absorbing and water-holding capacity of Karaya, together with an
excellent acid compatibility made it suitable for its use in the ice pops, water ices
and sherbets.
• Karaya is very efficient in preventing the bleeding of free water (with dissolved
flavor and color) and the formation of large ice crystals.
• Karaya has effective foam stabilization properties which have been employed in
stabilizing packaged whipped cream products and other aerated dairy foods.
• Karaya has been used to prevent syneresis and improve the spreadability
characteristics of cheese spreads. It is used as a good emulsion stabilizer for
French style salad dressings, sometimes in conjunction with gum Arabic for
improved effectiveness.
• Karaya in combination with alginate or carrageenan is used to retard staling of
bread and other baked goods. In doughnut mixes, this gum combination improved
the tolerance of the dough to over mixing and gave an improved product.
• In ground meat products, karaya provides good water holding and binding
properties to yield products such as bologna with smooth, desirable textures and
appearance.

50
2.7.4 Gum Tragacanth
Gum tragacanth, the exudation of Astragalus species, is defined as the “dried gummy
exudate” obtained from Astragalus gummifer Labillardiere. Gum tragacanth is a mixture
of the compounds arabinogalactan and glycanogalactouronan.

Properties
Gum tragacanth swells in water to give thick viscosity dispersions or pastes similar in
texture to soft gels. The viscosity shows a sharp rise as the gum concentration increases,
but deceases with increasing shear rates in typical pseudoplastic fashion. Rheologically,
tragacanth show pseudoplastic behaviour, typical of most gums. In general, tragacanth is
fairly stable over a wide pH range even at extremely acidic conditions (pH 2). For this
reason it has been widely used in food products, such as salad dressings where stable
viscosities at low pH are required. Gum tragacanth has well defined surface active
properties and produces a rapid lowering of the surface tension of water at low
concentrations, thus used as an emulsifying agent. Together with its viscous nature and
acid stability, gum tragacanth promotes stable emulsions and is known as a very effective
emulsifying agent. Gum tragacanth is compatible with most gum systems and viscosities
are usually additive when it is used in mixed gum systems. Gum Arabic when added to
gum tragacanth lowers the viscosity of gum tragacanth and produces emulsions with
superior smooth quality citrus oil, cod liver oil, linseed oil and mineral oil. Preservatives
are necessary in order to maintain long term shelf stability of gum tragacanth containing
solutions and the choice will depend on the finished product and formulation. Glycerol or
propylene glycol is an excellent preservative for many emulsions.

Food Applications
Gum tragacanth finds various food applications. These include:
• In dairy products, it functions as stabilizer in ice cream, ice pops and water ices,
chocolate milk drinks, puddings and cheese.
• In bakery products (meringues, bakers’ citrus oil emulsions, frozen pie fillings)
dressings and sauces (salad dressing, syrups and toppings, white sauces and

51
 gravies), beverages (soft drink with fruit pulp, fruit juices and nectars, dry
beverage mixes), confectionery products (candy gels and jellies, caramels,
nougats, candy glaze, gum drops, jujubes, pastilles) and in various dietetic foods it
has useful applications.

Check Your Progress Exercise 6

1. List a few food applications of the following:
(a) Gum Arabic
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(b) Gum karaya
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(c) Gum tragacanth
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2. Match the following:

A B
(i) Gum Arabic (a) glucuronomannoglycan
(ii) Gum Ghatti (b) arabinogalactan, oligo and polysaccharides
(iii) Gum karaya (c) arabinogalactan and glycanogalactouronan
(iv) Gum tragacanth (d) rhamnogalacturonan

2.8 MICROBIAL POLYSACCHARIDES

Many microorganisms produce polysaccharides that either remain attached to the cell
wall (capsular polysaccharides) or are secreted into the extracellular fluid
(exopolysaccharides). Some examples of microbial polysaccharides include xanthan

52
gum, gellan gum, curdlan, pullulan. Let us get to know about these microbial
polysaccharides.

2.8.1 Xanthan Gum

Xanthan gum is a microbial polymer prepared commercially in pure culture fermentation
from Xanthomonas campestris. This polysaccharide was given the generic name xanthan
gum. Xanthan gum, as shown in the figure 2.13, comprises of β-1 →4 linked glucan
backbone and trisaccharide side chains consisting of β-D-mannose, β-D-glucuronic acid
and 6-O-acetyl-α-D mannose. Pyruvic acid is linked to β-D-mannose as sugar ketal.

Figure 2.13: Structure of Xanthan Gum

Xanthan gum is completely soluble in hot or cold water. Solution of Xanthan gum at 1%
or higher concentration appear almost gel like at rest, yet these pour readily and have a
very low resistance to mixing and pumping. Xanthan gum solutions show excellent
stability at 80oC. This property has practical utility for hot foods, such as gravies.

Food Applications
• Xanthan gum is mainly considered to be non-gelling and used for the control of
viscosity due to the tenuous associations, endowing it with weak-gel properties. It
hydrates rapidly in cold water without lumping to give a reliable viscosity,
encouraging its use as thickener, stabilizer, emulsifier and foaming agent. The
consistent water holding ability may be used for the control of syneresis and in

53
 freeze-thaw situations. Its most important property being its very high low-shear
viscosity coupled with its strongly shear-thinning character. The relatively low
viscosity at high shear means that it is easy to mix, pour and swallow but its high
viscosity at low shear lends stability to colloidal suspensions. Being relatively
unaffected by ionic strength, pH (1 – 13) or temperature it may be used in such
products such as salad dressings.
• Xanthan gum gives enhanced mouthfeel with full bodied taste.
• Due to its unusual heat stability, xanthan gum is very useful in heat processed
food systems containing sauces and gravies.
• Canned tuna, chicken, ham, potato and macaroni salads have been formulated
with retortable salad dressings containing xanthan gum. The addition of xanthan
gum is able to maintain freeze-thaw stability for five or more cycles. The freeze-
thaw stability of starch based salad dressings can be also maintained by the
addition of 0.1% Xanthan gum.
• In tomato, pickle, onion or mustard relishes, xanthan gum is exceptionally
effective in reducing liquor drainage. Neither the acid nor the salt content of these
products is able to reduce the water holding abilities of xanthan gum.
• It is utilized for the stabilization of law calorie and other aerated desserts, instant
milkshakes, breakfast drinks, soups and sauces. A bakery filling type product can
be stabilized with a combination of xanthan gum, locust bean gum and 2% starch.
• In comparison with several other colloids, xanthan gum has a detectable
depressing effect on the sweetness intensity of sucrose, while it has no effect on
the taste of citric acid, saccharine, caffeine and sodium chloride.

2.8.2 Gellan Gum

Gellan is an exopolysaccharide consisting of β-D-glucose, β-D-glucuronic acid, α-L-
rhamnose with acetate and glycerate groups, produced by the bacterium Sphingomonas
paucimobilis. Its structure is presented in the figure 2.14.

54
It is currently being manufactured under patent in two different terms: kelcogel and
Gelrite. The former is used as a thickener and gelling agent and the latter is used as a
solidifying agent.

Figure 2.14: Structure of Gellan Gum

Functional properties
One of the most important features of gellan gums is its versatile texture which is defined
in terms of hardness (measure of rupture strength), modulus (measure of gel firmness),
brittleness (strain required to break the gel) and elasticity (measure of rubberiness).
Gellan gels can be formulated to set with or without heating. The melting point can be
either below or above 100oC, allowing the design and production of both heat resistant
gels and gels that should liquify during processing. At 15% sugar content gellan gum gels
are crystal clear. Gellan can be easily and fully dissolved in water without any
preparatory steps. Gellan can be easily combined with other gums/polymers, for example,
gelations gels, which have pleasant organoleptic qualities but low melting point, can be
stabilized satisfactorily when gellan is added to the mixture. Apart from native gellan,
which has properties similar to xanthan-locust gum mixtures and thus rather limited uses,
there are 3 types of modified gellan gum.
(a) High acetyl gellan (partially deacetylated), which provides a thermo reversible gel,
fairly soft, elastic and non-brittle.
(b) Low acetyl gellan (highly deacetylated), which is preferred for most food
applications, as it forms firm and brittle gels.
(c) High clarity gellan (highly deacetylated and clarified), which is suitable for some
confectionery products where clarity is a crucial quality issue.

55
Applications
Gellan is a highly versatile food ingredient and has numerous applications in foods. The
combination of gelatin with gellan, by comparison, produced gels with both pleasant
organoleptic properties and thermal stability. Although alginate produces stable gels,
gellan not only enhances thermal stability when used as gelling agent, but also provides
excellent clarity, which is an important feature for some jellies or sugar icings. The
addition of gellan in fruit and milk beverages has also proved to be very useful in forming
stable, homogeneous products. Gellan can be utilized in confectionary and bakery
products. Starch jellies, due to introduction of gellan reduces the setting time to 10-12
hour. In addition, gellan can prevent moisture fluctuations in sugary icings and toppings.
Gellan can successfully replace pectins and are effective at lower concentrations. In these
products, syneresis is minimized, while jams have good organoleptic characteristics and
spread easily. Low solid and reduced calorie jams can also be prepared with only 0.15%
of high clarity gellan, giving a jam with excellent sheen. The firm consistency of pie
fillings and puddings can be obtained from gellan alone or in mixtures with modified
starch. It can be used as a stabilization and water-binding agent, averting the “blanding
effect” that starches can have as food flavour (i.e., starches generally tend to weaken the
flavour release characteristics of food). Gellan gum offers significant thermal resistance
during the pasteurization process. In dairy products like cheese, the interactions of gellan
with milk proteins, especially caseins and whey lactoglobulins increased the total yield of
cheese and reduced the loss of solids (mainly proteins) in the whey. Also, water retention
during cheese making was enhanced after the addition of gellan to milk. Ice cream can
be improved by the addition of gellan, where it acts as effective bulking agent.

2.8.3 Curdlan
Curdlan, a glucan with (1→3) is produced by bacterium Alkaliqenus faecalis var.
myogenes and some related bacteria. It is a tasteless, odorless white powder, which swells
upon the addition of water. Upon heating low concentrations of gum suspensions, a

56
cloudy, opaque gel forms at temperatures above 80OC. This gel is irreversible and is not
affected by cooling heating or freezing. The gel will form over a wide pH range from 1.0
to 11.5 and tends to show syneresis upon ageing.

Figure 2.15: Structure of Curdlan

Food Applications
Curdlan has a variety of food applications as enumerated herewith:
a) Meat and Poultry
Curdlan makes meat and poultry products juicier and tenderer. It’s ideal for frozen
products, like steak, burgers and fried chicken. It increases yield by reducing shrinkage.
Curdlan prevents moisture loss and oil absorption in breaded and batter-coated meat and
seafood products.
b) Dairy Products
Curdlan replaces fat while improving mouthfeel, texture, and appearance in frozen and
cultured dairy products. It makes low-fat yogurts and cheeses creamier.
c) Miscellaneous
Curdlan, used with egg whites, improves texture and shape retention in noodles,
especially in canned soups and macaroni products. Its gel will form tofu noodles that
retain their shape when boiled or sauted. Curdlan imparts creamy mouthfeel to salad

57
dressings, adds viscosity to non-fat varieties. It consists of 90% dietary fiber and is
nutritionally inert, making it an excellent bulking agent for low- and no-fat foods.

2.8.4 Dextran
Dextran is a high molecular weight polysaccharide having α1→ 6, α1→ 3 linked
glucans, as you can see in the figure 2.16. It is produced by the bacterial fermentation of
sucrose by Leuconostoc dextranicum followed by partial depolymerisation and
purification of the fermented mixture to produce a substance that is free of viable micro
organisms.

Dextran is a fine, white powder that dissolves readily in hot or cold water to give a clean
and viscous solution. It has good humectant and water–holding properties and imparts
good bodying attributed to liquid systems.

Figure 2.16: Structure of dextran sulphate sodium

Food Applications
Dextran can be used in food products, as it is capable of moisture retention and inhibition
of crystallization of sugar. The properties of dextran as gelling agent and prevention of
ice crystals in ice cream can also be exploited. It can be used as stabilizer in bakery,
especially for soft bread. Use of dextran can also stabilize foam in beer and milk
beverages.

58
2.8.5 Pullulan
Pullulan is a water soluble edible microbial polysaccharide consisting of Maltotriose
units (α 1 → 6), as shown in the figure 2.12. It is produced by yeast Aureobasidium
pullulans. It is a natural linear polysaccharide with maltotriose units. Pullulan is tasteless
and odourless. Esterification of pullulan makes it water-soluble. The films made from
this are odourless, impermeable to oxygen and resistant to grease. It cannot be degraded
by human digestive enzymes and thus can be exploited in dietetic foods.

Figure 2.12: Structure of Pullulan

Food Applications
The food applications of pu;;alan include:
• Due to its oxygen barrier properties, it can be used as a packaging material for fat
/ oil containing food products.
• Pullulan can improve the viscosity of beverages, ice creams and sauces.

59
 • It can also be used in the preparation of ham, sausages and other meat products
for their quality and texture improvement.
• It can be used as ingredient of dietetic foods.

Check Your Progress Exercise 7

1. What are microbial polysaccharides? Name any two microbial polysaccharides.
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2. List a few food applications of the following:
a) Xanthan Gum
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b) Gellan Gum
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c) Pullulan
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d) Curdlan
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3. List the types of Gellan gum.
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2.9 LET US SUM UP

60
This unit focuses on food polysaccharides. Polysaccharides, as you are aware, are
complex carbohydrates made up of monosaccharides units joined together in a linear or
branched fashion. They are of two main types – starches and dietary fibre component. In
addition food polysaccharides also include exudates gums, seed gums, microbial
polysaccharides, algal polysaccharides.

Starches, we learnt, form the primary energy source for many animals, including humans.
They are composed of a simple chain molecule called amylose (20-30%) and a complex
branched form called amylopectin (70-80%) molecules. They have enormous number of
uses including adhesive, binding, clouding, dusting, film forming, foam strengthening,
getting, glazing, moisture retaining, stabilizing, texturizing and in thickening
applications. Inspite of such wide-range application of starches, they suffer from various
shortcomings. To overcome these and expanding usefulness of starch for a myriad of
applications, modified starches are developed. The modified starches find its use in food
and confectionery industries as instant desserts, salad dressings, toppings, canned soups
etc.

Non-starch polysaccharides (NSP), is a group of materials found in the cell walls of

plants. These include cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin etc. Gum ghatti, gum karaya, gum
tragacanth ( classified as exudate gums) locust bean gum, guar gum (classified as seed
gums) and pullulan, xanthan, curdlan, dextran etc.(microbial polysaccharides) are the
other food polysaccharides about which we learnt in this unit. All these polysaccharides
have a variety of food applications. They function as gelling agent, prevent forming of ice
crystals in ice cream, used as stabilizer in bakery etc.

2.10 GLOSSARY

Colloidal dispersion : a mixture containing particles larger than those found in a

solution but small enough to remain suspended for a very
long time.

61
Complex : also known as polysaccharides, made up of many
Carbohydrates monosaccharide units joined together in a linear or
branched fashion.

Depolymerization : the process of converting a polymer into its monomer or a

mixture of monomers.

Diverticular disease : a disease characterized by small protrusion in the colon i.e.

the large intestine

Emulsifier : an additive that promotes formation of a stable mixture or

emulsion of oil and water

Encapsulated flavour : encapsulation involves the coating of a fine particle of an

active core with an outer shell into small capsules. It
prevents ingredients from reacting prematurely with their
environment or degrading.

Esterification : the process of converting an acid into an alkyl or aryl

derivative. Most frequently the process consists of the
reaction of an acid with an alcohol in the presence of a
trace of mineral acid as catalyst or the reaction of an acyl
chloride with an alcohol. Esterification is the act or process
of making ether; specifically, the process by which a large
quantity of alcohol is transformed into ether by the agency
of a small amount of sulphuric, or ethyl sulphuric,
acidification and can also be accomplished by enzymatic
processes

Etherification : the act or process of making ether; specifically, the process

by which a large quantity of alcohol is transformed into
ether by the agency of a small amount of sulphuric, or ethyl
sulphuric, acid.

Extruded Starch : cereal products, that are prepared by pumping cereals

through a small opening for instance, pasta, Ready-to-eat
cereals etc.

Gums : food hydrocolloids, hydrophilic polymers which contain

many hydroxyl groups. These are added to food products to
provide a particular functional property

Hemicellulose : the second major constituent of plant cell wall

Humectant : property of moisture retention.

Monosaccharides : simplest form of carbohydrates which can not be further

62
 hydrolysed into smaller units.

Organoleptic : the effect or impression produced by any substance on the

properties organs of touch, taste, or smell, and also on the organism as
a whole.

Pasteurization : partial sterilization of a substance using heat to destroy

harmful organisms.

Pseudoplastic viscosity : A decrease in viscosity with an increase in shear rate.

Rheology : the science of the deformation and flow of matter. It is the

branch of physics concerned with the flow and change of
shape of matter, especially the viscosity of liquids.

Syneresis : Separation of liquid from a gel caused by contraction.

2.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1. A few applications of starches in the foods industry include thickener, a fat
sparing agent, adhesive, binder, encapsulating agent, film former, gelling agent,
water binder, texturizer etc.
2.
• The realignment of the amylose and amylopectin and swollen starch granules to
form a pocket is termed as retrogradation.
• The process of converting starch into a jelly-like substance is referred to as
gelatinization.
3.
a) Amylopectin
b) glucose residues in a compact structure
c) resistant starch.
d) form of starch; method of cooking prior to consumption.
e) wet weight of the sedimented gel formed to its dry weight.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

63
1. Modified starches are the food starches having one or more of their original
characteristics altered by treatment in accordance with good manufacturing
practices.

2. Lack of free-flowing properties of water repellence of the starch granules,

insolubility or failure of the granules to swell and develop viscosity after cooking,
cohesive or rubbery texture of the cooked starch, sensitivity of the cooked starch
to breakdown during extended cooking, lack of clarity and formation of opaque
gel are a few shortcomings of native starches which make it unacceptable in
certain food applications.

3.
(i) Oxidized starch: Coating and sealing agent, emulsifier, dough conditioner for
bread, binding agent as gum Arabic replacer, lemon curd manufacture, salad
cream, mayonnaise.
(ii) Starch acetates: Stabilizer and thickener in baked, frozen, canned, dry foods and
gravies.
(iii) Starch Phosphate monoesters: Emulsifying agent and thickening agent.
(iv) Hydroxypropyl starches: Coffee whiteners, thickener in a variety of food related
products.

4.
a) Reaction with acid or alkali, hydrolysis, use of specific enzymes, treatment with
reagents.
b) pregelatinized
c) cationic starches

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1.
a) NSP or dietary fibre is the name given to a group of materials found in the cell
walls of plants which gives the plant its structure and form.

64
b) Food hydrocolloids are the hydrophilic polymers of vegetable, animal, microbial
or synthetic origin that generally contains many hydroxyl groups and may be
polyelectrolytes.

2. A few important uses of food hydrocolloids are: to increase viscosity and to

stabilize food products. Its other uses include use as laxatives, modifying
diarrhoea, alleviation of the symptoms of diverticular disease, reduction in blood
glucose level and insulin response and hypocholesterolemic effect.

3. The functional properties of gums that are considered to be important in food

industries are:
• Ability to modify the basic property of water
• Helps to stabilize the suspensions, emulsions and foams.

4. Cellulose has β(1,4) linkages, which are not digested by human beings and
unbranched structure.
5.
a) Water holding capacity
b) retarding, staling and reducing fat intake into the fried foods
c) emulsifier, stabilizer, binder, potential bulking agent, good source of fibre.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1.
(i) agar, alginate and carrageenan
(ii) agarose, agropectin
(iii) alginate
(iv) sulphated galactose
(v) kappa, iota and lambda

2. The food applications of the various cell wall polysaccharides are:

65
(a) Agar: Agar is used in the confectionary products, such as agar jelly candies,
marsh mallows and sweet potato-sugar-agar. Agar is also used in the manufacture
of canned meat, fish and poultry products to prevent damage to the contents
during transit and storage. In dairy products, improved textures and stability are
obtained with the use of agar. It is also employed in the fining of wines, juices and
vinegar and clarifying fruit wines.
(b) Alginates: Soluble alginate salts produce attractive, edible gels or jellies. The
sodium alginate stabilizers possess good water-holding properties. The presence
of sodium alginate minimizes surface hardening and improves the texture of the
processed cheese. The addition of about 0.15% sodium alginate is sufficient to
thicken cream and to act as a stabilizer in ice-cream mixes. It prevents oxidative
rancidity in the quick frozen fish and helps in aiding cloud retention and inhibits
clarification in orange squash and crush.
(c) Lamda and Kappa-carrageenan: Lamda-carrageenan at a concentration of 0.05%
produces thickening and stabilization. Sodium salts of Lamda and Kappa-
carrageenan at a concentration of 0.01-0.035% gives improved dough
characteristics and allows incorporation of higher levels of nonfat milk solids.

Answers to Check Your Progress Exercise 5

1. Seed gums are a group of polysaccharides with the following properties:
• light to dark cream colored amorphous powder characterized by forming viscous
or clear solutions when dispersed or dissolved in cold or hot water.
• produce low to high viscosity depending upon the source and manufacturing
process. They have property of forming high viscosity even at low concentration.
• stable over a wide range of pH (3-9).
• excellent compatibility characteristic with organic, inorganic substance including
certain dyes and various constituents of food.
• effective settling properties even at lower concentration.

2. The food properties of various seed gums are discussed as:

66
(a) Locust bean gum: Locust bean gum has been used as a basic ice cream stabilizer.
It controls moisture and gives a unique texture effect to cream cheese and similar
products. It is used as an ingredient in specialty products such as salami, sausage
and bologna to facilitate extrusion and stuffing. Bread flour supplemented with
locust bean gum produces dough with constant properties and enhanced water-
binding characteristics. It helps to minimize syneresis in dessert gels.
(b) Guar Gum: Guar in tomato based sauces helps to maintain a desirable color as
well as imparting body and stabilizing the system. It imparts a desirable gloss or
sheen to canned pet foods.

Check Your Progress Exercise 6

1. The food properties of various exudate gums are discussed as:
(a) Gum Arabic: It retards or prevents crystallization and emulsifies, acts as an
emulsifier. It has low water- absorption properties, favorable, adhesive properties
and imparts smoothness. It is used in the preparation of dry, powdered and stable
oil-soluble vitamins. It is used as a non-caloric bulking agent and bodying agent
in diabetic foods. Also, it is used to solublize water-insoluble materials such as
antioxidants, butylated hydroxyl anisole (BHA).
(b) Gum Karaya: It has water absorbing and water-holding capacity. It prevents the
bleeding of free water and the formation of large ice crystals. It has foam
stabilization properties, prevents syneresis and improves the spreadability
characteristics of cheese spreads. In combination with alginate or carrageenan, it
is used to retard staling of bread and other baked goods. In ground meat products,
it provides good water holding and binding properties.
(c) Gum tragacanth: Gum tragacanth finds food applications as stabilizer in the dairy
industry.

2.
(i) - (b)
(ii) - (a)
(iii) - (d)

67
(iv) - (c)
Check Your Progress Exercise 7
1. Microbial polysaccharides are microorganisms that produce polysaccharides.
Some examples of microbial polysaccharides include xanthan gum, gellan gum,
curdlan, pullulan.

2. The food properties of various microbial polysaccharides are discussed as:

(a) Xanthan gum: It is non-gelling and is used for the control of viscosity. It is used
as a thickener, stabilizer, emulsifier and foaming agent. It has a consistent water
holding ability. It gives enhanced mouthfeel with full bodied taste and unusual
heat stability. In pickles and relishes, it is exceptionally effective in reducing
liquor drainage. It is utilized for the stabilization of law calorie and other aerated
desserts, instant milkshakes, breakfast drinks, soups and sauces.

(b) Gellan gum: It has pleasant organoleptic properties and thermal stability. It
provides excellent clarity, prevent moisture fluctuations in sugary icings and
toppings. It can be used as a stabilization and water-binding agent. Gellan gum
offers significant thermal resistance during the pasteurization process. Also, it
enhances water retention. It acts as effective bulking agent.

(c) Pullulan: Due to its oxygen barrier properties, it can be used as a packaging
material for fat / oil containing food products. It is used to improve the viscosity
of beverages, ice creams and sauces and also as ingredient of dietetic foods. Also,
it is used in the preparation of meat products for their quality and texture
improvement.

d) Curdlan: It finds its uses in the following food products:

• Meat and Poultry: It makes meat and poultry products juicier and tenderer; it is
ideal for frozen products, prevents moisture loss and oil absorption.
• Dairy Products: It improves mouthfeel, texture and appearance in frozen and
cultured dairy products; makes low-fat yogurts and cheeses creamier.

68
 • Miscellaneous: Along with egg whites, it improves texture and shape retention in
noodles, especially in canned soups and macaroni products. It imparts creamy
mouthfeel to salad dressings, adds viscosity to non-fat varieties; an excellent
bulking agent for low- and no-fat foods.

2. The three types of gellan gums are:

• High acetyl gellan (partially deacetylated)
• Low acetyl gellan (highly deacetylated)
• High clarity gellan (highly deacetylated and clarified).

69
UNIT 3 LIPIDS

Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Introduction to Lipids
3.3 Classification and Composition
3.3.1 Classification of Lipids
3.3.2 Categories of Fats and Oils
3.4 Functional Properties of Food Lipids
3.5 Deep Fat Frying
3.5.1 Factors Affecting Process of Deep Fat Frying
3.5.2 Maintaining the Quality of Frying Oil
3.6 Deteriorative Changes in Fats and Oils
3.6.1 Autoxidation
3.6.2 Factors Influencing Lipid Oxidation
3.6.3 Lipolysis
3.6.4 Thermal Decomposition
3.7 Antioxidants – Preventing the Deteriorative Changes in Fats and Oils
3.8 Let Us Sum Up
3.9 Glossary
3.10 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

3.1 INTRODUCTION

After a detailed study on carbohydrates, we now move on to the next structural

component of all living cells, the lipids. Lipids are the major components of adipose
tissue and together with the proteins and carbohydrates they constitute the principal
structural components of all living cells.

Lipids in food exhibit unique physical and chemical properties. Their composition,
crystalline structure, melting properties and the ability to associate with water and other
non-lipid molecules are especially important to their functional properties in many foods.
We will learn about these properties and the role of lipids in product preparation in this
unit. Further, during the processing, storage and handling of foods, lipids undergo
complex chemical changes and react with other food constituents, producing numerous
compounds, both desirable and deleterious to the food quality. What are these
deteriorative changes in food lipids? Are there any means of controlling such changes?
These are the other issues highlighted in this unit.

You will realize, that like in previous two units, here too we have not dwelt much on the
structural component of lipids. The reason being that the structure, physical/chemical
properties have been discussed in the Nutritional biochemistry course. We do not wish to
duplicate the effort here and make the content bulky. However, we do advise you to look
up the relevant block/unit in the Nutritional Biochemistry course before you start
studying this unit. Best approach would be to have those blocks handy so that you can
refer to them as and when required.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• enumerate the important sources of food lipids,
• describe the basic composition of food lipids,
• discuss the role of food lipids in product preparation,
• debate on the importance of functionality of food lipids with reference to food
processing and quality of finished products, and
• recognize the deteriorative changes in food lipids and means of controlling such
changes.

3.2 LIPIDS – INTRODUCTION AND SOURCES

In its broadest sense, ‘lipids’ defines substances as oils, fats and waxes which can be only
characterized by a large array of properties. They are in general:
- coming from plant and animal origin;
- insoluble or immiscible with water but soluble in organic solvents such as
chloroform, ether, benzene, acetone; and
- formed of long-chain hydrocarbon groups (carbon and hydrogen), but may also
contain oxygen, phosphorous, nitrogen and sulphur.
Glycerol esters of fatty acids, which make up to 99% of the lipids of plant and animal
origin have been traditionally called fats and oils. This distinction, based solely on
whether the material is solid or liquid at room temperature, is of little practical
importance and the two terms are often used interchangeably.

Food lipids are either consumed in the form of “visible” fats, which have been separated
from the original plant or animal sources, such as vegetable oil and butter, or as
constituents of basic foods, such as milk, cheese and meat. This is referred to as ‘invisible
fat’. You already know that dietary lipids play an important role in nutrition. They supply
calories and essential fatty acids, act as vitamin carriers and increase the palatability of
food. The largest supply of vegetable oil comes from the seeds of soy bean, cottonseed,
peanut and the oil-bearing trees of palm, coconut and olive.

Oil–bearing fruits, nuts and seeds have been grown and used for food for many centuries.
More than 100 varieties of plants are known to have oil–bearing seeds, but only a few
have been commercialized. The largest source of vegetable oil at present is the seeds of
annual plants such as soybean, cottonseed, peanut, sunflower, safflower, mustard and
rapeseed. Many of the oil–bearing seeds are not only a source of oil, but also protein, the
protein portion has the most value. A second source of vegetable oils is the oil–bearing
fruits and nuts of trees such as coconut, palm, palm kernel and olive. The oil from the
palm and olive is extracted from the fruit rather than the seed of the fruit. All the oil–
bearing trees require a relatively warm climate, two of which are tropical: coconut and
palm.
Oil contents for vegetable oil–bearing materials vary between 18% and 68% of the total
weight of the seed, nut, kernel or fruit as indicated in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: Oil Content of few Vegetable Oil Sources

Oil Bearing Material Oil Content (%)
Coconut 65 – 68
Cottonseed 18 – 20
Olive 25 – 30
Palm 45 – 50
Palm kernel 45 – 50
Peanut 45 – 50
Safflower 30 – 35
Soybean 18 – 20
Sunflower 35 – 45

Meat fats are derived almost entirely from three kinds of domestic animals: hogs, cattle
and sheep. Milk of cow and buffalo is an important source of fat in the form of either
butter or ghee. Bulk of the world’s milk fat production consists of butterfat from cow’s
milk, and in India, butter and ghee have a well-established place in the culinary practices.

Fats and oils are a unique class of agricultural products in that a high degree of
interchangeability among them is possible for many products and uses. Additional
processing and/or blending of one or more source oils may be necessary for a satisfactory
substitution. Knowledge of the physical and chemical properties of each individual raw
material is necessary to successfully duplicate or improve on the functionality of the
original source oil’s functionality. To understand this, we need to first look at the
composition of lipids. The next section is devoted to the classification and composition of
lipids.
3.3 LIPIDS - CLASSIFICATION AND COMPOSITION

The classification and categories of lipids is presented in this section. There may be
different ways of classifying lipids. A general classification is presented herewith.

You may recall reading about the classification of lipids in the Advance Nutrition Course.

3.3.1 Classification of lipids

A general classification of lipids based on their structural components is presented in
table 3.2. Such a classification, however, is possibly too rigid for a group of compounds
as diverse as lipids and should be used only as a guide. The table gives the major, sub-
class and description of the various lipids.

Table 3.2: Classification of lipids

Major Class Subclass Description

Simple lipids Acylglycerols Glycerol + fatty acids

Waxes Long–chain alcohol + long-chain

fatty acids

Compound Phosphoacylglycerols (or Glycerol + fatty acids + phosphate

lipids glycerophospholipids) + another group usually containing
nitrogen

Sphingomyelins Sphingosine + fatty acid +

phosphate + choline

Cerebrosides Sphingosine + fatty acid + simple

sugar

Gangliosides Sphingosine + fatty acid + Complex

carbohydrate moiety that includes
sialic acid

Derived lipids Materials that meet the Examples: fatty acids, carotenoids,
definition of a lipid but steroids, fat-soluble vitamins
are not simple or
compound lipids
It should also be recognized that other classifications may sometimes be more useful. For
example, the sphingomyelins can be classed as phospholipids because of the presence of
phosphate. The cerebrosides and the gangliosides can also be classified as glycolipids
because of the presence of carbohydrate and the sphingomyelins. The glycolipids can be
classed as sphingolipids because of the presence of sphingosine.

The most abundant class of food lipids is the acylglycerols, also known as glycerol esters
of fatty acids, which dominate the composition of depot fats in animals and plants. The
polar lipids are found almost entirely in cellular membranes (phospholipids being the
main component of the bilayer), with only very small amounts in depot fats. In some
plants, glycolipids constitute the major polar lipids in cell membranes. Waxes are found
as protective coatings on skin, leaves and fruits. Major components of lipids are the
acylglycerols. They are the esters of glycerol and fatty acids, having a varying chain
length. Fatty acids are aliphatic monocarboxylic acids that can be liberated by hydrolysis
from naturally-occurring fats. For example, oleic acid, which is a common fatty acid
found in acylglycerols, has 18 carbon atoms in its chain. The carboxyl (COOH) group of
the acids forms the ester by combining with the hydroxyl (OH) group of glycerol. There
are 3 hydroxyl groups in a glycerol molecule. If all the three groups are forming ester
linkage with fatty acids, the resulting compound is called a triacylglycerol or a
triglyceride. Structure of a triacylglycerol is shown:

CH2OOC (CH2)16CH3

CH3 (CH2)16COOHCH

CH2OOC (CH2)16 CH3

The compound shown here is tristearoylglycerol, also known as glycerol tristearate. This
is a triester of glycerol with stearic acid. Many other fatty acids either saturated or
unsaturated and having varying chain length are present in triacylglycerols.
Common fatty acids present in acylglycerols are stearic acid (C-18, saturated), oleic acid
(C-18, monounsaturated), linoleic acid (C-18, diunsaturated) and palmitic acid (C-16,
saturated).

You came across the terms saturated and unsaturated in the above section. Let’s
understand these terms better.

3.3.2 Categories of Fats and Oils

As a student of nutrition, you already know that fatty acids are the lipid-building blocks.
It is customary to divide the fatty acids into different groups, e.g., saturated and
unsaturated ones. Saturated meaning they have as many hydrogens bonded to their
carbons as possible and unsaturated meaning with one or more double bonds connecting
their carbons, hence, fewer hydrogens. This particular division is useful in food
technology because saturated fatty acids have a much higher melting point than the
unsaturated ones, and the ratio of these fatty acids is of major importance for the physical
properties of a fat or oil.

Table 3.3a. Saturated fatty acids

Systematic Short-hand
Name Common Name Formula Description

n-Butanioc Butyric CH3 (CH2)2 COOH 4:0

n-Hexanoic Caproic CH3 (CH2)4 COOH 6:0
n-Octanoic Caprylic CH3 (CH2)6 COOH 8:0
n-Decanoic Capric CH3 (CH2)8 COOH 10:0
n-Dodecanoic Lauric CH3 (CH2)10 COOH 12:0
n-Tetradecanoic Myristic CH3 (CH2)12 COOH 14:0
n-Hexadecanoic Palmitic CH3 (CH2)14 COOH 16:0
n-Octadecanoic Stearic CH3 (CH2)16 COOH 18:0
n-Eicosanoic Arachidic CH3 (CH2)18 COOH 20:0
n-Docosanoic Behenic CH3 (CH2)20 COOH 22:0

Some of the more important saturated fatty acids with their systematic and common
names are listed in table 3.3a, and some of the unsaturated fatty acids in table 3.3b. The
naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids in fats are almost exclusively in the cis – form,
although trans – acids are abundant in ruminant milk fats and in catalytically
hydrogenated fats. What are cis and trans-acids? You may have learnt about this concept
in the Nutritional Biochemistry Course. We suggest you look up Block 1, Unit 2 of the
Nutritional Biochemistry course for understanding this concept.
Table 3.3 b. Unsaturated Fatty Acids
Systematic Short-hand
Name Common Name Formula
Description

Hexadec-9-enoic Palmitoleic CH3 (CH2)5 CH=CH (CH2)7 COOH 16:1

Octadec-9-enoic Oleic CH3 (CH2)7 CH=CH (CH2)7 COOH 18:1
Octadeca-9:12-dienoic Linoleic CH3 (CH2)4 (CH=CH.CH2)2 (CH2)6 COOH 18:2
Octadeca-9:12:15-trienoic Linolenic CH3 (CH2)3 (CH=CH.CH2)3 (CH2)6 COOH 18:3
Eicosa-5:8:11:14-tetraenoic Arachidonic CH3 (CH2)4 (CH=CH.CH2)4 (CH2)2 COOH 20:4
Docos-13-enoic Erucic CH3 (CH2)7 CH=CH (CH2)11 COOH 22:1

Table 3.4 gives the composition of common vegetable oils.

Table 3.4: Component Fatty acids of some vegetable oils (Wt %)
Fatty Acids
Oil 16:0 18:0 20:0 22:0 24:0 16:1 18:1 18:2 18:3

Cottonseed 22 3 Tr --- --- 1 19 54 1

Peanut 11 2 2 3 1 Tr 48 32 ---
Sunflower 7 5 --- --- --- --- 19 68 ---
Corn 11 2 Tr Tr --- --- 28 58 ---
Sesame 9 4 --- --- --- --- 41 45 ---
Olive 13 3 Tr --- --- 2 71 10 1
Palm 45 4 --- --- --- --- 40 10 ---
Soybean 11 4 Tr Tr --- --- 24 54 7
Safflower 7 2 Tr --- --- --- 13 78 ---
*Mustard 3.5 --- --- --- --- --- 22.4 24.4 13.7
* also contains around 40% Erucic acid (22:1)
Tr- Traces
In continuation of our classification of lipids, it is important to realize that edible fats are
traditionally classified into the following subgroups:

Milk Fats
Fats of this group are derived from the milk of ruminants, particularly cows and
buffaloes. Although the major fatty acids of milk fat are palmitic, oleic and stearic, this
fat is unique among animal fats in that it contains appreciable amounts of the shorter
chain fatty acids (C4 to C12), small amounts of branched and odd numbered acids and
fatty acids with trans-double bonds.

Lauric Fats
Fats of this group are derived from certain species of palm, such as coconut. The fats are
characterized by their high content of lauric acid (40 – 50%), moderate amounts of C6,
C8 and C10 fatty acids, low content of unsaturated acids and low melting points.

Vegetable Butters
Fats of this group are derived from the seeds of various tropical trees and are
distinguished by their narrow melting range, which is due mainly to the arrangement of
fatty acids in the triacylglycerol molecules. In spite of their large ratio of saturated to
unsaturated fatty acids, trisaturated acylglycerol are not present. The vegetable butters are
extensively used in the manufacture of confections, with cocoa butter being the most
important member of the group.
Oleic – Linoleic Fats
Fats in this group are the most abundant. The oils are all of vegetable origin and contain
large amounts of oleic and linoleic acids, and less than 20% saturated fatty acids. The
most important members of this group are cottonseed, corn, peanut, sunflower, safflower,
olive, palm and sesame oils.

Linolenic Acids
Fats in this group contain substantial amounts of linolenic acid (C18 triunsaturated).
Examples are soybean, mustard, rapeseed, flaxseed and wheat germ hempseed and perilla
oils, with soybean being the most important. The abundance of linolenic acid in soybean
oil is responsible for the development of an off-flavour problem known as ‘flavour
reversion’.

Animal Fats
This group consists of depot fats from domestic land animals (e.g., lard and tallow), all
containing large amounts of C16 and C18 fatty acids, medium amounts of unsaturated
acids, mostly oleic and linoleic and small amounts of odd numbered acids. These fats also
contain appreciable amounts of fully saturated triacylglycerols and exhibit relatively high
meting points. Egg lipids are of particular importance because of their emulsifying
properties and their high content of cholesterol.

The lipid content of whole eggs is approximately 12%, almost exclusively present in the
yolk, which contains 32 – 36% lipid. The major fatty acids in egg yolks are 18: 1 (38%),
16: 0 (23%), and 18: 2 (16%). Yolk lipids consist of about 66% triacylglycerols, 28%
phospholipids and 5% cholesterol. The major phospholipids of egg yolk are
phosphatidylcholine (73%) and phosphatidylethanolamine (15%).

Marine oils
These oils typically contain large amounts of long – chain omega-3-polyunsaturated fatty
acids, with up to six double bonds and they are usually rich in vitamins A and D. Because
of their high degree of unsaturation, they are less resistant to oxidation than other animal
or vegetable oils.

With this, we come to the end of first part of this unit i.e., the introduction, classification
and composition of lipids. Look up the points to remember given herewith. They are the
useful hints/tips for remembering the concept on your finger tips. Read them carefully.

Points to Remember
1. Lipids consist of group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents
but only sparingly soluble in water.
2. Glycerol esters of fatty acids (Acylglycerols) which make up to 99% of the lipids of
plant and animal origin have been traditionally called fats and oils.
3. Common fatty acid present in acyl glycerols are stearic acid (C-18, saturated), oleic
acid (C-18, monounsaturated), linoleic (C-18, di unsaturated) and palmitic (C-16,
saturated).
4. Major sources of oils and fats are peanut (groundnut), mustard, soybean, sunflower,
coconut, palm and milk.
5. Fats and oils belonging to oleic-linoleic acid group are the most abundant. They
contain large amounts of oleic acid (C-18 mono unsaturated) and linoleic acid (C-18
diunsaturated) and less than 20% saturated fatty acids.
6. Important members of oleic-linoleic acid group are peanut, sunflower, cotton seed
and sesame oils.
7. Milk fat is unique because it contains appreciable amounts of shorter chain acids (C-4
to C-12).
8. Animal fats contain appreciable amounts of fully saturated triacylgylcerols and
exhibit relatively high melting points.

Check your progress Exercise 1

1. Define lipids and mention main sources of lipids.
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2. What is role of food lipids in human diet?
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3. Mention the major classes of lipids and describe acylglycerols.
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4. Name the categories of fats and oils with examples.
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5. What are the main differences between vegetable oil and animal fats?
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Next, let us look at the functional properties of food lipids.

3.4 FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF FOOD LIPIDS

Chemically, fats and oils, as you may already know by now, are a combination of
glycerol and fatty acids. The glycerol molecule has three separate points, where a fatty
acid molecule can be attached. Physically, fats and oils differ in that fats are solid and oils
are liquid at room temperature. You learnt earlier that the different properties are to a
large extent determined by the fatty acid composition and the extent of saturation or
unsaturation present. These aspects are identified by the carbon chain length and the
number and position of double bonds for the individual fatty acids and their position of
the glycerol. Generally, solid fats indicated by a dominance of saturated fatty acids and
liquid oils, are an evidence of a high level of unsaturated fatty acids.
Carbon chain lengths of fatty acds in edible oils and fats vary between 4 and 24 carbon
atoms with up to three double bonds. The most prevalent saturated fatty acids are lauric
(C-12:0), myristic (C-14:0), palmitic (C-16:0), stearic (C-18:0), arachidic (C-20:0),
behenic (C-22:0) and lignoceric (C-24:0). The most important monounsaturated fatty
acids are oleic (C-18:1) and erucic (C-22:1). The polyunsaturated fatty acids are linoleic
(C-18:2) and linolenic (C-18:3).

Natural fats and oils vary widely in their physical properties even though they are
composed of the same or similar fatty acids. These differences result from differences in
the proportion of the fatty acids and the structure of the individual triglycerides. Factors
that affect the properties of vegetable oil are plant maturity, plant health, microbiological,
seed location within the flower and the genetic variation of the plant. Animal fats and oils
composition varies according to the animal species, diet, health and fat location on the
carcass and maturity.

Physical properties of an oil or fat are of critical importance in determining its functional
characteristics or use in food products. One fundamental physical property of importance
is demonstrated by the terms fats and oils, which indicate whether a lipid is a solid or
liquid at ambient temperatures. But this grouping is not rigid because vegetable oils that
are solid at ambient temperatures in a temperate climate are liquid at the tropical ambient
temperatures. How then can one measure the functional properties? Have you come
across the term performance testing? The next section presents a detailed discussion on
this aspect.

3.4.1 Measurement of Functional Property

Fats and oils have several functional properties that affect the quality of processed foods.
In deep fat frying, the roles played by the frying oil are many: These include:
1. It acts as an effective heat exchange medium leading to cooking of the product
being fried and evaporation of water from the product,
2. It helps in the development of texture of fried food.
 3. Oil absorbed by the products provides characteristic fried taste and flavour. In the
preparation of the baked products, presence of fat contributes to texture and
flavour. Fats and oils form emulsion in batters and doughs leading to the
development of desirable structure and texture on baking or toasting.

Some essential attributes contributed by fats and oils cannot be directly measured with
chemical or physical analytical methods. In these cases, performance testing is the only
means for evaluating the ability of fat or oil to perform the desired functions in a food
product. Actual determinations of the performance qualities of an edible fat and oil
product are made with small scale practical tests that evaluate a finished product.
Performance testing is essential for the development of new products, especially for fats
and oils products designed for a specific food product, a formulation, or a process. After
development, physical or chemical analysis can be related to performance results in most
situations; however, continuation of certain performance evaluations is necessary for
some products to ensure adequate performance or more timely results in some cases.
Initially, most performance testing was designed for bakery products but has now been
expanded to every specialty product situation, i.e., baking, frying, candy, coatings,
formulated foods, nondairy products, and so forth, wherever tailored oils, margarines, oils
and other specialty products are utilized. In many cases the performance tests are
developed to evaluate the fat and oil ingredient as it would be used by a specific food
processor. You would realize, performance evaluation in itself can be a detailed subject
of study. Here, in this unit we shall not dwell on this aspect. Those of you, who are
interested to learn more about performance evaluation, read box 1 for information. It
provides a few examples of performance evaluation.

Box 1: Performance Evaluation, a few examples

Creaming volume – Cake batter aeration can be affected by the plasticity, consistency,
emulsification, bake stock formulation and other fats and oil properties. Creaming
volume evaluations measure the ability of an oil or margarine to incorporate and retain
air in a cake batter. In most cases, batter aeration is an indicator of the baked cake
volume, grain and texture and materially affects the handling qualities of the cake batter.
The creaming volume test formula consists of only three ingredients: (1) Test oil or
margarine, (2) granulated sugar, and (3) whole eggs. This procedure is the first stage of
an old fashion pound cake, where all of the cake batter aeration depended upon the
creaming properties of the oil with whole eggs. Batter specific gravities are determined
after mixing for 15 minutes and again after 20 minutes. Continued aeration, identified by
a decrease in batter specific gravity, indicates that the fat or oil product has a stable
consistency that has not broken down to allow the release of air from the batter. Specific
gravity is expressed as grams per cubic centimeter per 100 grams, calculated by
multiplying the reciprocal of the specific gravity by 100. Specific volume better
illustrates the amount or degree of aeration. The performance test is applicable to
emulsified, as well as non emulsified products, to measure aeration potential in a cake
batter.
Pound cake test – In some cases, oil or margarine creaming volume is most accurately
measured by preparing a regular pound cake, omitting the chemical leavener and
measuring the volume, grain and texture of the baked cake. Creaming volume, as
determined by this method, is affected by batter mixing temperature. Working range or
creaming range can be measured by adjusting the finished batter temperature over the
desired temperature range. The results obtained in this manner provide a good indication
of the creaming range or oil temperature tolerance. The baked pound cake volume is
determined by a seed displacement procedure and the cake appearance rated numerically
with a scale similar to that provided in table 3.5.
Table 3.5: Rating Scale for Cake

Score Rating Description

10 Perfect Fine regular grains; no holes, cracks, or tunnels;

Very thin cell walls and perfect symmetry

9 Very Good Close regular grain; free of holes, cracks or

tunnels, may have occasional hole, good cell wall
thickness

8 Good Grain very slightly open but regular, free of cracks

or tunnels, may have occasional hole, good cell
 wall thickness

7 Satisfactory Grain slightly open, mostly regular, a few small

holes, no tunnels or racks, slightly thick cell walls

6 Poor Open or irregular grain, or frequent holes, some

cracks or tunnels

5 Unsatisfactory Very open or irregular grain, or numerous holes,

cracks or tunnels, or thick heavy cell walls; may
have solid strweaks or gum line

4 and below Bad Increasing degrees of unsatisfactory performance

Cake mix evaluation – Originally, cake mix formulations were very similar to bakery
cakes and utilized standard “Hi-Ratio” cake oils; however, development of improved
cake mixes required rapid aerating oils to minimize mixing times for the house wife,
while at the same time increasing the product’s mixing and baking tolerances. The
competitive nature of the cake mix industry has continued the demands for new and
improved products, of which oil has always been a major contributor. A basic white
mix cake formulation and the make-up procedure can serve to evaluate new or revised
emulsifier systems for aeration, eating qualities and cake shelf-life, as well as the oil
carrier for lubrication and consistency.
Restaurant deep fat frying evaluation – A number of factors are studied when
evaluating frying oils. During deep fat frying, the fat is exposed continuously to
elevated temperatures in the presence of air and moisture. A number of chemical
reactions, including oxidation and hydrolysis, occur during this time, as well as changes
due to thermal decomposition. As these reactions proceed, the functional, sensory and
nutritional quality of the frying fat changes and eventually reaches a point where it is
no longer possible to prepare quality fried products and the fat will have to be
discarded. The rate of frying fat deterioration varies with the food fried, the frying fat
utilized, the fryer design and the operating conditions.
The deep fat frying evaluation consists of controlled heating of the test oils at 360±10°F
(176 to 187°C) continuously until the test is terminated. Fresh French cut potatoes (227
grams) fried three times daily for 7 minutes at 3-hour interval are flavoured once daily.
 Frying observations recorded after each frying includes smoking, odor, clarity, gum
formation and a determination of foam development. Foam development described as
none, trace, slight, definite and persistent should also be measured with a foam test
daily and each time a change in the observed foam is recorded. Samples are taken after
each 24-hour period for analysis of colour, free fatty acid and iodine value for
quantitative measurement of darkening, hydrolysis and polymerization. The frying test
is terminated when persistent foam has been observed and substantiated by foam height
testing.

We have read about the deep fat frying evaluation method for measurement of functional
properties of fat. Deep fat frying is commonly used as a cooking method in most homes.
What are the issues to be considered while using this method of cooking is the focus of
discussion in the next section.

3.5 DEEP FAT FRYING

Deep fat frying, as you may already know, is the method which involves cooking food in
hot fat/oil. The fat immediately surrounds the food and cooks it from all sides, creating an
exterior layer that seals in the food's flavors and juices inside. Deep frying is one of surest
ways of locking in flavor and developing great texture (also known as "crunch") in
cooking. Deep fat frying, in fact, has become one of the more important methods of food
preparation used by the food service, snack and baking industries, as well as the home
kitchen. The deep fat frying process consists most simply of (1) partially or totally
immersing the food prepared for frying into (2) a body of heated frying fat, which is (3)
contained in a metal vessel, and (4) maintaining the food in the fat at the appropriate
frying temperature for (5) the duration required to cook the product. Going into the
cooking utensil are (a) frying fat, (b) heat, and (c) the food prepared for frying. Emerging
from the utensil are (a) steam and steam- entraining frying fat, (b) volatile by-products of
heating and frying, (c) the finished product, and (d) with filtering, the crumbs or foreign
solid by-products of the frying operation.
As you read the next section, you will realize all these factors mentioned above, have a
role to play in the deep fat frying process. Let us get to know them.

3.5.1 Factors affecting the process of deep fat frying.

The common factors influencing the process of deep frying include:
1. Heat- Frying temperatures ranging from 150 –190°C are necessary to properly
prepare the different fried food products. Unfortunately, exposure to high
temperatures accelerates all of the breakdown reactions of fats and oils.
2. Air- Oxygen from the air is necessary to sustain human life, but it also reacts with the
double bonds in the frying oils to oxidize the unsaturated fatty acids, which results in
offensive odors and flavours and promotes gum formation or polymerization.
3. Moisture- All food products contain moisture, which causes hydrolysis of fats and
oils, resulting in an increased fat absorption in most foods.
4. Contamination- Any material associated with the frying process that causes the frying
media to deteriorate or accelerate the process is a contaminant. Some examples of
frying fat contaminants are:
• Trace metals – Most metals are pro-oxidants that exert a marked catalytic effect
to accelerate fat breakdown, but some metals are much more active than others.
These pro-oxidants can be picked up during processing or storage, from frying
equipment, the food fried, or some other contact with a metal. Two metals that
promote more rapid breakdown of frying than others are brass and copper.
• Soap or detergent- Residue of these materials from cleaning storage tanks, fryers,
or utensils which will catalyze fat breakdown.
• Gums or polymerized fats- Addition of polymerized fats or oils to fresh oils act as
catalysts to accelerate the formation of more gums, which contribute to foaming
and darkening.
• Burnt food particles- Food particles allowed to remain in the frying fat impart a
bitter, caramelized and / or burnt taste along with an unappealing appearance to
the food fried and accelerate frying oil breakdown.
5. Time – The extent of the frying oil’s exposure to the effects of the above factors
determines the degree of product deterioration.
So now you realize, the simple process of deep frying is not actually so simple. Utmost
care needs to be taken while using this method to ensure that the quality of the frying oil
is maintained. The next section is devoted to this crucial practical aspect i.e., maintaining
the quality of fried oils.

3.5.2 Maintaining the quality of frying oil

As frying continues, the level of oil in the fryer depletes. There are two beneficial frying
fat quality factors affected during the frying operation. These include:
• the steam released during frying, and
• the addition of fresh oil to replace the fat absorbed by the food fried.

Steam formed from the moisture released from the food mixes intimately with the fat,
and when given off, it carries with it the odor- and flavour-bearing volatile by-products of
frying that would otherwise accumulate in the frying fat to adversely affect the flavour
and odor of the fried food. This steam continually scrubs or purges the frying fat of the
potential off – flavours and odors each time the food is fried, even though it is the same
moisture that causes hydrolysis. Fresh oil must be added to the fryer to compensate for
the fat removed by the fried product. This addition helps to overcome the changes to the
frying fat brought about by the heat and other frying fat enemies. Obviously, the frying
fat will remain in better condition when higher replacement oil quantities are required.
The ratio of the fryer’s capacity to the rate at which the fresh oil is added to replenish the
fryer is referred to as turnover rate, or the number of hours required for the addition of
fresh frying oil equal to the amount of fat maintained in the fryer. Because oxidative
changes occur continuously in heated fats, turnover must be related to the total period
that the fat is heated, rather than only the actual time the product is fried. Obviously, the
quality and, especially, the flavour of the frying fat will be maintained at a more desirable
level with the highest turnover rate. In general, an operation with a turnover less than a
day should never have to discard used frying oil because of breakdown, except in the case
of product abuse or a contaminant. Operations with a slower turnover rates need to
include this product quality and economic factor in their frying oil selection criteria.

Before we move on further, let us recapitulate what we have learnt so far. The salient
points are listed in points to remember given herewith. Read them carefully.

POINTS TO REMEMBER
1. Natural fats and oils vary widely in their physical properties even though they are
composed of the same or similar fatty acids.
2. Physical properties of a oil or a fat are of critical importance in determining its
functional characteristics or use in food products.
3. Performance testing is the means for evaluating the fat or oil’s ability to perform
the desired functions in a food product.
4. Cake batter aeration can be affected by the plasticity, consistency, emulsification
and other properties of fats and oil.
5. Deep fat frying has become one of the most important methods of food
preparation.
6. Factors affecting the frying process are frying temperature, oxygen from air,
moisture content of the food, duration of frying and presence of contaminants.
7. The rate of frying fat deterioration varies with the food fried, the frying fat
utilized, the fryer design and the operating conditions.
8. Fresh oil must be added to the fryer to compensate for the fat removed by the
fried product. This addition helps to overcome the changes in the frying fat.
9. Quality and flavour of the frying fat will be maintained at a desired level with the
highest turnover rate.

Check your progress Exercise 2

1. Name the factors that affect physical properties of fats and oils.
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2. Mention important functional properties of fats and oils
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3. What are the salient features of performance test?
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4. Name the factors affecting deep fat frying.
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5. What is turnover rate of frying oil?
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6. How does turn over rate affect the quality of frying oil?
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3.6 DETERIORATIVE CHANGES IN FATS AND OILS

From our discussion so far it is clear that the food products undergo changes in flavour
due to the chemical changes occurring in fats and oils present in them. The causative
factors responsible for such changes are presence of enzymes, atmospheric oxygen and
application of high temperature. Lipid oxidation is one of the major causes of food
spoilage. It is of great economic concern to the food industry because it leads to the
development of various off-flavours and off odours generally called ‘rancid’ (oxidative
rancidity), in edible oils and fat-containing foods, which render these foods less
acceptable. In addition, oxidative reactions can decrease the nutritional quality of food
and certain oxidation products are potentially toxic. On the other hand, under certain
conditions, a limited degree of lipid oxidation is sometimes desirable, as in aged cheeses
and in some fried foods.

In this section we will look at the oxidative and other changes occurring in fats and oils
causing deterioration. We begin with autoxidation.

3.6.1 Autoxidation
It is generally agreed that “autoxidation”, that is, the reaction with molecular oxygen via
a self – catalytic mechanism, is the main reaction involved in oxidative deterioration of
lipids. Autoxidation reaction can be divided into three parts:
a. initiation,
b. propagation, and
c. termination.

In the initiation part, hydrogen is removed from the fatty acid chain to yield a free radical.
The removal of hydrogen takes place at the carbon atom next to the double bond and can
be brought about by the action of light, metals etc. Let us understand this concept with
the help of an example. For example, in oleic acid, the reaction will proceed by removal
of hydrogen from carbons 8 or 11 resulting in free radical as shown herewith.

8 9 10 11
COOH (CH2)6 CH2 CH=CH CH2_(CH2)6_CH3
_ _ _ _

8 9 10 11 8 9 10 11
_
CH_CH=CH_CH2_ CH2_CH_CH=CH_

Generally, the reaction can be shown as:

RH R’ +H’
(R’ is the free radical)
Once a free radical is formed, it will combine with oxygen to form a peroxy-free
radical which can remove hydrogen from another unsaturated molecule who yield a
peroxide and a new free radical. This is called ‘propagation reaction’, as illustrated
herewith. This reaction may repeat upto several thousand times and has the nature of
a chain reaction.
R” + O2 RO2
RO2 + RH ROOH + R’

The propagation can be followed by termination, if the free radicals react with
themselves to yield non-active products:

R’ + R’ R _R
R’ + RO2 RO2R
nRO2’ (RO2)n

You must remember that the hydro peroxides (ROOH) formed in the propagation part
of the reaction are the primary oxidation products. They are generally unstable and
decompose into secondary oxidation products which include a variety of compounds.
Among the secondary oxidation products, aldehydes and alcohols form an important
group. The volatile aldehydes are mainly responsible for the oxidized flavour (rancid)
of fats.

A general scheme summarizing the overall picture of lipid autoxidation is given in the
figure 3.1.
 RH
O2
Dimers, polymers; cyclic
peroxides;
ROO’
Hydroperoxy compounds
R’

Cleavage

Aldehydes,
Ketones, hydrocarbons,
RH Furans, acids
ROOH

OH
ROOR,
ROR dimers RO’ Keto,
hydroxy
and epoxy
compounds
Cleavage

Aldehydes Alkyl radicals Semialdehydes

Or oxo-esters

O2
Condensation

O2
Hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons
Shorter aldehydes
Acids
epoxides
Terminal
ROOH

Hydrocarbons
Aldehydes,alcohols
 Figure 3.1:Generalised scheme for autoxidation of lipids
There are many factors influencing the lipid autoxidation process you have just learnt
about. Let us get to know them.

3.6.2 Factors Influencing Lipid Oxidation

Food lipids contain a variety of fatty acids that differ in chemical and physical properties
and also in their susceptibility to oxidation. In addition, foods contain numerous non lipid
components that may co-oxidize and / or interact with the oxidizing lipids and their
oxidation products. Oxygen concentration, temperature and moisture are the other factors
influencing autoxidation. Let us learn how.
• Fatty acid composition
We know fats/oils are made up of fatty acids. The number, position and geometry
of double bonds within the fatty acids affect the rate of oxidation. Relative rates
of oxidation for arachidonic, linolenic, linoleic and oleic acids are approximately
40:20:10:1, respectively. Cis acids oxidize more than their trans-isomers, and
conjugated double bonds are more reactive than nonconjugated. Autoxidation of
saturated fatty acids is extremely slow. At room temperature, they remain
practically unchanged when oxidative rancidity of unsaturates becomes
detectable. At high temperatures, however, saturated acids can undergo oxidation
at significant rates.
• Oxygen concentration
When oxygen is abundant, the rate of oxidation is independent of oxygen
concentration, but at very low oxygen concentration, the rate is approximately
proportional to oxygen concentration. However, the effect of oxygen
concentration on rate is also influenced by other factors, such as temperature and
surface area.
• Temperature
In general, the rate of oxidation increases as the temperature is increased.
Temperature also influences the relation between rate and oxygen partial pressure.
As the temperature is increased, changes in oxygen partial pressure have a smaller
influence on the rate because oxygen becomes less soluble in lipids and water, as
the temperature is raised.
• Surface area
The rate of oxidation increases in direct proportion to the surface area of the lipid
exposed to air. Furthermore, as surface – volume ratio is increased; a given
reduction in oxygen partial pressure becomes less effective in decreasing the rate
of oxidation. In oil-in-water emulsions, the rate of oxidation is governed by the
rate at which oxygen diffuses into the oil phase.
• Moisture
In model lipid systems and various fat-containing foods, the rate of oxidation
depends strongly on water activity. In dried foods with very low moisture
contents (aw values of less than about 0.1), oxidation proceeds very rapidly.
Increasing the aw to about 0.3 retards lipid oxidation and often produces a
minimum rate. The protective effect of small amounts of water is believed to
occur by reducing the catalytic activity of metal catalysts, by quenching free
radicals and / or by impeding access of oxygen to the lipid.

At somewhat higher water activities (aw = 0.55 – 0.85), the rate of oxidation
increases again, presumably as a result of increased mobilization of catalysts and
oxygen.
• Pro-Oxidants
Transition metals, particularly those possessing two or more valency states and a
suitable oxidation – reduction potential between them (e.g., cobalt, copper, iron,
manganese and nickel), are effective pro-oxidants. If present, even at
concentrations as low as 0.1 ppm, they can decrease the induction period and
increase the rate of oxidation. Trace amounts of heavy metals are commonly
encountered in edible oils and they originate from the soil in which the oil –
bearing plant was grown, from the animal, or from metallic equipment used in
processing or storage. Trace metals are also naturally occurring components of all
food tissues and of all fluid foods of biological origin (eggs, milk, and fruit juices)
and are present in both free and bound forms.
After autoxidation, we look at the deteriorative changes caused by lipolysis.

3.6.3 Lipolysis
What do we mean by lipolysis? Hydrolysis of ester bonds in lipids is called lipolysis. This
may occur by enzyme action or by heat and moisture, resulting in the liberation of free
fatty acids. Free fatty acids are virtually absent in the fat of living animal tissue. These
can be formed, however, by enzyme action after the animal is killed. Since animal fats
are not usually refined, prompt rendering is of particular importance. The temperatures
commonly used in the rendering process are capable of inactivating the enzymes
responsible for hydrolysis. In contrast to animal fats, oils in mature oil seeds may have
undergone a substantial hydrolysis by the time they have harvested, giving rise to
significant amounts of free fatty acids. Neutralization with alkali is thus required for most
vegetable oils after they are extracted.

Lipolysis is a major action occurring during deep fat frying due to large amounts of water
introduced from the food and the relatively high temperatures used. Development of high
level free fatty acids during frying is usually associated with foaming and a decrease in
the smoke point of the oil and reduction in the quality of the fried food. The release of
short – chain fatty acids by hydrolysis is responsible for the development of an
undesirable rancid flavour (hydrolytic rancidity) in raw milk. Furthermore, free fatty
acids are more susceptible to oxidation than other fatty acids esterified to glycerol.

Lipolysis, therefore, can cause changes in fats and oils which are best avoidable. On the
other hand, you would be surprised to learn that certain typical cheese flavours are
produced by deliberate action of microbial and milk lipases. Controlled and selective
lipolysis is also used in the manufacture of other food items, such as yogurt and bread.

Besides lipolysis, thermal decomposition too can bring about changes in oils and fats
which are deteriorative. Let us learn about these changes.

3.6.4 Thermal Decomposition

Heating of food produces various chemical changes, some of which can be important to
flavour, appearance, nutritive value and toxicity. Not only do the different nutrients in
food undergo decomposition reactions, but these nutrients also interact among themselves
in extremely complex ways to form a very large number of new compounds.

The chemistry of lipid oxidation at high temperatures is complicated by the fact that both
thermolytic and oxidative reactions are simultaneously involved. Both saturated and
unsaturated fatty acids undergo chemical decomposition when exposed to heat in the
presence of oxygen. A schematic summary of these mechanisms is shown in figure 3.2.

Fatty acids, Esters, and Triacylglycerols

Saturated Unsaturated

O2 Thermolytic O2
Thermolytic (α, β, γ,δ- attack ) Reactions
Reactions

Volatile and
Long-chain alkanes, Acyclic and dimeric
Acids aldehydes, ketones and cyclic dimers products of
hydrocarbons lactones autoxidation
propenediol
acrolein
ketones

Figure 3.2: Thermal Decomposition of Fats and Oils

With thermal decomposition, we complete our study on the deteriorative changes in fats
and oils. Now, the next important issue is how to prevent these deteriorative changes?
The answer lies in one word ‘Antioxidants’. Let us learn about what the antioxidants are
and how they play a protective role in the context of fats and oils.

3.7 ANTIOXIDANTS
Antioxidants are the substances that can delay onset, or slow the rate of oxidation of
autoxidizable materials. By virtue of this property, they provide protection against
oxidative changes in fats and oils. They act by reacting with the free radicals and thereby
terminate the propagation of chain reaction. The antioxidant reacts with the fatty acid free
radical or with the peroxy free radical. Literally hundreds of compounds, both natural
(including vitamins C and E, vitamin A, selenium (a mineral) and a group known as the
carotenoids) and synthesized, have been reported to possess antioxidant properties. Their
use in foods, however, is limited by certain obvious requirements not the least of which is
adequate proof of safety. The main lipid soluble antioxidants currently used in food are
monohydric or polyhydric phenols with various ring substitutions. For maximum
efficiency, primary antioxidants are often used in combination with other phenolic
antioxidants or with various metal sequestering agents.

Although the mechanisms by which many antioxidants impart stability to pure oils are
relatively well known, much remains to be learned about their action in complex foods.
Some commonly used/present antioxidants in fats and oils and their characteristics are
discussed herewith.

Characteristics of Some Commonly Used Primary Antioxidants:

• Tocopherols: These are the most widely distributed antioxidants in nature, and
they constitute the principal antioxidants in vegetable oils. A relatively high
proportion of the tocopherols present in crude vegetable oils survives the oil
processing steps and remains in sufficient quantities to provide oxidative
stability in the finished product.
• Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA): It is commercially available as a mixture of
two isomers and has found wide commercial use in the food industry. It is
highly soluble in oil and exhibits weak antioxidant activity in vegetable oils,
particularly those rich in natural antioxidants. BHA is relatively effective
when used in combination with other primary antioxidants. BHA has a typical
phenolic odor that may become noticeable if the oil is subjected to high heat.
 • Tertiary Butylhydroquinone (TBHQ): TBHQ is moderately soluble in oil and
slightly soluble in water. In many cases, TBHQ is more effective than any
other antioxidant in providing oxidative stability to crude and refined
polyunsaturated oils, without problem of colour or flavour stability. TBHQ is
also reported to exhibit good carry - through characteristics in the frying of
potato chips.

POINTS TO REMEMBER
1. Lipid oxidation is one of the major causes of food spoilage. It leads to the
development of off flavours and off odours generally called rancid.
2. Autoxidation is the reaction of fats and oils with molecular oxygen. It consists of
three steps namely, initiation, propagation and termination.
3. Volatile aldehydes formed during autoxidation are mainly responsible for the
rancid flavour of fats and oils.
4. The number, position and geometry of double bonds in the fatty acid chain affect
the rate of oxidation. As the number of double bonds increase, there is an increase
in the rate of oxidation.
5. Oxygen concentration, temperature, surface area of the lipid exposed to air and
moisture content influence the lipid oxidation.
6. Hydrolysis of ester bonds in lipids can occur by enzyme action, heat and
moisture, resulting in the liberation of free fatty acids.
7. Development of high level of free fatty acids during frying is associated with a
decrease in smoke point and reduction in the quality of fried food.
8. Lipid oxidation at high temperature involves both thermolytic and oxidative
reactions leading to loss of flavour, appearance and nutritive value.
9. Antioxidants can delay the onset, or slow the rate of oxidation of fats and oils.

Check your progress Exercise 3

1. What is autoxidation and mention the three steps involved in it?
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2. What is rancidity? Mention the compounds responsible for it.
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3. List the factors influencing lipid oxidation.
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4. Define lipolysis and name the compound liberated by it.
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5. List the compounds formed by the thermal decomposition of fats and oils.
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6. How antioxidants delay the onset of rancidity?
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7. Name some commonly used antioxidants.
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3.8 LET US SUM UP

Lipids are the major components of oil bearing materials and adipose tissue. They consist
of broad group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents. Largest
source of vegetable oil is the seeds of plants such as peanut, sunflower, cottonseed,
mustard and safflower. Acylglycerols or glycerol esters of fatty acids which make upto
99% of the lipids of plant and animal origin have been traditionally called fats and oils.
Oils of vegetable origin contain large amounts of oleic and linoleic acid. Physical and
chemical properties of oils and fats are important to their functional properties in many
foods. Many essential attributes contributed by fats and oils can be evaluated by
conducting performance tests. These tests are designed for products such as baked goods,
candy, coating snacks and formulated products. Deep fat frying is an important method of
food preparation. Factors affecting the process of deep fat frying are frying temperature,
exposure to air, moisture content of the food being fried, presence of contaminants such
as trace metals, soap or detergent and duration of heating. Fats and oils undergo changes
in flavour or they develop rancid flavour due to the presence of enzymes, atmospheric
oxygen and application of high temperature. Autoxidation is the main reaction involved
in the oxidative deterioration of lipids. Autoxidation occurs through free radical
mechanism consisting of three steps, namely, initiation, propagation and termination.
Lipid oxidation is influenced by the fatty acid composition, oxygen concentration,
temperature, surface area, moisture and pro-oxidants. Lipolysis is the hydrolysis of the
ester bonds in the lipids resulting in the liberation of free fatty acids which are more
susceptible to oxidation than acylglycerols. Lipids undergo chemical decomposition
when exposed to heat in presence of oxygen. Antioxidants are the substances that can
delay the onset or slow the rate of oxidatioin of lipids. The main antioxidants used in
food are monohydric or polyhydric phenols with various ring substitutes. Tocopherols are
the most widely distributed natural antioxidants in vegetable oils. Tertiary butyl
hydroquinone (TBHQ) is more effective than any other antioxidant in providing
oxidative stability to oils and fats.

3.9 GLOSSARY
Acylglycerols : Most abundant; these constitute upto 99% of the lipids of
plant and animal origin. They are esters of fatty acids with
glycerol.
Antioxidants : Substances that can delay the onset, or slow the rate of
oxidative deterioration of oils and fats.
Autoxidation : Reaction of the molecular oxygen with oils and fats
leading to the development of off odour or rancidity.
Cis-trans isomers : Atoms or groups are called cis or trans to one another
when they project respectively on the same or on opposite
sides of a reference plane identifiable as common among
stereoisomers. The compounds in which such relations
occur are termed cis/trans-isomers.
Fatty acids : Aliphatic monocarboxylic acids that can be liberated by
hydrolysis from naturally occurring fats and oils.
Functional property : Properties of fats and oils which have a marked influence
on the preparation and quality of a food product.
Lipids : Broad group of compounds that constitute the principal
structural components of all living cells, and are generally
soluble in organic solvents.
Lipolysis : Hydrolysis of ester bond in lipid caused by enzyme
action, heat and moisture resulting in liberation of free fatty
acids.
Oleic – linoleic group : Most abundant group of fats and oils that contain large
amounts of oleic and linoleic acid.
Oxidation-reduction
Potential (ORP) : ORP is related to the concentration of oxidizers or
reducers in a solution, and their activity or strength. It
provides an indication of the solution's ability to oxidize or
reduce another material. These chemicals have the ability
to oxidize (accept electrons) or reduce (donate electrons)
molecules.
Performance test : A method for evaluating the ability of fat or oil to perform
the desired functions in a food product.
Pro-oxidants : Transition metals, possessing two or more valency states
and a suitable oxidation-reduction potential between them.
Rancidity : Development of-off flavour in fats and oils caused by
autoxidation, lipolysis or thermal decomposition.
Thermal
Decomposition : Chemical decomposition of oils and fats when exposed to
heat in the presence of oxygen.

3.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1. Lipids are a broad group of compounds those are generally soluble in organic
solvents but sparingly soluble in water. Main sources of lipids are oil bearing
nuts, seeds and fruits. Example peanuts, sunflower, mustard and soyabean.

2. The role of food lipids in human diet are follows: lipids supply calories, essential
fatty acids, act as fat-soluble vitamin carriers and increase the palatability of food.

3. The major classes of lipids are simple lipids (acylglycerols and waxes);
Compound lipids (glycerophospholipids); Derived lipids (compounds that are not
simple or compound lipids) example, Carotenoids and vitamins. Acylglycerols are
the glycerol esters of fatty acids which make up to 99% of the lipids of plant and
animal origin.

4. Milk fats Example: Cow and Buffalo milk;

Lauric acid group Example: Coconut oil;
Vegetable butters Example: Cocoa butter;
Oleic linoleic acid group Example: Peanut, cotton seed, sunflower oils;
 Linolenic acid group Example: Soyabean, Mustard;
Animal fats Example: Lard, tallow

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. The factors that affect physical properties of fats and oils are fatty acid
composition, degree of unsaturation and structure of individual triglycerides.

2. The important functional properties of fats and oils are discussed as follows.
Frying oil is an effective heat exchange medium, to help in development of
texture and flavour of fried foods. Form emulsions in batter and dough.
Contribute to the texture and flavour of baked products.

3. The salient features of performance test are that it helps in evaluating the ability
of fat and oil to perform the desired function in a food product. It is essential
for the development of specific food products and formulations.

4. The factors affecting deep fat frying are temperature of frying; presence of
oxygen; moisture content of food; presence of contaminants such as trace metals
and duration of frying

5. Number of hours required for the addition of fresh frying oil equal to the
amount of oil maintained in the fryer is referred to as the turnover rate of frying
oil.

6. The turn over rate affects the quality of frying oil by maintaining the flavour at a
more desirable level, slowing down oxidative changes occurring in frying fat
and minimizing discard of used frying oil.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1. Reaction of fats and oils with molecular oxygen by means of a self catalytic
mechanism is referred to as autooxidation. The three steps involved are initiation,
propagation and termination.

2. Off flavours caused by the chemical changes occurring in fats and oils is referred
to as rancidity. The compounds responsible for it are unsaturated aldehydes,
ketones, alcohols and acids.

3. The factors influencing lipid oxidation are fatty acid composition, oxygen
concentration, temperature, surface area of the lipid, moisture and the presence of
pro-oxidants.

4. Lipolysis is the hydrolysis of ester bonds in lipids caused by the action of enzyme,
heat or moisture. Free fatty acids are liberated as a result of lipolysis.

5. The compounds formed by the thermal decomposition of fats and oils are acyclic
and cyclic dimers, long-chain alkanes, aldehydes, ketones and lactones and
hydrocarbons.

6. Antioxidants delay the onset of rancidity by reacting with the fatty acid free
radical or with the peroxy free radical and thereby terminate the chain reaction of
lipid oxidation.

7. Some commonly used antioxidants are Tocopherols, Butylatedhydroxyanisole and

tertiary Butylhydroquinone.
________________________________________________________
____
UNIT-4 PROTEINS
________________________________________________________
____

Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Proteins – Classification, Composition and Biological Functions
4.2.1 Classification
4.2.2 Composition
4.2.3 Biological Functions
4.2.4 Food Sources of Proteins
4.3 Functional Properties of Proteins
4.3.1 Hydration
4.3.2 Viscosity, Gelation and Texturization
4.3.3 Dough Formation
4.3.4 Emulsifying and Surface Properties of Proteins
4.3.5 Foaming Properties, Binding of Flavour and other substances
4.4 Protein Concentrates, Isolates and Hydrolysates and their applications
4.4.1 Protein Concentrates
4.4.2 Protein Isolates
4.4.3 Protein Hydrolysates
4.5 Let Us Sum Up
4.6 Glossary
4.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
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_____
4.1 INTRODUCTION
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_____
Like carbohydrates and fats, proteins are essential to us in an incredible variety of
different ways. Proteins are complex macromolecules, which constitute 50% or
more of the dry weight of living cells. Muscle, ligament, cartilage, skin, hair etc.
are mainly protein material. What are proteins? What is their composition,
properties and functional applications in our food? These issues are discussed in
this unit. The detailed structure and properties of proteins and amino acids are
discussed in the Nutritional Biochemistry course, Block 1, unit 1. The functions,
particularly the biological functions of proteins are dealt with in the Advance

1
Nutrition Course, block 1, unit 4. We suggest you to look at the structure,
properties and functions of protein there before you move on to this unit. You will
find a comprehensive review on the functionality of proteins in this unit, which as
a food scientist, you will find quite useful.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• discuss the composition and classification of proteins,
• enumerate the properties of amino acids and proteins, and
• understand the applications of protein concentrates, isolates and hydrolysates.

4.2 PROTEINS – CLASSIFICATION, COMPOSITION AND

BIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS

Proteins, as you may already know, are made up of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,
oxygen and usually sulphur. Proteins are built up of a large number of amino acid
molecules inter linked by peptide bonds as illustrated in figure 4.1. All the amino
acids have a trivial or common name, many a times is related to the source from
which they have been first isolated. For example:

Trivial Name of Protein Source

Asparagine Asparagus
Glutamine Wheat gluten
Tyrosine Cheese (Tyros is the Greek word for cheese)
Glycine- sweet taste (Glykos is the Greek word for sweet)

Amino acids are twenty in number, and you have read in the Nutritional
Biochemistry Course that they are classified according to the nature of the side
chain (R group). We shall not go into the classification and composition of amino
acids here. This has been discussed in details in Unit 2 of the Nutritional
Biochemistry Course. Look up the relevant section before you proceed further.

2
Figure 4.1: Peptide bond formation between two amino acids with the elimination
of water

Let us look at the classification, composition and biological functions of proteins

next. We start with the classification.

4.2.1 Classification of Proteins

You may recall reading earlier about the classification of proteins in the
Nutritional Biochemistry Course, Unit 2 and also in the Advance Nutrition
Course, Unit 4. Let us review the classification here again. Box 4.1 summarizes
the classification of proteins.

Box 4.1: Classification of Proteins

Proteins can be classified based on:
Shape and size Functional properties Solubility and physical
properties
• Fibrous proteins for • Immunoproteins such • Simple proteins
example: keratin in as C-reactive protein, • Conjugated proteins
hair, actin and Opsonin • Derived proteins
myosin in muscles, Immunoglobulins,
and collagen. • Contractile
• Globular proteins, for • respiratory,
example enzymes • structural,
and antibodies. • enzymatic,
• hormonal
• carrier proteins

As can be seen in box 4.1, proteins can be classified based on:

I Shape and size: fibrous proteins and globular proteins. Fibrous
proteins play structural roles in organisms. Globular proteins
consist of long chains of amino acids folded up into complex
shapes.
II Functional properties: Immuno, contractile, respiratory, structural,
enzymatic, hormonal and carrier proteins.

3
III Solubility and physical properties: Simple, conjugated and derived
proteins. Table 4.1 enumerates this classification.

Table 4.1 Classification of proteins based on the solubility and

physical properties

4
 Simple Proteins Conjugated Proteins Derived Proteins

Simple proteins are those Conjugated proteins are These are not naturally
which are made of amino acid composed of simple proteins occurring proteins and are
units only joined by peptide combined with a non- obtained from simple proteins
bond. Upon hydrolysis they proteinous substance. The by the action of enzymes and
yield a mixture of amino acids non-proteinous substance is chemical agents, heat,
and nothing else. called prosthetic group or mechanical shaking, UV or X-
cofactor. Rays.

Examples:
Albumins: Egg albumin, Examples:
serum albumin, Lactalbumin Chromoproteins: Examples:
Globulin: Tissue globulin, Haemoglobin, in which the Primary, Myosin, Fibrin,
serum globulin. prosthetic group is iron. Secondary, Peptones, peptides,
Gliadins: Wheat gliadin, Phosphoproteins: casein in proteoses etc.
hordein (barley) etc. milk, in which prosthetic
Albuminoids: Keratin of hairs, group is phosphoric acid,
skin, egg shell and bones, vitellin in egg yolk.
elastin, Collagen of tendons, Lipoproteins: HDL (high
ligaments and bones. density lipoprotein), LDL
Histones: globin of (low density lipoprotein) and
haemoglobin. VLDL (very low density
Protamine: Salmine, the lipoproteins), the prosthetic
spermatozoa of salmon fish. group is lipid
Glycoprotein: Ovomucoid of
egg white.
Nucleoproteins: ribosomes
and viruses.
Metalloproteins: alcohol
dehydrogenase, a Zn
containing enzyme.
Mucoproteins: Follicle
stimulating hormone, β-
ovomucoid.

Along with the classification, let us also quickly recapitulate the functions of
proteins in our body. You may recall studying the functions of proteins in the
Advance Nutrition course, block 1, unit 5. The next section summarizes the
biological functions of proteins.

4.2.1 Biological Functions of Proteins

Proteins have roles in the structural and functional aspects of the cells and
organelles. Proteins may be classified according to the following plan:

5
a. Structural elements: Structural proteins are fibrous proteins. The most familiar
of the fibrous proteins are probably the keratins, which form the protective
covering of all land vertebrates: skin, fur, hair, wool, claws, nails, hooves, horns,
scales, beaks and feathers. Equally widespread, if less visible, are the actin and
myosin proteins of muscle tissue. Structural proteins are very important for
support. Collagen and elastin provide a fibrous framework in animal connective
tissues, such as tendons and ligaments.

b. Defensive Proteins: These proteins protect against diseases. Antibodies are the
example of defensive proteins. These combat bacteria and viruses. Also,
immunoglobulins, as you are already aware, provide defense to body against
invading organisms and infections.

c. Contractile Proteins: These proteins participate in contractile processes such as

muscle proteins as well as those found in other cells and tissues. In the latter,
these proteins participate in localized contractile events in the cytoplasm, in
motile activity, and in cell aggregation phenomena. The examples of contractile
proteins include actin, myosin, myoglobin, troponin etc. Actin and myosin are
responsible for the movement of muscles. Contractile proteins are responsible for
the undulations of cilia and flagella, which propel many cells.

d. Nutrient and Storage proteins: These proteins store amino acids. Ovalbumin is
the protein of egg white, used as an amino acid source for the developing embryo.
Casein, the protein of milk, is the major source of amino acids for baby
mammals. Plants store proteins in seeds.
e. Transport proteins in plasma: Transport proteins, embedded in lipid
membranes, facilitate the import of nutrients into cells or the release of toxic
products into the surrounding medium. Molecules which cannot move across the
membrane by diffusion must cross the membrane with the help of transport
proteins. As carriers of plasma, these bind to small molecules and ions and
transport them throughout the body. Few common examples include:
• An iron-binding protein (transferrin) delivers ferrous ions to hemoglobin
synthesizing loci.
• Activity of ions, such as calcium, can be controlled by the ratio of free to
bound species.
6
 • When hydrogen ions are bound, proteins act as buffers to minimize the
change in pH.
• Since cells are impermeable to proteins, they also participate in
determining the distribution of ions and hence electrical potential
difference across the cell membrane.
• By virtue of osmotic activity, albumins mediate the distribution of body
fluids between plasma and extracelluar compartments

f. Enzymatic Proteins: The most varied and most highly specialized proteins are
those with catalytic activity - the enzymes. Virtually all the chemical reactions of
organic biomolecules in cells, you might be aware, are catalyzed by enzymes.
More than 2,000 enzymes are known. Special class of enzymes fulfills a
mechanochemical role, for example actin, myosin and related proteins of muscle
structure are responsible for the conversion of chemical energy into mechanical
work.

g. Hormonal proteins: Hormonal proteins coordinate the bodily activities.

Various peptide and protein hormones (such as insulin and growth hormone)
carry information that regulates cell permeability and cell metabolism.
h. Receptor Proteins: These are built into the membrane of a nerve cell and they
detect chemical signals released by other nerve cells. Receptor proteins are
involved in the cell's response to chemical stimuli.

i. Miscellaneous Functions:
Besides the functions enumerated above certain other important miscellaneous
functions of proteins are included herewith. These include:
• Source of energy: Constituent amino acids can be deaminated and
metabolized to carbon dioxide and water.
• Toxic proteins (for humans - botulinum toxin, staphylococcal toxin,
venom toxin; for microorganisms - antibiotics)
• Anti-nutritional factors (trypsin inhibitors).
• Many allergic reactions to food are also mediated by proteins, which result
in the modification of defence mechanism of consumer due to the
presence of proteinaceous antigens in foods that promote antibody
synthesis.

7
 • Intense sweeteners (Monellin).

4.2.2 Composition of Proteins

We know that the amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. Amino acids
are linked to one another by peptide bond formed by the elimination of a water
molecule as illustrated in figure 4.1. Considering the long peptide chains and
variation in the structure of twenty different amino acids, protein structure is
divided into 4 different levels as illustrated in Table 4.1. The details related to the
structure of each of these different proteins are included in the Nutritional
Biochemistry Course (block 1, unit 1). Read the matter given there for
comprehensive understanding of the protein structure.
Table 4.1: Different levels of protein structure
Primary structure The primary structure of a protein consists of the
order in which amino acids are bonded to one
another by a peptide bond.
Secondary structure The secondary structure of a protein involves the
way that the chain of amino acid either twists or
folds back upon itself to form alpha helical, beta
sheet or a variety of other possible arrangements.
Tertiary structure Secondary structure, in turn, folds back and bonds
to itself in a three-dimensional manner.
Quaternary structure When the protein consists of more than one chain,
or the shape in which those separate chains bond
together.

Besides the classification and composition of proteins, we would also spend some
time recalling the food sources of proteins. We bet the protein food sources must
be on your finger tips by now. Put them down and tally your responses with the
sources given in the next section.

4.2.3 Food Sources of Proteins

Food protein sources can be divided into 3 major categories:
a. Protein of Animal Origin
b. Protein of Plant Origin
c. Single cell protein
Let us review these food sources one by one.

a) Proteins of Animal Origin

8
What are the foods of animal origin which can be classified as rich sources of
proteins? You may already know, however, we have enumerated these sources
herewith, for your perusal.

1. Meat: Skeletal or striated muscles are used for food purposes. Flesh of cattle,
sheep and swine comprise most of the meat contents. Edible meat from these is
designated as “Red Meat”, a term descriptive of colors of beef, lamb or pork, as
opposed to the light and dark colors of poultry meat. The red color is primarily
due to myoglobin.

A typical adult mammalian muscle stripped of all external fat contains about 18-
22% proteins on wet weight basis. Muscle proteins can be categorized on the
basis of their origin and solubility as sarcoplasmic, contractile (myofibrillar) or
stroma (connective tissue) proteins.
2. Milk: A value of 3.5% protein is often considered as an average for milk. Milk
protein has traditionally been divided into 2 classes – casein and whey protein.
Casein is a heterogenous group of phosphoprotein, which can be precipitated
from raw skimmed milk by acidification at pI.14.6 and 200C. Proteins remaining
in solution after casein precipitation are called ‘whey proteins’ (or milk serum
proteins). Casein fraction consists of about 80% of total protein content, rest is
whey protein. Whey fraction mainly consists of β-lactalbumin, α-lactalbumin,
immunoglobulins, bovine serum albumin etc.

3. Eggs: Roughly, the chicken egg consists of 11% shell, 31% yolk and 58%
white. Liquid whole egg consists of 65% white and 35% yolk. The primary
function of egg protein is to nourish the young chick and provide food. Yolk
appears to be the initial source of food, while egg white seems to act as a
protective barrier, prior to its eventual use as a source of protein. Fundamentally,
the white and yolk differ in their composition.
• Yolk: Yolk contains about 50% solids, of which 2/3rd are lipids and
proteins. On wet weight basis, egg yolk contains 31% fat, of which 1.3%
is cholesterol.
• White: Essentially an aqueous solution containing about 12% proteins.

9
4. Fish: The edible portion is skeletal muscles of the body. Even though the
skeletal muscles of different animals are basically similar, fish species used for
food are far more numerous and diverse than the mammalian species.

Fish usually contains 40-60% edible flesh. Protein content of fresh water fish
ranges from 13-25%. In the mid or lateral line of many fishes, there exists a layer
of heavily pigmented reddish brown muscle that may contribute to 10% of total
body muscle. This contains a high content of hemoprotein, which following the
harvest, may catalyze oxidation of lipids and cause pronounced rancidity. The
proteins may be classified as sarcoplasmic, myofibrillar or connective tissue
protein.

5. Shell Fish: Information on shellfish is fragmentary and incomplete. In shell

fish, the shell comprises of a large portion of live weight of the fish and thus their
edible content is low. Eg. of shellfish are crabs, lobsters, prawns and muscle
oysters etc.
Next, we shall study about the proteins of plant origin.

b) Proteins of Plant Origin

Vegetable proteins, cereal proteins, nuts and seed proteins come from the plant
origin. Let us get to know more about these sources.
1. Vegetable Proteins: Fresh vegetables are not considered to be a very good
source of proteins. On fresh weight basis, the average protein content of some
common vegetables are carrots and lettuce – 1%, white potatoes, asparagus and
green beans - 2% and fresh peas – 6%.

Although protein content of potatoes is only 2%, quality is considered to be good

to excellent due to relatively high content of the amino acids – lysine and
tryptophan. Outer layers, the so called “cortex” of tubers contain most of the
proteins. These layers also have a much higher content of essential amino acids
than do the inner layers. The outer layer proteins can be increased by selective
plant breeding.

2. Cereal Proteins: Cereal grains, properly ripened and dried for optimum storage
stability, have protein content ranging from 6-20%. Proteins are found in various

10
morphological tissues of different grains. In the milling of grain (eg. wheat), the
endosperm is essentially separated from the bran and germ and then pulverized to
produce flour, which is used as food. Endosperm proteins apparently act as a
structural component and also as food reserves for the growing seedlings. Much
of the endosperm storage proteins in kernel of several cereal proteins are located
in the sub-cellular granules or organelles known as ‘protein bodies’ (except in
wheat kernel).

Bran or seed coat protein provides structure and protection to kernel. Since bran is
so poorly digested by humans and the proteins are difficult to separate, most of
the material is used for animal feed.

3. Seed Proteins: Although a large number of plants produce seeds having protein
contents in excess of 15%, only a few are utilized for food, eg. soybean, cotton
seeds, peas, peanuts and beans. Proteins of seeds are largely concentrated in
protein bodies. These bodies, which have more than 90% proteins accounts for
70% of the total proteins in case of soybeans.

Proteins comprise a significant portion of food reserves, which is so important

during germination. Proteins of most seeds (excluding cereals) are globulins,
which are soluble in water or dilute salt solutions.

4. Nuts: Nuts are excellent sources of proteins. Examples of nuts include cashew
nuts, almond nuts , hazel nuts , coconuts, walnuts, brazil nuts ,cashew nuts,
pistachio nuts etc. Some nuts like almonds contain complete proteins.Those nuts
that do not contain complete proteins can be extremely useful sources of proteins
if they are eaten in combination with other protein foods, or with milk or cheese,
or with vegetables.

Having studied about the proteins of plant origin we shall move on to study about
proteins obtained from the microbial origin.

c) Single Cell Proteins (SCP)

You may have heard of SCP. What is a single cell protein? Let’s find out.

11
The term SCP was coined by Prof. Caroll Wilson (MIT) in 1966. It means the
proteins obtained from microbial sources, i.e. algae, fungi, bacteria, yeast etc. The
proteins are isolated from microorganisms. Some of the advantages of selecting
microorganisms as a source of protein are as follows:
a. High yield of proteins on dry weight basis.
b. Nutritional requirement is cost effective.
c. Less area is required for the installation of plant for the production of
proteins as compared to the classical sources.
d. The plant may be designed in such a way that the processing can be done
on a continuous basis instead of batch to batch basis.

For single cell proteins, bacteria, yeast, fungi and algae may be used. Each of
them has their own advantages and disadvantages. These have been highlighted in
Table 4.2. Another interesting aspect which you would surely like to know about
is how these single cell proteins are manufactured. You will find information
regarding the process in Box 4.2 herewith. This is some additional information for
your knowledge.

Table 4.2: Advantages and disadvantages of using microorganisms as a

source of protein
Organisms Advantages Disadvantages

Bacteria • High yield of protein (60- • If the bacterial strain is very small
80%) in size and of low density,
• Can be grown on paraffin, separation from the culture media is
cellulose waste and molasses. difficult.
• Growth rate is fast. • Bacteria have a high nucleic acid
content (>15%) and may come over
along with proteins, which is not
acceptable and not required as it can
cause hypertension, arthritis etc.
• Uric acid, the final product of
purine metabolism, may lead to
gout.
Yeast • Large size, hence separation • Less protein yield (45-60%)
from the culture medium is • Growth rate is low (1-3 h)
easy. • High nucleic acid content
• As the pH of the growth is leading to the formation of uric
towards acidic side, high acid.
amount of lysine is produced
in the proteins, hence
protein is more acceptable
and of higher biological

12
 value.
Fungi • Easy to harvest from culture • Less protein yield (5-27%).
medium. • Low growth rate.
• Texture of the fungi • Poor acceptability of proteins.
improves the functional
properties of proteins.
Algae • Produces proteins which • If the more than 100 gm of
have almost all the Essential proteins are consumed, it may
Amino acids. cause nausea, vomiting,
• Rich in tyrosine and serine, abdominal pain etc. because of
low in sulphur containing the cellulosic cell wall, which is
amino acids. not digestible in human
subjects.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1. How can proteins be classified? Give suitable examples.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------
2. Mention any two important functions of proteins in biological systems.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------
3. What are the 3 categories in which food protein sources can be divided
into?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------
4. What is a single cell protein? Also, discuss some of the advantages of
selecting microorganisms as a source of protein.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------
5. Fill in the blanks:
a) The proteins made up of only amino acids are----------- while those
containing non-proteinaceous prosthetic group are-------------------------
b) A Zn-containing enzyme, which is a conjugated protein is---------------

13
c) A class of enzymes involving the conversion of chemical energy into
mechanical work fulfills a -----------------------------------------------------
d) Proteins that act as structural elements are-----------------------------------
e) --------------------------provide defence to the body against invading
organisms and infections.
f) A protein consisting of more than one chain, or the shape in which those
separate chains bond together is---------------------------------.
g) Meat muscle proteins can be categorized as------------------------------- .
h) Endosperm proteins act as ------------------------------- while bran proteins
provides---------------------------- .

4.3 FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF PROTEINS

It may be clear by now that functionality (as implied to food ingredients) refers to
‘any property aside from the nutritional attributes that influence usefulness
of ingredients in the food’. Most of the functional properties affect the sensory
characteristics (especially textural attributes) of foods, but also can play a major
role in the physical behavior of food and food ingredients during their
preparation.

Thus, functional properties of proteins are those physico-chemical properties that

enable the proteins to contribute to the desirable characteristics of the food. You
may recall reading about these physical, chemical properties of proteins in the
Nutritional Biochemistry Course, in Unit 2. For your convenience, we have
summarized the physical properties here.

So far, we have learnt that proteins may be added as components of foods

for functional, nutritional or economic benefits. Potential functional benefits
include emulsification and stabilization, increased viscosity, improved
appearance, taste or texture, form foams and gels and binding of fat or water.
These functional properties allow the technologist to modify flow properties,
emulsify, form gels and foams or bind water and fat. Nutritional benefits include
lowering the caloric contents of foods, increasing the protein level and balancing

14
the amino acid profile. Of course, the economic or cost considerations are also
important while using protein as an ingredient. An example of an economic
benefit would be increased yield of the product from the use of a protein additive.
It is also important to know that the type of protein (animal or plant origin) and
the structure of protein will determine its functional properties. Three groups of
functional properties of proteins have been identified. These include:

a) Hydration properties (dependent on protein-water interactions), which

include properties like swelling, adhesion, dispersibility, solubility and viscosity.

b) Properties related to protein-protein interactions, which involves the

processes of precipitation, gelation and formation of other structures (like protein
doughs and fibers).
c) Surface properties, which relates primarily to surface tension,
emulsification and foaming characteristics of proteins.

As you can see, these three groups are not totally independent. For example,
gelation involves not only protein-protein interactions but also protein-water
interactions. Also viscosity and solubility are both dependent on protein-water as
well as protein-protein interactions. Let us learn about these functional
properties, beginning with hydration properties.

a. Hydration Properties
General conformation of individual proteins in solution is largely dependent on
the interaction with water. The progressive hydration of proteins starting from
the dry state, the sequential steps are shown in the figure 4.2, are postulated:

Many functional properties of protein preparations are related to this progressive

hydration. Water absorption (water uptake, affinity or binding), swelling,
wettability, water holding capacity (water retention) and also cohesion and
adhesion are related to the Ist four steps (figure 4.2), whereas dispersibility
and viscosity (or thickening power) involves 5th step also. Final state of protein,
either soluble or insoluble (partially or totally) is also related to important
functional properties, such as solubility or instant solubility (in which all five
steps take place rapidly). Gelation implies ‘the formation of well-hydrated
insoluble mass with specific protein-protein interactions’. Finally, surface

15
properties, such as emulsification and foaming, necessitates a high degree of
protein hydration and dispersion in addition to their characteristics.
Let us learn more about the hydration properties, which include solubility,
viscosity etc.

Precipitation/Solubility of Proteins
Most of the functional properties are dependent on the degree to which the
proteins are soluble. The solubility behaviour provides a good index of
potential application of proteins. This is so because the degree of
insolubility is probably the most practical measure of protein denaturation
and aggregation and because proteins that initially exist in a denatured,
partially aggregated state, often have an impaired ability to participate
effectively in gelation, emulsification and foaming.

Note, in general, proteins, which are highly soluble, may be used in

applications where emulsification, whipping and film formation are
important whereas low solubility may be desired in applications with
high protein levels and when limited emulsification or protein-protein
interactions are needed.

Solubility of proteins is markedly and irreversibly reduced when heating is

involved. However, heat treatments may be unavoidable to achieve other
objectives (microbial inactivation, removal of off-flavor, removal of water
and others).

Assumption that the proteins must have a high initial solubility as a

prerequisite for other functional properties is not always correct. It has
already been noted that water absorption of a protein ingredient sometimes
can be improved by prior denaturation and partial insolubilization. This is
in agreement with the fact that the formation of emulsions, foams and gels can
involve various degrees of protein unfolding, aggregation and insolubilization.

On the other hand, whey proteins and some other proteins must have
reasonably high initial solubility, if they are to function well in the
emulsification, foams and gels. Soluble caseinates have better thickening

16
 and emulsifying properties than isoelectric casein (less soluble). Perhaps the
main advantage of insolubility is that it permits rapid and extensive dispersion
of protein molecules and particles which leads to a finely dispersed colloidal
system with homogeneous macroscopic structure and smooth texture. Also,
initial solubility facilitates protein diffusion to air/water and oil/water
interface, thus improving their surface activity.

Viscosity, Gelation and Texturization

Viscosity reflects resistance to flow. The main single factor influencing the
viscosity behavior of protein fluids is the apparent diameter of the
dispersed molecule, which is dependent on the following parameters :
a. Intrinsic character of protein molecule (molar mass, size, volume, structure and
asymmetry, electric charges and ease of deformation), environmental factors
such
as pH, ionic strength and temperature, can modify these characteristics
through unfolding;
b. Protein solvent interaction which influence swelling, solubility and
hydrodynamic sphere surrounding the molecule, and
c. Protein-protein interactions which determine the aggregates. Protein
ingredients are generally used at a high concentration at which protein-protein
interactions predominate.

Viscosity and consistency of protein systems are the important functional

properties in fluid foods, such as beverages, soups, sauces and creams.
Correlation between viscosity and solubility is not simple. Insoluble heat
denatured protein powders do not develop high viscosity when placed in
aqueous medium. Highly soluble protein powders with low water absorption
and swelling capacities (whey proteins) also exhibit low viscosity at neutral or
IpH. Soluble protein powders with high initial water absorption capacities
(sodium caseinates and some soy protein preparations) develop a high
viscosity. Thus, for many proteins, a positive correlation is observed between
water absorption and viscosity.

Gelation refers to the process where denatured molecules aggregate to form

an ordered protein network. Proteins can form a well-ordered gel matrix by

17
balancing protein-protein and protein-solvent interactions in food products.
These gel matrices can hold other food ingredients in producing food
products, like gelatin, yoghurt, comminuted meat products, tofu and bread
doughs.

Gelation is an important functional property of several proteins that plays a

major role in preparation of many foods, including various dairy
products, coagulated egg whites, gelatin gels, various heated,
comminuted meat or fish products, soy bean protein gels, vegetable
proteins texturized by extrusion or spinning and bread doughs. Protein
gelation is utilized not only for the formation of viscoelastic gels but also for
improved water and fat absorption, thickening, particle binding (adhesion)
and emulsion or foam stabilizing effect.

While studying about gelation, it is also important to differentiate it from

other related phenomena in which the degree of dispersion of protein solution
is decreased. For eg.
• Association: refers to changes occuring at subunit or molecular level.
• Polymerization or aggregation: involves formation of large complexes.
• Precipitation: includes all aggregation reactions with total loss of
solubility.
• Flocculation: random aggregation reaction in the absence of
denaturation; often occurs because of suppression of electrostatic repulsion
between the chains.
• Coagulation: random aggregation with denaturation and aggregation
reactions where protein-protein interactions predominate over protein-
solvent interactions and forms a coarse coagulum.

Next, let’s look at the texture function of proteins.

Texturization
Proteins constitute the basis of structures and texture in several foods,
whether these come from living tissue (myofibrills in meat or fish) or from

18
fabricated substances (bread dough and crumb, soy or gelatin gels, cheese,
curds, sausage, meat emulsion etc).

Also, there are a number of texturization processes that begin with soluble
vegetable or milk proteins and that lead to film or fiber like products with
chewiness and good water holding capacity and that have the ability to retain
these properties during subsequent hydration and heat treatment. These
texturized proteins are often used as meat substitutes and/or extenders. Also,
some texturization processes are done for the purpose of retexturization or
reforming animal proteins such as beef or poultry meat. Known
physicochemical basis of some of these texturization processes are presented
below:

1. Thermal Coagulation and Film Formation: Concentrated soy proteins can

be thermally coagulated on a flat metallic surface, such as that of a drum
dryer. Resulting thin, hydrated films can be folded, pressed together and cut.

2. Fiber formation: Fiber spinning of vegetable (especially soy) and milk

proteins bears many similarities to the spinning of synthetic textile fibers. It is
usually necessary to start from isolates containing 90% protein or more. Four
to five successive operations are necessary and can be done continuously.

3. Thermoplastic Extrusion: This is a major technique used for vegetable

proteins at present. Thermoplastic extrusion leads to dry fibrous and porous
granules or chunks, (rather than fibers) which upon rehydration, possess a
chewy texture. Starting material need not to be protein isolates, thus less
costly protein concentrates or flours (containing 45-70% protein) can be
used. Casein or gluten can be added as such. Addition of small amount of
starch or amylose improves the final texture, but a lipid content above 5-10%
is detrimental. Addition of 3% sodium chloride or calcium chloride also firms
the texture. Good texturization by this process requires proteins with
appropriate initial solubility, high molecular weight and development of
proper plasticizing and viscosity properties of protein-polysaccharide
mixture within the dye.

19
After texturization, we move on to properties related to protein-protein
interactions.
b. Properties related to protein-protein interactions
Properties related to protein-protein interactions include dough formation, one of
the important functional properties of proteins. Let us get to know about dough
formation.

Dough Formation
You already know that gluten is the protein found in wheat. A unique property of
gluten proteins of wheat grain endosperm (and to a lesser extent of rye and
barley grains) is their ability to form a strongly cohesive and viscoelastic
mass or dough, when mixed and kneaded in presence of water at ambient
temperature. In addition to glutens (gliadin and glutenins), wheat flour contains
starch granules, pentosans, polar and non polar lipids and soluble proteins, all of
which contribute to the formation of dough network and/or the final texture of
bread.

Composition and large size of gliadins and glutenins explain much of the
behaviour of gluten. Due to their low content of ionizable amino acids, the gluten
proteins are poorly soluble in neutral aqueous solutions. Rich in glutamine (>33%
by wt.) and in hydroxy amino acids, they are prone to hydrogen bonding which
accounts largely for water absorbing capacity and for the cohesion and
adhesion properties of gluten. Latter properties also derive in part from the
presence of many apolar amino acids and the resulting hydrophobic interactions
that contribute to protein aggregation and binding of lipids and glycoproteins.
Finally, the ability of forming numerous -S-S- cross linkages accounts for the
ease with which these proteins interlink tenaciously in dough.

We have been kneading doughs for long, without understanding the process going
on within. What are the changes occurring in gluten proteins during dough
formation? Box 4.3 presents a detailed discussion on this topic. You will find this
information interesting.

Box 4.3 : Changes In Gluten Proteins During Dough Formation

20
Initially, gluten is formed when flour and water are mixed together. The proteins
in the flour, glutenin and gliadin cross link, using water as a vehicle to form
gluten. Enhancing this gluten structure is important relative to developing a gas
retaining structure in the chapati/bread. When the hydrated bread flour is mixed
and kneaded, the gluten proteins orient themselves aligns and partially unfolded.
This enhances hydrophobic interaction and formation of disulphide bridges
through -S-S- interchange reactions. A 3-dimensional viscoelastic protein
network is established, as the initial gluten particles transform into this membrane
(film), thus serving to entrap starch granules and other flour components.
Cleavage of disulphide bridges by reducing agents such as cysteine, destroys the
cohesive structure of hydrated gluten and bread dough ; the addition of agents
such as bromates, increase toughness and elasticity. "Strong" flours from
certain wheat varieties require long mixing time and give very cohesive dough.
"Weak flours" are less effective and gluten network breaks down when the
energy or duration of mixing exceeds a certain level, probably because of -S-S-
bonds are ruptured (especially in absence of air). Dough strength appears to
be related to a large content of high molecular weight glutenins including
totally insoluble "residue proteins". From experiments with "reconstituted" wheat
flours of varying gliadin and glutenin ratios, it can be postulated that the
glutenins are responsible for the elasticity, cohesiveness and mixing tolerance
of dough whereas gliadins facilitate fluidity, extensibility and expansion of
the dough, thus contributing to a larger bread loaf volume. A proper balance of
the proteins is essential for bread making. Excessive cohesion (glutenins) inhibit
the expansion of trapped CO2 bubbles during fermentation, the rise of the dough
and the subsequent presence of open air cells in the bread crumb. Excessive
extensibility (gliadins) results in gluten films that are weak and permeable; thus
retention of CO2 is poor and dough collapse may occur.

C. Surface properties of proteins

The surface properties relates primarily to surface tension, emulsification and
foaming characteristics of proteins, which are discussed herewith:

Emulsifying properties of proteins

21
Proteins are the surface-active substances, which are extensively used in the food
industry as emulsifiers to manufacture products such as desserts, spreads or
whipped cream.
Protein Stabilized Food Emulsions: Many food products are emulsions (eg. milk
cream, ice creams, cream, butter etc.) and protein constituents often play a major
role in the stabilization of these colloidal systems. In the fresh milk, soluble
proteins are immunoglobulins. Homogenization of milk increases emulsion
stability because it reduces the size of fat globules and because newly formed
casein submicelles displace the immunoglobulins and adsorb to fat globules.

The proteins stabilize emulsions and contribute physical and rheological

properties, like thickness, viscosity, elasticity and rigidity that determine
resistance to droplet coalescence. Ionization of amino acid side chains may also
take place depending on the pH and this provides electrostatic repulsive force that
favors emulsion stability. This functional property is important in the formation
of many common food products, such as salad dressings and sausages.

Proteins are generally poor stabilizers of water/oil (w/o) emulsion. You will be
reading about emulsions in details in unit 7 of this course. This may be
attributable to the predominantly hydrophobic nature of most proteins,
causing the bulk of an adsorbed protein molecule to reside on the water
side of interface.

Proteins can bind to water, lipids, volatile flavours and other substances and
possess important functional properties. Let’s get to know them.

Foaming Properties, Binding of Flavour and Other Substances

To understand the foaming properties of proteins, we need to know some basic
aspects of foam foods. Foam foods are usually colloidal dispersion of gas
bubbles in a continuous liquid or semisolid phase that contains a soluble
surfactant. (Surfactant is a chemical compound that acts as a surface modifier
which reduces the surface tension of the liquid). A large variety of food foams
produced with proteins, exist with widely differing textures, such as cakes,
whipped creams and toppings, ice creams etc. In many cases, gas is air

22
(occasionally CO2) and the continuous phase is an aqueous or suspension
containing proteins. You will read more about foams in unit 7.
Next, what are the properties basic to proteins, to be a good foaming agent? A
protein must:
• be able to rapidly absorb at the air-water interface during
whipping,
• undergo rapid arrangement and rearrangement at the interface, and
• form cohesive viscoelastic film.

Flavour Binding
Some protein preparations, although acceptable from a functional and nutritional
stand point, necessitate a deodorizing step to remove the bound off-flavors.
Various substances, such as aldehydes, ketones, alcohols and oxidized fatty acids
may cause beany or rancid odours and bitter or astringent taste. When bound to
proteins or to other constituents, these substances are released and become
perceptible after cooking and/or mastication. Some are so strongly bound that
even steam or solvent extraction do not remove them.

Quite different from the problem of off-flavour removal, it may be useful to use
proteins as carriers for desirable flavours. It is of interest to impart a meat flavour
to texturized vegetable proteins. Ideally, all of the volatile constituents of
desirable flavour must remain bound during storage, possibly also due to
processing and then be released quickly and totally in the mouth without
distortion. Problems mentioned above can be solved through investigation of the
mechanism by which volatile compounds bound to proteins. Let’s find out.

Interactions between Volatile Substances and Proteins

Flavour binding may involve adsorption at the surface of food or penetration to
the food interiority by diffusion (absorption). By adsorption we mean, a surface
phenomenon that involves adhesion of the molecules of gases, dissolved
substances, or liquids in more or less concentrated form to the surface of
solids/liquids with which they are in contact.
Flavour binding by adsorption implies the mechanism of physical or chemical
adsorption and hydrophobic interaction. Polar compounds, such as, alcohols are

23
bound via hydrogen binding but hydrophobic interactions with nonpolar amino
acids predominate in the binding of low molecular weight volatile compounds.

In some cases, volatile compounds bind to proteins via covalent linkages and the
process is usually irreversible. Irreversible fixation is more likely to occur with
the volatiles of high molecular weight.

Binding of Other Compounds

In addition to water, lipids and volatile flavours, food proteins can bind a
number of other substances through weak interactions or through covalent
bonds, depending upon their chemical structure. Eg. pigments, synthetic dyes
(which may be used for analytical determination of proteins) and substances
with mutagenic, sensitizing biological activity. Such binding may result both in
enhanced toxicity or detoxification and in some cases; the nutritional values can
be adversely affected.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. Fill in the blanks:
a) In wheat proteins, gliadins are responsible for ----------------------whereas
glutenin imparts ---------------------- to the dough.
b) The three groups of functional properties are-------------------------, ---------
---------, and --------------------.
c) -------------- is one of the factors affecting protein solubility.
d) Colloidal dispersion of gas bubbles in a continuous liquid or semisolid
phase that contains a soluble surfactant are ------------------- foods.
e) Highly soluble proteins are used in three applications such as ---------------
-------, -------------------, and ----------------------------.
2. What do you understand by the term functional properties? List the three
functional properties of proteins.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------

24
3. Following are the functional properties of proteins. Comment on the role
of these in food preparation.
a) Gelation
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------
b) Texturization
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------
c) Stabilizer
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------

Having learnt about the functional properties of proteins, we now focus on the
application of proteins. You may have heard about protein concentrates, isolates
etc. What are these products? The next section unfolds the discovery, uses of
these products.

4.4 PROTEIN CONCENTRATES, ISOLATES AND HYDROLYSATES

AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

The first question that may come to your mind is why do we need to concentrate
or isolate a protein from a product? The major purpose of the preparation of
concentrates and isolates from a protein source is to increase the concentration of
proteins by the removal of non protein ingredients form the source, so that the
smaller amounts can be used in the formulation to impart nutritional as well as
functional properties.

The methods utilized for the removal of non-protein ingredients should be such
that it should not affect the nutritional and functional properties of the protein to a
great extent. Most of the work has been done on the preparation of soy protein

25
isolates and concentrates and whey protein concentrates. Let’s learn from these
discoveries.

4.4.1 Protein Concentrates

In this section, we will learn about the soy protein and whey protein concentrates.
What are they and what are their uses? Let’s get to know them.

A. Soy Protein Concentrates

The Association of American Feed Control Officials, Inc. (AAFCO) specifies soy
protein concentrates as follows:

"Soy Protein Concentrate is prepared from high quality, sound, clean, dehulled
soybean seeds by removing most of the oil and water soluble non-protein
constituents and must contain not less than 70% protein on a moisture free
basis."

Edible soybean protein concentrates are relatively new products. Their

availability as commercial products dates from 1959. In the last 30 years or so,
these versatile products have become important ingredients, well accepted by
many food industries. In many applications, they simply replace soy flours. In
others, they have specific functions, which cannot be performed by soy flours.

Historically, the need for the development of soybean protein concentrates

stemmed primarily from two considerations: to increase protein concentration and
to improve flavour. The products containing about 70% protein are prepared from
defatted meal by selective extraction of the soluble carbohydrates (sugars).
Extraction with aqueous alcohol is the most common process, but other methods
of production are also available. The concentrates are essentially bland.

Soybean protein concentrates normally cost 2 to 2.5 times more than defatted soy
flour. Considering the relative protein contents of these two products, the cost per
unit weight of protein is about 80% higher in the concentrate.
The starting material for the production of soy protein concentrates is dehulled,
defatted soybean meal with high protein solubility (white flakes). The
concentration of protein is increased by removing most of the soluble non-protein

26
constituents. These constituents are primarily soluble carbohydrates (mono, di
and oligosaccharides), but also some low molecular weight nitrogenous
substances and minerals. Since some low molecular weight proteins are also
extracted along with the sugars, the amino acid composition of the concentrates
may differ slightly from that of the original flour.

Now let us look at the uses of this product.

Utilization of Soy Protein Concentrate

Soy protein concentrates are used in food products for their nutritional
characteristics or for their functional properties or for both. Nutritionally, the
attractive features of concentrates include their high protein content, the near-
absence of anti-tryptic and other anti-nutritional factors, the absence of flatulence
and the substantial "dietary fibre" content. The nutritional value of the protein in
the concentrates of different types, expressed as Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER),
is slightly lower than that of soy flour protein. This is probably due to the slight
fractionation effect of the extraction process, mentioned above. The most
important functional characteristics of soy protein concentrates are water-binding
(water adsorption) capacity, fat binding capacity and emulsification properties.
The use of soy protein concentrates in different applications in food industry is
highlighted herewith.
a. Bakery products
Unlesss higher protein fortification levels are necessary, there is no special reason
for using soy protein concentrates in bakery products. Nutritionally and
functionally, soy flours do the same job, more economically.
b. Meat products
This area probably represents the most important application of soy protein
concentrates (SPC) in the food industry. SPC is used mostly in comminuted
meat, poultry and fish products (patties, emulsion type sausages, fish sticks etc.)
to increase water and fat retention. The nutritional contribution of soy protein in
low-meat, high-fat, low-cost products may also be significant. Typical usage
levels, on moisture-free basis, are 5-10% in patties, 2-8% in chilli, 2-12% in
meatballs, 3.5% maximum in sausages and 5-10% in fish sticks.
c. Other uses

27
Soybean protein concentrates have been used as stabilized dispersions in milk-
like beverages and simulated dairy products, such as sour cream analog.

After soy protein concentrates we shall study about the whey protein
concentrates.

B. Whey Protein Concentrates

You already know that whey is the residual liquid substance that is obtained by
separating the coagulum from milk during cheesemaking. There are important
components contained in whey, the most valued of which are the proteins which
are highly regarded for their nutritional properties. The major whey proteins are
α-lactalbumin and β-lactoglobulin. These globular proteins offer the most diverse
functional benefits and have the greatest potential when used in further processed
foods.

What, then, is the whey protein concentrate?

Whey protein concentrates (WPC) are the products derived from whey from
which the water, minerals and lactose have been removed. WPC is a white to
light cream-colored product with a bland, clean flavor. It is manufactured by
drying the material resulting from the removal of sufficient non-protein
constituents from pasteurized whey so that the finished dry product contains 25%
or more protein. The non-protein constituents are removed by physical separation
techniques such as precipitation, filtration, or dialysis. WPC can be used in fluid,
concentrate, or dry product form. Safe and suitable pH-adjusting ingredients may
be used to adjust the acidity of WPC.

Whey protein concentrate (WPC) is a highly nutritious ingredient manufactured

from fresh dairy whey and it is spray dried to provide an excellent source of low
fat dairy protein. Useful properties, such as high solubility and water retention
capacity, make it an ingredient of choice in a wide variety of functional and
processed foods, beverages and health supplements. Whey protein concentrates
can also contribute a high level of viscosity and structure to food formulations as
well as a smooth texture. Generally, WPC with higher protein content have

28
improved functionality over those with lower protein content. Some of the basic
functionalities of WPC are highlighted in Box 4.4.

Box 4.4 Functional Properties of WPC

29
Functional property Mode of action Food system

WaterBinding/ Proteins can help Meats, beverages,

Hydration reduce formula costs as breads, cakes, sausages
the proteins hold
additional water.

Gelation/Viscosity Protein-protein Salad dressings, soups,

interactions produce setting cheeses, baked
matrix formations and goods, gravies, meats
setting

Proteins stabilize fat Sausages, soups, cakes,

Emulsification emulsions salad dressings, infant
foods

Proteins form stable Whipped toppings,

film. Foaming chiffon cakes, desserts
properties are best
when the whey
Foaming/Whipping proteins are
undenatured, not
competing with other
surfactants at the
air/water interface.

Proteins contribute to Confections, meats in

browning by reacting microwave, sauces,
with lactose and other breads, low-fat baked
reducing sugars present goods, soups, dairy
in a formulation, products.
Browning/Flavour/ providing colour to
Aroma heated products.

WPC is bland tasting

and contribute no
foreign or off-flavours
when used as an
ingredient.

What are the uses of WPC?

Whey protein concentrates are used extensively in the manufacture of baked

goods, where they increase the effectiveness of shortening through better
dispersion and contribute to product browning, crust and flavor development.
High viscosity whey protein concentrates are ideally suited to use in ice cream,
processed cheese, sauces/slices and various fresh dairy and specialized nutritional
applications. Whey proteins have also been designed with enhanced heat stability,

30
water retention and gelation for superior performance in beverages, infant
formula, soups, sauces, frozen yogurt and ice cream.

WPC of 35 percent protein is commonly used as a replacement for skimmed milk,

as well as a stabilizer and fat mimetic in yogurt, bakery mixes, dietetic foods,
infant foods and confections. Its water-binding properties, fat-like mouth-feel and
gelation properties are of particular benefit when used in these further processed
products.

WPC of 50, 65 or 80 percent protein are especially suited for use in nutritional
drinks, soups, bakery products, meat, dietetic foods, low-fat products and protein-
fortified beverages. They are especially noted for their ability to completely
dissolve in a wide range of pH conditions.

Defatted WPC powder containing 80 - 85 percent protein is an excellent alternate

ingredient to use in certain applications, more notably as an economical egg-white
replacer in whipped products such as meringues, modern ice-cream and toppings.

So far we have studied about the soy and whey protein concentrates. It is
interesting to note that soy and whey protein also exist as isolates. What is the
difference between concentrates and isolates? Read to find out.

4.4.2 Protein Isolates

Before we begin our discussion on protein isolates, let us first get to know how
protein concentrates differ from isolates. Basically, the two differ in the process
by which the proteins are produced, and the quality of the protein. Isolate is
always higher quality protein. Do remember.

In this section, we will focus on soy protein isolates.

Soybean protein isolates:

Soy protein isolates are the most pure and refined soy protein available. Isolated
soybean proteins (ISP), or soybean protein isolates, are the most concentrated
form of commercially available soybean protein products. They contain over 90%

31
protein, on a moisture free basis. Soy protein isolates have been known and
produced for industrial purposes, mainly as adhesives for the paper coating
industry, well before World War II. ISP's for food use, however, have been
developed only in the early fifties.

The specification of the Association of American Feed Control Officials, Inc.

(AAFCO) defines ISP as "Major proteinaceous fraction of soybeans prepared
from dehulled soybeans by removing the majority of non-protein components and
must contain not less than 90% protein on a moisture-free basis."

The basic principles of ISP production are simple. Soybean protein isolates are
obtained by selective solubilization of the protein (e.g. alkaline extraction),
followed by purification of the extract and precipitation of the protein (e.g. by
acidification to the isoelectric point). Isoelectric isolates are insoluble in water
and have practically no functional features. They can be converted to sodium,
potassium or calcium proteinates by dissolving isoelectric proteins in the
appropriate base and spray-drying the solution. Sodium and potassium proteinates
are water-soluble. They are used mainly for their functional properties, such as
emulsification or foaming. One of the by-products of the protein isolation
process, the insoluble residue, is also commercialized for its remarkable water
absorption capacity and as a source of dietary fibre.

Since spray-drying is the common drying method in the production of ISP, the
primary physical form of ISP in commerce, is that of fine powders. Structured
forms, such as granules, spun fibres and other fibrous forms are made by further
processing.

Being almost a pure protein, ISP can be made to be practically free of

objectionable odour, flavour, colour, anti-nutritional factors and flatulence.
Furthermore, the high protein concentration provides maximum formulation
flexibility when ISPs are incorporated into food products. These and other
advantages have been the source of highly optimistic forecasts regarding the
widespread use of ISP. The various uses of ISP in food applications are discussed
herewith.

32
Uses of Soy protein isolates
The applications of ISP in various food products are enumerated herewith:
• Meat products
The major application of ISP in connection with meat and related products is
based on the use of texturized ISP, in one form or another, to replace meat.

In emulsion type sausages, such as frankfurters and bologna, ISP and proteinates
are used for their moisture and fat binding properties and as emulsion stabilizers.
The use of ISP in these products permits reducing the proportion of expensive
meat in the formulation, without reducing the protein content or sacrificing eating
quality. Methods for incorporating soy protein products into whole muscle meat
have been developed recently.
• Seafood products
The most important application in this category is the use of ISP in fish sausage
and surimi based restructured fish products in Japan. Surimi is an extensively
washed, minced fish flesh.
• Cereal products
ISP is sometimes used instead of, or in combination with isolates and soy flour, in
the formulation of milk replacer mixtures in bakery products. ISP has been used
for protein fortification of pasta and specialty bread. In these applications, the
high protein content and blandness of ISP are clear advantages.
• Dairy-type products
Soybean protein isolates are used in non-dairy coffee whiteners, liquid whipped
toppings, emulsified sour cream or cheese dressings, non-dairy frozen deserts etc.
The basis for these applications is, demand for non-dairy (all-vegetarian,
cholesterol-free, allergen-free) food products, as well as economy. Imitation
cheeses have been produced from isolated soy proteins, with or without milk
whey components. The types of cheeses which can be produced include soft,
semi-soft, surface-cultured (imitation Camembert) and ripened hard cheeses.
• Infant formulas
Infant formulas, where milk solids have been replaced by soy products, are well
established commercial products. ISP is the preferred soy ingredient, because of
its blandness, absence of flatus-producing sugars and negligible fibre content.The
principal market for these products are lactose-intolerant babies. However, soy

33
protein based dietetic formulas are finding increasing use in geriatric and post-
operative feeding as well as in weight reduction programs.
• Other uses
Partially hydrolysed soy proteins possess good foam stabilization properties and
can be used as whipping agents in combination with egg albumen or whole eggs
in confectionary products and desserts.

Isolated soybean protein has been shown to be an effective spray-drying aid in

fruit purees. In this application, it can replace maltodextrins, with the advantage
of contributing protein to the final product. A nutritious "shake" base was
produced by spray-drying ripe banana puree containing up to 20% ISP on dry
matter basis.

Before we end, a final word on protein isolates. The cost of isolated soybean
proteins is five to seven times higher than that of defatted soy flour. On an equal
protein weight basis, the cost ratio of these two products is nearly 3:1. The main
reasons for the added cost will become evident from the description of the
manufacturing methods for ISP.

Now, we move on to the third concept, i.e. protein hydrolysates.

4.4.3 Protein Hydrolysates
What are protein hydrolysates? Proteins that have been treated with enzymes to
break them down into amino acids or shorter peptides are referred to as protein
hydrolysates.

Protein hydrolysates are valued for their superior nutritional qualities, including
increased bioavailability and reduced antigenecity. Several enzymatic
modifications of proteins / enzymes are known to occur in biological systems.
Such modifications of proteins in vitro can be used to improve their functional
properties. Only few of the enzymatic modifications of proteins are practical for
modifying proteins for food use.
Hydrolysis of food proteins using proteases (trypsin, chymootrypsin, papain and
thermolysin) alters their functional properties. Extensive hydrolysis by
nonspecific proteases, such as papain, cause stabilization of even poorly soluble
proteins. Such hydrolysates usually contain low molecular weight epties of the
34
order 2-4 amino acids residues. Extensive hydrolysis damages several functional
properties, such as gelation, foaming and emulsifying properties. These modified
proteins are useful in liquid-type foods, such as soups and sauces, where
solubility is a primary criterion and feeding a person who might not be able to
digest solid foods. Partial hydrolysis of proteins either by using site-specific
enzymes (such as trypsin or chymotrypsin) or by control of hydrolysis time, often
improves foaming and emulsification properties, but not gelling properties. With
some proteins, partial hydrolysis may cause a transient decrease in solubility,
because of exposure of the buried hydrophobic regions.

The drawback of many protein hydrolysates, is that when hydrolysed, most of the
food proteins liberate bitter tasting peptides, which affect their acceptability in
certain applications. The bitterness is associated with their mean hydrophobicity.
The intensity of bitterness depends on the amino acid composition and sequence
and the type of protease used. Hydrolysates of hydrophilic proteins, such as
gelatin; are less bitter than the hydrolysates of hydrophobic proteins, such as
casein and soya proteins. Protease that show specificity for cleavage at
hydrophobic residues, produce hydrolysates that are less bitter than those
enzymes which have a broader specificity. Thus, thermolysin, which specifically
attacks the amino side of hydrophobic residues, produces hydrolysates that are
less bitter than those produced by low specificity trypsin, pepsin and
chymotrypsin.

With this, we finish our study on proteins.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1. Fill in the blanks:
a) Protein concentrate or isolate have an ------------------ concentration of
proteins by selective removal of the non protein matter from the source.
b) The nutritional value of protein concentrates is expressed as -----------------
---- .
c) One of the most important functional characteristics of SPC is --------------
--------.
d) The two nutritionally valued proteins that form a part of whey are ----------
-------- and ----------------.

35
e) The main drawback of hydrolysates is that it liberates bitter tasting --------
---------.
2. What are the nutritionally attractive features of SPC?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------
3. Mention any two applications of:
a) Whey Protein Concentrates
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------
b) Soy Protein Isolates
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------
4. What characteristics make ISP a preferred soy product?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------
5. How is an isolate different from a concentrate?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------

4.5 LET US SUM UP

Proteins, one of the major nutrients, are an essential component of our body
tissues. Amino acids, the principal building blocks of protein, are twenty in
number and vary in their composition, structure and properties. In this unit, we
learnt about different types of proteins, i.e., sources of different types of proteins
and functional properties. The important functional properties included viscosity
and gelation. Viscosity refers to resistance to flow and is specifically crucial in
preparation of fluid foods. Gelation refers to the process where denatured
molecules aggregate to form an ordered protein network.

36
Finally, the unit focused on various protein concentrates, isolates, hydrolysates
and their wide applications in food industry.

4.6 GLOSSARY

Adsorption : A surface phenomenon that involves adhesion of

the molecules of gases, dissolved substances, or
liquids in more or less concentrated form to the
surface of solids/liquids with which they are in
contact.
Amino acids : Monomeric units of proteins, having both amino
and carboxylic groups in their structure.
Gelation : Formation of an ordered protein network when
denatured molecules aggregate.
groups. In proteins these are the major determinant
of the secondary structure.
Hydrogen Bonding : Non-covalent interaction between two opposite
charged
Hydrolysate : Breakdown of proteins progressively to yield
peptides or finally amino acids by the action of
enzymes or chemical agents.
Hydrophobic Interaction : Major determinant of tertiary structure of proteins
Proteins : Complex nitrogenous compounds which consist of
amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. They
are the basic constituents of all living things and are
a necessary part of the part of the food of all
animals.
Single cell Protein : Proteins from sources, like algae, fungi, bacteria
and yeast
Viscosity : Resistance to flow.

4.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

37
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. Proteins can be classified based on:
• Shape and size: fibrous or globular proteins.
• Functional properties: Immuno, contractile, respiratory, structural,
enzymatic, hormonal and carrier proteins.
• Solubility and physical properties: Simple, conjugated and derived
proteins.

2. The important functions of proteins in biological systems are as follows:

(any two):
• enzymes
• membrane carriers
• antibodies
• structural element
• hormonal messenger
3. Protein food sources can be divided into the following three categories:
• Proteins of plant origin example meat, milk, eggs, fish etc.
• Proteins of plant origin such as vegetable proteins, cereal proteins, seed
proteins and nuts.
• Single Cell Proteins.

4. The proteins obtained from microbial sources, i.e. algae, fungi, bacteria,
yeast etc. are referred to as Single Cell Proteins. These are isolated from
microorganisms. Some of the advantages of selecting microorganisms as a
source of protein are:
• High yield of proteins on dry weight basis.
• Cost effective nutritional requirement.
• Less area is required for the installation of plant for the production of
proteins.
• The plant may be designed in such a way that the processing can be
done on a continuous basis instead of batch to batch basis.

5.

38
 a) Homoproteins; Heteroproteins
b) alcohol dehydrogenase
c) mechanochemical role
d) keratins, collagens, elastins
e) immunoglobulins
d) Quaternary structure
e) Sarcoplasmic, contractile, stroma; sarcoplasmic, myofibrallar,
connective tissue.
f) Structural component, food reserve; structure and protection to kernel.

1. Primary, Secondary, Tertiary and Quaternary are the different levels in

which the protein structure is divided into.

2. The advantages of selecting micro-organisms as a source of protein are:

high yield of proteins on dry weight basis; nutritional requirement is quite
cheap; less area is required for the installation of plant for the production
of proteins; and processing can be done on a continuous basis.

3. The major drawback of using algae as the source of protein is that it has a
cellulosic cell wall, which is not digestible by human beings, thus causes
nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain etc.

4.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1.
a) facilitating fluidity, extensibility and expansion; elasticity, cohesiveness
and mixing tolerance.
b) hydration, surface, protein-protein interactions
c) pH, ionic strength, solvent and temperature
d) foam foods
e) emulsification, whipping and film formation.

39
2. Those physico-chemical properties that enables the protein to contribute to
the desirable properties/ characteristics of food are termed as functional
properties. A few functional properties of proteins are:
• Hydration properties that includes solubility, viscosity, gelation
and texturization
• Protein-protein interactions which include dough formation
• surface properties which include emulsifying properties etc.

3.
a) Gelation refers to the process where the denatured molecules aggregate to
form an ordered protein network by balancing protein-protein and protein-
solvent interactions in the food products. These gel matrices can hold
other food ingredients in processing food products, such as, dairy
products, meat or fish products, vegetable proteins texturized by extrusion
or spinning and bread dough.

b) Texturization process lead to film or fiber-like products with chewiness

and good water holding capacity along with an ability to retain these
during hydration and heat treatment. Texturized products are often used as
meat substitutes and/or substitutes.

c) In foams, proteins form a protective layer (film) by adhering at the gas

liquid interface and thus prevent the foam to collapse, thus act as a
stabilizer.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1.
a) increased
b) Protein Efficiency Ratio
c) Water-binding capacity, fat-binding capacity and emulsification
properties
d) α-lactalbumin and β-lactoglobulin
e) peptides

40
2. The nutritionally attractive features of SPC are high protein content, the
near absence of anti-tryptic and anti-nutritional factors, absence of
flatulence and substantial dietary fibre content.

3.
a) The applications of Whey Protein Concentrates are as a health
supplement; bakery products; ice creams; processed cheese.
b) The applications of Soy Protein Isolates are in the following products
meat; seafood; cereal; dairy-type products and infant formulas.

4. The characteristics which make ISP a preferred product are: blandness,

absence of flatus-producing sugars and negligible fibre content.

5. An isolate contains not less than 90% protein on a moisture-free basis

while concentrate contains not less than70% protein on a moisture-free
basis.

41
 1

UNIT 5: VITAMINS AND MINERALS

Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Vitamins
5.2.1 Vitamin A (Retinol)
5.2.2 Vitamin B Complex
5.2.2.1 Vitamin B1 (Thiamine Hydrochloride)
5.2.2.2 Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
5.21.2.3 Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine Hydrochloride)
5.2.2.4 Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin)
5.2.2.5 Biotin
5.2.2.6 Folic Acid
5.2.2.7 Nicotinic Acid (Niacin)
5.2.2.8 Pantothenic Acid (Calcium Pantothenate)
5.2.3 Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)
5.2.4 Vitamin D (Calciferol – Vitamin D2)
5.2.5 Vitamin E (Dl-α-Tocopherol)
5.2.6 Vitamin K (Menadione)
5.3 Minerals
5.3.1 Classification of Minerals
5.3.2 Nutritional and Functional Role of Minerals in Foods
5.3.3 Bioavailability of Minerals
5.3.4 Estimation of Minerals in Foods
5.3.5 Effect of Processing on Mineral Content of Foods
5.4 Let Us Sum Up
5.5 Glossary
5.6 Answers To Check Your Progress Exercises

5.1 INTRODUCTION

In this unit we will study about vitamins and minerals. You may have already
studied the structure and physico-chemical properties of vitamins and minerals in
the course on Food Biochemistry. The course Advance Nutrition also gives you
the information on vitamins and minerals. We suggest, like in the other units you
have studied so far, please organize the study of this unit along with the
respective units on vitamins and minerals in the other two courses. This will give
you a comprehensive understanding of the different aspects of vitamins and
minerals.
 2

Here in this unit our focus is on application of vitamins, minerals in the food
and/or pharmaceutical industry. In this context, you will find a brief description
about each of the vitamin and mineral, in terms of its characteristics, occurrence,
importance and determination. This information will assist in your understanding
of these vital substances.

Objectives:
After studying this unit you will be able to:
• highlight the importance of vitamins and minerals,
• discuss the occurrence and determination/estimate of vitamins/ minerals in
food or in test sample, and
• describe the functional role of vitamins and minerals, particularly in the food
industry.

5.2 VITAMINS

Vitamins, as you may already know, derive its name from the word ‘Vital
Amine’. These are the organic compounds required for normal metabolism,
growth and development, and regulation of the cell functions. Vitamins classified
as water soluble or fat soluble as highlighted in Figure 5.1. In this section, we will
learn about the characteristics, importance and application of vitamins, both water
soluble and fat soluble. We begin with Vitamin A.

Figure 5.1 Classifications of Vitamins

5.2.1 Vitamin A (Retinol)

Purified vitamin A is a viscous yellowish oil. It is freely soluble in most organic

solvents such as methanol, ether, acetone, chloroform and petroleum ether as well
as in fatty oils like olive, sesame and groundnut. However, Vitamin A is insoluble
in water. It is highly susceptible to the action of atmospheric oxygen and oxygen
carriers, further to oxidizing agents and metal ions. Vitamin A is also rapidly
destroyed by UV light. Even in diffuse day light, the vitamin A content of
solutions is markedly reduced within a few hours. You must remember that
vitamin A should be stored in a cool place, protected from light under vacuum or
 3

inert gas in air-tight containers or sealed ampules. You must understand that
vitamin A itself is very unstable against external influences. For its use in foods
and as therapeutics, therefore, only those derivatives with improved stability are
used. Thus, esterification of the alcoholic group of vitamin A with acetic or
palmitic acid produces compounds which are somewhat more stable. Vitamin A,
therefore, is practically sold and used only in the form of concentrates and oily
solutions of the acetate and palmitate and their formulations.

The importance of vitamin A is undisputable. You may already be aware about

the functions/role of vitamin A in our body. Vitamin A is absolutely necessary
for normal vision, both black and white and colour. Vitamin A deficiency in
childhood leads to blindness. Vitamin A is highly important for the normal
condition and functional maintenance of epithelial tissues. Vitamin A deficiency
symptoms are manifest in characteristic changes of skin and mucosae. With
prolonged vitamin A deficiency, cornification of the mucous membranes of the
respiratory tract, the digestive tract and the urogential organs develops. Site of
action of vitamin A is probably the protein metabolism of the epithelial cells. An
early symptom of vitamin A deficiency is night blindness. The interrelationship
between vitamin A and the individual hormones is also important. The sex organs
show a high vitamin A content and ceases to function in vitamin A deficiency.
Vitamin A and thyroxine levels are interrelated. Normally, vitamin A in the
presence of fats and bile is absorbed mainly from the intestine and stored in the
liver.

In addition, you will find information on how to determine / estimate vitamins /

minerals in foods or in any test sample. As a food scientist, you will find this
information very useful. The effort of processing on mineral content of food is
another aspect covered in this unit. As advised for other units here too we will
recommend that you look up the units on vitamins and minerals in the courses
Nutritional Biochemistry and Applied Nutrition. Now let us learn about the
occurrence of Vitamin A.

Occurrence
In the vegetable kingdom, vitamin A probably occurs in the form of its
provitamins which belong to the group of carotenes. Carrots, spinach, lettuce,
 4

celery leaves,mangoes, papaya and dried apricots are especially rich in carotenes
and carotene isomers. In the human beings and animals, you should know, the
provitamins (carotenes) are converted into vitamin A in the intestinal mucosa.
The most important provitamin is β-carotene. Other important sources of
preformed vitamin A are the fish-liver oils (like codfish, Salmon, tunny fish and
whale), butter, milk, egg yolk and animal liver.

Determination
Vitamin A assay is carried out by chemical method. This method is called Carr
Price Reaction.

Vitamin A and the carotenoids produce an intense blue colour upon addition of a
saturated solution of antimony trichloride in anhydrous and alcohol-free
chloroform. This reaction is called Carr Price Reaction and used to determine
Vitamin A. The absorption maxima is around 620 nm.

In another method, absorption of vitamin A dissolved in isopropyl alcohol is

determined at wavelengths of 310, 325 and 334 nm. This method is suitable for
the determination of pure vitamin A (or of the ester after their saponification),
such as oily solutions as well as in tablets, coated tablets, capsules and other
formulations.

Applications
• Vitamin A dry powder
Vitamin A dry powder is used in the (manufacture of dry mixtures) for which the
oily ester concentrates are unsuitable or undesirable. Mainly, they are
incorporated in dry formulations such as (coated tablets and capsules). Even in
animal feed industry, vitamin A dry powder is preferred. The stability of vitamin
A in the dry powder is increased by matrix coating of the esters with gelatin, thus
protecting them from direct oxidation.

• Water soluble Vitamin A

Water soluble vitamin A is a yellowish green, slightly turbid, fluorescent liquid of
faint characteristic odour. The taste is at first faintly sweet and then bitter. Water
 5

soluble vitamin A is especially suitable for the manufacture of solutions for oral
administration. This preparation contains the palmitate of vitamin A. This ester
which otherwise is only fat soluble, has been rendered miscible with water and
aqueous liquids by a solubilizer. The stabilizer added to the preparation moreover
delays possible loss of activity due to atmospheric oxidation.

5.2.2 Vitamin B Complex

The vitamin B complex comprises the vitamins B1, B2, B6 and B12 as well as the
vitamin B factors biotin, folic acid, nicotinic acid and its amide as well as
pantothenic acid. Besides, inositol, choline and adenine (vitamin B4) are
considered as vitamins of the B complex. In nature, the active principles of the
vitamin B complex mostly occur together.

In the human and animal metabolism, they form a functional unit, since, as
components of the various coenzymes, they are essential members of reaction
chains. They play a part in numerous metabolic processes such as cellular
respiration, and energy production, carbohydrate conversion and the synthesis and
breakdown of fats and amino acids. Because of their role in energetic metabolic
processes, the vitamins are essential for the maintenance of vital processes.
Because of this close interdependence and the multiplicity of functions, it is
readily understood that the absence of one B complex factor will impair the
efficacy of the other vitamins. Therefore, the symptoms associated with vitamin B
complex deficiency may be manifold. They mainly affect growth, skin and
mucous membranes, blood and nervous system. We will discuss the
characteristics, importance and application of each of the B-complex vitamins one
by one in this section.

5.2.2.1 Vitamin B1 (Thiamine hydrochloride)

Thiamine hydrochloride is a white, crystalline powder, slightly hygroscopic, of an

odour resembling yeast and of bitter to taste. It is freely soluble in water.
Thiamine hydrochloride is soluble in glycerin, sparingly soluble in methanol and
ethanol (95%), almost insoluble in absolute alcohol, acetone, ether, chloroform,
benzene, fats and fatty oils.
 6

Occurrence
Vitamin B1 occurs widely in the vegetable kingdom. The richest sources for
vitamin B1, as you may already know, are yeast, grain germs and rice polish.
Whole grain bread and potatoes are vitamin B1 sources of considerable dietary
importance. Animal tissues rich in vitamin B1 are liver, kidney, brain and heart.
Aqueous solutions of thiamine hydrochloride are unstable in the presence of
alkalis and substances with alkaline reactions, atmospheric oxygen, metal ions
and UV light. Moreover, the solutions are affected by reducing and oxidizing
agents, especially in the neutral and alkaline ranges.

Determination
Vitamin B1 is determined by chemical method and microbiological assay. In the
chemical method, vitamin B1 is oxidized in alkaline solution by potassium
ferricyanide solution to form thiochrome. The latter may be extracted with
isobutanol and the resulting vivid blue fluorescence measured.
In the microbiological assay, turbidimetric growth measurement of the specific
culture of Lactobacillus fermenti ATCC 9338 and/or Saccharomyces cerevisiae
ATCC 7753 is performed by titration against 0.1 N NaOH.

Applications
The steadily increasing consumption of white flours (insufficiently ground and
thus low in vitamin content) by large sections of the population involves the risk
of vitamin B1 deficiency. By fortification of white flours with chemically pure
vitamins of the B group, the population may retain its most important source of
vitamin B.

Due to the manifold functions performed by vitamin B1 in the metabolism,

inadequate supply is manifest by a number of deficiency symptoms. Vitamin B1
hydrochloride is used for the preparation of drug formulations of all types,
especially of oral drop solutions, drops, tablets and others and also for the vitamin
fortification of foods.

5.2.2.2 Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)

 7

Riboflavin is a yellow to orange-yellow, crystalline powder of faint odour and

intensely bitter taste. Its solubility in water is very slight and depends on the
crystalline structure. The saturated aqueous solution of riboflavin shows neutral
reactions to litmus (pH about 6.0). Solubility is markedly increased in the
presence of various substances, especially sodium chloride, urea and
nicotinamide. Riboflavin is also soluble in alkali hydroxide solutions, but will
decompose. In the common organic solvents riboflavin is practically insoluble.

Aqueous solution shows a pronounced green-yellow fluorescence, which is

maximal at a pH of about, 6-7 and disappears upon the addition of acids and
alkalis. Riboflavin shows amphoteric reaction. The isoelectric point of riboflavin
is around 6.0. The melting point is approximately 280-285°C. Riboflavin is
inactivated by exposure to day light and UV light. Irradiation of an alkaline
solution produces yellowish-green lumiflavin. In neutral or acidic solutions, the
colourless lumichrome is formed along with varying amounts of lumiflavin.

In the presence of alkalis and materials giving alkaline reaction, aqueous

riboflavin solutions are unstable. Also in the presence of strong reducing agents,
metal ions and upon exposure to day light and UV light, the solution is not stable.

Importance
As a prosthetic group of the flavin enzymes, vitamin B2 is involved in the
reactions of almost all nutrients of plants and animals. They are designed to
regulate redox processes. Riboflavin, thus, catalyzes the reactions of
carbohydrates, fats, proteins and nucleic acids.

Occurrence
Vitamin B2 (riboflavin) occurs in nature almost exclusively in a combined form
i.e. esterified with phosphoric acid as riboflavin-5’-phosphoric acid ester. Vitamin
B2 occurs in a combined form in any plant and animal cell - yeasts, wheat, white
B

bread, rye bread, fruits, nuts, spinach, cabbage, milk, cheese, egg yolk, fish, meat,
rice bran, potatoes and others.
 8

Determination
In the chemical method, the yellow-green fluorescence of aqueous solution of
riboflavin is measured. In the microbiological assay, turbidimetric growth
measurement or determination of lactic acid formed by Lactobacillus casei ATCC
7469 is performed.

Applications
Vitamin B2 is used as a colour and nutrient in various food commodities such as
baked foods, noodles and macaroni products, ice creams and soup mixes.

5.2.2.3 Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine hydrochloride)

Pyridoxine hydrochloride is a white, crystalline powder, practically odourless.

The dry substance is sufficiently stable in air. With prolonged exposure to day
light and UV light, it will change gradually. Pyridoxine hydrochloride is easily
soluble in water. A 10% (w/v) aqueous solution shows a pH of about 3.0.
Pyridoxine hydrochloride is moreover soluble in 95% ethanol. It is slightly
soluble in acetone and practically insoluble in ether. The melting point is 206-
212°C. Aqueous solutions of pyridoxine hydrochloride are incompatible in
particular with oxidants, metal ions as well as day light and UV light.

Importance
In the human and animal organisms, vitamin B6 acts in the form of pyridoxal. In
the form of 5’-orthophosphate (Pyridoxal-5’-phosphate), pyridoxal is the
prosthetic group of numerous enzymes of essential importance in the protein
metabolism.

Occurrence
Vitamin B6 activity is attributed to the 3 compounds–pyridoxol (pyridoxine),
pyridoxal and pyridoxamine, generally comprised in the vitamin B6 group. They
occur in any living cell. While the quantitative share of pyridoxal is
proportionately largest in the vegetable kingdom, the phosphates of pyridoxal and
pyridoxamine predominate in the animal cell and in yeasts, vitamin B6 is found
 9

abundantly in green plants, molasses, brewer’s yeast, egg yolk and several animal
organs such as liver and kidneys.

Determination
Colorimetric determination of indophenol dye using 2,6-dichloroquinone
chloraimide as colour reagent or diethyl-p-phenylenediamine in the presence of
an oxidizing agent. Microbiological determination is preferably made by
turbidimetric measurement of the growth of Saccharomyces carlsbergensis
ATCC 9080.

Applications
The heating processes employed in the industry for the sterilization of milk based
formulations will greatly reduce their vitamin B6 content. Possibly, as yet,
unknown decomposition products of vitamin B6 are formed/it is inactivated in
these products during manufacture and storage, with the loss of vitamin activity.

An interesting fact of practical importance is the observation that the vitamin B6

hydrochloride added to milk or milk preparation is more resistant to thermal
sterilization than the vitamin B6 naturally present in the milk. Loss of vitamin B6
loss due to thermal sterilization of milk based preparation may thus be
compensated by external addition of vitamin B6 hydrochloride.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1. Fill in the blanks:
(i) Vitamin A is susceptible to the action of ----------------------------------------
---------
(ii) Vitamin A destruction can be prevented by--------------------------------------
---------
(iii) Vitamin A is used and sold as------------------------------------------------------
---------
(iv) Richest sources of Vitamin B, are ------------------------------------------------
---------
(v) The most convenient way to prevent the risk of vitamin B, deficiency is ---
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------
 10

(vi) Riboflavin is unstable in the presence of-----------------------------------------

---------
(vii) Vitamin B6 group comprises of ---------------------------------------------------
---------

2. Complete the following table by listing the application of the vitamins in

food industry.
Sr.No. Vitamins Applications in food industry
1. Vitamin A dry form
2. Vitamin A water-soluble
3. B1B

4. B2B

5.2.2.4 Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin)

Vitamin B12 refers to a group of Cobalt-containing corrinoids known as

cobalamins. It is also called antipernicious- anemia factor, extrinsic factor. In
human and animals, derivatives like hydroxycobalamin, adenosyl cobalamin and
methyl cobalamin are the major compounds which are metabolically active. The
latter two are the active co-enzymic forms. Cyanocobalamin is a synthetic form of
Vitamin B12 that is widely used clinically due to its availability and stability
which is transformed into active form in the body.

Importance
Vitamin B12 deficiency is manifest by the symptoms of pernicious anaemia
(Addison-Biermer’s disease). An irreversible atrophy of the gastric mucose is
primarily responsible for pernicious anaemia, causing loss of the intrinsic factor,
which is predominantly produced in stomach. Vitamin B12 from the ingested food
is bound by intrinsic factor that reaches intestine for absorption. In addition,
vitamin B12 acts as a mediator in the formation of labile methyl groups for the
synthesis of methionine. This explains its lipotropic and protein saving effect. In
various animal species, increased growth may be produced by administration of
 11

vitamin B12. Also, in children, the growth promoting activity of vitamin B12 has
been observed.

Occurrence
Vitamin B12 is one of the cobalamin, a group of active principles widely occurring
in nature. Vitamin B12 is present especially in liver, kidney, heart, brain, spleen,
thymus and muscles. Larger amounts may also be detected in the intestine. In
addition, considerable amounts are found in the culture media of various
Streptomyces species and also in residue of streptomycin manufacture. Foods of
plant origin are essentially devoid of Vitamin B12.

Cyanocobalamin occurs as dark red crystals or as a crystalline hygroscopic

powder of the same colour without odour and taste. Upon standing in the air, the
anhydrous substance absorbs up to 12% water. Cyanocobalamin is soluble in
water and 95% ethanol, but almost insoluble in ether, chloroform and petroleum
ether. In the presence of alkalis and reactive alkaline compounds, reducing and
oxidizing agents, aqueous solutions of cyanocobalamin are not stable.
Cyanocobalamin substance and solution gradually decompose with discolouration
by the action of day light and UV light. The activity of cyanocobalamin solutions
may also be considerably affected by microbial growth. Cyanocobalamin should
be kept in air tight containers protected against light and moisture in a cool place.
To be protected against mold growth during storage.

Determination
Spectrophotometric determination of the characteristic ultraviolet absorption is
suitable for the determination of pure vitamin B12 or of pure aqueous solution in
the absence of interfering impurities. Microbiological assay is performed by any
of the following:
• Determination of the diffusion in the cup-plate test using a mutant of
Escherichia coli ATCC 10799 as the test organism
• Titrimetric determination of the acid produced in the tube test using
Lactobacillus lecihmannii ATCC 7830.

Applications
 12

Cyanocobalamin is used in the preparation of liquid and dry drug formulations of

all kinds. In the animal feed industry, usually cobalamin concentrates are being
used.

5.2.2.5 Biotin

Biotin forms long, colourless needles or a white crystalline powder. It is sparingly

soluble in cold water, but more soluble in hot water and dilute alkalis. Biotin is
sparingly soluble to insoluble in common organic solvents. Aqueous solutions of
biotin are sensitive against the action of oxidants and UV light. In the presence of
strong acids and concentrated alkalis, biotin is not stable. Biotin solutions are
susceptible to mold growth.

Importance
Biotin is involved in a number of important metabolic reactions, probably as
coenzymes. Deficiency symptoms are manifest as degenerative changes of the
skin and pelt of various animal species such as rats, mice, chickens and pigs. In
addition, degenerative processes of the muscles and various glands have been
observed. Resistance against various infections is reduced.

Occurrence
Biotin occurs in nature very likely in all living cells, although usually in minute
concentrations. In animal organs and in yeast, biotin is mainly contained in bound
form. However, in vegetables, rice bran and in milk, it is present in free form.

Determination
Microbiological methods are suitable only for the detection of free biotin. We
shall not go into the details of the method used for determination of biotin here
since it is not within the perview of the unit.

Applications
Biotin is mainly used in the preparation of injection, and also in the manufacture
of vitamin B complex and multi-vitamin preparations. It is used in the
manufacture of baking yeasts.
 13

5.2.2.6 Folic acid

Folic acid occurs as a yellow or orange-yellow, microcrystalline powder, almost

without odour and taste. Water content of folic acid is up to 8.5%. Folic acid is
very slightly soluble in water. Solubility increases with the temperature and the
pH. Folic acid is sparingly soluble to insoluble in the usual organic solvents. The
substance is without characteristic melting point, heating above 250°C will
produce darkening and decomposition. Aqueous solutions of folic acid are not
stable in the presence of reducing and oxidizing agents, heavy metal ions as well
as sunlight and UV light.

Importance
In general, folic acid is known to be involved in a number of vital metabolic
reactions.

Occurrence
Folic acid is an active principle widely occurring in the animal and vegetable
kingdom. Richest sources are liver, dark green leafy vegetables, beans, wheat
germ and yeast. Most dietary folates exist in the polyglutamate form which is
converted in the small intestine to the monoglutamate form before absorption in
the blood stream. Enzymes present in the liver catalyses the liberation of folic
acid from these compounds. Bacteria, yeasts and molds contain abundant amounts
of folic acid or its component 4-aminobenzoic acid; both these compounds
stimulate their growth.

Determination
Reductive hydrolysis of folic acid produces 4-aminobenzoyl glutamic acid which
is determined photometrically after diazotization and coupling with N-(1-
naphthyl)-ethylenediamine.

In the microbiological assay, it is either by the turbidimetric growth measurement

of Streptococcus faecalis ATCC 8043 or titrimetric determination of lactic acid
produced by Lactobacillus casei ATCC 7469.

Applications
 14

Folic acid is mainly used in the manufacture of dry drug formulations and also in
the vitamin fortification of animal feeds.

5.2.2.7 Nicotinic acid (Niacin)

Niacin refers to both nicotinic acid and its amide derivative. Nicotinic acid occurs
as white or almost white crystals or as a crystalline powder of the same colour
without odour and is of weakly acid taste. Nicotinic acid is freely soluble in
boiling water and sparingly soluble in water at about 20°C. Nicotinic acid is
freely soluble with salt formation at low temperatures in acids and alkalis. The
solubility of nicotinic acid in ethanol corresponds to that in water. Acetone and
ether are also good solvents for nicotinic acid.

Importance
Nicotinic acid is successfully used in the therapy of a number of vascular
disorders such as vascular spasms, angina pectoris, arthritis, hypertensive
complaints, moreover as supportive therapy in migraine, headache and others. In
the animals, Niacin is involved in reactions that generate energy from
carbohydrate, fats and protein catabolites. It is essential for the synthesis of
hormones.

Occurrence
Nictoinic acid occurs widely in the animal and vegetable kingdom in free as well
as in bound form (in enzymes). Several animal organs such as liver, kidney and
myocardium show a high nicotinic acid content. Yeasts and mushrooms are also
very rich in nicotinic acid. In animals, it is predominantly found as nicotinamide.

Determination
The chemical methods of assay are based on colour reactions of pyridine.
Nicotinic acid and nicotinamide are converted by cyanogen bromide into a
derivative of the glutacone aldehyde, which is condensed with aromatic amines to
form polymethine dyes (yellow colouring reactions).

The microbiological assay involves the titrimetric determination of lactic acid

produced by Lactobacillus arabinosus ATCC 8014.
 15

Applications
Nicotinic acid is mainly used in the vitamin fortification of flour, macaroni and
noodle products. Independent of its vitamin efficacy, nicotinic acid is used in the
meat industry, sometimes in combination with ascorbic acid to retain the colour in
minced and unpickled meats.

5.2.2.8 Pantothenic acid (Calcium pantothenate)

Calcium pantothenate is a white, loose, faintly hygroscopic powder without odour

and of bitter taste. It is easily soluble in water, glycerin, sparingly soluble in
ethanol, acetone and ether; insoluble in chloroform and benzene. A 5% aqueous
solution has a pH of 7.2-8.0. Pantothenic acid is stable under neutral conditions
but is readily destroyed by heat in alkaline or acidic solution.
Importance
One of the active forms of pantothenic acid is coenzyme A, which is involved in
numerous metabolic functions. It is involved in the synthesis of vital compounds
like sterols, hormones, neurotransmitters, phospholipids, antibodies and in
reactions that supply energy.

Occurrence
Pantothenic acid is a ubiquitous active principle occurring in free as well as in the
bound form. In the bound form, pantothenic acid is incorporated into the
coenzyme A which is an important compound that initiates several biological
reactions in the living cells. Small amounts are synthesized in the intestines.

Determination
Hydrolysis of calcium pantothenate in acidic medium produces α,γ-dihydroxy-
β,β-dimethylbutyrolactone, which reacts with hydroxylamine in the presence of
alkalis to produce the corresponding hydroxamic acid. After addition of ferric
chloride solution, the purple colour produced is measured at 500 nm.

The microbiological assay involves the titrimetric determination of lactic acid

produced by Lactobacillus arabinosus ATCC 8014.
 16

Applications
Calcium pantothenate is used in the preparation of drug formulations and the
vitamin fortification of animal feeds.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. Fill in the blanks:
(i) Vitamin B12 deficiency manifests as----------------------------------------------
---------
(ii) Vitmain B12 is present in -----------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------
(iii) Deficiency symptoms of biotin are manifested as ------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------
(iv) Biotin occurs as -------------------------------------------------------------------in
nature
(v) Folic acid is an active principle in ------------------------------------------------
---------
(vi) -------------------------------------------acts as a mediator in the methionine
synthesis.
(vii) Nicotinic acid is used in the therapy of ------------------------------------------
---------
(viii) Nicotinic acid occurs in-------------------------------------------------------------
---------
(ix) The determination of nicotinic acid is based upon------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------
(x) The active form of Pantothenic acid is which is involved in------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------
2. Give the applications of the following vitamins:
a) Vitamin B12
 17

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------
b) Biotin
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------
c) Folic Acid
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------
d) Nicotinic Acid
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------
e) Pantothenic acid
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------

5.2.3 Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)

Vitamin C, ascorbic acid is also called anti-scorbutic vitamin. Ascorbic acid

occurs as white crystals or white crystalline powder without odour and of citric
acid like taste. Turns pale yellow on prolonged storage. Ascorbic acid is easily
soluble in water, soluble in methanol, ethanol and glycerin and insoluble in ether,
chloroform, benzene, petroleum ether, fats and fatty oils. The pH values of
aqueous ascorbic acid solutions are:
1% (w/v) solution is about pH 2.8; 5% (w/v) solution is about pH 2.5; 10% (w/v)
solution is about pH 2.4; 20% (w/v) solution is about pH 2.2
 18

Ascorbic acid reacts like strong, monobasic acid. The action of atmospheric
oxygen as well as exposure to daylight and UV light causes rapid destruction of
ascorbic acid in aqueous solutions. Ascorbic acid is also destroyed by the action
of oxidizing agents and heavy metal ions and in the presence of alkalies.

Importance
Vitamin C is involved in redox processes in the organisms. It is possible, that
vitamin C exerts its physiological function as a redox substance in combination
with an enzyme group. Vitamin C affects the formation of the mesenchymal
tissues, bones, cartilage and teeth. Vitamin C is implicated in the metabolism of
aromatic amino acids. Also vitamin C promotes the conversion of folic acid into
its active form, the citrovorum factor. While most animals are capable of
synthesizing ascorbic acid themselves, man, monkeys and guinea pigs depend on
the supply of ascorbic acid with their food.

Occurrence
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is an active ingredient present in any animal or
vegetable cell which occurs in the plant in free form and also bound to protein as
ascorbigen. Vitamin C amounts contained in the various plant and animal tissues
differ considerably. All fresh fruits, various vegetables and also milk are
important nutritional physiological carriers of vitamin C. Considerable vitamin C
is lost by cooking, preservation, drying and storage of the food commodities.

Determination
Majority of chemical methods of determination is based on the rapid oxidation of
ascorbic acid and therefore not too highly specific. Titration of ascorbic acid with
2, 6-dichlorophenolindophenol is one of the commonest methods.

Applications
Ascorbic acid is used for the preparation of various drug formulations and for the
vitamin fortification of foods and beverages.

5.2.4 Vitamin D (Calciferol – vitamin D2)

 19

The main forms are Vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol-plant origin) and vitamin D3

(cholecalciferol-animal origin). Vitamin D2 forms colourless, acicular crystals or
a crystalline powder without taste and of only faint odour. Vitamin D2 is easily
soluble in either chloroform or benzene, ethanol, acetone and fatty oils and
insoluble in water. Vitamin D2 is sensitive against atmospheric oxygen. It is not
stable either in the presence of oxidizing substances and oxygen carriers.
Moreover, vitamin D2 is destroyed by acids, metal ions as well as UV and visible
light.

Importance
Vitamin D is mainly involved in the calcium and phosphate metabolism. It
usually promotes absorption of calcium and inorganic phosphate from the
intestine. It participates in the transport of calcium and phosphate and also in the
deposition of these mineral substances in the organic bone matrix.

Occurrence
Cholecalciferol is synthesized in the skin by the action of ultraviolet light on 7-
dehydrocholesterol which is widely distributed in animal fat. Vitamin D is
relatively stable in foods. Storage, processing and cooking have little effect on its
activity although in fortified milk upto 40% of added vitamin may cost as a result
of exposure to light.

Determination
Spectrophotometric determination of the orange yellow colour developed with
antimony chloride in chloroform, with an absorption maximum at 500 nm.

Applications
Vitamin D2 is mainly used in the preparation of various drug formulations. For
the animal feed industry, a mineral stable dry powder under the name of vitamin
D2 is available. In many countries, milk and milk products, margarine and
vegetable oils fortified with vitamin D serve as a major dietary source of vitamin.

5.2.5 Vitamin E (DL-α-Tocopherol)

 20

DL-α-Tocopherol is a yellow to red-brown, clear, viscous oil almost without

odour which decolourise when exposed to light and air. DL-α-Tocopherol is
soluble in ethanol, acetone, ether, chloroform, petroleum ether and in fats and
fatty oils. It is insoluble in water. By the action of oxidants (such as oils and fats
containing peroxide, atmospheric oxygen) DL-α-Tocopherol will readily lose its
potency. This process is accelerated by irradiation. Contact with heavy metals
should be avoided, if possible (catalytic effect on oxidation processes). Light, heat
and oxygen are detrimental factors which reduces the stability.

Importance
Vitamin E has a pronounced antioxidizing effect. Because of this property,
vitamin E decreases the basic metabolism of the tissues or the oxygen
consumption and protects readily oxidizable compounds like vitamin A and
carotenoids in the intestine and the tissues against oxidation. In the same manner,
vitamin E also protects the easily oxidable unsaturated fatty acids. It also
promotes utilization of these essential fatty acids and prevents the formation of
toxic lipoperoxides which have a detrimental effect on tissues.

Occurrence
The tocopherols are widely found in animal and vegetable materials, like nuts and
seeds. Considerable amounts are found in a number of vegetable oils, wheat and
corn germs.

Determination
DL-α-Tocopherol is oxidized with ferric chloride and the ferrous ions formed are
measured colorimetrially with the aid of α,α’-dipyridyl (bright red colour).

Applications
DL-α-Tocopherol is mainly used as an antioxidant in stabilizing edible oils and
fats and fat-containing food commodities, pharmaceutical preparations and
cosmetics.

5.2.6 Vitamin K (Menadione – Vitamin K3, oil soluble)

 21

Menadione is a yellow, lustrous, crystalline powder. It is easily soluble in

benzene, soluble in fats and fatty oils. It is sparingly soluble in ethanol and
chloroform and very sparingly soluble in water. Melting point is between 105 and
108°C. Menadione is not stable in the presence of acid as well as of alkalis and
substances with alkaline reaction and in the presence of reducing agents.
Exposure to light and ultraviolet light will decompose menadione with brown
discolouration.

Importance
The site of action of vitamin K activity is the highly complex mechanism of blood
coagulation. Due to its effect on prothrombin, vitamin K is also involved in the
immunological processes as prothrombin is a component of that complement the
blood fibre of which is raised by administration of vitamin K.

Occurrence
Vitamin K is found naturally in plants and vitamin K2 is synthesized by the
bacteria in the intestines in humans. In nature, only two naphthoquinone
derivatives with antihaemorrhagic action – vitamins K1 and K2 have been found
so far. In addition, there are a number of synthetic naphthoquinone compounds
with vitamin K activity. Of these, especially vitamin K3 (menadione) and some
esters of vitamin K4 (menadiol), such as 2-methyl-1,4-naphthohydroquinone
dibutyrate are distinguished by valuable therapeutic properties. Other dietary
sources include green leafy vegetables, cabbage, lettuce, soyabeans, beef liver and
green tea. Egg yolk, milk, butter and cheese also contain vitamin K.

Determination
Colorimetric determination of menadione in oily solutions with dinitrophenyl
hydrazine.

Applications
Menadione is used in the preparation of drug formulations and vitamin K
supplementation of feed mixes and infant formula.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

 22

1. Fill in the blanks:

(i) Vitamin D2 is sensitive against-----------------------------------------------------
---------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------
(ii) The Vitamin D can be determined by---------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------
(iii) Vitamin E loses in efficacy by-----------------------------------------------------
---------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------
(iv) Antioxidizing effect of vitamin E leads to---------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------
(v) The destruction of ascorbic acid is caused due to-------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------
(vi) One of the common methods to determine ascorbic acid is-------------------
----------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------
(iv) The protein-bound form of vitamin C in plants and animal cells is ----------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------
(v) The Vitamin K derivatives which have valuable therapeutic properties are-
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------

2. Give the roles of following vitamins in food industry:

a) Vitamin C
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------
b) Vitamin D
 23

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------
c) Vitamin E
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------
d) Vitamin K
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------

5.3 MINERALS

We are all familiar with the term minerals. Definition of minerals, as it applies to
food and nutrition usually refers to the elements other than carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen and nitrogen that are present in food. All foods contain minerals in
relatively low concentrations. Minerals play key functional roles in health and
nutrition of humans. Ninety chemical elements occur naturally in the earth’s
crust. About 25 of them are known to be essential to life and thus are present in
living cells. Since our food is ultimately derived from living plants or animals, we
can expect to find these 25 elements in our food. The minerals in foods are
usually determined by ashing or incineration. This destroys the organic
compounds and leaves the minerals behind. Minerals, as you may recall studying
earlier, are mainly classified into two categories. What are these categories? The
next sub-section presents a brief summary for you to read and refresh your
memory.

5.3.1 Classification of Minerals

Minerals can be divided into two main categories, namely, main elements
(calcium, potassium, phosphorous, chlorine, sodium, magnesium) and trace
elements (iron, zinc, copper, manganese and iodine etc). According to their
biological roles, they may also be divided into essential elements that have known
 24

biological roles; non-essential elements with unknown functions; and toxic

elements. There are 20 essential nutritive elements e.g. sodium, potassium,
phosphorous, iron, calcium, chromium, zinc, selenium, magnesium, copper, tin,
cobalt, manganese and fluorine. Non nutritive non toxic elements are boron and
aluminium; and non nutritive, toxic elements are mercury, lead and cadmium.

What is the role of these substances? The nutritional and functional role of
minerals is discussed herewith.

5.3.2 Nutritional and functional role of minerals in foods

Essential elements including the main elements and a number of trace elements
fulfill various functions: as electrolytes, as enzyme constituents and as building
materials in bones and teeth. In addition to their nutritional and physiological role,
minerals contribute to food flavour. They activate or inhibit the enzyme catalyzed
and other reactions. In some foods, minerals also affect the texture. Even though
minerals are present in low concentrations, they often affect the physical and
chemical properties of food because of their interactions with other food
components. The functional role of few of the minerals are highlighted in tabular
form herewith.

Table 5.2 Nutritional/Functional role of minerals

Minerals Food Source Nutritional Functional role
Aluminium Low and variable in Possibly essential, evidence not
foods, component of conclusive, deficiency unknown.
some antacids and Leavening agent: As sodium aluminium
leavening agents sulfate (Na2SO4. Al2(SO4)3)
Texture modifier
Bromine Brominated flour Not known to be essential to humans.
Dough improver: KBrO3 improves
baking quality of wheat flour. It is the
most used dough improver.

Calcium Dairy products, green Essential nutrient: Deficiency leads to

 25

leafy vegetables, tofu, osteoporosis in later life.

fish bones Texture modifier: Forms gel with
negatively charged macromolecules such
as alginates, low-methoxy pectins, soy
proteins, caseins, etc. firms canned
vegetables when added to canning brine.
Copper Organ meats, sea Essential nutrient: Deficiency is rare.
foods, nuts, seeds Catalyst: Lipid peroxidation, ascorbic
acid oxidation, non enzymatic oxidative
browning.
Colour modifier: May cause black
discoloration in canned, cured meats.
Enzyme cofactor: Polyphenoloxidase.
Texture stabilizer: Stabilizes egg white
foams.
Iodine Iodised salt, sea food, Essential nutrient: Deficiency produces
plants and animals goiter and cretinism.
grown in areas where Dough improver: KlO3 improves baking
soil iodine is not quality of wheat flour.
depleted.
Iron Cereals, legumes, Essential nutrient: Deficiency leads to
meat contamination anemia, impaired immune response,
from iron utensils and reduced worker productivity, impaired
soil cognitive development in children.
Excessive iron stores may increase risk of
cancer and heart disease.
Catalyst: Fe2+ and Fe3+ catalyse lipid
peroxidation in foods.
Colour modifier: Colour of fresh meat
depends on valency of Fe in myoglobin
and haemoglobin: Fe2+ is red, Fe3+ is
brown. Forms green, blue or black
complexes with poly phenolic
2-
compounds. Reacts with S to form
black FeS in canned foods.
Enzyme cofactor: Lipoxygenase,
cytochromes, ribonucleotide reductase,
etc.
Magnesium Whole grains, nuts, Essential nutrient: Deficiency is rare
legumes, green leafy Colour modifier: Removal of Mg from
vegetables chlorophyll changes color from green to
olive-brown
Manganese Whole grains, fruits, Essential nutrient: Deficiency extremely
vegetables rare.
Enzyme cofactor: pyruvate carboxylase,
superoxide dismutase
Nickel Plant foods Essential nutrient: Deficiency in humans
unknown.
Catalyst: hydrogenation in vegetable oils
– finely divided, elemental Ni is the most
widely used catalyst for this process
 26

Phosphates Ubiquitous, animal Essential nutrient: Deficiency is rare due

products tend to be to presence in virtually all foods.
good sources Acidulent: H3PO4 in soft drinks.
Leavening acid: Ca(HPO4)2is a fast-
acting leavening acid.
Moisture retention in meats: Sodium
tripolyphosphate improves moisture
retention in cured meats.
Emulsification aid: Phosphates are used
to aid emulsification in comminuted
meats and in processed cheeses.
Potassium Fruits, vegetables, Essential nutrient: Deficiency is rare.
meats Salt substitute: KCl may be used as a salt
substitute, may cause bitter flavour.
Leavening agent: Potassium acid
tartarate.

Selenium Sea food, organ Essential nutrient: Keshan disease

meats, cereals (levels(endemic cardiomyopathy in China) was
vary depending on associated with selenium deficiency. Low
soil levels) selenium status may be associated with
increased risk for cancer and heart
disease.
Enzyme cofactor: Glutathione peroxidase
Sodium NaCl, MSG, other Essential nutrient: Deficiency is rare;
food additives, milk, excessive intake may lead to
low in most raw hypertension.
foods Flavour modifier: NaCl elicits the classic
salty taste in foods.
Preservative: NaCl may be used to lower
water activity in foods.
Leavening agents: Many leavening
agents are sodium salts, e.g., sodium
bicarbonate, sodium aluminium sulfate,
sodium acid pyrophosphate.

Sulfur Widely distributed Essential nutrient: A constituent of the

essential amino acids methionine and
cystine. Sulfur amino acids may be
limited in some diets.
Browning inhibitor: Sulfur dioxide and
sulfites inhibit both enzymatic and
nonenzymatic browning. Widely used in
dried fruits.
Antimicrobial: Prevents, controls
microbial growth. Widely used in wine
making.
Zinc Meats, cereals. Essential nutrient: Deficiency produces
loss of appetite, growth retardation, skin
changes. ZnO is used in the lining of cans
for proteinaceous foods to lessen
 27

formation of black FeS during heating.

Zinc can be added to green beans to help
stabilize the colour during canning.

From the table above, you would have got a fairly good idea about the functional
role of minerals in foods in addition to their nutritional role in our body. Next, we
will look at the bioavailability of minerals in foods.

5.3.3 Bioavailability of Minerals

It is well known that the concentration of a nutrient in a food is not a reliable

indicator of its nutritional value. In other words, the entire quantity of the nutrient
present in the food may not be utilized by the human body. Bioavailability may be
defined as the proportion of a nutrient in the ingested food that is available for
utilization in metabolic processes. In the case of mineral nutrients, bioavailability
is determined primarily by the efficiency of absorption from the intestinal lumen
into the blood. In some cases, the absorbed nutrient may be in a form that cannot
be utilized. Bioavailability of mineral nutrients may vary from less than 1% for
some forms of iron to greater than 90% for sodium and potassium. Chemical form
of the mineral in food, formulation of chelates with minerals, redox activity of
food components, mineral – mineral interactions and physiological state of the
consumer are the factors that may influence the mineral bioavailability from
foods. Processing the food can have an adverse effect on the minerals present in
foods. What are these effects? We will dwell on this aspect in the next section,
but first a word about how to estimate the mineral content in foods?

5.3.4 Estimation of minerals in foods

The minerals in foods are determined by ashing or incineration at temperatures in

the region of 500°C following standard procedure. This destroys the organic
compounds and leaves the minerals behind. Ash thus obtained provides an
estimate of the total mineral content of foods. Minerals in the ash are in the form
of metal oxides, sulphates, phosphates, nitrates and halides. Individual minerals
are determined by dissolving the ash, usually in acid, and measuring the mineral
concentration in the resulting solution. Atomic absorption spectroscopy is
 28

generally used to estimate the mineral concentration. Nuclear Activation

Analysis-NAA is a more sensitive method.

5.3.5 Effect of processing on mineral content of foods

Minerals are comparatively stable under processing conditions such as heat, light,
use of oxidizing agents and extremes in pH. But, minerals can be removed from
foods by leaching or physical separation. It has been reported that milling of
cereals causes considerable mineral loss. Minerals are mainly concentrated in the
bran layers and the germ. Thus, removal of bran and germ during milling leaves
pure endosperm, which is mineral poor. For example, when wheat is milled to
obtain refined flour, the losses in mineral content are 76% (iron); 78% (Zinc);
86% (manganese); 68% (copper); and 16% (selenium). Similar losses occur
during milling of rice and other cereals. Cooking in water would result in some
losses of minerals since many minerals have significant solubility in water. In
general, boiling in water causes greater loss of minerals from vegetables as
against steaming. Canned foods may take up metals from the container: tin and
iron from the tin plate, and tin and lead from the solder. For example, this occurs
in canned acid foods such as fruit juices; canned foods having sulphur containing
amino acids.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1. Fill in the blanks:
(i) The term `Minerals’ refers to the -------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------
(ii) Bioavailability may be defined as-------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------
(iii) Ash contains minerals in the form of---------------------------------------------
----------
(iv) ---------------------------------------------is used to estimate the mineral
concentration
(v) Bioavailability of mineral nutrients varies from -----------------------------to-
---------------------------------------------
 29

2. Give the functional roles of essential elements in the food industry.

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------
3. Explain the effects of processing on mineral content.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------

5.4 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, you studied about different vitamin and minerals. Vitamins, as you
would know, are of basically two types, fat-soluble (AD,E & K) and Water-
soluble (B-complex and C) of these Vitamin B play a major role in the normal
functioning and maintenance of biological processes. Both vitamin types are
required for normal metabolism, growth and development and regulation of the
cell function.

Next, we studied about different minerals and its classification. The nutritional
and functional role of minerals in food was briefly discussed. Apart from these,
certain other issues that were described included the concept of bioavailability,
mineral estimation and processing effects on minerals in foods.

5.5 GLOSSARY
 30

Acicular : narrow, long or pointed.

Amphoteric reaction : A double reaction possessed by certain fluids
which have a combination of acid and alkaline
properties.
Angina pectoris : A recurring pain or discomfort in the chest that
happens when some part of the heart does not
receive enough blood through narrowed, diseased
coronary, arteries.
 31

Antioxidants : A chemical compound or substance that is thought

to protect body cells from damaging effects of
oxidation.
Arthritis : An inflammation of a joint usually accompanied
by pain, selling and stiffness, resulting from trauma
infection, degenerative changes, metabolic
disturbances or others
Atrophy : A wasting away from want of nourishment or to
cause wasting due to disease of disuse
Bioavailability : This proportion of a nutrient in the ingested food
that is available for utilization in metabolic
processes.
Catalyst : A substance that increases/modifies the rate of a
chemical reaction without being consumed in the
reaction.
Chelates : To combine with a chemical compound to form a
ring.
Cofactor : Inorganic ion or coenzyme necessary for the
activity of an enzyme by forming a complex
Cornification : The conversion of squamous epithelial cells into a
Keratinized horny material, such as hair, nails or
feathers
Coupling : A connection between two things so they move
together.
Decomposition : The act/ process of decay or dissolution
consequent on the removal or alteration of some of
the ingredients of a compound.
Esterification : A chemical reaction resulting in the formation of
at least one ester product.
Flourescent : Emission of light during exposure to radiation
from an external source.
Fortification : The addition of an ingredient for the purpose of
increasing or improving the value of a product.
Hygroscopic : a substance that readily absorbs moisture, as from
atmosphere.
 32

Incineration : A treatment technology used to destroy waste by

controlled burning at high temperatures.
Isoelectric point : The pH of a solution in which a protein has no net
charge and does not migrate in an electric field.
Leavening agent : An organism or substance that when added to
dough of flour and water causes it to rise by
evolving carbon dioxide or other gases that become
trapped as bubbles within the dough.
Mesenchymal tissues : Connective tissue, composed of star-shaped cells
in an extracellular matrix.
Migraine : A vascular headache caused by blood flow and
chemical changes in the brain leading to
constriction of arteries supplying blood to the brain
and release of certain brain chemicals, causing
severe pain, stomach upset and other symptoms.
Miscible : Capable of being mixed; mixable
Oxidation : The act or process of oxidizing, or the state or
result of being oxidized.
Pernicious anaemia : Condition caused by vitamin B12 deficiency and
characterized by anaemia and spinal cord
abnormalities, such as lesions of spinal cord,
weakness, sore throat, numbness in the arms and
legs, diarrhoea atc.
Prosthetic group : A tightly/covalently bound, specific non-
polypeptide unit required for the biological function
of some proteins
Redox Process : These are the electron transfer processes in which
an oxidizing agent receives electrons and a reducing
agent concedes electrons.
Stabilizer : A substance that renders or maintains a solution,
mixture, suspension, or state resistant to chemical
change.
Sterilization : The removal or destruction of all microorganisms,
including pathogenic and other bacteria, vegetative
forms and spores.
 33

Thermostable : Unaffected by relatively high temperatures or

capable of being heated to higher temperatures
without loss of special properties.
Turbid : not clear; thick
Vascular Spasms : A sudden, brief tightening of a blood vessel. It can
temporarily reduce blood flow to tissues supplied
by that vessel.

5.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1.
(i) Atmospheric oxygen, oxygen carriers, oxidizing agents, metals ions and
UV light.
(ii) Storage in cool place, under vaccum or inert gas in air-tight containers or
sealed ampules.
(iii) Concentrates and oily solutions of the acetate and palmitate and their
formulations
(iv) Yeasts, grain germs and rice polish
(v) Fortification of white flours with chemically pure vitamins of the B group.
(vi) Alkalis, materials giving alkaline reaction, strong reducing agents, metal
ions and exposure to day light and UV light.
(vii) Pyridoxine, pyridoxal and pyridoxamine

2.
a) dry mixtures, coated tablets and capsules
b) drop solutions
c) drug formulations such as ampule solutions, drops and tablets
d) colour various food commodities such as baked foods, noodles and
macaroni products, ice creams and soup mixes.
 34

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1.
(i) pernicious anemia
(ii) liver, spleen, thymus and muscles, intestine and streptomycin species
(iii) – degenerative changes of the skin and pelt of various glands.
- reduced resistance against various infections.
(iv) All living cells and animal organs and yeasts, vegetables rice bran and
milk.
(v) animals and vegetable kingdom.
(vi) Vitamin B12
(vii) Vascular disorders, migraine, headache, and others
(viii) Liver, kidney, myocardium, yeast and mushrooms
(ix) Colour reactions of pyridine
(x) Coenzyme A, metabolic functions

2.
(a) liquid and dry drug ascorbigen
(b) preparation of injections and manufacture of B-complex and multivitamin
preparations
(c) dry drug formulations and animal feed
(d) vitamin fortification of flour macaroni and noodle products, retain colour
of meat products
(e) drug formulations and vitamin fortification of animal feed.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1.
(i) atmospheric oxygen, oxidizing substances, oxygen carriers, acids, metal
ions, daylight and UV light.

(ii) Spectrophotometry

(iii) Action of oxidants – oils and fats containing peroxide, atmospheric

oxygen, irradiation, contact with heavy metals,
 35

(iv) Decrease in basic metabolism of tissues or the oxygen consumption;

protection or readily oxidizable vitamins in the intestines and tissues
promotes utilization of essential fatty acids and prevents incidence of toxic
lipoperoxides.
(v) Atmospheric oxygen, exposure to daylight and UV light, oxidizing agents,
heavy metal ions and alkalis.
- Titration with 36 – dichlorophenolindophenol
2.
(a) drug formulations and vitamination of foods and beverages.
(b) various drug formulations.
(c) anti-oxidant in the food commodities and pharmaceutical industries.
(d) drug formulations and supplementation of feed mixes.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1.
(i) elements other than carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen that are
present in foods.
(ii) The proportion of a nutrient in the ingested food that is available for
utilization in metabolic processes.
(iii) Metal oxides, sulphates, phosphates, nitrates and halides
(iv) Atomic absorption spectroscopy
(v) Less than 1% to greater than 90%.

2. Calcium: Texture modifier;

copper: catalyst, colour modifier, enzymes cofactor and texture stabilizer;
Iodine: dough improver;
Iron: Catalyst, colour modifier, Enzyme cofactor;
Magnesium: colour modifier;
Manganese: Enzyme Cofactor;
Nickel: Catalyst; Phosphates: acidulant, Leavening acid moisture retention
in meals, emulsification aid; Potassium: salt
Sodium: Flavour modifier, preservative, leavening agent;
Sulphur: Browning inhibitor and anti-microbial agent;
Zinc: Browning Inhibitor and stabilizer
 36

3. Minerals are comparatively stable under processing conditions such as

heat, light use of oxidizing agents and extremes in pH, boiling and milling
of cereals causes considerable mineral loss.
UNIT 6 ENZYMES, PIGMENTS AND DIETARY FIBRE

Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Introduction to Enzymes
6.2.1 Classification of Enzymes
6.2.2 Structure of Enzymes
6. 3 Biotechnological Applications of Enzymes
6.3.1 Enzyme Utilization in Industry
6.3.2 Enzymatic Analysis in Foods
6.3.3 Enzymatic Analysis in Foods
6.4 Natural Pigments
6.4.1 Natural Colours Used in Foods
6.4.2 Novel Sources of Natural Colourants
6.4.3 Stability of Natural Colourants in Foods
6.4.4 Stabilized Forms of Natural Colourants
6.5 Let Us Sum Up
6.6 Glossary
6.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

6.1 INTRODUCTION

In this unit, we will learn about enzymes, natural pigments, colourings and their
application in food science and biotechnology. Once again, while studying this unit, we
request you to refer back to the unit on enzymes in Nutritional Biochemistry and
Advance Nutrition course. The structure and properties of enzymes have been dealt in
great details in unit 3, block 1 of Nutritional Biochemistry course. Look up the content
given there. It forms the basis of understanding the applications and uses of enzymes in
the food industry, as discussed in this unit.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• discuss the history of enzymes and its uses in food industry,
• classify the enzymes,
• describe the biotechnological applications of enzymes, and
• explain the natural pigments and colours used in foods.
6.2 INTRODUCTION TO ENZYMES

In the earlier times, processes such as the souring of milk and fermentation of sugar to
alcohol could only take place through the action of a living organism. In 1833, the active
agent breaking down the sugar was partially isolated and given the name ‘diastase’, now
commonly known as the enzyme amylase. Later, a substance which digested dietary
protein was extracted from gastric juice and was called ‘pepsin’. Subsequently, all active
preparations were given the general name ‘ferments’. The term ferment was gradually
replaced by the name ‘enzyme’, proposed in 1878. Today, enzyme still forms a major
subject for academic research. Enzymes are still widely used in industry, continuing and
extending many processes which have been used since the dawn of history.

Enzymes, as you may already know, are biological catalysts. They increase the rate of
chemical reactions taking place within living cells without themselves suffering any
overall change. The reactants of enzyme-catalyzed reactions are termed ‘substrates’ and
each enzyme is quite specific in character, acting on a particular substrate or substrates to
produce a particular product or products.

Note, all enzymes are proteins. Many enzyme proteins lack catalytic activity in the
absence of a non-protein component, called a ‘co-factor’. In this case, the inactive protein
component of an enzyme is termed the ‘apoenzyme’ and the active enzyme, including the
cofactor, the ‘holoenzyme’. The cofactor may be an organic molecule, when it is known
as a ‘coenzyme’ or it may be a metal ion. When a cofactor is bound so tightly that it is
difficult to remove without damaging the enzyme, it is sometimes called a ‘prosthetic
group’. With this basic introduction to enzymes, let us now learn about enzyme
classification.

6.2.1 Classification of Enzymes

2
It has been a long tradition of giving enzymes names ending in ‘ase’. The only major
exception to this ‘ase’ is the proteolytic enzymes, whose names usually end with ‘—in’,
e.g. trypsin. In the background of lack of consistency in the nomenclature, it becomes
apparent as the list of known enzymes rapidly grew, that there was a need for a
systematic way of naming and classifying enzymes. A Commission was appointed by the
International Union of Biochemistry and its report, published in 1964 and updated in
1972, 1978, 1984 and 1992, forms the basics of the present accepted system which is
summarized in box 1 herewith. A detailed classification of enzymes is presented in the
unit 3, block 1 of the Nutritional Biochemistry course. We would want you to get it now
and read it along with the study of this unit. You will see this will facilitate your
understanding of enzymes.

Box 6.1
System of classification
The Enzyme Commission divided enzymes into 6 main classes, on the basis of the total
reaction catalyzed. Each enzyme was assigned a code number; consisting of four
elements, separated by dots. The first digit shows to which of the main classes the
enzyme belongs, as follows:
First digit Enzyme class Type of reaction catalyzed
1 Oxido-reductases Oxidation/reduction reactions

2 Transferases Transfer of an atom or group between

two molecules (excluding reactions in
other classes)
3 Hydrolases Hydrolysis reactions

4 Lyases Removal of a group from substrate (not

be hydrolysis)
5 Isomerases Isomerization reactions
6 Ligases The synthetic joining of two molecules,
3
coupled with the breakdown of
 pyrophosphate bond in a nucleoside
triphosphate

The system of the nomenclature and the classification of enzymes is based exclusively on
the reaction that is catalyzed and does not consider their origin or multiplicity. Enzymes
catalyzing the same reaction, but isolated from different species, will have varying amino
acid sequences so that they may be distinguished by electrophoretic methods. They may
have different sizes and net negative charges and they may even differ in their catalytic
behaviour.

6.2.2 Structure of Enzymes

Since all enzymes are proteins, you will realize that knowledge of protein structure is
clearly a pre-requisite to any understanding of enzymes. Yes, as you can see all proteins
consist of amino acid units, joined in a series. You have already learnt about the structure
of proteins, amino acids in Unit 4 in this block and in the Nutritional Biochemistry
course. Look up the protein structure once again. As you can see all proteins consist of
amino acid units joined in series.

Two distinct types of proteins are known: fibrous and globular proteins. Fibrous proteins
are insoluble in water and are physically tough, which enables them to play a structural
role. In contrast, globular proteins are generally soluble in water and may be crystallized
from solution. They have a functional role in living organisms, all enzymes being
globular proteins.
Based on the structure, enzymes can be classified as monomeric or oligomeric. Let’s
learn how the two types of enzymes differ from each other.

Monomeric enzymes
Monomeric enzymes are those which consist of only a single polypeptide chain, so they
4
cannot be dissociated into smaller units. Very few monomeric enzymes are known and all
of these catalyze hydrolytic reactions. In general, they contain between 100 and 300
amino acid residues and have molecular weights in the range of 13 kDa to 35 kDa. Some,
for e.g. carboxypeptidase A, are associated with a metal ion, but most act without the help
of any cofactor.

A number of monomeric enzymes are proteases (or proteolytic enzymes), i.e. they
catalyze the hydrolysis of peptide bonds in other proteins. In order to prevent them doing
generalized damage to all cellular proteins, they are often synthesized in an inactive form
known as a ‘proenzyme’ or ‘zymogen’ and activated as required. Such enzymes include
the serine proteases, so called because of the presence in the active site of an essential
serine residue, i.e. a serine residue whose presence is essential for the enzymic activity.
The serine proteases, chymotrypsin, trypsin and elastase, which are produced in an
inactive form by the mammalian pancreas, form a closely related group of enzymes.

Other monomeric enzymes include, pepsin, like the pancreatic serine proteases, plays a
role in the digestion of proteins eaten by mammals. It is called an acid protease because it
functions at the low pH values found in the stomach. Peptide fragments are removed
from the inactive form, pepsinogen, by the action of acid or other pepsin molecules to
produce the active enzyme. Another acid protease found in the stomach is chymosin
(rennin).

A group of thiol proteases, similar in structure to each other, are found in plants. These
include papain from the papaya fruit and ficain from figs. Other thiol proteases, of
different structures are found in bacteria and mammalian lysosomes. The essential
cysteine residue in each of these enzymes plays a similar role to that of serine in the
serine proteases.

Several exopeptidases, which remove terminal amino acid residues from polypeptide
chains, are well known. Bovine pancreatic carboxypeptidase A, a monomeric enzyme
containing one zinc ion per molecule, will break the peptide bonds linking C-terminal
5
non-polar amino acids to the rest of the chain. It is produced when trypsin removes
peptide fragments from the zymogen, procarboxypeptidase A. A very similar enzyme,
carboxypeptidase B, which has specificity for C-terminal amino acids with basic side
chains, is also secreted as a zymogen by bovine pancreas.

Oligomeric enzymes
Oligomeric proteins consist of two or more polypeptide chains, which are usually linked
to each other by non-covalent interactions and never by peptide bonds. The component
polypeptide chains are termed sub-units and may be identical to or different from each
other, if they are identical, they are sometimes called protomers. Dimeric proteins consist
of two, trimeric proteins of three and tetrameric proteins of four subunits. The molecular
weight is usually in excess of 35000 Da. The vast majority of known enzymes are
oligomeric, which include lactate dehydrogenase, lactose synthase, tryptophan synthase
and pyruvate dehydrogenase

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1. Fill in the blanks:

a) Enzymes are termed as catalyst because they---------------------------------------------
b) The non-protein component of an enzyme is--------------- in which active part is---
------------------------and non-active part is termed as----------------------------------
c) The system of nomenclature and classification of enzymes is based on--------------
---------------------------------------------------------------
d) Two distinct types of proteins are------------------and---------------------- which
differ in the property of --------------------------------------------------------------
e) Proteases are synthesized in an inactive form as ------------------to prevent----------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. How can the enzymes be classified? Explain giving examples.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Having understood the classification of enzymes, let us move on to learning about the
applications of enzymes in food industry.

6.3 BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS OF ENZYMES

Although enzymes have been used in certain industrial processes for centuries, their
precise role or even their identity was not known over most of this period. Often, they
were utilized as components of intact cells, e.g. yeasts in the baking and brewing
industries. The first enzyme to be made commercially available in a partially purified
form was the acid protease, rennin (chymosin) as rennet, a crude preparation obtained
from the fourth stomach of young calves, used to curdle milk in cheese production. In
view of the varied problems faced, the trend has been towards increased utilization of
microorganisms as sources of enzymes.

More recently, procedures involving recombinant DNA technology has been used to
increase the yield of enzymes already produced by the microorganisms, e.g., β-
galactosidase by E. coli or to produce completely different enzymes including ones
normally synthesized by eukaryotic cells. These techniques may even be used to produce
enzymes of modified structure from suitably modified or synthesized genes. This is
termed as protein engineering. Once a suitable strain of a potential microorganism has
been identified, the same may be grown to produce larger amounts of enzyme. Most
enzymes obtained commercially from microbial fermentation procedures are hydrolases.
These are usually extracellular enzymes.

This technology, which involves the industrial use of biological processes to develop new
products, is termed as biotechnology. The technique employs modification in genes,
which you may already know, is a section of deoxyribonucleic acid i.e., DNA. You can
find detailed information on enzymes and recombinant DNA technique in Box 6.2. Read
it carefully. But first let us look at the various uses of enzymes in food industry.
7
6. 3.1 Enzymes utilization in food industry

Enzymes may be used in industry as components of living cells or after isolation in free
or immobilized forms. All of them may be referred to as biocatalysts.

The traditional use of yeasts in the baking and brewing industries arose, because they
contain the enzymes necessary to bring in desirable attributes.

A. Baking Industry
In the baking of bread, the preliminary process involves the mixing of wheat flour
(mainly starch and proteins) with yeast and water. Starch consists of D-glucose units
linked by α-1,4 glycosidic bonds with α-1,6 bonds at branching points, the enzymes α-
amylase and β-amylase present in the flour cleave some of the α-1,4 bonds, the eventual
products being glucose, maltose (a disaccharide) and some oligosaccharides, which
cannot be broken down further, because of the presence of α-1,6 bonds. Glucose and
maltose can then be metabolized by the yeast, and carbon dioxide is formed, which
disintends the protein framework of the dough, ready for baking.

B. Brewing Industry
Here, the main starting material is malt, produced by allowing barley seeds to germinate
under moist conditions. The reserve starch is broken down by the amylase present to
give, among other products, glucose and maltose. The grains may then be roasted to
prevent further growth and to add flavour, after which the soluble material present is
extracted by water to produce the wort. This is then acted upon by the yeast to produce
ethanol by alcoholic fermentation of the glucose and maltose.

Bacterial α-amylase (from Bacillus subtilis), which is even more heat stable than wheat
α-amylase, is of increasing importance in the brewing industry. In the industrial
production of glucose from starch, the latter is first solubilized and partly degraded by
bacterial α-amylase and then treated with fungal amyloglucosidase. Glucose may also be8
obtained from cellulose-containing waste products by treatment with cellulose; as a
further possibility, it may be produced together with galactose by the action of β-
galactosidase (lactase) on lactose, which is present in whey and so is a major by-product
of cheese manufacturing.

Invert sugar, a mixture of glucose and fructose, is produced from sucrose by the action of
yeast invertase (β-fructofuranosidase), an enzyme which can only be extracted by
disruption of the yeast cell wall. Invert sugar may also be produced from glucose by the
action of glucose isomerase (bacterial or fungal), an enzyme now thought to be identical
to xylose isomerase.

The clarification of cider, wines and fruit juices is usually achieved by treatment with
fungal pectinases. The pectins of fruits and vegetables play an important role in jam
making and other processes by bringing about gel formation. However, they cause fruit
drinks to be cloudy by preventing the flocculation of suspended particles. Pectinases are a
group of enzymes including polygalacturonases, which break the main chain of pectins.

C. Cheese Production
Cheese production involves the conversion of the milk protein, k-casein to paracasein by
a defined, limited hydrolysis, catalysed by chymosin (rennin). In the presence of Ca2+,
paracasein clots and may be separated from the whey, after which the clot is allowed to
mature under controlled conditions to form cheese.
You will further read in detail about the uses of enzymes in food industry in the Food
Microbiology Course, unit 5.

Box 6.2 Enzymes and recombinant DNA technology

Recombinant DNA technology, also called as genetic engineering makes use of a variety
of enzymes, particularly restriction endonucleases (from bacteria) and DNA ligases to
insert extra genes into cells with the help of vehicles termed ‘vectors’. One important
group of vectors is ‘plasmids’, which are small, circular, cytoplasmic molecules of DNA,
acting as extrachromosomal genes in bacteria. It is possible to extract and purify plasmids
9
and to insert extra genes into the circles. These altered plasmids can then be taken up
again from the medium by the microorganism. Then as the bacterium is grown in culture,
the inserted gene will be replicated together with the vector. The production of identical
copies is termed as ‘cloning. You will learn about cloning in the Nutritional Biochemistry
course, unit 9, block 3 as well.

Another group of vectors are the variants of a bacterial virus known as λ phage. The
phage DNA is about 45 kb long, of which the middle third has no role in the infection
process and can be replaced by another piece of DNA of about the same length (again by
means of restriction endonuclease and ligase enzymes) without affecting the ability of the
phage to infect bacteria and be reproduced in abundance. Genes or gene fragments of
about 15 kb length can be inserted and cloned in this way, in contrast to the limit of 10 kb
when plasmids are used as vectors. Irrespective of the vector used to insert new DNA into
bacteria, this DNA can specify the synthesis of a protein by transcription/translation,
which enables in the large scale production of enzymes.

You have so far learnt about enzymes and its uses in food industry and biotechnology.
Further, you would be surprised to learn that analysis of enzymes in foods can provide
useful information regarding a process or condition. How? Read the next section and find
out.

6.3.2 Enzymatic analysis in foods: applications in food industry

Did you know that the degree of bacterial contamination of foods or freshness of food,
particularly, meat etc. can be determined through a simple enzymatic analysis in foods.
Besides these, the other uses of enzymatic analysis are many.

In the food industry, the activity of certain enzymes may be determined before and after
10
pasteurization/sterilization procedures to ascertain the efficient completion of the process.
For e.g. alkaline phosphatase and invertase present in milk are inactivated within the
same temperature range as is required for pasteurization, so the activities of these
enzymes at the end of the process gives an indication of its effectiveness.

Similarly, the degree of bacterial contamination of foods can be estimated by the assay of
microbial enzymes not normally present in foods, for e.g. milk should contain small
amounts of reductases, but bacteria produce large amounts of reductases. Reductases
may be easily assayed, because they catalyze the reduction of methylene blue to
colourless leuco-methylene blue under anaerobic conditions. A test strip (Bacto-strip)
incorporating 2,3,4-triphenyl tetrazolium salts provides a convenient way of testing for
the presence of bacteria, a red formazan dye being produced as a result of the action of
reductase.

Enzyme assay may also be used to determine whether stored plant products are suitable
for use as food commodities, for e.g. α-amylase should be present in relatively low
amounts in stored wheat seeds. If there is sprouting/germination of a stored crop, then the
α-amylase content increases. Once the flour has been produced, its amylase content may
again be assayed to give an indication of the amount of starch breakdown which can be
expected to take place when the dough is prepared.

The freshness of meat may be determined by the use of monoamine oxidase to detect
amines formed during degradation. Besides, enzyme assay is used in the investigation of
diseases in plants, for e.g. it has been found that an injury (either mechanical or
pathogenic) results in a marked and localized increase in the activity of glucose-6-
phosphate dehydrogenase, but not of glucose phosphate isomerase.

Enzyme assay is also used for research into such processes as the browning of plant
products which poses problems during value addition. The browning process involves the
cyanide-resistant uptake of oxygen, which oxidizes phenols to quinines resulting in the
formation of dark melanins. In wine preparation, the concentration of malic acid is
11
sometimes determined by a method involving malate dehydrogenase.
The discussion above highlighted the various applications of enzymes and enzyme
analysis in food industry. With this we come to the end of our study about enzymes. Next
we shall focus on pigments and natural colours in foods.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. Name the enzymes that are used in :

a) Baking of bread -------------------------------------------------------------------------------
b) Brewing ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
c) Clarification of fruit juices and wines------------------------------------------------------
d) Cheese production----------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. Define the following terms:

a) Genetic engineering
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
b) Biotechnology
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3. Describe how enzymes assay is helpful in determining the extent of freshness in:
a) Wheat seeds
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
b) Milk
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
12
c) Meat
 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

6.4 NATURAL PIGMENTS

What is a pigment? Scientifically, a chemical that can impart colour and is insoluble in
the solvent in which it is used, is referred to as a ‘pigment’. Well, you would agree that
colour has a remarkable influence on food selection, consumption and overall enjoyment.
Although the colouring of foods with natural compounds is considered to be desirable for
various reasons, their use is limited at present. A few substances, notably the carotenoids,
have been successfully incorporated into specific products, but natural colourants offer
neither the range of colour nor the stability of synthetic dyes. Attempts to improve the
situation have taken various forms. There has been an extensive search of the microbial,
plant and animal kingdoms for pigments that possess both high tinctorial power/strength
(a measure of the potential colouring power of a colourant) and stability, but so far, no
exceptional candidates have emerged. The instability of the common natural colourants in
food has been studied to seek the means of stabilization and the environment in which the
pigments exist in nature, has been investigated for the same reason. Recent work on these
approaches is reviewed, but any solution to the problem must be reconciled with the
legislative and economic constraints governing the use of colourants in foods.

Currently, the use of natural colourants is limited due to their instability, low tinctorial
power or price disadvantage. The trend towards natural ingredients in foodstuffs is
continuing and this is evidenced by the consumer’s acceptance of ‘natural’ foods and the
various national regulations which completely or selectively ban artificial colours from
food. Let us get to know a bit more about these natural colours used in foods.

6.4.1 Natural Colors Used In Foods

Natural colourants produced for use in an analogous way to the coal-tar dyes are crude
13
extracts of pigments, which are basically unstable. The apparent stability of some food
products owes more to the amount of pigment present than to the tinctorial power of the
pigment itself. For example, beetroot even after prolonged cooking retains an attractive
deep red colour, but the extracted pigment is unstable. Anthocyanin preparations have
found use in some products, but their colour variation with pH has restricted their use,
mainly to acidic products. However, in nature, the flavonoids (Flavanoids are antioxidant
molecules found in plant sources such as fruit, flowers, roots, stems, tea, wine, grains and
vegetables. They are often responsible for the beautiful coloring of plant structures)
produce colours from white through yellow, red and blue to black at the pH of cell sap.
The potential colouring power of flavonoids is, therefore, great.

Carotenoids are relatively stable and there is a sufficient demand to make complex
chemical syntheses of ‘nature-identical’ carotenoids. Their colour range is limited to
yellow/orange/red and they are naturally fat soluble, although water soluble forms are
also available.

Chlorophylls are used as colourants in a range of foodstuffs and both natural chlorophyll
(containing magnesium as the central metal ion) and ‘copper chlorophylls’ (copper
substituted for magnesium) are available. Both chlorophyll and copper chlorophyll are
manufactured in fat soluble and water soluble forms by selective retention or hydrolysis
of the phytol side chain. Apart from these three plant pigments, there are others such as
red beet extract (betanin), cochineal, turmeric extract and others which have found use in
food. As alternates to the above, there has been a search among the plant, animal and
microbial kingdoms for pigments which are stable under conditions prevailing in foods
(i.e., pH of 2 to 8; temperature of -20 to 110°C; presence of additives and preservatives).
Another approach has been to prevent the colour loss from foods. Both chemical and
physical methods have been used to prevent destruction of natural colours in foodstuffs.
As a means to achieve the desirable attributes of natural colours, it has been shown that
biotechnological approaches appear to hold a lot of promise in the application of natural
colours in foods. What are the sources of natural colourants? The next section details the
sources of natural colourant.
14
6.4.2 Novel Sources of Natural Colourants

In the search for a colourant that has the properties desired for food use, practically every
part of the biosphere has been investigated. The following are some of the sources:

A. Microbial sources
Production of materials by microbial cultures has several advantages. The rapid growth
of microbes cuts the production time to a matter of days and the process lends itself to a
continuous operation. Compared to plant or animal sources, the production is flexible and
can easily be controlled. Microbes produce a variety of colourants such as chlorophyll
and carotenoids as well as some unique pigments. By incorporating suitable genetic
material into selected microbes (recombinant DNA technology), it may be possible to
produce pigments of choice, both qualitative and quantitative approaches. Most of the
reports of food colourants from microbial sources involve Monascus species, particularly
Monascus purpureus, followed by Rhodotorula species, Chlorella, Nocardia and red
algae. Often, instead of extracting the pigment from Monascus, a few researchers have
attempted in adding the whole coloured substrate to foods for the purpose of providing
colouration. Careful control of the culture conditions selectively improves the yield of
various pigments elaborated by the specific microbial culture.

Although cultivation of microorganisms for the production of food colourants has

attractions, these must be measured against the financial legislative and user constraints.
It is desirable, that the microbial cultures which produce colourants would have to be
proved pathogen free and also free from any toxic components. There is still no
substantial evidence to suggest that the pigments from Monascus are superior to other
natural colourants. Potentially its orange or red colour is suitable for food use, its long
usage in Oriental foods is also in their favour and the property of reacting with amino-
containing compounds suggests that they could easily be incorporated into food systems.
They appear to be stable in the pH range 2-10 although below pH 2, precipitation occurs
on standing.
15
B. Animal sources
The most common animal pigments of use as food colourants are those based on the
haem structure. In nature, haem is combined with proteins and occurs mainly as
haemoglobin and myoglobin. Although the appearance of these two components is
attractive when they are oxygenated (bright red), the colour produced on heating is
typically brown (e.g. cooked meat) and removal of oxygen in the native state gives rise to
the blue/purplish colour of venous blood. The colour changes are due to the oxidation
state of the central iron atom in the haem portion of the molecule and the nature of
ligands surrounding the iron atom. The bright red colour of freshly cut meat is due to
oxygen binding as a ligand to the iron atom which is in the ferrous state. However,
oxygen does not bind very strongly and it is known that other ligands bind more strongly,
stabilizing the molecule and preserving the red colour.

Ligands suggested for the stabilization of haem pigments are imidazole (and its
derivatives), S-nitrosocysteine and nitrite. While searching for alternatives to nitrite in the
preparation of fish sausages, imidazole, 5(4)-aminoimidazole-4(5)-carboxamide (AICA)
and various amino acid derivatives were used and found to impart colour to the finished
product. Imidazole gave a red/pink colour with an orange tint, which faded on the surface
of the produce unless an antioxidant was present. Animals appear to be a poor source of
colourants.

C. Plant sources
Although there is a multitude of colours in the plant kingdom, their extraction and use in
food systems is not an easy task. Unless the colourants have some outstanding advantage,
e.g. good stability in food or very high tinctorial power, it is generally not worth
continuing. Assuming that the source provides a colourant with exceptional properties,
further considerations need to be taken into account. A major problem with the plant
sources is their availability, as most plants are seasonal. Many of the plant sources listed
in literature would require major planting programmes to provide sufficient material for
production purposes. Another consideration is the cost of extraction and processing,
16
which is obviously minimal for an aqueous extraction, but will be greater, if organic
solvents are used and subsequently recovered.

Usually, the natural food colourants from plant sources are classified into 5 types:
Anthocyanins, Betalaines, Carotenoids, Chlorophylls and Curcumin. Literature has been
well documented, with a lot of research work going into varied aspects of colourants
from the above plant sources. A variety of fruits, vegetables and flowers have also been
studied as potential sources of colourants. One of the novel sources has been tissue
culture of grape varieties. The callus induced from the anther of grape plants is
transplanted to a liquid culture medium and cultured aerobically. Pigment is then
extracted from the culture which can be manipulated to give maximum colour yield
during growth, by adding various chemicals to the medium or irradiating with light.

Colourant production from by-products has the advantages that there is normally an
abundance of the source, it is cheap and in a defined state. Further, treatment of the by-
product reduces waste and enhances the profitability of a process. The citrus industry
produces large amounts of waste and the extraction of colourants from cold pressed citrus
oils has been described. The colourants (presumably carotenoids) are extracted from the
oil by solvent and purified.

The volume of patent literature concerning novel microbial, animal and plant sources of
colourants indicates the potential of the field, but only a few of them are workable. Many
pigment extracts are no better than the presently available natural pigments and the
availability and/or economics of the source material or extraction procedure causes
rejection of others.

Stability of natural colourants is one of the major issues in food industry. There is a lot of
interest and work being undertaken to ensure stability of natural colourants in food. Are
these efforts successful? Let’s get to learn more about this issue. Microbial sources are
also important like Rhodotorula and Monascus but needs to be commercialized.
17
6.4.3 Stability of Natural Colorants in Foods

Many attempts have been made to retain colouration by adding chemicals or modifying
processing conditions. Ascorbic acid has been claimed as a stabilizer for natural
colourants and conversely, its presence has been cited as the cause of pigment
degradation. With anthocyanins, ascorbic acid sometimes has a protective effect, e.g. it
absorbs available oxygen and thus prevents oxidation of the anthocyanin. On other hand,
enzyme action on ascorbic acid results in the release of hydrogen peroxide, which
oxidizes and decolourises the anthocyanins. Hence, addition of ascorbic acid to food
products will not necessarily stabilize the colour.

The effect of metal ions on the colour and/or stability of food products has been the
subject of several investigations. Traces of some metal ions, notably copper and iron,
have a catalytic effect on the oxidation of ascorbic acid, which in turn leads to
degradation of anthocyanins. Anthocyanins containing an ortho-dihydroxy grouping,
chelate metal ions, which may alter the colour of the anthocyanin.

Red anthocyanin pigments from miracle fruit were isolated and tested in carbonated
beverages, in combination with the organic acids. Pigments degradation occurred with all
acids and malic acid caused the most rapid degradation. In grape juice, malic acid caused
the greatest increase and also increased the colour stability as did valeric acid. Malonic
and oxalic acids increased the colour initially, but fairly rapid decolourization occurred
on storage.

Light does accelerates the degradation of natural colourants, especially anthocyanins, but
is of secondary importance when compared to the losses of anthocyanin due to the effect
of heat and/or oxidation. Anthocyanins had doubled resistance to sunlight fading when
flavonoid sulphonates were used as co-pigments. While additives can improve the colour
stability of natural pigments in specific cases, there are no general guidelines for their
use.
18
We conclude our discussion noting the fact that ascorbic acid and metal ions can stabilize
colour in some situations, but their use in unfavourable conditions may actually increase
the rate of degradation. Some organic acids may be beneficial, but others enhance
instability and the concentrations and/or nature of inorganic salts used to improve the
stability of natural colourants are such as to limit their application.

Well, then are there any stabilized forms of natural colourants! Read and find out.

6.4.4 Stabilized forms of natural colourants

The mimicking of the native environment in which a natural colour exists is just one way
of producing a stabilized form. In this case, the method of stabilization can be considered
‘natural’ whereas some of the modifications can be synthetic. The major emphasis has
been on the stabilization of flavonoids and porphyrins. The present use of flavonoids as
food colourants is limited to anthocyanin extracts from grape processing. These
preparations are largely unsuitable for food use by themselves. A few of the following
have been selected, as they appear feasible methods of stabilization within the constraints
of retaining natural status:

Complex formation: Anthocyanin occurs naturally as complexes which are relatively

stable. Studies on pectin/anthocyanin complexes may be useful.

Co-pigmentation: In formulating a product containing anthocyanin colourants, the

inclusion of a co-pigment would augment and stabilize the colour.

Condensation: This seems the most likely way of producing acceptable, natural
colourants for the reasons stated previously. Considerable research to study the
production of the polymeric colours and their stability in food products needs to be
carried out.

19
Chlorophyll is the porphyrin most widely used as a natural colourant. Its widespread
occurrence in photosynthetic tissue and its breakdown character have prompted many
investigations concerning stabilization of the molecule. Loss of magnesium follows
denaturation of the protecting protein in the chloroplast. Several processing techniques to
minimize chlorophyll loss involve alkaline blanching and soaking media. Attempts to
stabilize chlorophyll have centered on the substitution of the normal magnesium ion.

Despite a wide search of novel sources throughout the world, attempts to find a naturally
occurring pigment with all the desirable qualities of a food colourant have not been so
successful on a commercial angle. Besides, the problem of securing an adequate supply
of the successful colourant is a big question posed to the food industry. The stabilization
of natural colours in foods is an extremely complex process and although some success
has been there, each application needs to be looked into individually.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1. Fill in the blanks:

a) A pigment is----------------------------
b) Colour in foods has a remarkable influence on ------------------------------------------
c) Naturally-occuring colourants have limited use because of ----------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
d) The flavonoids produce colours such as---------------------------------------------------
e) Chlorophylls, as food colourants are manufactured by----------------------------------
2. Name natural food colourants obtained from:
a) Microbial sources-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
b) Animal sources--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
c) Plant sources-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
20
3. Discuss the effect of following on stability of enzymes:
a) Ascorbic acid
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
b) Organic acids
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
c) Metal ions
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
d) Light
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. Mention a few methods of stabilization of natural colourants
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

6.5 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, you have learnt about enzymes, which are known as biological catalysts. All
enzymes are proteins, which take part in various chemical reactions occuring within the
living cells without themselves suffering or undergoing any chang.e do you remember
the terms ‘co-factor, ‘apo-enzymes’ and ‘holoenzyme’?

Co-factor is a non-protein component; apo-enzymes, the inactive protein component of

an enzyme and holoenzyme is the active protein component

After, this, you also studied about the classification, functions and properties of enzymes.
Finally, the various biotechnological aplications of enzymesin food industry and
recombinant dna technlogy were discussed.
21
Use of colours and pigments, derived from natural and esynthetic source,s in food
industry was described alongwith their stabiized forms as colourants.

6.6 GLOSSARY

Biotechnology : The industrial use of biotechnological processes, whereby

the living organisms are used to develop new products.

DNA : Deoxyribonucleic Acid is a large molecule that contains

genetic coding information within each cell.

Dye : A dye is a chemical that can impart colour and is soluble

in the solvent in which it is used.

Flavanoids : Flavanoids are antioxidant molecules found in plant

sources such as fruit, flowers, roots, stems, tea, wine, grains
and vegetables. They are often responsible for the beautiful
coloring of plant structures. Some 4000 flavanoids have
been found. There are four main groups of flavanoids; 1)
flavones, 2) flavanones, 3) catechins, and 4) anthocyanins.
It is the flavones and catechins that appear to be important
flavanoids in oxidation defenses.

Gene : A section of DNA which provides the genetic information

needed to make one protein.

Porphyrins : Porphyrins are a ubiquitous class of naturally occurring

compounds with many important biological representatives
including hemes, chlorophylls, and several others.

Tinctorial strength : A measure of the potential colouring power of a colourant

22
6.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1.
a) They increase the rate of chemical reactions within living cells without
themselves suffering any overall change.
b) Cafactor; apoenzyme, holoenzyme
c) The reaction that is catalyzed
d) Fibrous; globular; solubility in water
e) Zymogens/proenzyme; damage to all cellular proteins

2. Based on structure, enzymes can be classified into monomeric enzymes and

oligomeric compounds.
• Monomeric enzymes: Enzymes which consist of only a single polypeptide
chain, so they can’t be dissociated into smaller units, for example,
carboxypeptidase A, pepsin, chymosin etc.
• Oligomeric enzymes: Enzymes which consist of more than one
polypeptide chain for example, lactate dehydrogenase, pyruvate
dehydrogenase, tryptophan synthase.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1.
a) α-amylase and β-amlylase
b) Amylase
c) Pectinases
d) Chymosin/Rennin

23
2. a) Genetic engineering or recombinant DNA technology, involves the use of a
variety of enzymes, such as restriction endonucleass and ligases to insert extra
genes into cells with the help of vectors.
b) The technology which involves the industrial use of biological processes to
develop new products.

3. a) determination of α-amylase, content: an increase indicates sprouting/

germination of stored wheat;
determination of reductase content: an increase indicates presence of bacteria
b) Determination of alkaline phosphatase and invertase: activity level of these
enzymes indicate the effectiveness of pasteruization.
c) Determination of amines by the use of monoamine oxidase.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1. a) A chemical that can impart colour and is insoluble in the solvent in which it is
used.
b) Food Selection, Consumption, Enjoyment
c) Instability, Low Tinctorial Power, Price
d) White through yellow, red and blue to black at pH of cell sap.
e) Selective retention or hydrolysis of the phytol side chain.

2. a) Monoscus sp., Rhodotorula sp., Chlorella, Nocardia and Red Algae

b) Ligands of Haem Pigments – Imidazole, S- Nitrosocysteine and Nitrite
c) Anthocyanins, Betalaines, Carotenoids, Chlorophyll, Curcurmin

3. a) It results in the release of hydrogen peroxide which oxidizes and decolorizes

the natural colourants.
b) These have a catalytic effect on the oxidation of ascorbic acid which leads to
degradation and alteration of colour of the natural colourants.
c) These degrade the pigments and rapidly decolorizes them on storage.
24
d) It accelerates the degradation of natural colourants.
4.
• Complex formation
• Co-pigmentation
• Condensation

25
UNIT 7: SOLS, GELS AND EMULSIONS

Structure
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Colloids, Colloidal systems and Applications of Colloidal Chemistry to Food
Preparations
7.2.1 Classification of Colloidal Systems
7.2.2 Properties of Colloidal Systems
7.3 Definition and Properties of Solutions
7.4 Sols, Gels and Suspensions
7.4.1 Properties of Sols
7.4.2 Gels and its Properties
7.4.3 Suspensions
7.5 Foams
7.5.1 Antifoaming Agents
7.6 Emulsions
7.7 Let Us Sum Up
7.8 Glossary
7.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Foods are generally complex materials. The properties of their components determine the
quality of food. The food components are in the form of solids, in solutions or in the form
of colloids - sols or emulsions. These undergo various physical and chemical changes
when exposed to different conditions. Knowledge of the scientific principles of these
changes is necessary to understand and control the changes occurring in foods during the
various aspects of food handling. We shall discuss these scientific principles governing
the physical and chemical properties of foods with special emphasis on colloidal systems
in this unit.

1
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• define colloids and enlist the types of colloidal dispersions
• understand properties of colloidal systems that help in distinguishing them from
solutions
• classify colloidal systems
• differentiate between sols, suspensions and gels
• define foams and discuss their application in food preparation
• explain the types of emulsions, their formation and stability

7.2 COLLOIDS, COLLOIDAL SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS OF

COLLOIDAL CHEMISTRY TO FOOD PREPARATIONS

Foods contain a high percentage of water in which other nutrients present are dispersed.
The existence of the colloidal state was first recognized by Thomas Graham (1850), the
father of colloidal chemistry. He classified the organic compounds present in foods into
two categories:
• Colloids
• Crystalloids
What is the difference between the two categories? Let’s find out.

The word colloid, you may be interested to know, is derived from the Greek word “kolla”
meaning “glue” and is defined as a system containing particles of size from one
millimicron to 0.1 micron (10-6 to 10-4 mm). Colloids are compounds with large
molecular weights, which form dispersions only with water. e.g. starch, proteins,
glycogen, agar-agar.

2
Crystalloids, on the other hand, are compounds with small molecular weights, which can
form true solutions. e.g. sugars and amino acids.

Figures 7.1 and 7.2 illustrates the colloidal range of particle size.

Figure 7.1: Colloidal Range of Particle Size

Figure 7.2: Size of Colloidal particles vs Water molecules

Solids, liquids and gases may be dispersed in water to form either solutions or colloids.
Let us learn what the difference between the two is.

A solution is a homogenous mixture of two or more different substances. For example

salt in water form a solution. This means that the dissolved substances (i.e. salt which is
called the solute) and the medium in which they are dissolved (i.e. water which is the
solvent) are uniformly distributed throughout the whole of the solution.

A colloidal system, on the other hand, is a heterogeneous system. The material that forms
the base of the system is called the dispersion medium or the continuous phase. The
material that exists in the colloidal condition is called the dispersed medium or the
discontinuous phase. All three states of matter- gaseous, solid and liquid – may be
obtained in the colloidal condition. Let us get to know more about colloids and colloidal
system by learning about their classification.

3
7.2.1 Classification of Colloidal Systems
Thomas Graham referred to colloids as the study of sub microscope dispersion.
According to him, it dealt with the dispersed systems of a definite size. Dispersions are
classified on the basis of the size of the particles. The particles are dispersed through out
the solvent in the form of molecules or ions (molecular dispersion) and it is a one phase
system with molecules having dimensions below 1 nm. If the particles range in size from
1 mm to 0.5 mm, they can remain dispersed for a long time without precipitation and
constitute a colloidal system. When the size of the dispersed particles is more than 0.5
mm it is termed coarse dispersion or suspension.

Colloidal systems are not restricted to the dispersion of a solid in liquid. Each of the
three states of matter - gaseous, solid and liquid – can be dispersed in a medium which
may be gaseous, liquid or solid. Accordingly, colloidal systems can be classified based on
the physical state of the two phases present: the dispersed phase and the dispersing
medium Systems with two phases can occur in eight different combinations, as
highlighted in Table 7.1 presenting the classification of colloidal systems.

Table 7.1 Classification of colloidal systems

Dispersed Dispersing Name Examples
Phase Medium
Liquid Gas Fog Aerosol sprays
Solid Gas Smoke Smoked fish
Gas Liquid Foam Whipped cream,
meringue
Liquid Liquid Emulsion
Oil in water Milk, french dressing
Water in oil Margarine
Solid Liquid Sol Whey, skimmed
milk, starch
suspension
Gas Solid Solid froth, foam Bread, idli, candy
floss
Liquid Solid Liquid inclusion Gelatin, jellies, fruits,
vegetables, meat
products
Solid Solid Solid sol Candies

4
Note: mixtures of gases do not form colloidal mixtures. They are solutions.

Depending upon the relative affinity of the dispersed phase for the dispersion medium,
colloidal dispersions are, further divided into two classes.
• lypophilic (water loving colloids)
• lypophobic (water repelling colloids)

If the affinity between the dispersed phase and the medium is high, the dispersed phase is
said to be lyophilic (solvent loving) or hydrophilic, in the case of an aqueous dispersion.
Gelatin dispersed in water is an example of a lyophilic colloidal system. Other examples
of hydrophilic colloids are biopolymers such as seaweed gums, pectic substances and
proteins and hydrophilic complexes found in skim milk, egg yolk and brewed coffee.

If the affinity of the dispersed phase to go into or to remain in colloidal dispersion is

slight, the dispersed phase is said to be lyophobic (solvent repelling) or hydrophobic
when the medium is water. Oil dispersed in water as in the case of butter and margarine,
is an example of a lyophobic system. Lyophobic colloids are mainly the aqueous
dispersions of inorganic substances rarely recountered in food systems.

After having understood the concept and classification of colloids, let us learn about the
properties of colloidal systems.

7.2.2 Properties of Colloidal Systems

Colloidal systems exhibit certain unique characteristics that help in distinguishing them
from solutions. We will briefly review these properties now.

A. Tyndall Effect
One of the best ways to distinguish a solution from a colloidal dispersion is to use a
strong beam of intense light. As the beam passes through a colloidal dispersion, it leaves
a bright definite path, as the result of scattering or diffusing of light rays by their
deflection from the surface of colloidal particles. This is known as Tyndall effect and is

5
shown in the Figure 7.3. The particles may not be visible, but their presence and motion
may be detected by the nature of the reflections. An important property of a colloid is this
movement of the colloidal particles, brought about by the bombardment of thousand of
molecules in the gas or liquid in which they are suspended. This molecular movement of
the colloidal particles is known as the Brownian movement and is shown in the Figure
7.4.

Figure 7.3: The Tyndall Effect

Figure 7.4: Brownian Movement

B. Electric Charge
Colloidal particles are electrically charged. Some colloidal particles carry a positive
charge (+), others a negative charge (-). The ionic charge is the same for all the charged
particles in a given mass of material. This is why colloidal particles remain in suspension:
particles with like charges do not clump together because they are repelled by one
another as illustrated in the Figure 7.5.

6
 Figure 7.5: Similarly charged colloidal particles deflect each other by electrical
repulsion.

C. Adsorption
Colloidal particles attract and hold to their surfaces the molecules of various gases,
vapors and other matter with which they come into contact. This phenomenon is called
adsorption. Adsorption plays a very important part in the character of the colloid .By
adsorption the particles acquire an electric charge which governs the stability of the
colloid. The phenomenon of adsorption finds widespread application in food
preparations. For e.g. a too salty soup stock may be made more palatable by the addition
of egg white, which when cooked, will gather and hold the salt on to the surface of its
particles and settle down to the bottom of the soup vessel.

D. Imbibition
The ability of colloids to pick up water and swell when they come in contact with water
is called imbibition. Imbibition is usually accompanied by the evolution of heat and the
added materials such as acids and alkalis have a marked effect on the degree of swelling.

E. Viscosity and Plasticity

Various degrees of viscosity and plasticity are encountered in colloids. Viscosity may be
described as resistance to pouring. Plasticity is the property of solids that enables them
to hold their shape under small pressure.

Colloidal systems range in degree of viscosity and plasticity according to the following
environmental factors:
• Temperature affects the viscosity of a colloid. Generally, its viscosity decreases as
the temperature increases. For e.g. milk becomes less viscous at high
temperatures; such colloidal gels as gelatin and agar are less viscous at high
temperatures than low ones.

7
 • The viscosity of a colloid also increases with the concentration and aggregation of
dispersed particles. For e.g. cream becomes more viscous when there is an
increase in the number and aggregation of fat particles in it.
• Increased amounts of protein solids also bring amount an increase in viscosity.
Thus the viscosity of custard is related to the amount of egg protein dispersed in
the liquid.
In our discussion above, we highlighted the properties of colloids. Next, we shall focus
on solutions and their properties. But first, attempt the exercises presented in the Check
Your Progress Exercise 1. This will help you recapitulate what you have learnt so far.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1. Define colloids.
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2. Differentiate between colloids and crystalloids.
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---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. What do you understand by the terms ‘dispersion medium’ and ‘dispersed
medium’?
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4. Fill in the blanks :

8
 Dispersed Dispersing Name Examples
Phase Medium
-------------- Gas Fog Aerosol sprays
Solid -------------- Smoke Smoked fish
-------------- Liquid Foam Whipped cream
Liquid -------------- Emulsion
Oil in water Milk
Water in oil Margarine
Solid Liquid -------------- Whey
Gas Solid -------------- Bread, idli
Liquid Solid -------------- Gelatin, jellies,
fruits, vegetables,
meat products
Solid Solid -------------- Candies

7.3 DEFINITION AND PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS

Solutions, as you learnt earlier, are a homogeneous mixture of two or more different
substances. This means that the molecules of the dissolved substances (solute) and the
medium in which they are dissolved (solvent) are uniformly distributed throughout the
whole of the solution. Solubility is the amount of solute that can be dissolved in a given
amount of solvent at a given temperature. The effect of temperature on solubility varies
with solutes. Increasing temperatures increases the solubility of some solute but has no
effect on the solubility of others.

The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute dissolved in a specified amount of

solvent or solution. When the concentration reaches a point when no more solute can
dissolve in a solvent at a particular temperature, the solution obtained is said to be
saturated. If a saturated solution of a solid is prepared at or near the boiling point of the
solvent, on cooling the solid crystallize out e.g. sugar. Although fully cooked, sometimes
the crystals may not separate out as in the case of fondant. Such a solution holds more

9
solute than can normally be present at the same temperature. This solution is said to be
super saturated. Supersaturated solutions are unstable and become more unstable as the
degree of super saturation increases. Crystals do form ultimately when the solution
becomes fairly cool, but the nature and size of the crystal varies. The phenomenon is of
importance in sugar cooking. Different types of Indian sweets are prepared using this
physical property of sugar solution.

Several properties of solutions are particularly important in food preparations. Amongst

these are colligative properties, such as vapour pressure, boiling point, freezing point and
osmotic pressure. Colligative properties are the properties of solution which depend on
the number of molecules present and not on their chemical nature are known as. Let us
understand these properties of solutions and their applications.

A. Vapour Pressure
The intermolecular forces in a liquid prevent most molecules from escaping from the
surface. However, due to molecular collisions, some molecules have sufficient kinetic
energy to escape from the liquid. This causes the evaporation of the molecules into the
gaseous state. Any liquid, therefore, has above its surface, a certain amount of material
in the form of vapour. Vapour molecules move in all directions. Some of the liquid get
condensed. When the rate of evaporation and condensation are equal, an equilibrium is
established. The pressure exerted by vapour above the liquid when equilibrium exists is
vapour pressure. The vapour pressure is temperature dependent.

When a solid is dissolved in a volatile solvent the vapour pressure of the solution is less
than the vapour pressure of the pure solvent because of the presence of solute molecules.
In a solution, the number of solvent molecules at the surface is reduced and therefore the
rate of evaporation is less than for the solvent. The extent of lowering is proportional to
the number of molecules of solvent compared with the total number of solvent plus solute
molecules. For e.g. when equal quantities of sucrose and sodium chloride are dissolved in
a known amount of water at constant temperature, the lowering of the vapour pressure of
water by sodium chloride is twice as much as that of sucrose, because sodium chloride

10
contains twice as many of number of icons as the number of sucrose molecules in the
solution.

B. Boiling Point
There are certain properties of solutions which are directly connected with vapour
pressure and one of it is boiling point. You must have observed that water boils at a
temperature of 100oC. This is because a liquid boils when its vapour pressure is equal to
external pressure. The normal boiling point (BP) refers to an external pressure which is
equal to the atmospheric pressure (760 mm Hg), which for water is 100oC. With an
increase is pressure, the boiling point increases, e.g., the boiling point of water at 770 mm
is 100. 37oC. You must have noticed that in a pressure cooker the water boils at 121oC at
103 kg/kilo pascal, for this a greater pressure must be overcome and thus the boiling
point can be elevated. Conversely, the boiling point can be lowered at a reduced
atmospheric pressure as in high altitudes i.e. if you boil potatoes at a hill station, it will
take longer time to cook as compared to the planes. For every 290 m increase in altitude
above sea level, the boiling point of water is lowered by 1oC.

This property of water is useful in the processing of foods, such as jams, jellies, syrups,
confectionary etc. which are liquids at higher temperatures.

C. Freezing Point
The freezing point of a material is the temperature at which it changes from a liquid to a
solid. A liquid freezes when its vapour pressue is equal to the vapour pressure of its solid.
The freezing point of water is 0oC.

You can modulate the freezing point of water by dissolving a non-ionizing solute in it.
For e.g. a mole of sodium chloride or calcium chloride could depress the freezing point of
water by 3.72oC and 5.58oC.

The practical importance of this is that a mixture of ice, water and salt gives freezing
mixtures. Ice and water alone are in equilibrium at 0oC, but if salt is added, some ice

11
will melt in order to reduce the temperature to the new equilibrium position. This
principle is used in making home-made ice. The freezing point of milk is 0.53oC. Its
freezing point is determined by its soluble constituents, lactose and salts, present in it.
Since these soluble components vary in milk only slightly, the freezing point remains
almost constant. This makes it possible to determine any dilution of milk. Addition of
1% by volume of water to milk rises the freezing point by approximately 0.0055oC.

D. Osmotic Pressure
Osmosis, as you may already know, refers to the flow of solvent into a solution, or from a
more dilute solution to a more concentrated solution, when the two liquids are separated
from each other by a semi-permeable membrane. The membrane contains minute pores
through which the solvent molecules can travel. The phenomenon of osmosis causes a
change in the relative volume of the two liquids separated by the semipermeable
membrane. The volume of the solution that becomes more dilute increases. Osmotic
pressure is the pressure required to prevent that increase in volume or osmosis. Unlike
solutions, colloids have little or no osmotic pressure. Hence, there is no passage of
colloidal particles through animal membranes or cellulose walls.

The phenomenon of osmosis occurs in food. For e.g. when you stew fruits, the fruit
increases in size, as the water flows with the fruit tissues. When the sugar concentration
becomes higher than that of the fruit, the fruit will shrink due to the passage of water
through the skin of the fruit into the syrup.

E. Viscosity
Viscosity, as you may already know, is associated with fluid flow. It is the internal
friction which tends to bring to rest portions of the fluids moving relative to one another.
This is measured in relation to some standard viscosity, generally of water at 25oC. A
number of factors affect the viscosity of a fluid; for instance, large changes take place due
to temperature.

12
Viscosity determination is useful in the study of consistency of foods. Viscometric
measurements are made in food industry for the study of food structure. Viscosity has an
effect or heat transfer during pasteurization in the preparation of certain food materials,
such as fruit juices. Viscosity is measured by viscometer.

F. Specific Gravity
The density of a substance is defined as mass per unit volume. The density of a
substance is a characteristic property and has a definite value at a given temperature and
pressure. The density of one substance in relation to the density of another material (e.g.
water) is known as specific gravity. Therefore, specific gravity is the weight of a given
substance referred to the weight of an equal volume of water at a definite temperature.

The specific gravity of foods, depend upon this components. The specific gravity of
milk, for e.g., is greater than that of water. The average specific gravity of milk is 1.032
(at 15.5oC); it ranges from 1.027 to 1.035. If the fat content of milk increases, the
specific gravity decreases (upto to 0.93) and if the non-fat components increase, the
specific gravity increases.

The importance of specific gravity, is utilized in the purchase of products like syrups,
jams, jellies, milk (especially when whole milk is adulterated by addition of water)
cream, ice-cream and alcoholic beverages. Specific gravity indicates the amount of air
incorporated into the products (lightness of products), such as shipped cream, egg white
foam, creamed shortening and cake batter.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. Define the following terms:
a) Solubility
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b) Concentration

13
 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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c) Boiling point
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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d) Osmosis
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

e) Specific gravity
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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2. What do you understand by the term ‘colligative properties’?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. The vapour pressure of a solution depends on the number of solvent molecules.
Explain how?
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4. How can you modulate boiling point and freezing point of a solution?
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---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. Explain the role of surfactants in a solution.
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In the last two sections, we learnt about colloids, solutions and their properties. Next, let
us look at some of the colloidal systems such as sols, suspensions, emulsions etc. We
start with sols, gels and suspensions.

14
7.4 SOLS, GELS AND SUSPENSIONS

What are sols? A colloidal system in which solid particles are dispersed in a liquid is
referred to as a sol, to distinguish it from a true solution. In a true solution, the
substances separate into molecules and ions that disperse homogenously throughout the
volume of the solvent. But when a protein such as gelatin is dispersed in water, the
solution-like mixture that results is a sol. Examined under a microscope, the individual
protein particles are large enough to be distinguished from the dispersion medium.

Sols resemble liquids in their main physical properties – that is, they flow and they do not
show rigidity of form. However, when a sol assumes a rigid form, it is referred to as a
gel. There is no distinct line of separation between a sol and gel; infact some sols become
gel by increasing the concentration of dispersed solids or micelles. A typical sol is a fluid
whereas a typical gel has a certain amount of rigidity. The difference between a sol and a
gel has been illustrated in Figure 7.6.

Figure 7.6: Difference Between a Sol and a Gel

During sol -gel transformation, a three dimensional network is formed by the interlocking
of dispersed particles. The liquid phase is entrapped in the interstitial areas of this
structure. When this happens, the sol loses its fluidity and becomes a gel. The change
from sol to gel may be brought about by a change in the concentration of dispersed phase
or a change in temperature .Gelatin dispersed in hot water is a sol, but when cooled it
becomes a rigid, transparent gel. Other examples of sols that turn to gels are fruit jellies
and custards.

15
Many gels lose liquid upon standing and the gel structure shrinks. This is called weeping
or syneresis. The liquid that collects around a glass of fruit jelly or a dish of custard is an
example of syneresis. Let us learn more about the properties of sols and gels.

7.4.1 Properties of Sols

Sol, you learnt earlier, is a solid liquid dispersion with solid or semi-solid particles
dispersed in a continuous liquid phase. For e.g. starch in cold water. Sols exhibit
characteristic optical properties. They may have an opaque or clear appearance to the
naked eye and when viewed under a microscope, but the dispersed particles are
sufficiently large to scatter and polarize the incident light to some extent. This is known
as the Tyndall effect. You have learnt about the properties of colloids earlier. These
properties are basic to sols.

When you view a sol through an ultra microscope, you will observe that colloidal
particles appear to be in a state of rapid and irregular motion called the brownian
movement. You may recall reading about the Brownian movement earlier under the
properties of colloids. The movement is caused by the constant bombardment of the
dispersed particles by the molecules of the dispersion medium. The smaller the size of
the colloidal particles, the more vigorous is its Brownian motion.

In a sol possessing a continuous aqueous phase, the colloidal particles have an electrically
charged surface. The ionized groups of proteins and phosopholipids can be the sources
of the charges. In the presence of a small quantity of dissolved electrolyte, sol particles
selectively adsorb ions of one type from the solution.

The adsorption of ions by colloidal particles is a major factor in stabilizing a colloidal

dispersion, since the colloidal particles in a given system have the same charge they repel
each other and hence the tendency to coalesce is reduced. Addition of salts to a sol causes
precipitation. Charged particles have strong attraction for the polar water molecules and
therefore are hydrated, probably having a complete envelop of water molecules.

16
Addition of salt helps in the withdrawal of water from the hydrated surfaces of the
particles and this helps precipitation. Sols, unlike solutions, have low osmotic pressure.
Thus, they cannot pass through animal membranes or through cellulose walls in plants.
In lyophobic sols, there is little interaction between the dispersed phase and the
dispersion medium. Consequently, properties like viscosity and surface tension of such
sols are the same as these of the dispersion medium at the same temperature. In the
lyophilic sols, owing to the salvation of the dispersed phase, there is difference in
properties. The viscosity of lyophilic sols is greater than that of the dispersion medium
and is increased marked by a decrease in temperature or an increase in particle
concentration. At particle concentration greater than 20 percent, sols may exhibit
elasticity.

7.4.2 Gels and its Properties

You already know that sol is free flowing liquid at room temperature, when it becomes
relatively firm, it is called a gel. There are a number of factors that affect the strengths,
elasticity and brittleness of the gel such as concentration of the jelling agent
(particulates), salt content, pH and temperature. Polysaccharides, proteins or colloidal
complex particles, such as caseinate micelles form gels at levels of 10% or less. Gums,
pectin and gelatin form gels at levels of 1% or less. Salts and pH influence gel formation
adversely or favourably depending upon the concentration. By the reduction in the
number of charged particles, by the adjustment of pH or addition of salt, a sol can be
transformed into a gel. Addition of sugar which competes with water in the continuous
phase helps gel formation when used in the proper portion. Change in temperature has an
effect on gel formation; low temperatures reduce the mobility of the colloidal molecules
in the sol and increase the viscosity. This condition facilitates gel formation.

The rigidity of gel changes with time leading to syneresis, which involves release of
water and contraction of gel volume. The amount of liquid released varies with the type
of gel and the conditions under which it is prepared.

17
After gels, it is the turn of suspensions. What are suspensions? How do they differ from
sols? Let’s find out.

7.4.3 Suspensions
Sol, we learnt is a colloidal system, in which solid particles are dispersed in a liquid.
When the particles of a solid are separated into large aggregates of particles and dispersed
in a liquid, the food system is referred to as a suspension. In a suspension, the particles
tend to sink to the bottom of the mixture if they are heavier than the liquid but rise to the
top if they are lighter. A mixture of flour and water is an example of a mixture in which
the particles are heavier than the liquid. If it is stirred and heated, a suspension of this
kind will change to a gel.

So it must be clear to you that both sol, suspensions are solid and liquid dispersions. You
may recall reading earlier that colloidal system may also exist as gas and liquid
dispersion, liquid in liquid dispersion etc. next, let us learn about gas and liquid
dispersions.

7.5 FOAMS

Consider the following example. Take some liquid in a glass and agitate or shake it
vigorously. What do you observe at the top of the liquid. Yes, a foam is formed. Foams
are also considered colloidal dispersions. Foams are dispersions of gas or air bubbles in a
liquid. Foam is created by agitation of a liquid with a consequent entrapment of air in the
liquid film. Foam consists of more or less stable liquid-air interfaces, the air cells being
surrounded by liquid films that constitute the continuous phase. The foaming properties
of liquids depend on their viscosity and low air-liquid surface tension. The gas bubbles
are separated from each other by liquid walls called films or camellia, which are elastic.
The diameter of the foam bubbles range from about 1 mm to several centimeters.
Depending on the bubble size and wall thickness, dense or light foams are formed.

18
The foams frequently used in cookery are whipped cream, ice cream, cake, bread,
meringues, milk froth and gelatin. Food foams contain large amounts of entrapped gas.
They have an extensive surface area between the gaseous and liquid phase, a higher
concentration of the solute at the surface than in the bubble liquid, and walls which are
rigid and elastic and reflect light so that they have an opaque appearance.

Let us learn in more details about how the foams are formed? Formation of a foam is
dependent on a foaming agent in the continuous phase prior to dispersion of gas. The
foaming agent must be adsorbed at the surface to reduce surface tension and provide a
distinct surface layer which resists the coalescence of gas bubbles. Surface active lipids,
glycosides, proteins are used as a foaming agent.

There are two basic methods in the formation of foams i.e. whipping and condensation.
Whipping is the most common method used as it forms bubbles by cutting the surface and
introducing air into liquid. Repeated action makes the bubbles progressively smaller and
creates a fine dispersion which is foamy and light in texture. In the condensation method
a pressurized solution is suddenly released to expand the number of gas bubbles which
their ripe through the liquid. In this method, the size of the bubbles become larger with
time and cannot form even textured foam. Factors such as surface tension, iso-electric
point, solubility of surfactant and low vapour pressure affect the formation of foam.

What about foam stability? Foam stability can be determined by two factors i.e. drainage
and bubble size. The volume of the liquid drained due to gravitational forces when foam
is left to stand for some time (20-30 minutes) indicates stability of the foam. The greater
the drainage the less stable is the foam and also the larger the size of the bubbles in a
foam. In food industries undesirable foams may be formed. This is overcome by using
antifoaming agents? What are these agents? We will find out.

7.5.1 Antifoaming Agents

In food industries, undesirable foams may be formed such as in concentration of fruit
juices, coffee extracts, vegetable oils and syrups or in fermentative processes. This leads

19
to loss of a product and reduced rate of processing. Antifoaming agents such as silicon
oils (water insoluble dimenthy, polysiloxames) are used in the food industry. They
spread as a monolayer and displaces the stabilizing foam film, resulting in the thinning of
the bubble walls and can cause bursting.

In this section we have looked at gas and liquid dispersions. Next, an insight into liquid
and liquid dispersion is presented.

7.6 EMULSIONS

You may have eaten Mayonnaise. Some of you may also know how it is made.
Mayonnaise is a liquid in liquid dispersion, in fact a true emulsion. A true emulsion
represents a colloidal dispersion of one liquid in another when both liquids are mutually
immiscible. Emulsions exhibit the characteristics of colloidal systems, the particle of the
dispersed phase being about 0.1 mm. The liquid in which the dispersion takes place is
called the continuous phase.

A food emulsion is basically a two phase system consisting of a liquid, such as oil, wax
or essential oil and water. An emulsion has 3 parts – dispersed phase, continuous phase
and or emulsifier which is a surface active agent that decreases interfacial tension and
forms physical barriers around each droplet to impede or present their coalescence.
Emulsions are basically of two types:
• Oil in water (o/w), and
• Water in oil (w/o)
The oil in water emulsion consist of lipid droplets dispersed in water e.g. milk, cream, ice
cream, mayonnaise, salad dressing (Figure 7.7). The water in oil emulsion is made up of
water droplets dispersed in oil e.g. butter, margarine.

20
 Figure 7.7: oil in water emulsion

Food emulsions must have the appropriate appearance (colour + opacity), texture
(viscosity, plasticity and oiliness) and flavour for acceptance. Let us learn how the
emulsions are formed next.

The most common method of preparing an emulsion is by mechanically dispersing one

liquid phase in another by formation of small droplets. This takes place by a beater blade.
A stable emulsion is not formed by merely mixing of the liquids. When the emulsion is
left to stand, droplets in the dispersed phase coalesce due to surface tension. It is possible,
however to stabilize an emulsion by adding a suitable substance termed emulsifier. How
this is done? Let’s find out in the following text.

Emulsions can be stabilized by the use of emulsifiers, finely divided particles adsorbed at
the interface and water dispersible hydrocolloids. Emulsifiers may be in the form of
proteins, gums, gels fatty acids and phospholipids. Materials used as emulsifiers have an
electric charge opposite to that of the material to which they are added. The emulsifier
reduces the interfacial tension existing between the water and the oil, thus making them
less repellant to each other. This can be accomplished because one end (polar end) of the
molecule of the emulsifier is soluble in water and the other end (non polar end) is soluble
in oil (Figure 7.8). This permits a film to form around each tiny drop of oil that prevents
the drops from running together.

21
 Figure 7.8

There are many emulsifiers which are present in nature such as phospholipids e.g. lectin
which is present in egg yolk which acts as a natural emulsifier in stabilizing mayonnaise
emulsion. Hydrocolloids, such as plant gums and gelatin, act as stabilizers in oil-in-water
emulsions by increasing the viscosity of the continuous phase or sometimes by forming a
strong interfacial film around droplets of the dispersed phase. Lecithin, alginates, plant
and seed gums, and cellulose derivatives, such as carboxymethyl-cellulose and
hydroxypropyl methyl/cellulose gums are used as stabilizers.

Emulsions may also be stabilized by a process known as homogenization, in which the

size of the dispersed fat globules is greatly reduced to more or less uniform diameter by
application of considerable force. This prevents the fat globules from coalescing.
We will stop our discussion on emulsions here.

Check your progress Exercise 3

1. Fill in the blanks:
a) Sols resemble liquids in their main physical properties – that is, they
…………and they do not show ……………………………………………………
b) The process of loss of liquid from gels causing their shrinkage is
called………………………………………………………………………………..
c) Emulsions are of two types namely ………………… and ………………………
d) Mayonnaise is an example of…………………. in ……………………emulsion.
2. Differentiate between sols and gels, giving examples.
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3. List a few factors that affect properties of a gel.

22
 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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4. Define the following terms:
a) Suspension
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b) Foam
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c) Emulsions
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d) Food emulsifiers
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5. How are foams formed? What are the factors affecting foam formation?
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6. How can emulsions be stabilized?
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7.7 LET US SUM UP

Let us summarize all that we studied in this unit.

A colloidal system is a heterogeneous system consisting of two phases- the dispersed

phase and the dispersing medium. Each of the three states of matter i.e. gaseous, solid

23
and liquid can be dispersed in a medium which may be gaseous, liquid or solid. Eight
classes of colloidal dispersions can be formed from the three states of matter. Gases may
be combined with solids or liquids in colloidal dispersions, but mixtures of gases form
solutions not colloids. Colloidal particles are in motion and are electrically charged. The
colloid’s property of adsorption makes it useful in cookery. Colloidal systems may be
lyophilic or lyophobic.
Sols and suspensions are both solid in liquid dispersions with solid or semi-solid particles
dispersed in continuous liquid phase. In a suspension, particles tend to separate, rising if
lighter than the liquid and sinking if heavier. Gels are rather rigid colloidal systems.

Foams are colloidal dispersions of gas or air bubbles in a liquid. A true emulsion is a
colloidal dispersion of two mutually immiscible liquids. An emulsifier aids stabilization
of emulsions. Homogenization in which particle size is reduced also stabilizes emulsions.

7.8 GLOSSARY

Brownian movement : movement of the colloidal particles, brought about by the

bombardment of thousands of molecules in the gas or
liquid in which they are suspended.
Coalesce : come together and form one mass.
Food emulsifiers : surface active agents consisting of hydrophilic and
hydrophobic components.
Interface : boundary between a liquid-liquid or a solid-liquid
junction.
Interfacial Tension : the tension at liquid/liquid or liquid/ solid interfaces.
Lyophilic sols : sols formed spontaneously when the dry coherent material
is brought in contact with the dispersion medium.
Lyophobic sols : sols that cannot be formed by spontaneous dispersion in
the medium. They are thermodynamically unstable.

24
Specific gravity : weight of a given substance referred to the weight of an
equal volume of water at a definite temperature.
Surface tension : forces causing a reduction in the surface area.
Surfactant : a substance which lowers the surface tension of the
medium in which it is dissolved.
Syneresis : loss of liquid from gels upon standing and the shrinkage
of gel structure.
Tyndall effect : a property exhibited by a colloidal dispersion, where a
strong beam of intense light leaves a bright definite path
through a colloidal dispersion.

7.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1. Colloids are the compounds with large molecular weights, which form dispersions
only with water e.g. starch, proteins, glycogen and agar-agar.

2. Colloids are compounds with large molecular weights, which form dispersions
only with water. e.g. starch, proteins, glycogen and agar-agar while Crystalloids
are compounds with small molecular weights, which can form true solutions. e.g.
sugars and amino acids.

3. The material that forms the base of a colloidal system is termed as dispersion
medium or the continuous phase. While the material that exists in the colloidal
condition is called as the dispersed medium or the discontinuous phase.

4.

25
 Dispersed Dispersing Name Example
Phase Medium
Liquid Gas Fog Aerosol sprays
Solid Gas Smoke Smoked fish
Gas Liquid Foam Whipped
cream
Liquid Liquid Emulsion
Oil in water Milk
Water in oil Margarine
Solid Liquid Sol Whey
Gas Solid Solid froth Bread, idli
Liquid Solid Liquid Gelatin, jellies,
inclusion fruits,
vegetables,
meat products
Solid Solid Solid sol Candies

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1.
a) Solubility is the amount of a solute that can be dissolved in the given amount of
solvent at a given temperature.
b) Concentration is the amount of solute dissolved in a specified amount of solvent
or solution.
c) An external pressure which is equal to the atmospheric pressure is the boiling
point.
d) Osmosis is the flow of solvent in the solution or from a more dilute solution to a
more concentrated solution when the two liquids are separated through a semi-
permeable membrane.
e) Specific gravity is the density of one substance in relation to the other material.

2. Properties of solution which depend on the number of molecules present and not
on their chemical nature are known as colligative properties.

3. When a solid is dissolved in the volatile solvent, the vapour pressure of the
solution becomes less than that of a pure solvent because of the presence of solute

26
 molecules. The extent of lowering is proportional to the number of molecules of
solvent compared with the total number of solvent and solute molecules. Hence
showing that vapour pressure depends on the number of solvent molecules.

4. Boiling point: by modifying the pressure

Freezing point: by dissolving a non-ionizing solute in the solution.
5. Surfactants or the surface active agents are used to reduce the surface tension
between the polar and non-polar groups of a solution. These agents are absorbed
at the surface of a solution.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1.
a) flow; rigidity of form
b) syneresis
c) oil in water and water in oil
d) oil in water emulsion

2. Sol is a colloidal system in which the solid particles are dispersed in a liquid.
When a sol assumes a rigid form, it is referred to as gel. Examples of sols that
turn to gels are fruit jellies and custards.

3. Concentration of the jelling agent, salt content, pH and temperature are the factors
that affect the properties of a gel.

4.
a) Suspension is the separation and dispersion of the particles of a solid into large
aggregates of particles in a liquid e.g., a mixture of flour and water.
b) Dispersions of gas or air bubbles in a liquid is referred to as foam for e.g.,
whipped cream, ice cream, cake, bread and gelatin.
c) Emulsion is a colloidal dispersion of one liquid in another when both liquids are
mutually immiscible e.g., milk, cream, mayonnaise, salad dressing.

27
d) The surface active agents consisting of hydrophilic and hydrophobic moieties are
the food emulsifiers e.g., phospholipids and proteins.

5. There are two methods of foam formation. These are discussed as follows:
• Whipping: The most common method, as it forms bubbles by cutting the surface
and introducing air into the liquid. Repeated action makes the bubbles smaller and
creates a finer dispersion, which is foamy and light in texture.
• Concentration: A pressurized solution is suddenly released to expand the number
of gas bubbles. The size of the bubbles becomes larger with time and cannot form
even textured foam.
The factors affecting foam stability are:surface tension, isoelectric point, solubility of
surfactant and low vapour pressure.

6.
• Use of natural stabilizers such as lectin; hydrocolloids such as plant gums and
gelatins; plant and seed gums; cellulose derivatives.
• Homogenization

28
UNIT 8: PROPERTIES OF FOOD

Structure

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Introduction to Quality Attributes of Food
8.3 Gustation - the Sense of Taste
8.3.1 Chemicals Responsible for the Four Basic Tastes i.e. Sweet, Salt, Sour and
Bitter
8.3.2 Factors Affecting Taste Quality
8.4 Texture in Foods
8.4.1 Objective Measurement and Evaluation of Food Texture
8.4.2 Rheology of Foods
8.5 Colour
8.5.1 Functions of Colour in Foods
8.5.2 Measurement of Colour in Foods
8.5.3 Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Colour
8.6 Let Us Sum Up
8.7 Glossary
8.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

8.1 INTRODUCTION

In the previous unit, we learnt that foods are generally complex materials. The food
components are in the form of solids, in solutions or in the form of colloids - sols or
emulsions. The properties of these components determine the quality of food.

The quality of a food product, you would realize, is also usually assessed by means of
human sensory organs, the evaluation being called ‘sensory’ or ‘subjective’ or
‘organoleptic’. Here, in this unit, we shall study about various sensory attributes of food.
What characteristics make a food attractive and appealing? How does appearance and
colour of a food affect our choice? Does smell has a role to play in making a food choice?
Do mouth-feel and finger-feel contribute to food acceptance? All these attributes of a
food product come under what we refer to as quality of foods. In this unit, we will learn
about these quality attributes of food.

1
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• describe the quality attributes of food
• understand the characteristics influencing food choices and
• discuss what is rheology and its usefulness in foods.

8.2 INTRODUCTION OF QUALITY ATTRIBUTES OF FOOD

In India, seasonal fruits and vegetables are grown in plenty, and are available in their
respective seasons in abundance. While choosing these fruits/vegetables what are the
factors that we look in for? Yes, colour, wholesomeness, gloss, degree of ripeness, smell,
taste, textured defects etc. are some of the factors on the basis of which we select or
choose an item. These factors in sum can be thought of as “quality”. Quality has been
defined as a ‘degree of excellence and includes such things as taste, appearance and
nutritional content. It is the composite of characteristics that have significance and which
help in making the product acceptable. ’

When we select foods and when we eat, we use all our physical senses, including sight,
touch, smell, taste and even hearing. When the quality of a food product is assessed by
means of human sensory organs, the evaluation is said to be ‘sensory’ or ‘subjective’ or
‘organoleptic’. Sensory quality is a combination of different senses of perception coming
into play in choosing and eating a food.

Each time a food is eaten, a judgement is made. A wide range of vocabulary is used to
describe sensory characteristics of food products, such as odour, taste, appearance,
texture. These sensory characteristics of food products are highlighted in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1: Vocabulary used to describe sensory characteristics of food products

2
 Odour Taste Appearance Texture
Floral Sweet Heavy Brittle
Rotten Cool Flat Rubbery
Perfumed Bitter Fizzy Short
Acrid Zesty Crystalline Gritty
Musty Warm Wet Clammy
Fragrant Hot Cuboid Soft
Scented Tangy Fragile Stodgy
Pungent Sour Dull Bubbly
Sharp Sandy
Rich Tacky
Salty Tender
Waxy
Odour and taste work together to Following words may be used to
produce a flavour. Following words describe either appearance or texture
may be used to describe either of food products: Firm, Flaky, Crisp,
odour or taste of food products: Fluffy, Dry, Crumbly, Lumpy,
Bland, Rancid, Tart, Acidic, Strong, Smooth, Hard, Mushy, Sticky, Soft,
Citrus, Milky, Spicy, Tainted, Gummy, Chewy
Weak, Savoury.

Food quality, as such, can be divided into three main categories i.e.
i. Appearance factors
ii. Textural factors
iii. Flavour factors
Let us see what these categories include.

(i) Appearance can be judged by the eye. Appearance factors include such things as
size, colour, uniformity, absence of any defect, shape, wholesomeness, different forms of
damage, gloss, transparency and consistency. For e.g. scrambled egg with a very dry
surface is not acceptable. Fudge with a glossy surface is rated high. Similarly, quality of
a fish can be ascertained by the brightness of the eyes of fish. In addition to giving
pleasure, the colour of a food is associated with other attributes, such as ripeness of fruits
like banana, tomato, mango, papaya etc. can be assessed by the colour. Burnt toast or
chapati is likely to be rejected in anticipation of scorched bitter taste. Therefore, colour is

3
used as an index of maturity for a number of foods. It is also associated with the flavour
and texture and in some foods, with its nutritive value (e.g. Carotene or Pro-Vitamin A).
Appearance covers not only colour but also the shape, size, greasiness, transparency,
brightness and so on, all of which must match consumer’s expectations of that food or
product. Therefore, the foods have to pass the sight test first before they can be screened
by other sensory organs. In many instances we can see consistency and so it is considered
a textural quality attribute. For example, ‘a thin boiled chocolate syrup, a thick or thin
tomato sauce’. Similarly, size can be used as an indirect indicator of other attributes, such
as maturity, e.g. small peas etc. are less mature and more tender than big ones. Also, size
helps in obtaining a more uniformly sized product, prevents wastage and gives rapid
production and a high product quality.

(ii) Texture may be assessed through touch or mouthfeel. When the food is placed in
the mouth, the surface of the tongue and other sensitive skin reacts to the feel of the
surface of the food. Textural factors, therefore, include assessment through handfeel and
mouthfeel such as firmness, softness, juiciness, chewiness and grittiness. The texture of a
food is often a major determinant of how little or well we like a food. The range of
textures in foods is very great, and a deviation from an optimum or typical texture is a
quality defect. We expect chewing gum to be chewy, crackers and potato chips to be
crisp and steak to be compressible and shearable between the teeth. While buying bread,
we squeeze bread as a measure of texture which indicates the degree of freshness.
Refractometer is used for measuring texture.

(iii) Flavour factors include both sensations perceived by the tongue, which include
sweet, salty, sour and bitter tastes and aromas perceived by the tongue and nose,
respectively. Flavour is a combination of both taste and smell (aroma or odour), and is
largely subjective, and therefore, hard to measure. Bland, rancid, tart, acidic, strong,
citrus, mild, spicy, tainted, weak and savoury are a few words that are used to describe
either odour or taste of food products as highlighted in table 8.1.

4
Flavour is also influenced by colour and texture. We associate certain flavours with
certain colours. For example, cherry, raspberry and strawberry flavours, although are
colourless compounds, we associate them with colour because in nature they occur in
food of a typical colour. Similarly, texture can be also mislead evaluation of flavour. To
site an example, when you are asked to judge two identical samples of gravies or soups
differing in their consistencies, it is very likely that the thicker gravy would be accepted
better because of its richer flavour, although it has been thickened with a tasteless starch
or gum, which in no way would have contributed to the flavour of the product. This can
be entirely psychological. The line between psychological and physiological reactions is
not always easy to draw. Our taste buds respond in a complex fashion, which is not yet
fully understood.

Flavour can be measured either by using sophisticated instruments such as gas

chromatography that measures specific volatile compounds responsible for that particular
flavour or through sensory methods. Acidity can be measured by titrating with alkali or
using a pH meter. Although, when it comes to consumer quality acceptance, there is still
no substitute for the measurements made by having people taste products.

Check your Progress Exercise 1

1. Fill in the blanks:
(i) Some of the factors that we consider while selecting food products are-------------,
--------------, -----------------, -------------------, and ----------------------- .
(ii) A degree of excellence and includes things such as taste, appearance and
nutritional content is referred to as -------------------.
(iii) When sensory organs are used to assess the quality of a food product, the
evaluation is said to be------------------------or----------------------or--------------------
(iv) The quality of a food can be categorized into --------------------, ---------------------
and ---------------------- .
(v) One of the major determinants of liking or disliking of a food is --------------------.

5
2. Given below is a list of words that are used to describe sensory characteristics of
foods. Classify them according to the odour, taste, appearance and texture
properties.
a) Zesty --------------------
b) Gritty --------------------
c) Cuboid --------------------
d) Acrid --------------------
e) Stodgy --------------------
f) Rich --------------------
g) Floral --------------------
h) Fizzy --------------------
i) Clammy------------------
j) Bubbly -------------------

With the basic understanding about quality attributes of food, we will next review few of
these attributes in more detail starting with ‘taste’- a basic characteristic of foods.

8.3 GUSTATION - THE SENSE OF TASTE

The word ‘taste’ means not only a sensory response to the soluble materials in the mouth
but also aesthetic appreciation. It has been noted many times that among human senses,
taste has been called the “poor relation”. Perhaps, it is because taste contributes so few
important qualities to the sum of human experience, when compared to vision or
audition. From the view point of the food processor and food scientist, the sense of taste
commands interest because of its role in food recognition, selection and acceptance, in
addition to its pleasure giving function.

We have described the organs involved in taste perception in the Course on Applied
Physiology, Unit 10. It would be a good idea to look up the unit now. This will help you
understand the role of taste in food recognition, selection and acceptance.

6
You already know that taste is sensed by taste buds located on the tongue. Taste
sensations which taste buds register are categorized as - sweet, sour, salt and bitter. Sweet
and salty tastes are sensed more intensely on the tip of the tongue. Sour and bitter more
intensely on the hard palate. Are you aware of the chemicals responsible for the four
basic tastes and what are the factors affecting taste quality? The next sub-section
introduces you to these concepts.

8.3.1 Chemicals Responsible for the Four Basic Tastes i.e. Sweet, Salt, Sour and
Bitter
The chemicals responsible for imparting the sweetness, classic salt taste and bitter and
sour taste are summarized herewith.
A. Sweet Taste
Sweetness is one of the most important taste sensations for humans and for many animal
species as well.

Substances which elicit ‘sweet’ sensation are primarily the organic compounds like
sugars - mono and disaccharides, glucose, fructose, sucrose, various alcohols mainly
ethanol, sorbitol, glycerol, non-nutritive sweetners such as saccharine, cyclamate,
aspartame.

Among them, sugars are the main sources of sweetness in foods. But not all sugars are
equally sweet. Fructose gives the most intensely sweet sensation followed by sucrose,
glucose, maltose, galactose and lactose respectively. Alongwith imparting sweetness to
foods, you have learnt earlier about the other functional properties of sucrose in foods
that make it useful as a bulking agent, texture modifier, mouthfeel modifier and a
preservative. Sucrose additionally offers an important energy source for many food
fermentations.

7
The threshold value for sucrose is 0.342%, glucose is 1.442% and saccharine is
0.00047%. What do we mean by threshold? The concentration required for identification
is known as threshold for that particular substance.

Next let us learn about the salty taste.

B. Salty taste
Various ions both cations and anions are responsible for the salty taste. These include: K
(Potassium), Na (Sodium), Li (Lithium), Cl, Br (Bromine), I (Iodine), F(Fluorine), SO4
(Sulphate), NO3 (Nitrate). As you move from Li to NO3, the molecular weight increases
and saltiness decreases. Threshold values for some salts are given herewith:
NaCl (Sodium chloride) 0.175%
LiCl (Lithium Chloride) 0.016%
NaBr (Sodium Bromide) 0.247%
NaI (Sodium Iodide) 0.42%

‘Salty’ taste is due to ions of salts. Classic salty taste is represented by Sodium Chloride
(NaCl).

C. Bitter Taste
Bitterness is an inherent property of a substance. It is due to substances such as alkaloids
present in food. For example, tannins present in tea, coffee, fruits and vegetables. Tannins
are desirable in tea and coffee to some extent but not in fruits and vegetables. Apple
juice, if left outside, gives a bitter taste due to the tannins present in it. Some electrolytes
are also bitter e.g. magnesium (Mg), ammonia (NH3) and other nitro compounds. More
the number of nitro compounds, higher will be the bitterness perceived. Various amides
are also bitter for example, benzamide and glycosides. Quinine, (found in grapes and
citrus fruits) naringin (grape fruit), lemonin (citrus fruits), thromine, bromide, caffeine
(coffee), Mg, NH4, Ca, picric acid and various nitro groups are the compounds
responsible for the bitter taste. Certain phenyl groups are also responsible for bitter taste,
urea also gives bitter taste.

8
Debittering of these citrus fruits can be done by using advanced techniques such as super
critical fluid extraction. What is this technique? CO2 at super critical pressure and
temperature causes extraction of these bitter components from these substances.

D. Sour Taste
Sour taste is usually due to the presence of acids such as acetic acid, citric acid, benzoic
acid. Upon dissociation, the acids give H ions which impart acidity. More the H ion
concentration higher is the acidity and more is the intensity of sourness. Fruits and
vegetables are sour due to the acids present in them for example, tartaric acid in grapes
and citric acid in lemon. Acids may be strong or weak depending upon their dissociation
ability. Stronger the acid more will be the dissociation and higher will be the acidity,
which imparts sourness to a particular substance. Of the two acids, HCl and acetic acid
(CH3COOH), acetic acid is more sour than HCl inspite of the fact that HCl is stronger.
This indicates that there are other factors also along with the dissociation governing the
intensity of sourness. All these factors influence the reaction time which is defined as the
time interval between tasting of a substance and identification of the taste by the brain.
The solution is first tasted, the impulse is transmitted to the brain and then identification
takes place or in other words, reaction time interval between initial stimulation of the
receptors and the final response.

The reaction time to perceive the acidic taste is indirectly proportional to the
concentration of the acid. More the concentration, lesser is the time required. Individual
variations are there in perception due to difference in the pH of the saliva. Low pH saliva
will give a better perception of sour taste.

After understanding the four tastes, let us look at the factors affecting taste quality.

8.3.2 Factors Affecting Taste Quality

9
You may have experienced that the four primary tastes i.e., sweet, sour, salty and bitter
are not sensed with an equal ease. There are many factors which influence the sensitivity.
What are these factors? Read and find out.
1. Concentration - There is a specific range at which the tasteful substances should
be used. The concentration required for identification is known as the threshold
for that particular substance. Within this range, the perception of taste increases
with an increase in concentration. Below and above this concentration, taste is
not adequately perceived.

Threshold may be defined in terms of absolute threshold or recognition/detection

threshold or terminal threshold. Absolute threshold is the minimum detectable
concentration. It is not a sharply defined concentration. It is the stimulus
magnitude at which the subject can identify different tastes.
Recognition/Detection Threshold, on the other hand, is the concentration at which
the subject can identify a specific taste. It is always higher than absolute
threshold. Terminal threshold is the maximum concentration beyond which taste
is not perceived or a change in sensation is not perceived, how much high the
concentration is.

Range starts from recognition threshold to terminal threshold. For sweet taste, this
range is very wide, for salty and sour the range is narrow, and is very narrow for
the bitter taste. Most acceptable concentration for different tastes is included
herewith:
For sweet: 7-9%, in all desserts and beverages. A high concentration is used in
jams and jellies, where it acts as a preservative.
For sour – 0.28%
For salty – eg., NaCl in cheese and butter – 2%
For bitter- 0.0002%
2. Taste interactions- Foods contain a mixture of substances which elicit all four
sensations. Modification of one sensation takes place in the presence of other. For

10
 example, addition of sugar to tea extract or lemon to tea extract i.e. bitterness is
suppressed by sweet or sour.

Out of the two sensations, the stronger one may repress the effect of other. For
example, salt in sub-threshold concentration reduces the tartness of acid, salt is
added to sweet fruits to modify the sweet taste or to make it more acceptable.
Sugar or lemon added to the tea, which otherwise is very bitter, modifies the bitter
taste.
3. Adaptation – A low concentration solution will not give any sensation after
tasting a higher concentration solution due to the adaption of the tongue for higher
concentration. For example, normal water will taste flat because our tongue is
adapted to this type of water but when we take hard water, it appears salty.
Mineral water/ground water containing many minerals and ions gives a salty taste.
Distilled water containing no ions tastes slightly sweet. Tea taken after sugar
appears flat i.e. does not gives a bitter perception.
4. Time- Time is another factor which affects sensation. Salt on tongue is sensed in a
fraction of a second; whereas, bitter things may require longer time, say one full
second. Once perceived, it however, keeps on lingering. Table 8.2 gives the
reaction time for different tastes.
Table 8.2: Reaction time for different tastes
Tastes Reaction Time in Seconds
Sweet 0.44
Salty 0.3
Sour 0.53
Bitter (Max) 1.08

From our discussion above, we hope you have gathered some insight into the role of taste
in food acceptance and the factors which influence this attribute. To help you recapitulate
what you have learnt so far, we have included some exercises to Check Your Progress
Exercise 2. Answer them and check your responses with the answers given at the end of
this unit.

11
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1. Fill in the blanks:
(i) Taste is called as a poor relation as it contributes to ------------------------------------
(ii) Taste sensations can be categorized as --------------, ---------------, -------------- and
------------------- .
(iii) ------------------------ are the substances that elicit sweet sensation.
(iv) The detection threshold for quinine is -------------------------------- .
2. Which are the areas where various taste sensations are perceived?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. Explain the following terms:
(a) Threshold
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(b) Reaction time
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. List the factors that affect the taste quality.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Next, we move on to the texture in foods.

8.4 TEXTURE IN FOODS

According to Matz (1962), texture can be defined as the mingled experience derived from
the sensation of skin in the mouth after ingestion of food or beverage. What we sense as
texture in foods, derives from the physical characteristics of these materials. We
generally concern ourselves with hardness of tough meat, softness of tender jellies,

12
chewiness of steak, thickness of sauces, elasticity of bread, sticky surface of caramel,
roughness of salt crystals etc. to realize how many characteristics provide textural stimuli
in foods. In other words, texture is a composite property involving many physical
properties in a complex relationship or in a more general way, texture can be defined as
a way in which various constituents and structural components are arranged and
combined into a micro and macro structure and the external manifestation of the
structure in terms of flow. The formation texture influences:
(1) Consumer acceptability,
(2) Type of packaging, and
(3) Processing method (Power required).

We learnt earlier that texture is observed in terms of tactile sensations i.e. fingerfeel and
mouthfeel. Finger feel is sensed before ingestion, by pressing and touching, e.g. to detect
the freshness or staleness of bread by handfeel. On the other hand, once you ingest the
food the mixed feeling derived mainly due to the activation of palate and teeth, is the
mouthfeel. During chewing, various kinds of forces are applied which tell us about the
texture of the food. The forces are compression, cutting, tensile strength and shearing.
These same kinds of forces are imitated in the objective evaluation of textural properties.
The term ‘mouthfeel’ can therefore be defined as the mingled experience arising from the
sensation of the skin and the mouth during and after ingestion.

You may be wondering why a study of the food texture is important. The study of food
texture is important for three reasons:
1. To evaluate the resistance of product against mechanical action such as in
mechanical harvesting of fruits and vegetables,
2. To determine the flow properties of a product (what is referred to as rheology)
during processing, handling and storage, and
3. To establish the mechanical behaviour of food when consumed.

Next, how do we measure food texture? Food texture can be evaluated by mechanical test
or instrumental methods. This is called as objective evaluation. When we use the human

13
sensory organs as analytical tools, we call it the sensory or subjective evaluation. For the
purpose of measurement, however, classification in terms of physical properties has been
proposed by Szczesmiac in 1963. This system groups the characteristics as mechanical
(hardness, cohesiveness, viscosity, elasticity, adhesiveness), geometrical (particle size,
shape and orientation) and others (moisture content, fat content) as highlighted in Table
8.3.
Table 8.3: Different Textural Parameters and their popular classification
(Szczezmiac Classification (1963)
S. No Primary Secondary Popular Nomenclature
Parameters
1. Mechanical Characteristics
a. Hardness Softness
Firm Æ hard
b. Cohesiveness Brittleness Crumbly – Crunchy – Brittle
Chewiness Tender – Chewy – Tough
Gumminess Mealy – Pasty – Gummy
c. Viscosity Thin Æ Viscous
d. Elasticity Plastic Æ Elasticity
e. Adhesiveness Sticky Æ Tacky – Gooye
2. Geometrical Characteristics
a. Particle size and Gritty Grainy Coarse
shape
b. Particle shape and Fibrous – Cellular – Crystalline
orientation
3. Other Characteristics
a. Moisture Content Dry-Moist-Wet-Watery
b. Fat content Oiliness Oily
Greasy

Hardness, cohesiveness, viscosity, elasticity and adhesiveness are the mechanical

characteristics. What do these characteristics stand for? These characteristics are
described in physical terms herewith for your convenience.

14
Hardness: It is defined as the force necessary to affect a given deformation. When judged
by human senses, it is the force required to penetrate a food with molar teeth. Solids and
some semi-solids have this property. For example, Cream cheese is low in hardness and
raw candy is very hard.

Cohesiveness: It derives from the strength of internal bonds holding the body of the
substance together. Cohesiveness, being the primary characteristic includes - brittleness,
chewiness and gumminess – as the secondary characteristics. What are these
characteristics? Let us know. Brittleness is judged by the taster as the ease with which
the food can be cracked, then shattered or crumbled. Chewiness can be defined as the
resistance of a product to compression and shearing action of teeth or the energy needed
to masticate a solid food and gumminess can be understood to include the resistance
offered by food when teeth/tongue are withdrawn after first penetrating the food i.e. the
energy required to disintegrate a semi-solid food prior to swallowing.

Viscosity: It is measured as the rate of flow per unit force. The resistance of liquids to
flowing is readily observed and is usually conveniently measured. For example, in the
mouth, it is sensed as ‘body’ or thickness by small variation of resistance against the
sensitive touch receptors of lips, cheeks, palate and tongue.

Elasticity: It is defined as the rate at which a deformed material goes back to its original
shape. Elasticity is difficult to measure independently of other parameters. It is a part of
chewiness.

Adhesiveness: It is measured as the work necessary to overcome the attractive forces

between surfaces of material and surfaces that contact it. In eating, this property is sensed
between food surfaces and mouth/throat tissues. For example, oil allows little adhesion,
while peanut butter much.

All these textural characteristics discussed above are the working basis for food
researchers, quality control experts and engineers busy in developing instruments to

15
measure texture. In this section, we will study about objective evaluation of food texture.
How is the food texture measured? What are the different methods and instruments used
for measuring texture of different foods?

8.4.1 Objective Measurement and Evaluation of Food Texture

Kinesthetic characteristics deal with the sense of feel, just like the characteristics of
appearance deal with the sense of sight.

Objective methods of textures measurement involve simulating and measuring the

sensations which the consumer experiences through the sense of feel with the fingers and
more precisely in the mouth.

Many of these instruments used to measure texture, involve measurement of resistance to

the force applied which is measured in terms of grams/kilograms force. This force may
be applied in a number of ways or through a combination of two or more of the methods
highlighted herewith. Basically four types of forces are encountered, which include:
Four Types of basic forces
1. Compression: This refers to the squeezing of the test material so that it still remains
as a single undivided unit but may occupy less volume. Figure 8.1 illustrates this type
of squeezing. For e.g. finger test and pressure test to measure the juiciness, firmness
etc.

Figure 8.1: Compression

2. Cutting – This occurs when the force is applied in such a way that the test unit is
divided so that the portions in the original position in relation to each other, as you
can see from the figure 8.2.

16
 Figure 8.2: Cutting
3. Shearing – This results from the application of force where the test material is
separated to two or more parts as shown in the figure 8.3, with one part sliding beyond
the other part e.g. separating dough into two parts.

Figure 8.3: Shearing

4. Tensile strength – This is the application of force away from the material rather than
towards the material, when a force is applied to pull the test material apart. This is
illustrated in the figure 8.4. There may be one force or combination of two forces, such as
shear pressure.
Shear Pressure – Both shearing and compression. The food is first compressed, then
sheared for example tenderometer, chewing action of teeth etc.

Figure 8.4: Tensile Strength

Earlier we learnt that the textural properties include mechanical properties of hardness,
cohesiveness, adhesiveness, chewiness, crispness, gumminess, viscosity and elasticity
etc. A number of instruments are available to evaluate the texture of various foods. A
brief discussion on these instruments follow.

Considering the various textural characteristics of food, you will find that different
instruments are used to measure their different mechanical characteristics. A few

17
examples are: (i) the tenderness of meat is tested by measurement of structure of meat
with a penetrometer. This measurement gives an idea of how easy or difficult it is for the
teeth to bite into a piece of meat. Another device used to measure tenderness is Warner
Braztler Shear. This measures the force needed to cut the meat in simple shear usually
across the fibres and estimate the force needed to chew the meat.

(ii) The texture of fruits and vegetables can be measured as follows:

a) Punctured testing is used to evaluate firmness of fruits. It measures the
amount of force required to penetrate the sample to a specific depth.
b) A shear press is used to study tenderness of fruits and vegetables. This
consists of a rectangular box with evenly spaced slits at bottom. A series of
blades is moved through a sample of food. As the blades move, food is
compressed, sheared and extruded through the openings in box.

(iii) The texture of doughs and batters determine the quality of finished product.
Consistency of batters is determined by “Line-spread apparatus”, which indicates the
nature of dispersion of incorporated air. Consistency and stability of doughs are
measured with a “farinograph”, which measures the force required to turn mixer blade at
a constant speed during mixing of the dough. A “mixograph” also gives information
similar to farinographs.

(iv) Texture of baked products - pastries, cookies and crackers is determined by

“shortometer”. It measures the force required to break the products. A “compressimeter”
is used to evaluate the firmness of breadcrumbs or softness of baked products. The force
requires to break through a sample of baked product can be measured using “Warner-
Braztler Shear”.

Textures, as perceived by human beings, is a composite of characteristics to arrive at a

textural profile. Different new instruments have been developed to evaluate more than
one characteristic constituting texture of a food. One such multiple measuring devices –
Instron – texture measuring system, can measure many properties at the same time e.g.

18
firmness, grittiness, case hardening etc. by the use of force and time curves. In this, force
and time are varied simultaneously. For surface hardening a steep rise is obtained in the
curve. For a less firm product, there will be a gradual rise. For gritty particles, a number
of sharp peaks depths are observed.

Some characteristics of food depend on rheological properties. What are these

properties? What do we mean by rheology of food? The next section presents a
discussion on food rheology.

8.4.2 Rheology of Foods

Rheology is the study of stress and strain or in other words, it is the study of flow and
deformation of materials, both liquids and solids, under stress and strain conditions.
Primarily, rheology deals with three aspects –Elasticity, Plasticity and Viscosity.

The flow characteristics of a food are actually quite complex. For example, if a bread
dough is stretched, but not too far, it will spring back; to the extent that it does, the dough
is elastic. Elasticity is a characteristic of importance in baked products too. Such as
crumb of bread and cake, especially so when they are fresh.

Elastic deformation is reversible but plastic is not. A material that exhibits plastic flow
resists changing position until a minimum force is applied. This is a desirable
characteristic in cake frosting. A soft frosting is desired, but it should stay in place but
not flow down the sides of the cake.

Solids do not flow; however, some solids can be deformed by force and recover when the
force is removed. This is elasticity and gels like those of pectin, gelatin and starch baked
custard etc. are examples of elastic solids. There a number of objectives tests to
determine the firmness of gels. A material that is plastic resists flow until a force is
applied but unlike elastic flow, plastic flow is irreversible.

19
What is viscosity? Viscosity is resistance to flow of a liquid. It is a measure of the
resistance of a fluid to deformation under shear stress. It is commonly perceived as
"thickness", or resistance to pouring. Viscosity describes a fluid's internal resistance to
flow and may be thought of as a measure of fluid friction. Thus, water is "thin", having a
low viscosity, while vegetable oil is "thick" having a high viscosity. While studying
about viscosity you will come across terms such as newtonian fluid and non-newtonian
fluids. What do we mean by this? A Newtonian fluid is one in which the viscosity does
not depend on the shear rate—no matter what shear is applied, the viscosity stays the
same. Examples of newtonian liquids are mineral oil, water and molasses. In many
applications, however, this is not the case and, as the fluid is sheared at greater rates, the
viscosity will change. These types of liquids are known as non-newtonian and there are
many classifications. Examples are toothpaste and whipped cream.

Various methods for textural or rheological measurement are used. We will not go into
the details of these methods here in this unit, but certainly highlight a few method used to
measure rheological parameters.

The first type of rheological model highlighted here is Dash pot model.
1. Dash Pot Model: This method establishes relation between the pressure gradient
and the volume rate of flow. Here, the piston measurement is used to measure the
consistency of the product present in the cylinder. If the load required is more,
consistency is thick. It consists of a piston sliding in the cylinder filled with oil as
shown in the figure 8.5. Here, the load is connected with piston, as you can see
from the figure 8.5, which provides the force for piston movement. If the viscosity
is high, more load is required to obtain a constant movement. Oil can be replaced
by the food material for which the measurements are to be taken. The initial
period of no deformation is there. The piston starts moving only after a critical
load is applied. After sometime, the deformation remains constant. This model
can be used only for fluid test products.

20
 Figure 8.5: Dash Pot Model
2. Spring Model
The spring model depicts elasticity. A force is applied in terms of load onto the spring as
illustrated in the figure 8.6. When the force is applied, deformation is produced which
will remain constant for sometime and the spring will immediately regain its shape after
removal of a load.

Figure 8.6: Spring Model

This is ideal for the elastic materials. In case of food, the spring is replaced with food
material or elastic food, for which the deformation is to be measured. For example,
extensiometer for measuring the dough elasticity and extensibility.

3. Spring clip model: The spring clip model differs from the spring model in a way
that the force applied is comparatively slower. This also depicts elasticity or plasticity of
a material. The force is controlled by pulley arrangement as shown in the figure 8.7. It is
used for measuring the breaking strength of dough. Initially, for sometime, it resists the
flow. Once started with the deformation and after completion of deformation, it becomes
still.

21
 Figure 8.7: Spring Clip Model
4. Shear Pin Model: In this type, a shearing force is applied using a pin to shear the food
product, as illustrated in the figure 8.8. We are rupturing the element of the food product
by using pin.

Figure 8.8: Shear Pin Model

Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1. Define the following terms:
(i) Texture
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(ii) Mouthfeel
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(iii) Hardness
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(iv) Cohesiveness
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(v) Elasticity
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(vi) Adhesiveness
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(vii) Chewiness

22
 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(viii) Rheology
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Fill in the blanks:
(i) Objective methods of texture measurement involve---------------- and ---------------
------ sensations.
(ii) The four basic types of forces encountered while evaluating food texture are ------
----------------, ---------------------, --------------------- and --------------------- .
(iii) -------------------------------- is an instrument used to evaluate multiple
characteristics of food texture.
(iv) Rheological parameters can be measured by ----------------------, ---------------------
------------------------ and ------------------------ .
(v) Few examples of elastic solids are ------------------------------------------------------- .
3. Name a few instruments that are used to measure the texture of:
(i) Meat
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(ii) Fruits and Vegetables
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(iii) Doughs and Batters
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(iv) Baked products
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

8.5 COLOUR

Colour is an important quality attribute in food although they do not necessarily influence
their nutritional, flavour or functional quality. Consumer preferences are strongly
influenced by the colour of the food. Colour is defined as the characteristic of light that
is measured in terms of intensity and wavelength. Why is colour an important

23
characteristic of food? What are its functions? How can we measure colour in foods?
These are a few aspects covered in this section. We begin by first understanding the
functions of colour in foods.

8.5.1 Functions of Colour in Foods

Earlier, in section 9.2 we very briefly introduced you to the colour properties of food and
its role in food. Let us now look at the different functions of colour in details, which are
enumerated herewith:
1. The maturity of many fruits and vegetables is closely associated with colour
development or changes in colour. Colour is also indicative of the freshness of
the product. Changes in colour take place on storage that may lead to reduced
or increased consumer acceptance e.g. in tomatoes- green- yellow- red. So
colour acts as a ripening index in fruits and vegetables.
2. Composition Aspects- Colour indicates the composition of the food. For
example, in egg yolk, the intensity of yellow colour tells us about the pigment
content.
3. Grades are assigned to the food products on the basis of their colour. For
example, tomatoes are graded according to their size and colour. Different
prices are allocated for different grades. This is important for canning industry
where they assign different grades to the canned tomatoes.
4. The end point determination during food processing is also done on the basis
of the colour of the final product. For example, golden brown colour of the
fried products.
5. Distinct colours are associated with different flavours e.g. pink colour to
strawberry flavour, yellow to mango flavour and orange to orange flavour etc.
6. It has been seen that the flavour scores of an inferior grade (poor quality) juice
can be improved by colouring it to resemble the juice of better quality. So
colour serves as a standard of good quality. Also, the flavour identification
becomes difficult if the products are coloured deceptively. For example, green
colour for an orange juice. Also people describe white wine as less sweet in
taste in comparison to the red wine even though the sugar concentration has

24
 been kept constant. Example, orange juice which had a yellow colour has been
found to be less acceptable in comparison to bright orange colour juice.

Well then, colour, as is evident from the discussion above plays a crucial role in food
acceptability. It contributes immeasurably to ones aesthetic appreciation for food in
addition to being associated with other attributes. A number of instruments are used for
colour measurements. The next sub-section presents a review on these instruments.

8.5.2 Measurement of Colour in Foods

A number of instruments are used for colour measurements in food. In this section we
shall acquaint you to some of the simple methods/instruments used to measure colour in
foods. These are highlighted herewith:
a) A simple method is to match the colour of a food with coloured chips or glass and
give them name accordingly.
b) Disc Colourimetry, in which different coloured discs are spun on a stage, so that
the colours merge into one colour. The test sample is placed adjacent to the
spinning disc and the colours are matched.
c) Tintometers are simple instruments used to determine the colour and its depth in
foods for a more reliable measurement of colour.
d) Spectrophotometers are also used to measure colour. In the case of clear and
transparent solutions, spectrophotometric measurements give quantitative results.
For the foods that are opaque in nature, “reflectance spectrophotometry” is used.
In the Reflectance Spectrophotometery, colour is measured in terms of amount of
light reflected from the surface of the object at each wavelength in the range of
380-700 nm.
e) Tri – Stimulus Colourimetry, in which the colour is specified by three attributes -
dominant wavelength, brightness and purity- hence referred to as tristimulus
system. These three refer to the actual colour, luminosity and strength of the
colour respectively.

25
Other than the measurement of colour, analysis of colour in food is also important. You
may recall reading about the three different classes of colours – natural, synthetic and
natural identical, earlier. How can we analyse or check whether the colour present in
food, particularly the synthetic one, is permitted or not? There are different ways of
colour analysis. The next sub-section throws light on this analysis.

8.5.3 Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Colour

Primarily, two types of analysis are carried out for food colours - qualitative and
quantitative.

The qualitative analysis is carried out to check whether the dye present in food as a
colourant is permitted or not. This is done with the help of various separation techniques
Gas Liquid Chromatography (GLC), Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC), paper
chromatography and spectrophotometry.

The colour from the food product is extracted and subjected to one of these techniques
for identification of colour. In case of paper chromatography and TLC, reference values
of the extracted colours is compared with that of standard and in case of GLC, retention
time values are compared. Retention time is the time taken by the component to elute
from the column.

Quantitative analysis, on the other hand, is done to check whether the amount present is
within the prescribed limits or not. In case of GLC area of the peak obtained is directly
proportional to the amount of the component present. In case of TLC the spotted portion
is scrapped from the plate and dissolved in a suitable solvent filtered and the colour
intensity is measured using spectrophotometer. If the artificial colours used are preset
beyond the prescribed limit they might prove to be toxic to the human health. All these
determinations are done for synthetic colours only.

With qualitative and quantitative analysis of colours in foods, we come to an end of our
study on the properties of foods.

26
Check Your Progress Exercise 4
1. Give the functions of colours in foods.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Define the following terms:
(i) Colour
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(ii) Retention time
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. List a few methods to measure colour in foods.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

8.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, you studied about various properties of foods, under which the quality
attributes of foods were introduced to you in terms of food quality and its categories as
appearance, texture and flavour factors. The sensory or subjective evaluation of foods
was also described.

A detailed discussion on the sensory characteristics of foods was done, that included
gustation, texture and colour. In this, you learnt about the techniques of measurement,
analysis and evaluation of these characteristics.

8.7 GLOSSARY

Absolute threshold : The minimum detectable concentration; stimulus

magnitude at which the subject an identify different tastes.

27
Adhesiveness : The work necessary to overcome the attractive forces
between surfaces of material and surfaces that contact it.
Bitterness : A sensation of a peculiar, acid, biting taste.
Brittleness : The ease with which a food can be cracked.
Chewiness : The resistance of a product to compression and shearing
action of teeth.
Cohesiveness : The strength of internal bonds holding the body of the
substance together.
Colour : The characteristic of light that is measured in terms of
intensity and wavelength.
Compression : The squeezing of the test material so that it still remains
as an undivided unit but may occupy less volume.
Disc Colourimetry : A technique by which an unknown colour is evaluated in
terms of standard colours; used in chemistry and physics;
may be visual, photoelectric, or indirect by means of
spectrophotometry.
Dissociation : The process that may occur when a chemical compound
breaks up into simpler constituents as a result of an action
of a solvent or a change in physical condition, as in
pressure or temperature, causes a molecule to split into
simpler groups of atoms, single atoms, or ions.
Elasticity : The rate at which a deformed material goes back to its
original shape.
Emulsifying agents : An agent used to bind oil soluble and water soluble
ingredients.
Flavour : A combination of taste and odour or smell or aroma.
Gas chromatography : The separation of a mixture of compounds into separate
components, which then can be analyzed by a mass
spectrometer to yield detailed empirical molecular
information regarding chemistry of sample.

28
Gas Liquid
Chromatography : The substance is held stationary by an inert solid coated
with an inert liquid which is not likely to evaporate, while a
gas flows past it bringing out the components one at a time.
Grades : A set of things all falling in the same specified limits; a
class.
Gumminess : The energy required to disintegrate a semi-solid food
prior to swallowing.
Gustation : An act of tasting.
Luminosity : The quality of being luminous; emitting or reflecting
light.
Mouthfeel : The mingled experience desiring from the sensation of the
skin and the mouth during and after ingestion.
Objective Evaluation : Evaluation by mechanical test or instrumental methods.
Odour : The sensation that results when olfactory receptors in the
nose are stimulated by particular chemicals in a gaseous
form.
pH meter : A device used to measure hydrogen ion concentration or
pH.
Quality : A degree of excellence and includes such things as taste,
appearance and nutritional content. It is the composite of
characteristics that have significance and which help in
making the product acceptable.
Reaction time : The time interval between tasting of a substance and
identification of the taste by the brain.
Recognition/Detection
Rheology : Study of stress and strain; the study of flow and
deformation of materials, both liquids and solids under
stress and strain conditions.
Sensory evaluation : When the quality of a food product is assessed by means
of human sensory organs.

29
Shearing : The application of force where the test material is
separated to two or more parts with one part sliding beyond
the other part.
Spectrophotometer : An instrument for measuring or comparing the intensities
of the colours of the spectrum.
Tensile strength : The application of force away from the material rather
than towards the material.
Terminal Threshold : The maximum concentration beyond which taste or a
change in sensation is not perceived.
Texture : A composite properly involving many physical properties
in a complex relationship.
Threshold : The concentration required for identification.
Threshold : The concentration at which the subject can identify a
specific taste. It is always higher than absolute threshold.
Tintometer : A measuring instrument used in colorimetric analysis to
determine the quantity of a substance from the colour it
yields with specific reagents.
Viscosity : The rate of flow per unit force.
Wavelength : The distance between successive peaks or nodes of a
wave.

8.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1.
(i) colour, wholesomeness, gloss, degree of ripeness, smell, taste and texture
(ii) quality
(iii) sensory; subjective; organoleptic
(iv) appearance; texture and flavour
(v) texture

30
2.
a) taste
b) texture
c) appearance
d) odour
e) texture
f) taste
g) odour
h) appearance
i) texture
j) texture

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1.
i) few important qualities.
ii) Sweet, sour, salty and bitter
iii) Organic compounds
iv) 10 ppm

2. The areas where various taste sensations are perceived are:

• Sweet taste: more on the tongue than on hard palate
• Bitter taste: hard palate
• Salty taste: tip of the tongue
• Sour taste: hard palate

3.
a) Threshold is the concentration required for identification
b) Reaction time is the time interval between tasting of a substance and identification
of the taste by the brain.

31
4.
Concentration, taste interactions, Adaptations and time.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1.
(i) Texture is a composite property involving many physical properties in a complex
relationship
(ii) The mingled experience arising from the sensation of the skin and the mouth
during and after ingestion is referred to as mouthfeel.
(iii) Hardness is the force necessary to affect a given deformation.
(iv) Cohesiveness is the strength of internal bonds holding the body of the substance
together.
(v) The rate at which a deformed material goes back to its original shape is referred to
as elasticity.
(vi) Adhesiveness is the work necessary to overcome the attractive forces between
surfaces of material and surfaces that contact it.
(vii) Chewiness is the resistance of a product to compression and shearing action of
teeth, or the energy needed to masticate a solid food.
(viii) Rheology is the study of flow and deformation of materials, both liquids and
solids, under stress and strain conditions.

2.
(i) Stimulating and measuring the sensations
(ii) Compression, cutting, shearing, tensile strength
(iii) Instron – texture measuring system
(iv) Dash pot model, spring model, spring clip model and shear pin model
(v) Gels of pectin, gelatin and starch baked custard

3.
(i) Meat - penetrometer; Warner Braztler Shear
(ii) Fruits and vegetables - punctured testing; shear press

32
(iii) Doughs and batters - line-spread apparatus; Farinograph; mixograph
(iv) Baked products - Shortometer; Compressimeter; Instron – texture measuring
system
Check Your Progress Exercise 4
1. The functions of colour in foods are: as a ripening index, indicator of composition
of food, allocation of different grades, determining the end point during
processing, association with different flavours and indicator of standard of good
quality.

2.
(i) Colour is the characteristic of light that is measured in terms of intensity and
wavelength
(ii) Retention time is the time taken by the component to elute from the column.

3. Matching the colour of a food with coloured chips / glass, Disc colourimetry,
Tintometers, Spectrophotometers and Tri-stimulus colourimetry.

33
________________________________________________________________________
UNIT 9: CHEMICAL, PHYSICAL AND NUTRITIONAL
ALTERATIONS OCCURING IN FOODS DURING
PROCESSING AND STORAGE
________________________________________________________________________

Structure

9.1 Introduction
9.2 Food Processing in Perspective
9.3 Alterations Occurring in Fruits and Vegetables
9.4 Alterations Occurring in Milk and Milk Products
9.5 Alterations Occurring in Meat and Poultry
9.6 Alterations Occurring in Fish
9.7 Alterations Occurring in Egg
9.8 Alterations Occurring in Cereal, Cereal Products and Legumes
9.9 Alterations Occurring in Nuts/ Oil seeds and Spices
9.10 Let Us Sum Up
9.11 Glossary
9.12 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

________________________________________________________________________
9.1 INTRODUCTION
________________________________________________________________________

In the first block of this course, we have talked about the major constituents, that is,
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and their physico-chemical characteristics. We have also
acquired detailed knowledge about vitamins, minerals, enzymes, pigments and flavours,
where we had primarily focused on the structure, occurrence of these in the food in their
natural form and their application in the food industry. As you are aware that food is a
perishable commodity it undergoes various physical, chemical and microbial changes;
that might be undesirable. Hence, to prevent such changes and to ensure its future use and
availability all round the year, it must be processed and stored using scientific techniques.
We will learn about food processing in Units 10, 11 and 12 of this course. Now in this
unit, we shall direct our attention to the alterations occurring in the constituents of food
during processing and storage. The knowledge gained regarding the chemical

1
composition and physico-chemical properties of food in the earlier units would be useful
here for interpreting the changes, which occur during processing and storage.

Objectives
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
• understand the need of food processing
• identify specific changes in a particular food due to various types of processing
• discriminate between favourable and unfavourable reactions during processing
and storage in different groups of food and
• have an idea and think about optimization of process parameters to regulate
chemical, physical and nutritional alternations according to the need

_______________________________________________________________________
9.2 FOOD PROCESSING IN PERSPECTIVE
_______________________________________________________________________

In the present scenario, food processing is very essential in order to achieve food security
and in providing safe food to the people.

Food preservation, as you are aware, is the process in which the perishable food
materials are given a suitable physical or chemical treatment to prevent their wastage,
spoilage and to retain their nutritive value for long periods. Food processing can result in
several advantages, some of which are substantial. These include:
• increased shelf-life
• decreased hazards from microbial pathogen
• decreased spoilage (microbial, enzymatic)
• inactivation of anti-nutritional factors
• ensured round the year availability of seasonal foods
• perishable foods can be transported to far-off distances from the site of production
• increased availability of convenience (e.g. Ready-to-serve beverages, Instant mixes)
foods and

2
• increased variety of foods, some with enhanced sensory properties and nutritional
attributes.

The above mentioned points highlight the importance of food processing. While
processing food, you may have realized that many desirable changes occur, which
include development of pleasing colours and flavors, improvement of texture and
improvement of the functionality of food or ingredients. However, a number of
undesirable changes may also occur during food processing which are generally product
and process-specific like, damage to colour and flavour, damage to the nutritional
properties and/or the development of toxic constituents etc.

Based upon the knowledge acquired about various changes (physical, chemical and
nutritional), which may occur during food processing, it is necessary to optimize the
process parameters so as to get a wholesome food product. In the subsequent sections in
this unit, we shall look at various alterations occurring in different foods, during
processing.
____________________________________________________________________
9.3 ALTERATIONS OCCURRING IN FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
_____________________________________________________________________

You may already be aware that fruits and vegetables vary greatly in their chemical
composition. However, some generalizations are possible. Fruits and vegetables have
high water content, with a range from approximately 70 per cent for pears and bananas to
91 per cent for cabbage. The amount of protein and lipids in fruits and vegetables is
usually very low, though both are good sources of vitamins particularly vitamins A and
C. Part of the carbohydrate in fresh fruits and vegetables is present as cellulose and pectic
substances in the cell wall. Starch is present in almost all fruits and vegetables, although
it may decrease on ripening. Glucose, fructose and sucrose are widely distributed whose
content vary considerably in various fruits and vegetables. Further, we have also seen that
carotenoids, chlorophylls, anthoxanthins and anthocyanins are the chief pigments present
in fruits and vegetables.

3
The detailed chemical changes that occur when fruits and vegetables are boiled in water
or steamed, canned, dried or frozen, are still for the most part unknown. However, certain
fruits and vegetables like apples, peaches, potato etc. turn brown when cut and exposed to
air. This is a result of numerous enzymatic reactions that occur in fruit and vegetables on
processing. These reactions may result in changes in the appearance, texture, flavour and
colour of the fruits and vegetables. You may recall reading about these changes earlier in
Unit 2.

Further, as a result of changes in the cell wall and intercellular structure, all fruits and
vegetables undergo softening when cooked, no matter by what method. The changes
occur in pectic substances, cellulose, starch and intercellular air. Cellulose, pectin and
hemicellulose, as you have learnt earlier, are the major polysaccharide components in the
cell wall of all plant foods. There has been a rapid progress in understanding the physical
and chemical properties of polysaccharides in recent years. Studies on the role of cell
wall components in food texture have been done, particularly on pectic substances.
Alterations in pigments, formation of acids and release of low molecular weight sulfur
compounds have been reported as the major changes during processing of fruits and
vegetables. In a study, reactivation of a pectinesterase has been found in cucumber slices.
When fresh cucumber slices were blanched for 3 minutes at 81o C, enzyme activity could
not be detected. However, when the blanched slices were stored in a pH 3.7, brine
containing 0.6% acetic acid, 2.5% sodium chloride (NaCl), and 200 ppm sulphur dioxide
(SO2), about 20% of the activity present in the fresh tissue was regained during the first
month of storage.

In processing fruits and vegetables, loss of carotenoids into cooking or canning water is
very slight. However, carotenoids undergo oxidation when exposed to air, so that drying
of fruits or vegetables which contain these pigments, a problem is sometimes
encountered. For example, carrots and apricots show loss of pigment on drying. Anti-
oxidants partially protect the pigment from deterioration, as it is reasoned that the
degradation of the pigment might be associated with the oxidative changes in the fat.

4
Chlorophyll, the pigment responsible for giving bright green colour to the vegetables, is
very unstable and undergoes changes in colour which are often considered to be
undesirable. Have you ever noticed the colour change in spinach when boiled in water?
Yes, the green colour of the spinach turns to olive green and then to brown when the
leaves are cooked for long. Basically, chlorophyll changes to olive green colour and then
to brown when the food is heated and the reaction is faster in acid solutions. When a
vegetable becomes olive green on cooking, the chlorophyll gets converted to pheophytin
(a derivative of chlorophyll). The reaction can be written schematically as indicated
below. Hence, special care must be taken to produce food products from plant sources to
retain a bright, attractive green colour.
COOCH3

COOCH3

C32 H30 O N4 Mg +2H+ C32 H30 O N4 H2 + Mg ++

(Chlorophyll) COOC20 H37 (Pheophytin)

COOC20 H31

Dehydration is one of the ancient food processing techniques. Dehydration means to

completely remove water under controlled conditions, in such a way that minimal
changes occur in the food item. We will read about the technique later in unit 11. Here,
let us focus on the changes occurring in fruits/vegetables during the process of
dehydration. Vegetable dehydration reduces the natural water content below the level
critical for the growth of microorganisms (12-15%), without being detrimental to
important nutrients. Also, it is aimed at preserving flavour, aroma and appearance, and
the ability to regain the original shape or appearance on reconstitution with water.
However, the dehydration process is also accompanied by significant alterations. These
include:

First, there is a concentration of major ingredients such as proteins, carbohydrates and

minerals. This occurs along with some chemical changes. Fats undergo oxidative

5
degradation and, although present in low amounts in vegetables, this oxidation often
diminishes odor and flavour. Amino compounds and carbohydrates interact in a Maillard
reaction (you would recall reading about the Maillard reaction in Unit 2), resulting in a
darker colour and development of new aroma substances. Vitamin levels may also
decrease sharply. The original volatile aroma and flavour compounds are lost to a great
extent during processing depending upon the severity of the processing conditions.

Dried fruits are exceptionally rich in calories and they supply significant amounts of
minerals. Of the vitamins found in fruits, β-Carotene and the vitamins of B-group are not
significantly altered. Vitamin C is lost to a great extent. Sulfite treatment destroys
vitamin B1, however, fruit colour and vitamin C can be retained and stabilized.

Freezing is another ancient technique of food processing, which allows the transportation
of perishable food items for long distances from production to consumption centres.
Freezing refers to freeze the available water of the food/food product and maintain it at -
18oC or below. Freezing is mainly done for vegetables using conventional freezing
techniques by indirect cold-transfer in plate or air freezers. We will learn more about
freezing in Unit 11 later, but now we shall look at the changes/alterations occurring in
fruits and vegetables, caused by freezing as a processing technique.

Freezing preserves vegetable and nutrients to a great extent. Vitamin A and β-Carotene
are well preserved in spinach, peas and beans, or are moderately lost (asparagus) after
proper blanching, freezing and deep freeze storage and even after thawing to room
temperature. Losses in the vitamin B-group depend mostly on the conditions of the
primary processing steps (washing, blanching). The other steps have no significant effect
on B-vitamins. Leaching of vitamin C by water or steam is detrimental. It is generally
preserved during freezing and thawing. Careful blanching and low temperature storage
are critical for vitamin C preservation.

Uncontrolled freezing can result in the disruption of texture, denaturation of proteins and
many other physical and chemical changes. Irreversible textural changes can occur in

6
deep frozen vegetables. Typical symptoms are softening, ductile stickiness, or looseness
or flaccidity (a flabby softness, as in beans, cucumbers carrots); build up of a sticky,
ductile, gum-like structure (asparagus) or pasty, soggy structure (celery, kohlrabi) or hull
hardening (peas).

Pickled vegetables are produced by spontaneous lactic acid fermentation. Fermentation

improves the digestibility and wholesomeness of the product. The acidic pH of the
medium stabilizes vitamin C. Pickled vegetables also develop a typical aroma, which is
desirable.

Canning, which involves heat sterilization, is one of the most important processes in
vegetable preservation. As compared to other foods, vegetable sterilization processes is
carried out at towards a higher temperature and shorter time (HTST sterilization). In this
way, the products retain a better quality in terms of texture, aroma and colour.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1. Fill in the blanks:
a) Fresh fruits contain carbohydrates as …………… and ……. …………… .
b) The component that is present in both fruits and vegetables and decreases on
ripening is ………………… .
c) The chief pigments present in fruits and vegetables are chlorophylls, carotenoids,
…………………and ………………… .
d) Cooking of fruits and vegetables results in changes in cellulose…………………,
……………… and ………………………… .
e) The enzyme present in cucumber that is activated during first month of storage
is……………………
2. Mention the changes that occur in fruits and vegetables during the following
processes.
a) Dehydration -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

7
b) Freezing ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. Complete the following reaction:
COOCH3

C32 H30 O N4 Mg + + Mg ++

(Chlorophyll)

COOC20 H37

________________________________________________________________________
9.4 ALTERATIONS OCCURRING IN MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS
_______________________________________________________________________

In the dairy industry, milk is commonly given heat treatment for a wide variety of
purposes. Depending on the heating temperature, this procedure may cause several
changes in milk, such as salt precipitation, due to the formation of insoluble complexes,
protein denaturation and interactions among milk components. Heating milk at near
boiling point causes a film or skin to form on the surface. This skin is mainly due to
calcium caseinate but the other constituents in milk are also present in it.

Have you ever noticed what changes take place in milk if you heat it above its boiling
point? Autoclaving milk, wherein temperature of around 121oC is achieved, causes
browning. The brown colour is due to the heat effecting an interaction between the casein
(or amino acids) and the sugar. The process employed to heat milk also affects the
changes in physico-chemical properties of milk. Research has shown that changes in
certain physical and chemical properties of ultra-heated milk (95oC to 145oC) were much
more severe when the milk was heated by indirect as compared to direct (steam injection)
process. Increased browning and a greater amount of whey protein denaturation were
particularly noticeable in ultra heated milk.

8
Apart from the above mentioned alterations, certain flavor changes also occur in milk,
depending on the temperature and duration of heating. Heating milk to high temperatures
causes a cooked flavor to appear. In the holding method of pasteurization (62oC for 30
minutes) or the high-temperature short-time (HTST), 71oC for 15 minutes methods - very
little cooked flavor is noticed, but at higher temperatures or longer periods of heating,
cooked flavor becomes more apparent. The flavor appears at 70oC on momentary heating.
This cooked flavor has been shown to be due to the production of sulfhydryls
(compounds with a -SH group, found in many plant and animal enzymes) by high
temperatures. Sulfhydryl compounds are readily oxidized and delay the oxidation of fat
in milk or cream heated to high temperatures. Oxidized flavors in milk do not usually
appear until the sulfhydryls are oxidized and the cooked flavor has disappeared.

Freezing the milk also alters its composition and properties to a great extent. Let us learn
about these changes. As the milk freezes, it becomes very uneven in the composition of
the frozen and other solids, while the liquid portion becomes concentrated with the milk
solids, so much so that milk never freezes solid entirely. Freezing alters the physical
condition of milk to the extent that it never returns to its original state. It causes the fat
globules to lose their complete emulsion structure, to clump and become distorted and
irregular in shape and size. The casein is also affected by freezing. It is partly broken
from its existence in milk as calcium caseinate and gets precipitated as flakes. This
condition, together with some free fat particles, gives the thawed-out milk an unnatural
appearance. The flavor is also affected, being rather watery to the taste.

The caseinate micelles of milk, which are quite stable to heat, may be destabilized by
freezing. On frozen storage of milk, the stability of the caseinate progressively decreases
and may lead to complete coagulation.

Casein is an important example of protein, which can be boiled without apparent change
in stability. The exceptional stability of casein makes it possible to boil, sterilize and
concentrate milk, without coagulation.

9
Now we will have a look at the factors that have a bearing on viscosity. Low
temperatures and aging induce clumping of the fat globules of milk, which increases the
viscosity. Mechanical agitation of whole milk decreases the viscosity, because the fat
globule clumps are partially broken up, while in the case of skim milk, it has no effect
due to the presence of small amount of fats.

Homogenized milk will not be affected, as the fat globules are already broken up.
Homogenization increases the viscosity of whole milk but slightly decreases that of skim
milk. This process breaks up the fat globule into much smaller ones and thereby provides
a larger surface area. A film of protein is adsorbed on the surface of the globules and this
surface being much larger than in the non-homogenized milk, a much greater adsorption
takes place, which causes a higher viscosity. Skim milk, some of the protein particles
may be broken and therefore, the viscosity will be reduced.

Pasteurization temperatures slightly lowers the viscosity through breaking the clumps of
fat globules, but when subjected to high heat, or high pressure, the viscosity is increased
due to the denaturation of proteins.

________________________________________________________________________
9.5 ALTERATIONS OCCURRING IN MEAT AND POULTRY
________________________________________________________________________

Meat, as you already know, is rich in proteins and contains most of the essential amino
acids. It is also rich in minerals such as copper and iron; vitamins such as A, B1, B2 and
B3. Its fat content varies from 5-40% with the type, breed, feed and age of the animal.
Meats are rich in saturated fatty acids (SFA).A brief account of the effect of thermal
treatment of meat products can be included. The intrinsic changes, which the muscles
undergo in becoming meat, have not generally been considered, although it is
increasingly recognized that their nature and extent may well determine the behavior of
the meat.

10
It is important to point out that over-effective chilling of hot carcasses can lead to
toughness. If the temperature of the meat (muscles) can be reduced to -10 to -15oC, whilst
they are still in the early pre-rigor condition (pH about 6.0-6.4), there is a tendency for
shortening and thereby, toughness on subsequent cooking. This phenomenon is referred
to as “cold-shortening”. The tendency of cold shortening is greater when closer the
temperature attained by the pre-rigor muscle is close to the freezing temperature.

The effect of irradiation on nutrients in meats and poultry has been the subject of
considerable attention by researchers because they have been used as an argument against
the approval and commercial application of this process. Most unreasonable aspect in this
controversy is the consistent emphasis made on the detrimental effects of irradiation on
food nutrients, including those in meat and poultry that has been reported to a large extent
by the extrapolation of data gathered from the studies in which the selected, isolated
nutrients were irradiated in model systems.

In terms of amino acid composition, high radiation doses such as those needed for
sterilization (e.g. 25-27Kgy), do not change the content of cystine, methionine and
tryptophan in beef, despite the fact that these amino acids are highly susceptible to
damage by other processes. Data provided by Taub et. al. (1979) on the comparative
effects of various processing techniques, including irradiation, on the amino acid content
of beef are presented in Table No. 2.

Various studies have been conducted which indicate the effect of processing on vitamins
especially, thiamine. In one study, which compared the effects of ionizing radiation and
of conventional thermal processing on the thiamine content of enzyme–inactivated
ground pork, concluded that sterilization by conventional thermal processing caused

11
thiamine losses in pork were comparable to or greater than those caused by radiation
sterilization.

Another study examined the combined effect of irradiation, storage and cooking on the
thiamine content of minced pork. The pork was treated at 1Kgy while packaged in
polyethylene bags at ambient temperature, followed by storage at 0oC for 8 months, with
or without heating for 10 minutes at 100oC or 30 min at 200oC before irradiation. The
following results were obtained. Thiamine losses in unheated pork immediately after
irradiation were 5%, whereas losses during refrigerated storage at 0oC were no different
from those in the non-irradiated samples. Heating pork at 100oC for 10 minutes before
irradiation had little additional effect on thiamine losses exhibited by unheated, irradiated
samples.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. State whether the following statements are True or False. Correct the false
statements.
a) Low temperature and aging are the factors that lower the viscosity of milk.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
b) Autoclaving milk has no effect on milk.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
c) Heating milk to high temperatures gives it a cooked flavour.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
d) An important milk protein, casein, on boiling remains stable.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
e) The surface tension of milk is independent of fats and proteins.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
f) High radiation doses have no effect on amino acid composition of meat.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
g) Radiation sterilization leads to increased thiamin losses in pork than conventional
thermal processing.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

12
h) Thiamin losses were similar in refrigeration at 0oC and in non-irradiated samples
of minced pork.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Fill in the blanks:
a) The major component of the film formed on heated milk is -------------------- .
b) ……………… delay oxidation of fat in milk or cream heated to high temperature.
c) On frozen storage, the stability of caseinate progressively-------------------------- .
d) ………… increases surface tension of milk while ………………… decreases it.
e) Mechanical agitation greatly affects the viscosity of …….milk but has no effect
on ……… milk.
3. Give reasons:
a) Browning caused in heated milk------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
b) Cooked flavour in milk----------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
c) Freezing alters properties of milk-----------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. What do you understand by the term ‘cold shortening’?
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

________________________________________________________________________
9.6 ALTERATIONS OCCURRING IN FISH
________________________________________________________________________

The skeletal muscle of fish consists of short fibers arranged between sheets of connective
tissue. The connective tissue in the fish muscle is less than that in mammalian tissue and
the fibers are comparatively shorter. The tissue has different physical properties which
results in a more tender texture of fish compared with meat. The myofibrils of fish
muscles have a striated appearance similar to that of a mammalian muscle and contains
the same major proteins, myosin, actin, actomyosin and tropomyosin.

13
Fish actomyosin has been found to be quite labile and easily changed during processing
and storage. During frozen storage, the actomyosin becomes progressively less soluble
and the flesh becomes increasingly tougher. Fish proteins are particularly susceptible to
destabilization during freezing and frozen storage. After freezing, the fish may become
tough, rubbery and lose moisture.

Studies on the effect of heat processing on fish indicate that the dietary value of protein
seems not to be significantly affected by exposure to canning time/temperature processes.
Infact, some proteinaceous components that would otherwise be plate-waste, like salmon
and sardine bones, are softened enough to become edible. The heat denaturation of
protein causes water losses varying from 9 to 28%, dependent on the severity of the
process/pre-process, species, pH and other physiological factors.

Textural changes due to heat processing are also inevitable and may be advantageous to a
limited degree. Excessive protein denaturation and the accompanying decrease in the
water-holding capacity of the structural components yield a product with a dry and chewy
mouth-feel. However, the oily-fleshed fish exhibit less of these effects, due to the
restrictive effects of the lipids on water migration. Choice of raw material is important in
this context, with less fresh fish losing more water and therefore, showing greater textural
deterioration after processing.

We have already studied about browning in the section of fruits and vegetables. Can you
recall which components were responsible for the reaction? Well, yes, sugars and amino
acids. In case of fishes too, presence of sugars and amino acids may be responsible for
the Maillard-type reactions during heat processing.

Proline is a prominent amino acid found in fish and may contribute to sweetness. The
sugars ribose, glucose and glucose-6-phosphate are flavour contributors, as is 5-inosinic
acid, which contributes a meaty flavour note. Volatile sulfur compounds contribute to the
flavour of fish; hydrogen sulphide, methylmercaptan and dimethylsulfide may contribute
to the aroma of fish.

14
Browning in canned fish is commonly associated with ribose. Undesirable colour changes
in shellfish during canning often involve metal ions, for example, the blue discoloration
of crab meat involves iron, whereas a black discoloration in prawns relates to copper
content. Eels, abalone and albacore tuna; all undergo discoloration on processing, due to
the high iron content of the raw material. Discoloration of this type is increased when the
material is held in frozen storage prior to canning, because of the build-up of free sulphur
in the tissue. Iron and free sulphur react together during heat processing, precipitating
black iron sulphide on the sides of the container, in the fish itself and especially in any
free liquid.

Slight losses of B-group vitamins, thiamine, riboflavin, nicotinic acid, folic acid and
cyanocobalamine have been revealed in comparisons between fresh and canned fish.

Do you know what factors lead to spoilage of fish flesh? A difference in the composition
of tissues among different species, climate, procurement and holding practices are
amongst few of the important factors that lead to spoilage of fish.

Spoiling fish flesh, which becomes subject to excessive autolysins, may yield a heat-
processed product with a pitted or honeycombed texture, although a restricted degree of
proteolysis prior to processing, may result in a desirable softening of the texture of the
finished product.
_______________________________________________________________________
9.7 ALTERATIONS OCCURRING IN EGG
________________________________________________________________________

The quality, flavour, composition and functional properties of eggs are adversely affected
more rapidly and to a greater extent by the speed and conditions of handling, uncoated
shells, storage times and temperatures.

The nutritive value of frozen and dried eggs is essentially the same as that of fresh eggs.
The drying or freezing processes do not cause any significant loss of nutrients. Properly

15
stored, dried and frozen eggs show no subsequent nutrient loss. This observation can be
substantiated by the following facts.

A comparison of hard-cooked and scrambled eggs showed that none of the methods had
an advantage with respect to thiamine content. However, scrambled eggs had about 20%
less riboflavin than hard-cooked eggs. The loss of threonine (an amino acid), was the
same (0.22%) for both cooking methods.

Drying of eggs under normal conditions causes little loss of the nutritional properties of
the eggs. Vitamin A, vitamin B, thiamine, riboflavin, pantothenic acid and nicotinic acid
have been determined in dried whole egg and found to be essentially the same as that in
fresh egg product. The protein value of dried eggs remains essentially unchanged.
Adverse drying conditions or poor storage conditions could damage nutritional
properties. However, any egg product without any off-flavour will probably have all its
nutritional properties.

Generally speaking, egg products do not lose their heat coagulating properties during
drying. If drying conditions are too severe, or if the storage conditions are adverse,
whole egg and yolk products can lose solubility and this loss in solubility will coincide
with a loss of heat-coagulating properties. One manifestation of excessive heat in drying
of plain whole egg and plain yolk is an increase in their viscosity on reconstitution.
Change in viscosity of dried plain yolk is much greater than in dried plain whole egg.
Viscosity increase in the whole egg and yolk products can also be observed during
storage. Reconstituted viscosity increases quite rapidly at the temperatures above 100o F.

The density of egg products is not affected by dehydration. When a dried egg product is
reconstituted to its natural solids, it has about the same density as the liquid, from which
it was dried. Bulk density of the dried egg product can vary considerably, depending
upon the methods and conditions of drying. Pan-dried egg products are much higher in
bulk density than their spray-dried counterparts. Freeze-dried egg products are lowest in
bulk density.

16
The changes in functional properties noted above, are undoubtedly caused by the changes
that occur in the chemical properties of the various components of the egg. As you are
already aware, the major component of egg white is proteins. Thus, any changes that
occur in egg white during drying are apparently caused by changes in these proteins.
Denaturation and coagulation of the proteins are considered to be the chemical changes,
since they involve the unfolding of proteins, which exposes certain chemical groups, such
as the sulfhydryl group, thus altering the chemical reactivity of the proteins. Since water
is an integral part of the protein molecule, its removal may cause certain changes to occur
in the properties of egg white.

The presence of glucose in eggs can cause chemical changes during drying, as well as
during storage after drying. In egg white, the reaction involves the reducing or aldehyde
groups of glucose and the amino groups of the proteins (Maillard reaction). This reaction
results in the development of brown colour and a reduction in solubility. The reaction is
minimized by drying to low moisture content and at lower pHs. Because glucose
constitutes about 4% of the solids in egg white, almost all egg white that is dried, has had
the glucose removed before drying.

The changes that occur in egg-yolk and yolk-containing egg products are apparently even
more complex than those in the egg-white. Changes in yolk and whole egg product can
also be caused by the reaction with glucose. In this case, glucose can react with the amino
groups not only in protein but also in cephalin. The reaction with cephalin causes the
development of off-flavours and off-odours during storage. The reaction can be prevented
by the removal of glucose and is also inhibited by the addition of carbohydrates like
sucrose.

The changes in viscosity of plain egg yolk and whole egg, as indicated previously, are
apparently due to the changes in the lipoproteins. The lipids make up approximately 45%
of whole egg solids and 60% of yolk solids, and thus play a predominant role in changes
during drying. Of the lipids in egg yolk, 62% are glycerides, 33% phospholipids and 5%
cholesterol. Of the phospholipids, lecithin is 73% and cephalin is 15%. The oxidation

17
rate of cephalin is extremely rapid, being approximately 100 times that of lecithin. These
phospholipids are bound together with protein and water is an essential part of this
association. When water is removed, the balance is changed. In general, it is difficult to
remove water from lipoproteins without causing changes in their properties.

Gelation, which occurs when yolk is frozen and thawed, is apparently due to the
aggregation of yolk lipoproteins because of the imbalance and shift in water.
Carbohydrates prevent increase in viscosity of yolk during drying and after drying and
storage.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1. Fill in the blanks:
a) The myofibrils of fish contains proteins, namely ………………,
…………………… , …………………… and ……………………… .
b) On freezing, the fish becomes ……………. , .…………… and …….…….. .
c) Comparison between canned and fresh fish reveal differences in the loss of
…………………..
2. State True or False. Also correct false statements.
a) Drying or freezing egg has no effect on the nutritive value of egg.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
b) Hard cooked eggs were found to have greater thiamine content as compared to
scrambled eggs.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
c) Eggs lose their heat coagulating properties on drying.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
d) Changes occuring in egg-white is caused due to presence of proteins in it.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
e) Lipoproteins are responsible for causing changes in the viscosity.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. How is Maillard reaction occuring in egg-white different from that in egg-yolk?

18
 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. What do you understand by the term ‘Gelation’?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. What is the effect of heat processing on fish?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6. Explain the process of browning in canned fish.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
_______________________________________________________________________
9.8 ALTERATIONS OCCURING IN CEREAL & CEREAL PRODUCTS,

LEGUMES

______________________________________________________________________

You are already aware of the chemical composition of cereals and pulses. We will now
look into changes occurring in these food products due to processing and storage.

We all know that cereals can be stored without loss of quality for 2 to 3 years, provided
that the kernel moisture content (which is 20-24%) after threshing is reduced to at least
14%. The kernel consists of four parts: the seed coat (pericarp), the fruit coat (aleurone
layer), the endosperm and the germ, or embryo. Figure 9.1 depicts these four parts.

Figure 9.1: Cereal grain

19
The aim of milling (the process including crushing and grinding) is to obtain
preferentially a flour, in which the constituents of the endosperm cells predominate. The
outer part of the kernel, including the germ and aleurone layer is removed. During milling
of the wheat kernel, 5-8% of the starch granules are mechanically damaged. The extent
depends both on the type and intensity of milling and on the hardness of the kernel -
harder the structure (of the kernel), greater the damage. Since the rate of water absorption
during dough making and the enzymatic degradation of starch increases with increasing
damage, these are important for the baking process and desirable to a limited extent.

The chemical composition of the flour depends on the milling extraction rate. Increasing
the rate of flour extraction decreases the proportion of starch and increases the amount of
kernel-coating constituents such as minerals, vitamins and crude fibre. Comparing
products of the same extraction rate, rye flour contains higher proportions of both
minerals and vitamins than wheat flour. In case of some B-vitamins, such as niacin, this
difference is well-balanced by the higher concentrations in wheat in comparison to rye
kernels.

The commercial product, semolina, is made from the endosperm cells of hard durum
wheat. Semolina keeps its integrity during cooking and is used mostly for pasta
production. Since semolina is a milled flour of low extraction rate, it contains few
minerals and vitamins.

During baking, the vitamins of the B-group are lost to different extents. In white bread,
the losses amount to 20-50% of the thiamine, 6-14% of riboflavin and 0-15% of
pyridoxine. The foamy texture of dough is changed into the spongy texture of crumb by
baking. Starch degrades to dextrins, mono- and disaccharides at the relatively high
temperatures to which the outer part of the dough is exposed. Caramelization and non-
enzymatic browning reactions also occur, providing the sweetness and colour of the crust.
The thickness of the crust is dependent on the temperature, baking time and type of baked
products.

20
Substances that have high aroma values are of importance in white bread crust and
crumb. In the crust, two heterocyclic compounds, furanol as well as 2-and 3-
methylbutanol are responsible for the roasty, malty and caramel notes, while the
autoxidation products of linoleic acid- methional and diacetyl are involved in the aroma
of the crumb. If the dough is fermented for a longer time, 3-methylbutanol and 2-
phenylethanol, which are formed by yeast, increase rapidly in the crumb and are
responsible for the “yeasty” flavor impression.

Next, let us look at the changes occurring during milling of rice.

Rice milling involves the following processing steps: rough rice (paddy rice) Æ hull
removal Æ brown rice Æ polishing to remove the bran coats (fruits and seed coats), the
cuticle, the germ and the aleurone layer Æ rubbing–off or rice polishing to obtain the
end product, white rice.

White rice, in comparison to brown rice, is low in vitamin content and in minerals as is
evident from Table 9.1.
Table 9.1:Vitamin content of raw, white and parboiled rice
B-Vitamins (mg/kg)
Thiamin Riboflavin Niacin
Raw Rice 3.4 0.55 54.1
White rice 0.5 0.19 16.4
Parboiled rice 2.5 0.38 32.2

A nutritionally improved product may be obtained by a parboiling process, originally

developed to facilitate seed coat removal. About 25% of the world’s rice harvest is
treated by the following process:

Raw rice Æ steeping in hotwater, steaming in autoclaves, followed by drying and

polishing Æ parboiled rice.

This parboiling treatment causes the following changes: the starch gelatinizes, but partly
retrogrades again during drying. Enzymes are inactivated by the heat, causing inhibition

21
of the enzymatic hydrolysis of lipids during storage of rice. The oil droplets are broken
and lipids partly migrate from the endosperm to the outer layers of the rice kernels. Since
antioxidants are simultaneously destroyed, parboiled rice is more susceptible to lipid
peroxidation. In contrast, minerals and vitamins diffuse from the outer layers to the inner
endosperm and remain there after the separation of the aleurone layer. Parboiled rice has
a better cooking quality and there is a lack of pastiness in the cooked rice.

Now, let us look into certain alterations occurring in legumes due to processing. Toxic
substances (e.g., cyanogenic glycosides and anti-nutritive factors, such as proteinase
inhibitors, lectins etc.) present in some legumes, can be destroyed by suitable processing
procedures, like heating.

The softening of legumes during cooking is due to the disintegration of the cotyledonous
tissue in individual cells. This is caused by the conversion of native protopectin to pectin,
which quickly depolymerizes on heating. The middle lamella of the cell walls, which
consists of pectins and strengthens the tissue, disintegrates in this process.

Conversely, the hardening of legumes during cooking is due to cross linkage of the cell
walls. The following reactions which can start even during storage at higher temperatures
are under discussion as the cause of cross linkage. Calcium and magnesium phytates
included in the middle lamella are hydrolyzedby the phytase present. Apart from meso-
inositol and phosphoric acid, Ca2+ and Mg 2+ ions also released, cross link the pectic
acids and thus strengthen the middle lamella. Pectin esterases, which demethylate pectin
to the acid, promote the hardening of the tissue. In the case of legumes that are relatively
rich in phenolic compounds and polyphenol oxidases, the formation of complexes
between proteins and polyphenols should contribute to the strengthening of the tissue.

Sprouting of legumes causes partial breakdown of starch and proteins and contributes to
better digestibility. The special flavour associated with sprouted legumes is an added
advantage. It has been shown that sprouting causes hydrolysis of the oligosaccharides,
which are responsible for causing flatulence of legumes.

22
______________________________________________________________________
9.8 ALTERATIONS OCCURRING IN NUTS, OILSEEDS AND SPICES

_______________________________________________________________________
Some oilseeds have acquired a great significance in the large-scale industrial production
of edible oils. You have already studied that most fats and oils consist of triacylglycerols
which differ in their fatty acid compositions to a certain extent. Other constituents are the
unsaponifiable fraction which make up less than 3% of fats and oils and a number of acyl
lipids, e.g., traces of free fatty acids, mono- and di- acylglycerols.

Soybean and peanut (or groundnut) oils are of great economic importance. Refined
soybean oil contains branched furan fatty acids in low concentrations which are rapidly
oxidized on exposure to light. This can lead to the production of the intensive aroma
substance, 3-methyl–2,4-nonandione, which along with diacetyl is involved in the
occurrence of “bean-like, buttery, hay-like” aroma defect, called as reversion flavor. In
the complete absence of light, soybean oil is relatively stable. The shelf life of the oil is
also improved significantly by partial hydrogenation to give a melting point in the range
of 22-28oC or 36-43oC. Such oils are utilized as raw materials for the manufacture of
margarine and shortening.

Processing of fats and oils is significant in the removal of undesirable components

present in the raw material. Refining process comprises of lecithin removal, degumming,
free fatty acid removal, bleaching and deodorization to remove contaminants.

Now, we move on to the spices. You are aware that some plants in dried or in fresh form,
with intensive and distinctive flavours and aromas are used as seasonings or spices. The
aroma substances in most spices are present as essential or volatile oils, which are
obtainable by steam distillation. The main oil constituents are either mono- and
sesquiterpenes or phenols and phenol ethers. Black pepper contains 3-8% of piperine as
the most important pungent substance. Pepper is sensitive to light. In the processing and
storage of ginger, gingerol gets easily dehydrated to shogaol, increasing the pungency.

23
Spices are marketed unground or as coarsely or finely ground powders. The flavour is
improved when the spices are ground using a cryogenic mill. After grinding, the shelf-
life of spices is limited. Crushed spices rapidly lose their aroma and absorb aromas from
other sources. Leaf and herb spices are dried before they are actually crushed. The loss
of aroma substances depends on the spice and on the drying conditions. With regard to
the aroma preservation, the best results are obtained by freeze drying, when the water
content is reduced to 16%.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1. Fill in the blanks:
a) Cereals can be stored without loss of quality if kernel moisture content is reduced
to atleast ------------------- .
b) The extent of milling damage depends on ------------------- and -----------------------
c) Semolina is made from ----------------------------------------- .
d) ---------------, ------------- and ----------------- contribute to the roasty, malty and
caramel notes of crumb.
e) Fermentation of the dough for a longer time leads to the formation of ---------------
--------------- and ------------------------- .
2. How does chemical composition of flour varies with the milling extraction rate?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. What are the changes that occur during :
a) baking of cereals
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
b) storage of bread
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
c) sprouting of legumes
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

24
4. What are the factors leading to softening and hardening of legumes during
cooking?
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. Explain ‘reversion flavor’ in oils.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
_______________________________________________________________________
9.9 LET US SUM UP
_______________________________________________________________________

In this unit, we studied about chemical, physical and nutritional changes that occur in
foods during processing and storage. These alterations were discussed among a variety of
food groups such as fruits and vegetables, milk and milk products, meat and poultry, fish,
egg, cereal, cereal products and legumes, and nuts and oilseeds. A number of processes
that occur as a result of such alterations were also dealt with, such as browning,
caramelization, gelation etc.

You have also learnt about the perspective of food processing in the current scenario, that
is, you came to know of the various desirable and undesirable changes that occur during
processing of foods.
_______________________________________________________________________
9.10 GLOSSARY
_______________________________________________________________________
Autolysins : A substance, such as an enzyme, that is capable of
destroying the cells or tissues of an organism within which
it is produced.

25
Blanching : The process of exposing a food product to either steam or
hot water for a short time, before being placed in packages
and frozen or dried.
Browning : A chemical reaction that takes place between amino group
and the sugar.
Canning : A process of preserving foods by sealing them in an air-
tight vacuum containers for future use.
Cold Shortening : a phenomena in which there is a tendency for shortening
of meat muscles and thereby toughness on subsequent
cooking.
Cold shortening : A phenomenon, whereby, there is a tendency for
shortening and toughness of meat muscles, when stored at a
temperature of -10 to -15oC.
Convenience foods : Any packaged dish or food that can be prepared quickly
and easily as by thawing or heating.
Cryogenic Freezing : The freezing at very low temperatures, in which the
products are exposed to sprays of liquid nitrogen or carbon
dioxide at temperatures of minus 150 degrees F or below.
Dehydration : Complete removal of water under controlled conditions,
in such a way that minimal changes occur in the food item.
Food processing : The process in which the perishable food materials are
given a suitable physical or chemical treatment.
Freezing : Foods maintained in a frozen condition at a temperature
of about -18 degrees C or below.
Gelation : Process of formation of a gel from a solution;
solidification; solidifying of a liquid matrix due to internal
bonding.
Homogenization : The action of making something uniform in composition.
Irradiation : The physical process of exposing an object, system, or a
material to a high radiant energy for the sterilization or
preservation.

26
Pasteurization : The act or process of heating a beverage or other food, to
a specific temperature for a specific period of time in order
to kill microorganisms that could cause disease, spoilage,
or undesired fermentation.
Radiation Sterilization : The process of sterilizing carried out by means of
radiation.
Reversion flavor : The rapid oxidation of branched furan fatty acids on
exposure to light, leads to the production of an intensive
aromatic substance, which along with diacetyl contributes
to the bean-like, buttery, hay-like aroma defect.
Sterilization : The physical process of killing microorganisms, including
pathogenic and the bacteria, vegetative forms and other
spores on or in an inanimate object or material.
Sulfhydryl compounds : Compounds with a-SH group, found in many plant and
animal enzymes.
Surface Tension : A state of stress at the surface of a liquid due to the
attraction of the molecules for each other.
Syneresis : The separation of liquid from a gel that is caused by
contraction or spontaneous shrinking.
Thawing : A process whereby heat changes something from a solid
to a liquid.
Viscosity : It is the resistance to flow.

_______________________________________________________________________
9.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES
_______________________________________________________________________

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1.
a) Cellulose; pectic substances
b) Starch

27
c) Anthoxanthins and anthocyanins
d) Pectic substances, starch, intercellular air
e) Pectinesterase

2.
a) Dehydration: Reduces the natural water content below the level critical for the
microbial growth, concentrates major ingredients such as proteins carbohydrates
and minerals. It leads to degradation of fats, maillard reaction and drop in vitamin
levels. Original volatile aroma and flavour compounds are lost.
b) Freezing: Preservation/ moderate loss of vitamin A and carotenes. No effect on
B-Vitamins, Vitamin C leaching by water or steam is detrimental. Irreversible
textural changes occur in deep frozen vegetables.

3.

COOCH3 COOCH3

C32 H30 O N4 Mg +2H+ C32 H30 O N4 H2 + Mg ++

(Chlorophyll) COOC20 H37 (Pheophytin) COOC20 H31

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1.
a) False; Low temperature and aging are the factors that increase the viscosity of milk.
b) False; Autoclaving milk causes browning in milk
c) True
d) True
e) False; Surface tension of milk lowers with an increase in fat and protein
f) True

28
g) False; Radiation sterilization leads to decreased thiamine losses in pork than
conventional thermal processing
h) True

2.
a) calcium caseinate
b) Sulfhydryl compounds
c) decreases
d) Pasteurization; Homogenization
e) Whole; skim

3.
a) Browning in heated milk: Heating milk to a higher temperature, such as 1190C or
higher leads to browning in milk. The brown colour is caused due to the heat
effecting a change between the casein or amino acids and the sugar.
b) Cooked flavour in milk: Production of sulfhydrul compounds in milk at high
temperatures leads to the formation of cooked flavour in milk.
c) Freezing alters the properties of milk: Freezing causes fat globules to lose their
complete emulsion structure, to clump and become distorted and attain
irregularity in shape and size. Casein, the milk protein gets precipitated as flakes.

4. Over-effective chilling of hot carcasses can lead to toughness. If the relationship

between the refrigeration system and the bulk of meat exposed are such that
temperature of muscles can be reduced below -10 to -15oC, there is a tendency for
shortening and thereby, toughness on subsequent cooking. This is referred to as
cold shortening.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1.
a) Myosin, actin, actomyosin, tropomyosin
b) Tough, rubbery, lose moisture

29
c) B-group vitamins

2.
a) True
b) False; Hard cooked eggs had an equal Thiamine content as of scrambled eggs.
c) False; Eggs do not lose their heat coagulating properties on drying.
d) True
e) True

3. In egg white, the Maillard reaction involves the reducing or aldehyde groups of
glucose and the amino groups of protein. While in yolk, the glucose reacts with
the amino groups of not only protein but also in cephalin. This leads to
development of off-flavours and off-odours during storage.

4. Gelation is a process which occurs when yolk is frozen and thawed. It is due to
the aggregation of yolk lipoproteins because of the imbalance and shift in water.

5. No significant effect on the dietary values of protein, softening of certain

proteinaceous component was observed as a consequence of heat processing.
Water loss between 9 to 28%. Textural changes, excessive protein denaturation
and decrease in the water-holding capacity.

6. Browning reactions occur in fish during heat processing. Sugars (ribose) along
with amino acids are involved in browning reactions.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1.
a) 14%
b) Type and intensity of milling; hardness of the kernel
c) Endosperm cells of hard durum wheat

30
d) Heterocyclic compounds, furanol, 2- and 3- methylbutanol
e) 3- methylbutanol and 2- phenylethanol.

2. Increasing the rate of flour extraction decreases the proportion of starch and
increases the amount of kernel coating constituents. Hence, varying the chemical
composition of the flour.

3.
a) During the baking of cereals, there are losses of B-Group vitamins to different
extent, B1- 20 to 50%, B2- 6 to 14% and B6- 0 to 15%. The foamy texture of
dough is changed into spongy texture of crumb. Degradation of starch to dextrins,
mono- and disaccharides. Caramelization and non-enzymatic browning occur.
b) Storage of bread results in the moisture absorption which leads to loss in
crispiness and glossyness of crust. Aromatic compounds of freshly baked bread
evaporate. Changes in crumb structure are observed it becomes firm, loses its
elasticity and juiciness.
c) Sprouting of legumes causes partial breakdown of starch and proteins and
contributes to better digestibility. The special flavour associated with sprouted
legumes is an added advantage. It causes hydrolysis of the oligosaccharides,
which are responsible for causing flatulence of legumes.

4. The softening of legumes during cooking is due to the disintegration of the

cotyledenous tissue in the individual cells. This is caused by the conversion of
native protopectin to pectin, which quickly depolymerizes on heating. Hardening of
legumes is due to crosslinkage of the cell calcium and magnesium phytates in the
middle lamellae. Release of Ca++ and Mg++ with meso-inositol and phosphoric
and cross links pectic acids and strengthen middle lamellae.

5. The rapid oxidation of branched furan fatty acids on exposure to light lead to
production of the intensive aromatic substance, 3-methyl-2, 4-nonandione. This

31
 alongwith diacetyl, contribute to the bean-like, buttery, hay-like aroma defect,
which is called as reversion flavour.

1\111111`tttttt

32
________________________________________________________________
UNIT -10 INTRODUCTION TO FOOD PROCESSING
________________________________________________________________

Structure
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Food Spoilage and Causes
10.3 Food Processing
10.3.1 Aims of Food Processing
10.3.2 Historical Development in Food Processing
10.3.3 Methods and Principles of Food Preservation
10.4 Traditional Methods of Food Processing
10.5 Let Us Sum Up
10.6 Glossary
10.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

_______________________________________________________________________
10.1 INTRODUCTION
_______________________________________________________________________

We are all aware that delay in the use of fresh foods, alters its freshness, palatability and
nutritive value. Therefore, it becomes very important that we transform the fresh raw
material and ingredients into wholesome, safe, nutritious and acceptable foods to be used
by the consumers throughout the year. This process of transforming fresh, raw material
into wholesome, safe, nutritious and acceptable foods for the consumers is referred to as
food processing. Food processing is as old as the human hunger. Thousands of years ago,
hunters and gatherers cured meat, dried fruits and berries, and cooked meals for their
families. From the simple foods for ancient peoples to the foods created for astronauts,
food processing has been intimately linked with human endeavors.

In this unit, we shall study about all the different aspects of processing i.e. its historical
developments, what are the basic concepts and principles of food processing and
preservation, why is food processing necessary, what are the different food processing
techniques to prevent the food from the spoiling agents.

Using this knowledge of food processing, we shall then learn about how to transform the
food into a more palatable form with a prolonged shelf-life. But, before we learn about

1
processing we need to understand food spoilage and its causes. We begin this unit by first
defining food spoilage and discussing the main causes of food spoilage.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• discuss the concepts and aims of food processing
• describe the historical developments in food processing and preservation
• identify the factors that are responsible for food spoilage and
• describe the traditional methods of food preservation and their principles.

________________________________________________________________________
10.2 FOOD SPOILAGE AND CAUSES
_______________________________________________________________________

Foods gradually undergo deterioration or spoilage from the time they are harvested,
caught, slaughtered or manufactured. Therefore, delay in the consumption or processing
of fresh foods alters its freshness, color, texture, palatability and nutritive value,
organoleptic desirability, aesthetic appeal and safety. Essentially, all foods undergo
varying degrees of deterioration during handling and storage. Some foods spoil rapidly,
others keep for longer but for a limited period of time. Therefore, spoilage of food refers
to the alterations in foods or the food undergoes some physiological, chemical and
biological changes, which renders it inedible or hazardous to eat. Hence, such food is
essential for processing or preservation after it is harvested or slaughtered.

Why and how does the food get spoiled? There are several causes of food spoilage. These
include:
• Growth of Microorganisms, such as bacteria, molds and yeasts, which can spoil
food very fast.
• Action of Enzymes, present in all raw food, promotes chemical changes affecting
especially the food texture and flavor.

2
 • Atmospheric oxygen can react with some food components, which may cause
rancidity or color changes (oxidative reaction).

• Damage due to pests (insects, rodents etc), which account for huge losses in food
stocks (Infestations).

• Others: moisture, light, time, temperature (heat and cold), mechanical damage,
etc.

At any one time, many forms of spoilage may take place depending upon the food and
environmental conditions. Food processing involves the development of preservation
techniques to slow down or stop the food spoilage caused by the above factors and finally
result in the preservation of food.

In the next section(s), we will learn about the processing concept, principles and
methodology.
______________________________________________________________________
10.3 FOOD PROCESSING
_______________________________________________________________________

Food processing, as you learnt earlier, involves the conversion of raw materials and
ingredients into an acceptable food product for the consumer. It encompasses every
aspect necessary to transport raw materials from the “harvest site” through packaging and
merchandising. It involves the application of scientific principles to slow down or stop
the natural processes of food decay caused by micro-organisms, enzymes in the food or
environmental factors such as heat, moisture and sunlight and so preserve the food. Much
of this knowledge is known traditionally and put into practice by experience and
information handed down through the generations. Food scientists strive to improve the
methods of storing, processing and manufacturing food through the scientific
understanding of mechanisms involved.

The term 'processing' is very broad and encompasses many techniques. These include
primary processing like threshing, dehusking, polishing and grinding in case of food
grains, and preliminary operations such as cleaning, washing, sorting, grading, peeling,

3
blanching and cutting in case of fruits and vegetables, and others to produce secondary
processed products like breads, biscuits, confectionery, dehydrated and canned products
like jams, jellies, pickles, sauces, frozen meals etc. This diverse range of operations
means that the majority of foods are processed in one way or another before being
consumed. What are the reasons for processing foods? Well, the reasons for food
processing may vary, but the main objectives are discussed in the next section.

10.3.1 Aims of Food processing

The reasons for food processing may vary, but the main objectives are to:
• preserve the nutritive quality of food by preventing them from spoilage due to
microbes and other spoilage agents,
• prolong the shelf-life (e.g. preservation). This is because the processed food is
usually more stable than the raw food,
• enhance the quality (e.g. cooking),
• ensure that food is safe for future consumption,
• ensure the availability of many food products throughout the year,
• ease for storage, transportation and distribution systems, and
• create employment and to generate additional income.

Food processing, you would have realized, is practiced in some form or the other in most
of our homes. Have you ever thought about its origin? How did it start? How did it
develop? The next section presents the historical development of food processing. You
will find this discussion interesting.

10.3.2 Historical development of Food processing

Food processing began thousands of years ago to help people keep food through the lean
seasons. Various methods of preserving food have been around for a long time. The
processes of smoking, drying (dehydration) and using salt and spices to prevent spoilage
have been used for thousands of years. All of these methods were based on desiccation or
dehydration. Grains and nuts were the first foods to be dried using the naturally available
sunlight and air. Mechanical methods of drying were developed in the late 1700s. Dried

4
foods are popular because they are compact, lightweight and last much longer than the
fresh foods. Cheese-making was an accidental discovery, which became established as a
method for increasing the longevity of milk.

The process of canning was pioneered in the 1790s when Nicolas Appert, a French
Confectioner, discovered that the application of heat to food in sealed glass bottles
preserved the food from deterioration. Napoleon-I gave Appert 12,000 Francs to make his
invention public. Napoleon was highly interested in Appert's invention because of its
potential to supply food to the armed forces who were many miles away from home.
Appert published several books for canning and started the canning industry. Around
1806, the French Navy had undertaken successful training of Appert’s principles on a
wide range of foods including meat, vegetables, fruit and milk.

Before 1860, changes in food were explained on the theory of spontaneous generation.
Pasteur demonstrated that ferments, molds and some other forms of putrefaction were
caused by the presence of microorganisms widely distributed in the environment. Since
these microorganisms are the main cause of food spoilage, food preservation depends on
rendering conditions unfavorable for their growth.

The evolution of food processing is listed in Table10.1.

______________________________________________________________
Table-10.1 Evolution of food processing
________________________________________________________________
• 8000 - 7000 BC. Mankind first began farming, growing crops and raising animals
for food instead of hunting and gathering for food.
• 4000 B.C. Salt, chemicals in smoke, drying, use of snow and ice were used for
storing food for long times.
• 3000 B.C. Yeast was used to make alcoholic drinks by fermentation.
• 200 A.D. Bacteria were used to make yogurt by fermentation.
• 1810 Nicolas Appert (1752-1841) discovered a way of preserving food in sealed
containers. Canning industry is developed from his discovery.
• 1860s Louis Pasteur (1822-95) invented a way of killing harmful microbes in
wine and beer.

5
 • 1920s Clarence Birdseye (1886-1956) developed a method of quick freezing food.
______________________________________________________________

Today, food processing allows food from other parts of the world to be transported to our
local market, so that we can enjoy a great variety of things to eat all through the year. Let
us now study the methods and principles that are involved in the food preservation
technique.

10.3.3 Methods and Principles of Food preservation

Food preservation is one of the oldest technologies used by human beings. The perishable
food materials like fruits, vegetables, milk, meat, fish and others deteriorate or decay
easily, so quite a lot of such commodities are wasted in various stages of food supply
chain unless special methods are used for their preservation. Therefore, the process in
which, the perishable food materials are given a suitable physical or chemical treatment
to prevent their wastage, spoilage and to retain their nutritive value for long periods, is
called food preservation. The principles of food preservation refer to the processing
techniques that are used to prevent food from spoilage. The different preservation
techniques commonly used today are given in the Table 10.2.
________________________________________________________________________
Table 10.2: Methods of food preservation
________________________________________________________________________

1. Asepsis, or keeping out microorganisms

2. Removal of microorganisms (filtration, centrifugation, washing, trimming)
3. Maintenance of anaerobic conditions, e.g., in a sealed, evacuated container
4. Drying (drying under the sun, mechanical drying, freeze drying, smoking)
5. Use of high salt or sugar content (sugaring, pickling, curing etc)
6. Use of acids
7. Fermentation
8. Use of low temperatures (refrigeration, chilling, freezing)
9. Use of high temperatures (pasteurization, boiling, canning)
10. Mechanical destruction of microorganisms, e.g., by grinding, high pressure, etc

6
 11. Chemical preservatives
12. Carbonation
13. Irradiation
14. Combination of the two or more of the above methods.
________________________________________________________________

All food preservation methods listed in Table 10.2 are based upon the general principle of
preventing or retarding the causes of spoilage caused by microbial decomposition,
enzymatic and non-enzymatic reaction, chemical or oxidative reactions and damage from
mechanical causes, insects and rodents etc. The basic principles of the different
preservation methods are given in Table 10.3.

________________________________________________________________
Table 10.3: Principles of food preservation
________________________________________________________________
1. Prevention or delay of microbial decomposition:
a. By keeping out microorganisms (asepsis)

b. By removal of microorganisms e.g. by filtration.

c. By hindering the growth and activity of microorganisms e.g. by low

temperatures, drying, anaerobic conditions or chemicals.

d. By killing the microorganisms e.g. by heat or radiations.

2. Prevention or delay of self-decomposition of the food:

a. By destruction or inactivation of food enzymes e.g. by blanching.
b. By prevention or delay of chemical reactions e.g. prevention of oxidation by
means of an antioxidant.
3. Prevention of damage because insects, animals and mechanical causes.

A detail discussion on the traditional methods of food processing is presented in section

10.4. Before you go on to read about these methods, look up the points to remember
listed below. This will help you sum up what you have learnt so far.

7
 POINTS TO REMEMBER

1. Conversion of raw materials and ingredients into acceptable consumer products is

referred to food processing, which comprises of all the steps right from the time
the raw materials are procured to the time it arrives on consumer tables, including
preservation.

2. Most of the foods we buy are processed in some way or another. These processes
help to make the products that are safe, of consistent quality and convenient for
the consumers, prolonged shelf-life and available round the year.

3. Food spoilage or deterioration refers to the alterations in the foods or undergoing

some physiological, chemical and biological changes, which render the food
inedible or hazardous to eat. Food spoilage may affect: safety, nutritional value,
organoleptic desirability, aesthetic appeal and change in color, texture, flavor and
other quality attributes of the food.

4. Major causes of food deterioration: Growth of microorganisms (bacteria, yeasts,

molds); activities of food enzymes and other chemicals within the food itself;
infestation by insects, parasites, rodents; oxidation; time, temperature and light;
physical stress or abuse.

5. The principles of food preservation refer to the processing techniques that are
used to prevent food from spoilage caused by the above agents.

6. The origin of food processing goes all the way back to 8000 B.C. Smoking,
drying, and salting were some of the most frequently used processes of
preservation during ancient period.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1. Define food processing and food preservation.
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
2. List the major causes of food deterioration/spoilage.
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

8
3. What are the effects of food deterioration?
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
4. Mention the major advantages of food processing.
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
5. Different preservation techniques commonly used today, include:
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
6. What do food manufacturers particularly aim to achieve when they preserve a
food? (Choose the correct answer)
(i) To improve its vitamin C content.
(ii) To extend its shelf life.
(iii) To reduce the amount of cooking time it will require.

_______________________________________________________________________

10.4 TRADITIONAL METHODS OF FOOD PROCESSING

_______________________________________________________________________

Because food is so important to survival and most foods remain edible for only a brief
period of time, people since the earliest ages have experimented with the methods for
successful food preservation. Among the products of early food conservation, were
cheese and butter, raisins, pemmican, sausages, bacon and grains. Therefore, food
preservation is one of the oldest technologies used by human beings. Often, in the way of
many traditional technologies, the ideas and methods are passed down through the
generations, from mother to daughter. Look around and everywhere you will see people
processing food, wherein food is being dried, crushed, milled, canned, bottled, cooked
and sweetened.

9
Various methods of preserving food have been around for a long time. The methods like
drying, pickling, salting, smoking, canning and freezing have been with us for the times
immemorial. But all of these traditional methods are being updated and are in use today
in some form. The methodology and principles of some of the preservation methods are
discussed here:

• Asepsis: Food is a living system and it has natural protection mechanisms in its
raw agricultural state. Once removed from the field or protective skin or peel (e.g.
banana, coconut, vegetables, shell of nuts, husks of grains etc), it begins to
deteriorate. Asepsis deals with the prevention of microbial contamination
(keeping out microorganisms) of fresh or processed foods. Packaging of foods is a
widely used application of asepsis.

• Drying: Drying is the oldest and probably the simplest way of preserving food. It
is usually accomplished by the removal of water. Dried foods are preserved
because the available moisture level is so low that the microorganisms cannot
grow and enzyme activity is controlled. Moisture from food may be removed by a
number of methods: drying by the Sun’s rays and by the modern artificial ones.
Grains and nuts were the first foods to be dried under the sun and air. However,
sun-drying is a slow process, risk of contamination and spoilage and is limited to
climates with a hot Sun and a dry atmosphere and to certain fruits such as grapes
(raisins), figs, dates, apricots, raw mangoes (amchur), pears and peaches.
Vegetables like beans, peas, cabbage, cauliflower, lady fingers, garlic, onions,
chillies, turmeric and all leafy vegetables can also be dried by sun-drying. Drying
of fruits and vegetables involves washing, peeling, preparing and spreading on
flat bottom trays and drying under Sun. Fish (Bombay duck) and shrimps are
dried by exposing them to the Sun on the seashore. The word dehydration usually
implies the use of controlled conditions of heating, with the forced circulation of
air or artificial drying (mechanical drier) as compared with the use of sun-drying.
Using mechanical driers, fruits, fruit leathers, banana chips, tea, coffee, milk,
soups, fish, meat, eggs and vegetables can all be dried year-round. Dried foods are
compact and lightweight; do not require refrigeration and last much longer than

10
 the fresh foods. Dried foods should be stored in airtight containers to prevent
moisture from rehydrating the products and allowing microbial growth.

• Salting: Salting, especially of meat, is an ancient preservation technique. Food is

treated with salt or a strong salt solution. Due to high concentration of salt, water
from the food is tied up and made unavailable for microbial growth and enzyme
action and hence, preserved the food. Salt has the following effects: (a) it causes
high osmotic pressure and hence, plasmolysis (shrinking) of cell; (b) it dehydrates
foods by drawing out and tying up moisture as it dehydrates microbial cells; and
(c) it ionizes to yield the chloride ion, which is harmful to organisms. Dry salting
is used in India for the preparation of tamarind, raw mango, amla, fish and meat.
Salted meat and fish can last for years. In meat salting, the prepared meats were
soaked in 10% salt-water brine for several weeks. In fish salting, fresh fish were
gutted on a cement slope and washed with the water. Coarse salt was then rubbed
into their gills, mouth and scales. Layers of fish were alternated with layers of salt
and covered with dry matting. They were then left to stand for 3 to 5 days, after
which the pile was turned over and left for an additional 3 to 5 days.

• Sugaring: Water is withdrawn from the microbial cells when they are placed in a
strong sugar solution (about 68%) and thus result in an adverse effect on
microorganisms. Therefore, sugars such as glucose or sucrose, owe their
effectiveness as preservatives to their ability to make water unavailable to
organisms and to their osmotic effect. Examples of food preserved by high sugar
concentrations are sweetened condensed milk, fruits in heavy sugar syrup
(preserve or murraba), jams, jellies, marmalades and candies. Jam is prepared by
boiling the fruit pulp with sufficient quantity of sugar (about 55 % by wt), acid
and pectin to a reasonably thick consistency.

• Pickling: Pickling was widely used to preserve meats, fruits and vegetables in the
past, but today it is used almost exclusively to produce "pickles" or pickled
cucumbers or pickled onions and sauces. Pickling uses the salt combined with the
acid, such as acetic acid (vinegar). Microorganisms do not grow well in acidic
solutions. Some of the fruits and vegetables, which lend themselves to pickling,

11
 are raw mangoes, limes, amla, ginger, turmeric and green chillies. To make
pickles, the fruits or vegetables are washed, cut into halves or quarters, the seeds
are removed and then either dry salted or soaked in a 10-15% salt water brine for
several days or months, then rinsed and mixed with spices, oils etc. and stored in
glass bottles or jars.

• Fermentation: In contrast to other preservation methods, multiplication of

microorganisms and their metabolic activities are encouraged. In this,
microorganisms break down complex organic compounds into simpler substances
either in aerobic or anaerobic conditions. The chemicals excreted by the
microorganisms cause the preservative effect of fermentation. The principal
chemicals involved are the acids (especially, lactic acid) and alcohol. These
inhibit the growth of common pathogenic organisms in foods. Examples of food
preserved by fermentation are yogurt, cheese, beer, wine and other alcoholic
beverages.

• Cheese-Making: Cheese is a way of preserving milk for long periods of time. In

this process, the milk in cheese becomes something completely unlike milk, but
cheese has its own interesting and delicious properties. Cheese-making is a long
and involved process that makes use of bacteria, enzymes and naturally-formed
acids to solidify milk proteins and fats and preserve them. Cheese can be stored
for months or years.

• Smoking: Smoking was known as a method of food preservation at an early date.

Foods are exposed to smokes by burning some special kinds of wood. It has two
main purposes, adding desired flavoring and preserving. In the earlier times, many
households had smokehouses, which were used to smoke beef, ham and bacon.
Smoking is still used to preserve fish and meat. Most meat is smoked after curing
to aid their preservation. Preservative action is provided by such bactericidal
chemicals in the smoke as formaldehyde and creosote, and by the dehydration that
occurs in the smokehouse. The smoke is obtained by burning hickory or a similar
wood like oak, maple, walnut and mahogany under low breeze/wind.

12
• Cold Preservation: The metabolism of a living tissue is a function of the
temperature of the environment. Low temperatures are used to retard chemical
reactions and action of food enzymes and slow down or stop growth and activity
of microorganisms in the food. Lower the temperature, the slower will be the
above natural activities. Freezing and refrigeration are among the oldest methods
of preservation. Mechanical ammonia refrigeration systems invented during 1875
allowed development of commercial refrigerated warehousing and freezing. Low
temperatures employed can be:
(a) Cellar storage temperatures (about 15° C): It is usually used for the storage of
surplus foods like root crops, potatoes, onions, apples, etc. for limited periods.

(b) Refrigerator or chilling temperatures (0°C to 5°C): Foods kept at this

temperature slows down the microbial activities and chemical changes resulting in
spoilage. Mechanical refrigerator or cold storage is used for this purpose.
Examples of this include meats, poultry, eggs, fish, fresh milk and milk products,
fruits, vegetables, etc. can be preserved for 2-7 days by refrigeration.

(c) Freezing (-18°C to - 40°C): In freezing, water in food turns into ice and makes
unavailable for reactions to occur, and for microorganisms to grow. Most
perishable foods like poultry, meats, fish, ice-creams, peas, vegetables, juice
concentrates, etc. can be preserved for several months at this temperature. In
vegetables, enzyme action may still produce undesirable effects on flavor and
texture during freezing. Heating, like blanching, therefore, must destroy the
enzymes before the vegetables are frozen.

• Heat Preservation: The process of heating was used centuries before its action
was understood. Food is heated up or cooked. Heat kills microorganisms, alters
the protein structure and destroys enzyme activity of microorganisms in food. The
examples include all forms of cooked food, pasteurization, milk sterilized by
UHT (ultra high temperature), canning, etc. One of the most important modern

13
applications of the heat principle is the pasteurization of milk. Heat treatment of
food may be in different ways:

(a) Pasteurization (temperature below 100° C)

Pasteurization is a heat treatment that kills a part but not all the microorganisms
present and usually involves the application of temperatures below 100° C. Milk,
for example, is usually heated to 63° C for 30 min or 71° C for 15 seconds or in
UHT, 138° C for 2-4 seconds. Examples are: milk, wine, beer, fruit juices and
aerated waters are routinely pasteurized. The heating may be by means of steam,
hot water, dry heat or electric currents and the products are cooled promptly after
the heat treatment. Pasteurization is usually supplemented by other methods to
prolong shelf-life.

(b) Boiling (temperature at 100° C)

Cooking of rice, vegetables, meat, fish etc. at home is usually done by boiling the
food with water and involves a temperature around 100° C.

(c) Canning (temperature above 100° C)

Canning is the process in which the foods are heated in hermetically sealed
(airtight) jars or cans to a temperature that destroys microorganisms and
inactivates enzymes that could be a health hazard or cause the food to spoil. The
vacuum seal formed after heating and cooling in the process ensures that no
microorganism can get into the product. The degree of heat and the length of time
of heating vary with the type of food and the kinds of microorganisms that are
likely to occur in it. High-acid foods such as fruits and tomatoes can be processed
or "canned" in boiling water, while low-acid vegetables and meats must be
processed in a pressure canner at 121 °C (15 psi pressure). Most canning is in ‘tin
cans’ which are made up of tin-coated steel or in glass containers, but increasing
use is being made of containers that are partially or wholly of aluminum, plastics
such as pouches or solid containers. Examples of food preserved by canning are-

14
 all kinds of tinned foods, such as soup, meat, beans, cereal grains, legumes, nuts,
and other various dried food products such as fruit, coffee, milk, soups, fish, meat
and vegetables.

• Food concentration: Relatively few liquid foods are preserved by concentration,

mainly because of the reduction in water activity (aw) and development of osmotic
pressure, which retard the microbial growth and enzymatic reactions.
Concentration of food is usually done for many reasons: reduction in volume and
weight; reduction in packaging, storage and transport costs; better microbial
stability; and convenience. Examples of food preserved by concentration are
tomato paste, fruit juice concentrate, soup and condensed milk. The main
requirement to improve processing of these products is to control the rate of
heating to prevent localized burning of the product, particularly when it has
become thickened towards the end of boiling.

• Carbonating: Carbonated water is the water in which carbon dioxide gas has been
dissolved under pressure. By eliminating oxygen, carbonated water inhibits
bacterial growth. Carbonated beverages (soft drinks), therefore, contain a natural
preservative.

• Use of food Additives: Food additives may be defined as substances added

intentionally to food, generally, in small quantities to improve its appearance,
flavour, texture or storage properties. These may be classified into different
broad groups as listed in Table 10.4.

Those food additives, which are specifically added to prevent the deterioration or
decomposition of a food, have been referred to as chemical preservatives. In food
preservation, the added substances may be grouped into two. The first one
includes the use of sugar, salt, spices, acetic acid (vinegar) and alcohol, and is
referred to as class I preservatives and is considered to be relatively safe to
humans. The second group includes the use of benzoic acid, sulfur dioxide,

15
nitrates and nitrites and a variety of neutralizers, firming agents and bleaching
agents and referred to as class II preservatives and is considered to be relatively
safe to humans, but within the permissible doses prescribed by the Food
Regulatory bodies because higher concentrations can be a health hazard.
Preservation of foods by the chemicals is effected by interfering with the cell
membrane of the microorganism, their enzyme activity and genetic mechanism;
by acting as antioxidants.
________________________________________________________________
Table 10.4: Food Additives
________________________________________________________________
Preservatives Sodium benzoate in fruit drinks, potassium meta
bisulphate in fruit products, sorbic acid in cheese,
sodium and calcium propionates in breads and cakes,
nitrates and nitrites in meats.
Antioxidants Butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA), Butylated hydroxy
toluene (BHT), propylgallate (PG), tocopherols in oily
or fried foods; Ascorbic acid, SO2 in fruit products.
Sequestrants Polyphosphates, citric acid – to remove elements from
(chelating agents) the food.
Surface-active agents Lecithin, mono-and di-glycerides and bile acids-to
(emulsifiers) stabilize oil in water.
Stabilizers and Gums, gelatin, carboxy methyl cellulose, pectin, egg
thickeners yolk, etc. in jellies, chocolate milk drinks, pie fillings
and cake toppings.
Bleaching and Oxides of nitrogen, chlorine dioxide in bleaching and
maturing agents maturing flour.
Food colors Natural sources: annatto, caramel, carotene, saffron,
Synthetic: coal tar dyes.
Non-nutritive Saccharin, cyclamates, etc.
sweeteners
Flavouring agents Monosodium glutamate (MSG), 5’-nucleotides
and flavor enhancers

16
• Food Irradiation: Food irradiation is another sterilizing technique in which the
foods are bombarded by high-energy rays called gamma rays or by fast-moving
electrons to kill bacteria, fungi and insects and in some cases, to delay fruit
ripening. It has been used in pasteurizing or sterilizing perishable foods such as
meat, fish and fruits and extending their storage lives for long periods. It is also
used for sprouting inhibition in onions, potatoes etc. Sterilization can be effected
at room temperature and hence, the technique is also called as cold sterilization
process. A major benefit of irradiation is that it can occur after the food is
packaged and sealed. Cobalt-60 or Cesium-137 or electrons producing machines
are the principal sources of ionizing radiations used for food irradiation. The unit
of radiation is in terms of rads (and kilorad or megarad).

POINTS TO REMEMBER

1. The traditional food preservation methods like drying, pickling, salting,

smoking, canning and freezing have been with us from the times immemorial.
But all of these methods are being updated and are in use today in some form.

2. Dried foods are preserved, because the available moisture level is so low that
microorganisms cannot grow and enzyme activity is controlled.

3. Fruits like grapes (raisins), figs, dates, apricots, raw mango (amchur), pears and
peaches and vegetables like bean, peas, cabbage, cauliflower, lady finger, garlic,
onion, chilli, turmeric and all leafy vegetables including fish can be dried under
Sun.

4. Dried foods are compact, lightweight, do not require refrigeration and last much
longer than fresh foods, retaining to wholesomeness.

5. Effects of salt in food preservation: (i) it causes high osmotic pressure and
hence shrinking of cell, (ii) it dehydrates foods by removing moisture and

17
 making it unavailable for the microbial cells; (iii) it ionizes to yield the chlorine
ion, which is harmful to organisms.

6. Foods preserved by high sugar concentrations are sweetened condensed milk,

preserves, jams, jellies, marmalades and cadies.

7. Foods preserved by fermentation are yogurt, curd, cheese, beer, wine and other
alcoholic beverages.

8. Cheese making is a long and involved process that makes use of bacteria,
enzymes and naturally formed acids to solidify milk proteins and fat and
preserve them.

9. Preservative action of smoking is due to the bactericidal chemicals like

formaldehyde and creosote present in the smoke and dehydrating effect.

10. Low temperature preservation of food may be at (i) Cellar storage temperatures
(about 15° C); (ii) Refrigerator or chilling temperatures (0° C to 5° C); (iii)
Freezing temperatures (-18° C to –40° C).

11. High temperature preservation of food may be at (i) Pasteurization temperature

(below 100° C); (ii) Boiling temperature (at 100° C); (iii) Canning temperature
(at or above 100° C).

12. Advantages of concentration of foods are- reduction in volume and weight

hence, reduction in packaging, storage and transport costs; better microbial
stability and convenience.

13. Chemical preservatives are referred to as those food additives, which are
specifically added to prevent the deterioration or decomposition of a food.

18
 14. Cobalt-60 or Cesium-137 or electrons producing machines are the principal
sources of ionizing radiations used for food irradiation.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. State whether the following statements are correct or incorrect. Correct the false
statements.
(i) Asepsis deals with killing of microorganisms.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(ii) Food in its agricultural state has natural protection mechanism from
deterioration.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(iii) Dried foods are more susceptible to microbial spoilage.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(iv) Preservation of food by high sugar and salt solution is based on the principle
that water from food is tied up and made unavailable for microbial growth and
enzyme action.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(v) The heat developed during the process causes the preservative effect of
fermentation.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(vi) Cheese making is a process to preserve the milk into solid form for months
and years.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(vii) Smoking is a method of food preservation mainly used for milk and milk
products.

19
 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(viii) Preservation of food by cold temperature is due killing of spoilage
microorganisms and inactivation of enzymes present in the food.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(ix) Pasteurization is the process of heat treatment to kill all the microorganisms
present in milk or fruit juice.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(x) In canning preservation, high acid foods are processed at temperature above
100 C.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(xi) Sugar, salt, spices, vinegar and alcohol are considered as class I food
preservatives relatively safe to humans.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(xii) Ionizing radiations are measured in terms of Kcal.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

____________________________________________________________________
10.5 LET US SUM UP

In this unit you studied about the basic fundamentals of food processing. Food
processing, you learnt, refers to the transformation of raw materials and ingredients into a
more palatable, readily usable form, nutritious and convenience food product with a
prolonged shelf-life.

We have also identified the several agents or factors responsible for food spoilage. To
prevent the food from spoilage, we have discussed some of the traditional food
processing methods like drying, salting, smoking, sugaring, fermentation, use of

20
preservatives and use of heat treatment. In all of these methods discussed, the common
basic principle is to slow down or stop the natural process of food spoilage caused by the
various factors and so preserve the food. As a result, availability of food round the year,
easy storage, transportation and distribution, retention of nutritive value of the food,
creation of employment and generation of additional income are ensured by the technique
of food processing. You also studied about the development of food processing. We have
recorded that during ancient period, smoking, drying and salting were some of the most
frequently used process of food preservation.

10.6 GLOSSARY
_______________________________________________________________________

Acetic acid : Active ingredient in vinegar; used in food preservation.

Acid foods : Foods which contain enough acid to result in a pH of 4.5
or lower. Includes all fruits except figs; most tomatoes;
fermented and pickled vegetables; relishes; and jams, jellies
and marmalades.
Anearobic fermentation : Fermentation in the absence of air (secondary
fermentation)
Antioxidants : Antioxidants are scavengers of particles called oxygen-
free radicals. Vitamins A, E, C, and many of the
carotenoids and phytochemicals are thought to be
antioxidants.
Asepsis : keeping out microorganisms from food.
Blanching : The process of exposing a food product to either steam or
hot water for a short time, before being placed in packages
and frozen or dried.
Canning : A method of preserving food in air-tight vacuum-
containers and heat processing sufficiently to preserve the
food.

21
Cereals : Rice, wheat, millets and their products
Contaminant : an undesirable substance that is considered to make
something impure or dirty.
Curing : a method of food preservation that involves soaking the
food in a strong salt solution.
Dehydrating : a method of food preservation that involves removing the
water from the food. (Drying food)
Dhals : decorticated, split products from pulse.
Drying Food : Drying is a method of food preservation that is simple,
safe and easy to learn. Drying also creates new food
products such as fruit leather, banana chips, pumpkin seeds
and beef jerky.
Emulsifier : A substance that is used to prevent the liquids in an
emulsion from separating into layers.
Enzymes : Protein molecules produced by living cells which act as
catalysts in chemical reactions.
Fermentation : It is the transformation of sugars by intentional growth
microorganisms (bacteria, yeast or mold). The fermentation
of these sugars by yeast yields alcohol. This process takes
place in big tanks, called fermenters.
Food additive : A substance added to food that enhance the palatability or
preserve the foods.
Food spoilage : It occurs due to growth of microorganisms, action of
enzymes present in the food, mechanical and insect damage
to the food.
Freezer : A reach-in or walk-in food storage unit that maintains a
temperature of 0°F (-18°C) or less.
Freezing : A method of food preservation involving low
temperatures (-18° C), a change of state of a substance
from liquid to solid.

22
Hermetic seal : An absolutely airtight container seal, which prevents
reentry of air or microorganisms into packaged foods.
Infestation : invasion by insects and pests.
Irradiation : The treatment of food with ionizing radiation to kill
microorganisms.
Low-acid foods : Foods, which contain very little acid and have a pH above
4.5. Vegetables, tomatoes, figs, all meats, fish, seafood and
some dairy foods are low acid.
Oxidation : Reaction with the oxygen in the air, causes food to go bad
Pasteurization : A heating process designed to destroy the most heat-
resistant pathogenic or disease-causing microorganism in a
food product.
Perishable Food : Food product that spoils readily without special
processing or preservation techniques e.g. meats, poultry,
fish, shellfish, eggs, dairy products, and most fruits and
vegetables.
Pickling : The practice of adding enough vinegar or lemon juice to a
low-acid food to lower its pH to 4.6 or lower.
Preservative : a substance used to prolong the shelf life of foods or to
prevent the spoilage of food.
Pulses : edible seeds of leguminous plants.
Rancidity : Development of any off or disagreeable flavors in oil or
fat due to enzymatic or oxidative reactions.
Sterilization : A process that destroys virtually all microorganisms and
their spores.
Yeast : The one-celled microorganism that turns sugar into
alcohol and carbon dioxide.

23
_______________________________________________________________________
10.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES
______________________________________________________________________

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1. Food processing refers to the transformation of raw materials and ingredients into
wholesome, safe, nutritious, convenience and acceptable food to consumers
throughout the year.
Food preservation refers to the process in which the, perishable food materials are
given a suitable physical or chemical treatment to prevent their wastage, spoilage
and to retain their nutritive value for long periods.

2. The major causes of food deterioration/spoilage are bacteria, molds, yeasts;

enzyme present in food itself e.g. polyphenolase, lipase, peroxidase, Catalase;
insects, rodents; oxidation, hydrolysis; Physical damage.

3. The effects of food deterioration are spoilage by pathogenic microorganisms can

be injurious to health, nutrient loss, loss of organoleptic quality (colour, texture,
taste, aroma), loss of functionality.

4. The advantages of food processing are many. Processing can prevent food
deterioration or spoilage; processing can extend shelf-life (e.g. preservation);
processing can enhance quality (e.g. cooking); processing can generate
employment; processing ensures the availability of food round the year, safety,
convenience and quality food products.

5. Asepsis; filtration, centrifugation, washing, trimming; drying and smoking;

sugaring; pickling; curing; fermentation; refrigeration, chilling, freezing;
pasteurization, boiling, canning; chemical preservatives; carbonation; Irradiation
and combination of the two or more of the above methods.

6. (ii)

24
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
(i) True.
(ii) False. It deals with keeping out microorganisms
(iii) True
(iv) False. More susceptible to browning etc
(v) True
(vi) False. Lactic acid and alcohol excreted by the microorganisms
(vii) True
(viii) False. Meat, fish and their products
(ix) False. At low temperatures, retard chemical reactions and action of food
enzymes; slow down or stop growth and activity of microorganisms in food
(x) False. Kills part but not all the microorganisms present.
(xi) False. Low acid foods are processed at temperature above 100° C.
(xii) True
(xiii) False. Measured in rads (and kilorad or megarad)

25
UNIT-11 METHODS OF FOOD PROCESSING – 1

Structure
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Methods of Food Processing
11.3 Thermal Processing
11.3.1 Cooking
11.3.2 Blanching
11.3.3 Pasteurization
11.3.4 Commercial Sterilization
11.3.5 Canning
11.4 Dehydration
11.4.1 Expression of Moisture Content
11.4.2 Classification of Types of Water found in Foods
11.4.3 Mechanism of Drying
11.4.4 Drying Techniques and Methods
11.5 Preservation by Concentration
11.5.1 Methods of Concentration
11.5.2 Changes due to Concentration Process
11.6 Let Us Sum Up
11.7 Glossary
11.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

11.1 INTRODUCTION

In the earlier unit we learnt about the principles and traditional methods of food processing. Now
in the next two units we will find a detailed discussion on the different methods used today for
food processing. Canning, dehydration, freezing, microwave processing, irradiation are common
food processing methods used at home or at the industry level. Canning as a thermal processing
method has been used for long. What does the process entail? What are the other thermal
processing methods? These issues are discussed first in this unit, followed by a descriptive write-
up on dehydration - one of the traditional methods of food processing. Freezing, microwave
processing, irradiation and fermentation as other methods of food processing are taken up in the
next unit.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:

1
 • enumerate the different methods of food processing
• enlist the different methods of thermal processing
• discuss the canning process and types of canned foods
• describe the different methods of dehydration

11.2 METHODS OF FOOD PROCESSING

Food is undeniably most vital to the survival of human beings. Hence, it must be processed using
various scientific techniques. This is done to extend the shelf-life of foods as well as to ensure
the quality and safety of the foods.

Over the years, several processing and preservation technologies have evolved, mostly by trial
and error, for extending the storage life of food. As our scientific understanding of biological
materials has accelerated in recent years so has the nature of the food industry, from a craft-
based industry to a science-based manufacturing enterprise. Today, it is a big, dynamic,
worldwide industry and undergoing continual change.

The fundamentals of food processing, as you may recall, involves the following two basic
principles:
• Prepare the products fit for consumption.
• Destroy or inactivate pathogens found in food.

Based on these principles, the common unit operations for food processing include:
• Thermal processing: cooking, blanching, pasteurization, canning etc.
• Dehydration
• Cold preservation: refrigeration and freezing
• Fermentation
• Irradiation

We will learn about each of these operations in details, starting with thermal processing and
dehydration in this unit.

2
11.3 THERMAL PROCESSING

Thermal processing is the application of heat energy to the foods with the following specific
objectives:
• Cooking: Cooking is a primary process to make food more palatable and improve taste.
This is not used as a preservation technique.
• Blanching: Blanching is defined as a mild heat treatment applied to tissue (usually plant)
prior to freezing, drying or canning.
• Pasteurization: Pasteurization is a mild heat treatment to kill part of the microorganisms
present in food. This process is usually combined with another preservation method. So
primary objective of pasteurization is to kill pathogenic (milk) or spoilage (beers, fruit
juices) microorganisms
• Commercial Sterilization: Sterilization is the most extreme heat treatment given for the
preservation of food. Usually target organism is a heat resistant microorganism, most
often a spore or schlerotia forming organism rather than a vegetative one (e.g. spore
forming anaerobic bacteria – Clostridium botulinum)
• Canning: Canning is the process of applying heat to food that’s sealed in a jar to destroy
any microorganism that can cause food spoilage.

A brief description on each of the thermal processing method follows.

11.3.1 Cooking
All of us eat food either raw or in cooked form. Have you ever thought why we need to cook
food? Cooking is a primary process to make food more palatable and improve taste. Note, this is
not used as a preservation technique. You are aware of the various cooking methods used on day
to day basis. At least six forms of cooking are available, namely:
1) Baking
2) Broiling
3) Boiling
4) Stewing
5) Roasting
6) Frying

3
While cooking, two preservation changes (at least) occur which include:
1. Destruction or reduction of microorganisms
2. Inactivation of enzymes

Other desirable changes that can occur during cooking include:

• Destruction of potentially hazardous toxins (endogenous, microbial)
• Alteration of color, flavor, texture
• Improved digestibility

11.3.2 Blanching
Blanching is used for variety of purposes. It is defined as a mild heat treatment applied to tissue
(usually plant) prior to freezing, drying or canning. Why do we need to blanch foods?

Well, blanching is useful and its functions include:

• Inactivate most enzymes
• Some cleaning action
• Removes substances in some products
• Activates some enzymes (if controlled)
• Removes undesirable odors/flavors
• Softens fibrous material and decreases volume
• Expels air and respiratory gasses
• Preheating of product prior to canning

For frozen or dehydrated foods, major function is inactivation of enzymes, which can cause rapid
changes in color, flavor and nutritive value. For canned products removing gases and preheating
are very important to providing vacuum in can and proper sterilization.

Blanching as a pretreatment before drying has the following advantages:

• It helps in cleaning the material and reducing the amount of microorganisms present on the
surface;

4
• It preserves the natural colour in the dried products; for example, the carotenoid (orange and
yellow) pigments dissolve in small intracellular oil drops during blanching and in this way
they are protected from oxidative breakdown during drying;
• It shortens the soaking and/or cooking time during reconstitution.

Next, do you know how to blanch foods? There are different methods of blanching food as
highlighted in Figure 11.1. The hot water blanch methodology is presented in box 1. What ever
the method used, remember blanching is usually carried out at high temperature for a short time.
Time of exposure, temperatures vary with type of product and further processing.

a. Hot water blanching <100°C

b. Steam blanching > 100°C

Figure 11.1 Methods of Blanching

Box 1: Hot water blanching

A suitable water-blanching method in traditional processing is as follows:

• The sliced material is placed on a square piece of clean cloth; the corners of the cloth are tied

together;
• A stick is put through the tied corners of the cloth;

• The cloth is dipped into a pan containing boiling water and the stick rests across the top of the

pan thus providing support for the cloth bag.

The average blanching time is 6 minutes. The start of blanching has to be timed from the
moment the water starts to boil again after the cloth bag has been dipped into the pan. While the
material is being blanched the cloth bag should be raised and lowered in the water so that the
material is heated evenly. When the blanching time is completed the cloth bag and its content
should be dipped into cold water to prevent over-blanching. If products are over-blanched
(boiled for too long) they will stick together on the drying trays and they are likely to have a poor
flavour.

During hot water blanching, some soluble constituents- water-soluble flavours, vitamins (vitamin

5
C) and sugars - are leached out. With potatoes this may be an advantage as inactivation of
enzymes (catalase and peroxidase) makes the potatoes less prone to turning brown.

Next, can you name a few foods which are best blanched? Yes, green beans, carrots, okra, turnip
and cabbage should always be blanched. On the other hand, blanching is not needed for onions,
leeks, tomatoes and sweet peppers. You may have noticed that tomatoes are dipped into hot
water for one minute when they need to be peeled but this is not blanching. Another practice you
may have notices is to use or add sodium bicarbonate to the blanching water when okra, green
peas and some other green vegetables are blanched. Have you wondered why? The chemical
raises the pH of the blanching water and prevents the fresh green colour of chlorophyll being
changed into pheophytin, which is unattractive brownish-green.

Finally, let us learn how to evaluate blanching efficiency? Normally, two of the more heat
resistant plant enzymes, namely peroxidase and catalase are used to evaluate blanching efficacy.
If both these enzymes are inactivated, it can be safely assumed that most other enzymes are also
destroyed. Remember, blanching is a delicate processing step; time, temperature and the other
conditions must be carefully monitored. Blanching time to inactivate enzymes are dependent on:
1. Type of food
2. Method or type of heating
3. Product size
4. Temperature of heating medium
In case of steam blanching, the food product is directly exposed to steam in place of using water
as a medium for blanching, which avoids the loss of food soluble solids (flavours, vitamins,
acids, sugars etc.) to blanching medium as well as solves the problem of disposing blanching
medium after processing.

11.3.3 Pasteurization
You must be aware of the various pasteurized products available in the market. The most
commonly used product being ‘milk’. Why do we need to pasteurize food? What does
pasteurization entail? Let’s find out.

6
Basically, pasteurization is a mild heat treatment to kill part of the microorganisms present in
food. So, the primary objective of pasteurization is to kill pathogenic (milk) or spoilage (beers,
fruit juices) microorganisms. This process is usually combined with another preservation
method. Typical other methods used in combination with pasteurization include:
1. Refrigeration as in the case of milk
2. Chemical additives - pickles, fruit juices
3. Fermentation (additives) - sauerkraut, cheeses
4. Packaging (anaerobic conditions) - beers, fruit juices

The severity of heat treatment for pasteurization depends on:

1. Heat resistance of target microorganism. Typical target organisms include Coxiella burnetti,
a pathogenic rickettsia in milk, yeasts and molds - in high acid foods and fermented products
and yeasts - in fermented beverages
2. Sensitivity of product to heat treatment: For many foods use of High Temperature Short
Time (HTST) treatment is recommended, which destroys pathogenic microorganisms, but
does not do too much damage to food quality.
Further, there are a few other physical and chemical factors which influence the pasteurization
process. These include:
a. Temperature and time;
b. Acidity of the products;
c. Air remaining in containers.

For pasteurizing two categories of processes may be used as indicated in figure 11.2

Categories of Pasteurization

Low Temperature Long High Temperature Short

Time (LTLT) Time (HTST)
Pasteurization Pasteurization

Figure 11.2 Categories of pasteurization

A discussion on each process follows:

7
a) LTLT pasteurization: In LTLT pasteurization, the pasteurization time is in the order of
minutes and related to the temperature used; two typical temperature/time combinations are
used: 63 to 65°C over 30 minutes or 75° C over 8 to 10 minutes.
In this first category of pasteurization processes it is possible to define three phases:
• Heating to a fixed temperature;
• Maintaining this temperature over the established time period (= pasteurization time);
• Cooling the pasteurized products: natural (slow) or forced cooling.
You would notice that, pasteurization temperature and time will vary according to:
• Nature of product; initial degree of contamination;
• Pasteurized product storage conditions and shelf life required.

b) HTST pasteurization: Rapid, high pasteurization is characterized by a pasteurization time in

the order of seconds and temperatures of about 85° to 90°C or more, depending on holding
time. Typical temperature/time combinations may be: 88°C for 1 minute; 100°C for 12
seconds; 121°C for 2 seconds. While bacterial destruction is very nearly equivalent in low
and in high pasteurization processes, the 121°C/2 seconds treatment give the best quality
products in respect of flavour and vitamin retention. Such short holding times, however,
require special equipment which is more difficult to design and generally is more expensive
than the 63-65°C/30 minutes type of processing equipment.

In flash pasteurization the product is heated up rapidly to pasteurization temperature, maintained

at this temperature for the required time, then rapidly cooled down to the temperature for filling,
which will be performed in aseptic conditions in sterile receptacles. Taking into account the short
time and rapid performance of this operation, flash pasteurization can only be achieved in
continuous process, using heat exchangers. Industrial applications of pasteurization process are
mainly used for the preservation of fruits and vegetable juices and especially for tomato juice.

The pasteurization of products packed in glass containers leads to a problem of a specific nature,
which is referred to as ‘thermopenetration’. What is the thermopenetration concept? Let’s find
out.

8
The thermopenetration problem is extremely important, especially in the case of the
pasteurization of products packed in glass containers, because it is the determining factor for the
success of the whole operation. During pasteurization it is necessary that a sufficient heat
quantity is transferred through the receptacle walls; this is in order that the product temperature
rises sufficiently to be lethal to microorganisms throughout the product mass.

The most suitable and practical method to speed up thermopenetration is the movement of
receptacles during the pasteurization process. Rapid rotation of receptacles around their axis is an
efficient means to accelerate heat transfer, because this has the effect, among others of rapidly
mixing the contents. The critical speed of for this movement is generally about 70 rotations per
minute (RPM). This enables a more uniform heating of products, reducing heating time and
organoleptic degradation.

Heating may precede or follow packaging. It is convenient to separate heat preservation practices
into two broad categories: one involves heating of foods in their final containers, the other
employs heat prior to packaging. The latter category includes methods that are inherently less
damaging to food quality, where the food can be readily subdivided (such as liquids) for rapid
heat exchange. However, these methods then require packaging under aseptic or nearly aseptic
conditions to prevent or at least minimise recontamination. On the other hand, heating within the
package frequently is less costly and produces quite acceptable quality with the majority of foods
and most of our present canned food supply is heated in the package. Tetra pack available in the
market for fruit juices are the best example for aseptic packaging.

11.3.4 Commercial Sterilization

Sterilization is the most extreme heat treatment given in preservation of food by heat. Usually
target organism is a heat resistant pathogenic microorganism, most often a spore or schlerotia
forming organism rather than a vegetative one. Common examples include Clostridium
botulinum-a spore forming anaerobic bacteria and Putrefactive anaerobe. The basic
characteristics of these microorganisms are highlighted in box 1.

9
Clostridium botulinum Putrefactive anaerobe (PA) 3679 and FS 1518
Clostridium sporogenes
• Can grow and produce toxin at pH > 4.6 • Non-toxic facultative anaerobe.
• Obligate anaerobe, spore-forming, heat • Resistance to heat similar to Clostridium
resistant pathogens. botulinum.
• Assumed to be ubiquitous in soil. • Generally used to determine safe thermal
• Has several strains. Types A and B are most processes instead of Clostridium botulinum.
heat resistant.
• Ingestion of toxins produced them causes
food poisoning.
• Toxins are destroyed at 100°C for 10
minutes.

It is important to remember that bacterial destruction is a logarithmic function, complete

destruction not probable to make food commercially sterile for extended shelf-life at room
temperature. Hence, only 90 % destruction is aimed and this is called commercial sterility.
Thermal conditions that are needed to produce commercial sterility depends on:
1. Nature of the food
2. Storage conditions post processing
3. Heat resistance of target organism
4. Heat transfer characteristics of food, container and heating medium
5. Initial load or quantity of organisms present

Of these, the nature of the food, primarily the pH of food, is the most significant determinant of
how severely the food will be processed. Based on the pH, therefore, all foods can be divided
into three categories as highlighted in Table 11.1.

10
Table 11.1: Classification of foods based on pH
High Acid Foods Low Acid Foods Acid Foods
Those foods with pH < 3.7 Those foods with pH > 4.5 Those foods with pH of 3.7 to 4.5
Examples include: Apples,
Examples: Asparagus, beans, blueberries, peaches, tomatoes,
corn, potatoes, cauliflower, orange, grapefruits, grapes
cantaloupe, watermelons, banana
Thermal processes are based on
the destruction of
Thermal processes are based on • Bacillus coagulans
the destruction of • Bacillus polymyxa
• yeasts and molds.
• Spore former do not
grow at pH < 3.
It is also important to note that to determine a heating process for a particular food, we must
determine the:
A. Destructive effects of heating on target organism (and food), and
B. The rapidity of food heating up.

Most food components and microorganisms obey first order reaction kinetics, which means that
the destruction rate is dependent on initial concentration. We can find a heat treatment, which
will take care of the target microorganism while allowing only minimal quality damage to food
components. To determine thermal resistance of a microorganism at a specific temperature, the
following steps are required:

- Heat at constant “known” temperature for different times.

- Recover surviving cells.
- Plot survival curve - e.g. time versus number survivors.

As line transverses one log cycle of survivor number represents a 90% reduction in number of
survivors - because this is a first order reaction - this % reduction remains constant i.e. for the
next log cycle another 90% reduction occurs. The time required to reduce one-log cycle of
survivor at a particular temperature is known as D-value at that temperature.

11
The sterility index is represented by F value. This index often has a subscript representing the
specific temperature and a superscript indicating the z value of the particular organism (F
temperature change required to change the thermal death time by a factor of 10) thus represents
the F value of C. botulinum at 121.1 (250°F). The temperature of 121°C is usually used as a
reference temperature and is always indicated as “Fo”. Since similar first order reactions occur
for various food nutrients and qualities, a similar procedure can be used to analyze their loss as
“thermal resistance curves”. Another useful system for representing temperature response by
biological systems is the Q value, which is the change in reaction rate for a 10°C temperature
change.

The F value for C. botulinum is the time required to reduce by 12 D the number of viable spores
and this has become the Standard Heat Process for foods which have the potential to have C.
botulinum outgrowth (i.e. pH > 4.5). For a temperature of 121°C,

Fo = 12 D = 2.45 minutes = Sterilizing Value.

This is the 12 D concept for canning operations. Thus if there were 1012 spores present in a can
of food and it received a 12 D process, then there would be only 1 spore left. There are some
food spoilage organisms that are more thermally resistant than C. botulinum. For foods that
contain these microorganisms and for foods with pH > 4.5, processors typically process to 5 D.
This would give a probability of loss due to spoilage of less than 1 can per 1000 for normal
contamination.

While on the topic of sterilization, we also need to highlight that the following two methods of
heat sterilizing foods are employed.
1. Foods can be heat sterilized then placed into a sterile container - aseptic processing
2. Foods can be placed into a non-sterile container then the entire container is processed -
conventional canning
These steps are commonly done at the food canning establishments, where the actual processing
is done. We will learn more about the canning process in the next sub-section.

12
Before we move on to canning, we need to emphasize here that like thermal destruction of
microorganisms, thermal destruction of enzymes is also carried out during sterilization. Heat
process for enzymes are carried out for the inactivation of enzymes. While enzymes or
microorganisms are killed, the quality attributes of the food are also being destroyed or lost in a
similar logarithmic manner. Ideally, if a troublesome enzyme is to be inactivated, heating the
food product just enough to disrupt it without too much damage to the desirable quality attributes
is preferred.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1. Fill in the blanks:
(i) The two basic principles of food processing are-------------------- and ---------------------- .
(ii) The application of heat energy to foods is referred to as ----------------------------------- .
(iii) Any two changes that occur in food on cooking are --------------------------------------------
and ----------------------------------------- .
(iv) ---------------------- is the determining factor for the success of pasteurization process.
(v) Change in reaction rate for a 100C temperature change is referred to as ---------------------
2. What do you understand by the term blanching? What are the functions of blanching?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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3. List a few benefits of blanching.
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4. What do you mean by the term ‘pasteurization’? Also, explain the types of pasteurization.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. List a few of thermal conditions required to produce commercial sterility.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Let us learn about the canning process.

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11.3.5 Canning
You must have seen the markets flooded with canned products. Can you name a few of such
products? Yes the canned juices, canned aerated drinks or the canned fruits etc. Have you ever
given a thought to how canning of foods is done? Well read the following section and get to
know all about canning and its uses.

It is in 1795 that Nicolas Appert (1749-1841), French cook-confectioner (figure 11.2), developed
a process to preserve food during several months. The principle was to condition food products
thermetically and to sterilise them with heat (100°C). The process was called canning and is
defined as a process for conservation of food and its nutritional qualities for long duration at
ambient temperature, obtained by a process associating a heat treatment and a waterproof
packing. In simple terms, canning is the process of applying heat to food that’s sealed in a
jar/can to destroy any microorganism that can cause food spoilage.

Figure 11.2: Nicolas Appert

Based on Appert's methods of food preservation the packaging of food in sealed airtight tin-
plated wrought-iron cans was first patented by an Englishman, Peter Durand, in 1810. A can of
roast veal taken on Parry's voyage to the Arctic in 1824 is highlighted in figure 11.3.

14
 Figure 11.3: Can of Roast Veal

Since Parry’s voyage in 1824, there are an enormous variety of canned foods available today,
which differ both in terms of type of ingredients and method of processing used. The main types
are as follows:

Types of canned foods:

1. Some foods form convection currents when being heated inside a can and so are heated
faster since self-mixing - as foods become more viscous this mixing action is reduced
(e.g. fruit juices, milk, brine packed vegetables, syrup packed fruits, gravies)
2. Some foods can only be heated by conduction - no currents are formed and heat must be
passed from one molecule of food to the next toward the center - these foods heat very
slowly (e.g. Thick purees, mash packs, layered products like spinach)
3. Some foods change modes during heating from convection to conduction - foods which
contain large amount of starch which gels on heating - gives “broken heating curve” (e.g.
cream style corn, condensed soups)

For conduction heated food, the slowest heating point “cold point” is the geometric center of the
can. For convection heated food, the slowest heating point is along the vertical axis near the
bottom of the can.

15
Let us next learn about the process of canning.
(refer to Figure)

Process of Canning
The basic principles of canning have not changed dramatically since Nicholas Appert and Peter
Durand developed the process. Heat sufficient to destroy microorganisms is applied to foods
packed into sealed, or "airtight" containers. The canned foods are then heated under steam
pressure at temperatures of 240-250°F (116-121°C). The amount of time needed for processing
is different for each food, depending on the food's acidity, density and ability to transfer heat. For
example, tomatoes require less time than green beans, while corn and pumpkin require far more
time.

Canning uses metal or glass containers into which food is placed and sealed under reduced
atmospheric pressure. Food does not completely fill the container; a headspace is required for
expansion of food during heating. The headspace cannot be more than 10% of the total container
volume. The containers are then processed in steam or hot water at temperatures above 115°C
after which they are cooled. The cooking vessels required for these high temperature cooks must
be capable of handling steam at pressures in excess of 1 atmosphere (14.7 psi). To have a steam
environment at a temperature greater than 100°C elevated pressures are used.

Still Retorts are used in canning plants for heating foods in glass containers or different sizes of
cans. These retorts are usually cylindrical in shape and may be oriented vertically or horizontally
with a heavy lid or door on top or at one end. Containers are loaded in layers into perforated
retort baskets or crates. This may be done manually or by machine. Filled crates are placed into
the retorts, the lid is closed and steam is introduced. Water with steam injection is used for glass
containers since they cannot handle the heat stress. An overriding air pressure maintains enough
pressure so that the water does not “boil” at temperatures greater than 100°C. Temperature in a
retort is regulated by means of a steam automatic valve. At the end of the “cook” cycle, the retort
is showered/flooded with cold water (metal cans) or injected with cold water just below the
surface of the hot water (glass jars). The containers are removed once they are cooled.
The sequence of operations employed in canning are highlighted in the next section. This will
give you a good idea as to what canning as a procedure involves.

16
Sequence of operations employed in Canning
In a simplified manner, the main operations employed in canning can be described as follows:
Food preparation Preparation procedures will vary with the type of food. For fruit, washing,
sorting, grading, peeling, cutting to size, pre-cooking and pulping
operations may be employed.
Can/receptacle This may be carried out manually or by using sophisticated filling
machinery. The ratio of liquid to solid in the can must be carefully
controlled and the can must not be overfilled. A headspace of 6-9 mm
depth (6-8% of the container volume) above the level of food in the can is
usual.
Vacuum production This can be achieved by filling the heated product into the can, by heating
the can and contents after filling, by evacuating the headspace gas in a
vacuum chamber, or by injecting superheated steam into the headspace.
In each case the can end is seamed on immediately afterwards.
Thermal processing The filled sealed can must be heated to a high temperature for a sufficient
length of time to ensure the destruction of spoilage micro-organisms. This
is usually carried out in an autoclave or retort, in an environment of steam
under pressure.
Cooling The processed cans must be cooled in chlorinated water to a temperature
of 37°C. At this temperature the heat remaining is sufficient to allow the
water droplets on the can to evaporate before labeling and packing.
Labeling and Labels are applied to the can body and the cans are then packed into
packing cases.

So now you can appreciate how interesting and scientific this whole process of canning is. In the
end, can you also suggest what are the advantages of canning food? Try listing them down and
tally your responses with the advantages listed herewith.

The main advantages of canned foods are: (a) they are safe and hygienic and have reasonably
good nutritional value; (b) they are economical as the entire contents can be eaten, whereas

17
30~50% of fresh food cannot be eaten due to perishing and loss in weight; and (c) they come in a
wide assortment, from main dishes to side dishes and desserts, and have utility value; and (d)
they keep for a long period.

With canning, we come to the end of the thermal processing method.

11.4 DEHYDRATION

The technique of drying is the oldest method of food preservation practiced by mankind. The
removal of moisture, which is actually dehydration or drying, prevents the growth and
reproduction of microorganisms causing decay and minimizes many of the moisture mediated
deterioration reactions. Further, removal of moisture brings about substantial reduction in weight
and volume, thus minimizing packing, storage and transportation costs and enable storability of
the product under ambient temperatures. The sharp rise in energy costs has promoted a dramatic
upsurge in interest in drying worldwide over the last decade.

What then is dehydration? What is the theory/principle behind this method of processing? How
are foods dehydrated? These are a few aspects which we will learn about now in this section..

Theory/Principle of Drying

Drying can be defined as the application of heat under controlled conditions to remove the
majority of the water normally present in a food by evaporation. The main purpose of
dehydration is to extend the shelf life of foods by a reduction in water activity (aw). This will
inhibit microbial growth, however the processing temperature will not normally be sufficient to
cause inactivation, thus care will needed to be taken with the product on subsequent rehydration.
Drying does cause deterioration in the eating quality and nutritive value of the food. The role of
the food engineer is to design a plant that will minimize such detrimental effects while obtaining
efficient drying rates. Typical foods that are important commercially include; sugar, coffee, milk,
potato, flour, beans, pulses, grains, nuts, breakfast cereals, tea and spices.

From our discussion above, it is clear that dehydration deals with reduction in the moisture
content of foods. In this context, therefore, understanding where and how the water is present,
18
and assessment of moisture content in foods becomes crucial. These are the aspects discussed in
the next section.

11.4.1 Expression of Moisture Content

Moisture content, you would realize, is expressed in one of two ways i.e dry weight basis (dwb)
or wet weight bases (wwb). Moisture content is calculated using the following formula:

mass of water
m.c. (m) = x 100
mass of sample

where mass of sample can be made up of water and dry matter or solids. Thus

mass of water
m.c. (m) = x 100
mass of water + solids

On a dry weight basis, moisture is calculated as

mass of water
M=
mass of solids

The mechanism content on wet basis can be converted to dry basis vice versa using the following
equations:

100M m
m= or M =
1+ M 100 ( 1 - m/100)

Moisture content (w.w.b.) is most often used in food composition tables, whereas moisture
(d.w.b.) is more often encountered with sorption isotherms and drying curves. You will learn
about sorption isotherms in Unit , Block of this course. Next, how to determine the moisture
content of foods? The amount of water in a food is most easily determined by taking a
representative sample of the food and drying it in an oven to constant mass.

Next crucial aspect to learn, in the context of dehydration, is about the types of water present in
food. This information will help you understand the mechanism of drying, which is discussed in
the next section. So read it carefully.
19
11.4.2 Classification of Types of Water Found in Food
Water may be present in several different forms in the food as highlighted herewith:

Water of hydration: This moisture is chemically bound to the constituents of the material and in
most cases would not be considered in moisture content determinations. It is considered to be an
integral part of the material.

Bound Water: Water which is in some way bound to the food so that it exerts a vapour pressure
less than that of pure water. It can often be thought of as the first layer of water molecules
attached to a surface.

Free Water: Water which is bound by such minute forces, that its vapour pressure is equal to the
vapour pressure of pure water. It can be found as free water, in cavities and wide capillaries. This
can often be thought of as the second and subsequent layers of moisture attached to a surface.
The heat of adsorption of this moisture is equal to the normal heat of vaporisation of water at the
same temperature.

Free Moisture
Bound Moisture

Absorbed Moisture: It is the moisture that has passed through cell walls and entered the
cytoplasm of the cell. It is this form of water that is believed to account for the hysteresis
between the sorption and desorption equilibrium moisture content isotherms, described later.

The absorption of water by an organic, chemically inert material is a complex process which is
not entirely understood. This complexity becomes much greater when biological materials are
involved. This complexity is due principally to the fact that water may be present in several
different forms as highlighted above.

20
With the basic understanding of moisture content and dehydration in general, let us now look at
the mechanism of drying.

11.4.3 Mechanism of Drying

Drying as a mechanism, you will realize, involves the removal of free moisture from the surface
and also moisture from the interior of the material. How does this mechanism work? When hot
air is blown over a wet food, heat is transferred to the surface, and the latent heat of vaporisation
causes water to evaporate. Water vapour diffuses through a boundary film of air and is carried
away by the moving air. This creates a region of lower water vapour pressure at the surface of
the food, and a water vapour pressure gradient is established from the moist interior of the food
to the dry air. This gradient provides the driving force for the removal of water from the food.
Water moves to the surface by the following mechanisms:
1) Liquid movement by capillary forces.
2) Diffusion of liquids, due to differences in concentration of solutes in different regions of
food.
3) Diffusion of liquids that are adsorbed in layers at surfaces of solid components of the
food.
4) Water vapour diffusion in air spaces within the food caused by vapour pressure gradients.

So you have seen that dehydration involves the application of heat to vapourise water and some
means of removing water vapour after its separation from the food. Hence it is a
combined/simultaneous (heat and mass) transfer operation for which energy must be supplied. A
current of air is the most common medium for transferring heat to a drying tissue and convection
is mainly involved. In order to assure products of high quality at a reasonable cost, dehydration
must occur fairly rapidly.

Four main factors affect the rate and total drying time, which include:
• The properties of the products (the moisture content, surface area to volume ratio, surface
temperature and rate of moisture), loss especially particle size and geometry;
• The geometrical arrangement of the products in relation to heat tansfer medium (drying air);
• The physical properties of drying medium/ environment;

21
• The characteristics of the drying equipment/drier (the dry bulb temperature, relative
humidity).

Other factors which influence the rate of drying include:

1) The fat content of the food-Higher fat contents generally result in slower drying as moisture
is trapped within the food.
2) The method of preparation- Cut surfaces loose moisture more rapidly than through skin.
3) The amount of food placed in a drier in relation to its size- In a given drier, faster drying is
achieved with smaller quantities of food.

So far we have looked at the concept, theory and mechanism of dehydration. A wide variety of
techniques/methods are employed world over for dehydrating foods. The next section presents a
review on these methods/techniques.

11.4.4 Drying Techniques and Methods

Several types of dryers and drying methods, each better suited for a particular situation, are
commercially used to remove moisture from a wide variety of food products including fruit and
vegetables. While sun drying of fruit crops is still practiced for certain fruit such as prunes, figs,
apricots, grapes and dates, atmospheric dehydration processes are used for apples, prunes, and
several vegetables. Continuous processes as tunnel, belt trough, fluidised bed and foam-mat
drying are mainly used for vegetables. Spray drying is suitable for fruit juice concentrates and
vacuum dehydration processes are useful for low moisture / high sugar fruits like peaches, pears
and apricots.

Well then we have a wide variety of methods to choose from. Which method to select for which
product? This choice is crucial. Factors on which the selection of a particular dryer/ drying
method will depends include:
• Form of raw material and its properties;
• Desired physical form and characteristics of dried product;
• Necessary operating conditions;

22
 • Operation costs.

Primarily, there are three basic types of drying process:

• Sun drying and solar drying;
• Atmospheric drying including batch (kiln, tower and cabinet dryers) and continuous
(tunnel, belt, belt-trough, fluidised bed, explosion puff, foam-mat, spray, drum and
microwave);
• Sub-atmospheric dehydration (vacuum shelf/belt/drum and freeze dryers).

The scope is expanded to include low temperature, low energy process like osmotic dehydration.

As far dryers are concerned, one useful division of dryer types separates them into air convection
dryers, drum or roller dryers, and vacuum dryers. Using this breakdown, Table 11.2 indicates the
applicability of the more common dryer types to liquid and solid type foods.

Table 11.2 Common dryer types used for liquid and solid foods
Dryer type Usual food type
Air convection dryers
Kiln pieces
cabinet, tray or pan pieces, purées, liquids
Tunnel pieces
continuous conveyor belt purées, liquids
belt trough pieces
air lift small pieces, granules
fluidized bed small pieces, granules
Spray liquid, purées
Drum or roller dryers
Atmospheric purées, liquids
Vacuum purées, liquids

23
Vacuum dryers
vacuum shelf pieces, purées, liquids
vacuum belt purées, liquids
freeze dryers pieces, liquids

Let us learn about the different drying methods now.

Types of Drying Processes for the Dehydration of Foods
You have learnt earlier that there are three basic types of drying processes – sun and solar drying,
atmospheric drying, which includes techniques like batch and continuous processes, and sub-
atmospheric dehydration. Let us learn about these processes.

Sun and Solar Drying

The use of solar energy to preserve the food items is probably the oldest form of food reservation
and is still practiced today for foods such as raisins. Sun and solar drying of fruits and vegetables
is a cheap method of preservation because it uses the natural resource/ source of heat i.e.
sunlight. The advantages of the process are that the energy is free, renewable and non-polluting.
On the other hand, the disadvantages are that it can be very labour intensive, suffers from a lack
of control and is prone to deterioration by biochemical reactions or microbiological or insect
infestation.

Sun/solar drying method can be used on a commercial scale as well at the village level provided
that the climate is hot, relatively dry and free of rainfall during and immediately after the normal
harvesting period. The fresh crop should be of good quality and as ripe (mature) as it would need
to be if it was going to be used fresh.

Note, poor quality produce cannot be used for natural drying. Different lots at various stages of
maturity (ripeness) must NOT be mixed together; this would result in a poor dried product. Some
varieties of fruit and vegetables are better for natural drying than other; they must be able to
withstand natural drying without their texture becoming tough so that they are not difficult to
reconstitute. Some varieties are unsuitable, because they have irregular shape and there is a lot of
wastage in trimming and cutting such varieties.

24
As a general rule plums, grapes, figs, dates are dried as whole fruits without cutting/slicing.
Some fruit and vegetables, in particular bananas, apples and potatoes, go brown very quickly
when left in the air after peeling or slicing; this discoloration is due to an active enzyme called
poly-phenoloxidase. To prevent the slices from going brown they must be kept under water until
drying can be started. Salt or sulphite in solution give better protection. However, whichever
method is used, further processing should follow as soon as possible after cutting or slicing.

As a food scientist, what should interest us is to learn about the process of sun/solar drying as
such. The mechanism of sun and shade drying and the use of specific solar dryers has been
described in Box 3 herewith.
Box 3: Sun and solar drying- method
Sun drying
As discussed earlier, the main problems for sun drying are dust, rain and cloudy weather.
Therefore, drying areas should be dust-free and whenever there is a threat of a dust storm or rain,
the drying trays should be stacked together and placed under cover. In order to produce dust-free
and hygienically clean products, fruit and vegetable material should be dried well above ground
level so that they are not contaminated by dust, insects, livestock or people. All materials should
be dried on trays designed for the purpose; the most common drying trays have wooden frames
with a fitted base of nylon mosquito netting. Mesh made of woven grass can also be used. Metal
netting must NOT be used because it discolours the product. The trays should be placed on a
framework at table height from the ground. This allows the air to circulate freely around the
drying material and it also keeps the food product well away from dirt. Ideally the area should be
exposed to wind and this speed up drying, but this can only be done if the wind is free of dust.
With 80 cm x 50 cm trays, the approximate load for a tray is 3 kg; the material should be spread
in even layers. During the first part of the drying period, the material should be stirred and turned
over at least once an hour. This will help the material dry faster and more evenly, prevent it
sticking together and improve the quality of the finished product. Products for sun drying should
be prepared early in the day; this will ensure that the material enjoys the full effect of the sun
during the early stages of drying. At night the trays should be stacked in a ventilated room or
covered with canvas. Plastic sheets should NEVER be used for covering individual trays during
sun drying. Dry or nearly dry products can be blown out of the tray by the wind. However, this

25
can be protected by covering the loaded tray with an empty one; this also gives protection against
insects and birds.
Shade drying
Shade drying is carried out for products which can lose their colour and/or turn brown if put in
direct sunlight. Products which have naturally vivid colours like herbs, green and red sweet
peppers, chilies, green beans and okra give a more attractive end-product when they are dried in
the shade. The principles for the shade drying are the same as of sun drying. The material to be
dried requires full air circulation. Therefore, shade drying is carried out under a roof or thatch
which has open sides; it CANNOT be done either inside conventional buildings with side walls
or in compounds sheltered from wind. Under dry conditions when there is a good circulation of
air, shade drying takes little more time than is normally required for drying in full sunlight

However, beside this there has been much research to develop simple systems that could be used
in developing countries and areas where obtaining other energy sources is limited. The simplest
way of carrying out solar drying is to lay the material on the ground in the sun. However this
leaves the product open to the spoilage reactions described earlier. Simple structures, such as the
solar dryers, can be cheaply built which will enhance the drying conditions. Information on this
follows.

Solar Dryers
There are many different designs for solar dryers, these range from simple cabinet dryers,
convection dryers, shelf dryers to more complicated semi-artificial dryers that include some form
of heat storage device. Typical foods that would be dried using solar dyers include bananas,
barley, coffee beans, pepper, peanuts, sweet potato, tea and wheat.
A simple solar dryer can be built and the main parts of the solar dryer being;
1. Drying space, where the material to be dried is placed and where the drying takes place.
2. Collector to convert solar radiation to heat.
3. Auxiliary energy source (optional).
4. Means for keeping drying air in flow. Could be a chimney or a fan.
5. Heat storage unit (optional).
6. Measuring and control equipment (optional).

26
The drying process can be improved slightly by using some form of heat storage for when
sunlight is not incident on the dryer as this means the drying period can be extended using
surplus energy and some degree of temperature control may be utilised. Efforts to improve the
solar drying process have included the use of forced air circulation and combination with other
drying processes, such as conventional drying processes and osmotic drying.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. Define the following:
(a) Canning
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(b) Dehydration
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2. List the sequence of canning operations.
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27
3. Give a few advantages of the canned foods.
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4. What is the main principle behind drying?
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5. Mention a few factors that affect drying rate and total drying time.
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So far we learnt about solar/sun drying method. Now have a look at the atmospheric and sub-
atmospheric drying methods. A brief review of the different methods follows.
Tray and Tunnel Dryers: Tray and tunnel dryers are widely used in the food industry. In both
cases the material being dried is supported on multiple trays, with the hot air being directed at
high speed between and across the surfaces. Tray dryers operate in batch mode. However, two or
more of the larger versions of this dryer may be linked to provide semi-continuous operation.

Tunnel dryers provide a natural extension to this concept and are continuous. The tunnel
dehydrator is by far one of the most flexible systems, which is in commercial use. In its simplest
form it consists of a rectangular tunnel which will accommodate trucks containing the trays on
which the product to be dried is uniformly spread.

Conveyor (or Band) Dryers: In the conveyor (or band) dryer, the product is distributed on a
moving belt, typically of a perforated plate, that passes through a tunnel like structure in which
vertical airflow is strictly controlled. With the exception of transfer operations (or occasional
deliberate stirring of the bed), the individual particles remain fixed in position with respect to one
another.

28
This type of drying system is very similar to the tunnel system except that the material is
conveyed through the hot air system on a continuous moving belt. The system has the advantage
that the high cost of handling products both before and after drying using trays is substantially
reduced. This drying system is used for downstream operations such as cereal puffing.

Rotary Dryers: Rotary dryers are widely used to dry relatively large throughputs of granular
products and by products in a number of industries, including the food industry. Rotary dryers
are characterised by a slowly rotating cylindrical drum, which is normally inclined at a small
angle (0 - 5°) to the horizontal. The product to be driedis introduced into the upper end and dried
product is withdrawn at the lower end. There are a number of different types of rotary dryer; one
of the most common is the cascading rotary dryer. Typical food products dried in rotary dryers
include fish scraps, wheat residues, cocoa beans, nuts, cooked cereals, flour, sugar and spent
grains.

Fluidized, Torbed and Agitated Bed Dryers

Fluidization occurs when a flow of fluid upwards through a bed of particles (ranging from fine
powders to particulate foods such as diced carrots) reaches sufficient velocity to support the
particles without carrying them away in the fluid stream. The bed of particles then assumes the
characteristics of a boiling liquid, hence the term fluidization. The fluid responsible for
fluidization may be a gas or air the choice of which will confer different properties on the
fluidizing system.

Fluidized bed dryers can be used for either of the following situations:
a) Finish or final drying of products partially dried by other techniques; for example, blueberries
dried osmotically are then dried at 170°C for 4 minutes in a high temperature fluidized bed.
b) Drying foods completely - examples of this include the drying of grains, soybeans, peas, beans
and vegetables.

The complete drying of foods in fluidized beds may be carried out either by the use of a “high
temperature short time” process or by a more gradual process at a lower temperature. Delicate
fruits such as blueberries are dried by the HTST process (170°C for 8 minutes), whereas oil
seeds are dried over a longer period of time (55-65°C for 4 hours). This longer, cooler process is

29
required so that the quality of the oil and the germination characteristics of the grain are not
affected.

Torbed Dryer, on the other hand, is a variation of the fluidized bed dryer. This is designed for
use with particulate foods. Torbed dryers are used to dry hazelnuts, carrots, mushrooms, beef
dices and shrimps. Grated cheese can also be dried in fluidized beds.

The distinction between agitated bed and fluidized bed drier is a narrow one, since in each case
an upward velocity of air sufficient to support the food particles is applied. In the case of the
former the bed is less vigorously stirred than in the latter. It is necessary with driers of this type
to decrease the air velocity as the particle dries in order to prevent the particles being lost from
the system. The final drying is accomplished using bins.

The fluidized bed principle represents an important advance that can be used for a wide range of
particulate materials. Apart form the commercial drying of peas, beans and diced vegetables it is
also used for drying potato granules, onion flakes and fruit pieces.

Explosion puffing: Explosion puffing has been recognized as one of the most significant
developments in dehydration technology. In explosion puffing, partially dehydrated pieces from
a preliminary stage drying are heated in a closed rotating cylindrical container known as a ‘gun’
until the internal pressure has reached a predetermined value. When this point has been reached
the gun is discharged instantly to atmosphere. During this process a certain amount of water is
vaporized but, more important, the explosive or flashing conditions cause a highly porous
network of capillaries to be developed within the particles. This porosity enables the final
dehydration to be achieved much more rapidly (approximately twice) than would have been the
case with conventionally dried products. It also bestows on the product the ability to reconstitute
extremely rapidly.

Vacuum Puff Drying: The vacuum puff process has been developed for drying liquids under
vacuum. The development of processes for drying liquids under vacuum came from the
observations made on the freeze drying of orange juice concentrate. The rate of drying of the
product in the liquid state was double that in the frozen state (freeze drying) and the dried
30
product had a highly porous structure, which exhibited good rehydration properties. This was
due to the fact that under vacuum conditions the liquid tends to foam and produce a film
structure, which dries to give a highly porous solid.

Foam Mat Drying: This process is a development of the vacuum puffing but, instead of
employing a vacuum to foam the material, it is initially foamed by suitable agents and then
subjected to drying under atmospheric pressure. The equipment required for this is similar to the
continuous band drier described previously, without the vacuum facilities.

Microflake-T dehydration: This technique involves the drying of a continuous sheet of foam 20
mm thick on a continuous stainless steel belt. The later is heated from below by steam and above
by a high velocity air stream and drying times are reported to be about one tenth of the standard
process.

Spray Drying: Spray drying is a unique drying process since it involves both particle formation
and drying. It is most suitable for drying of liquid foods such as milk, fruit juices etc. The feed is
converted into small droplet with the help of a nozzle or atomizer and then droplets are dried in a
drying chamber when they come in contact with hot air. The product is separated from hot air by
a cyclone separator and collected. The characteristics of the resultant powder can be controlled
and powder properties can be maintained constant throughout a continuous operation. With the
designs of spray dryers available, it is possible to select a dryer layout to produce either fine- or
coarse-particle powders, agglomerates or granulates.

Spray drying involves the atomisation of feed into a spray, and contact between spray and drying
medium resulting in moisture evaporation. The drying of the spray continues until the desired
moisture content in the dried particles is achieved, and the product is recovered from the air.
There are various types of spray dryers such as two stage dryers, three stage dryers, multi stage
dryers and compact spray dryers. Figure 11.1 illustrates the different spray dryers.

31
 Multi stage spray dryer

Two stage spray dryer

Compact spray dryer

Figure 11.1: Different types of spray dryers

32
Foam Spray Drying: This is an extension of spray drying and involves the use of gases dissolved
under pressure prior to spraying. The main advantage is that the density of the product is reduced
by half and the dried particles are hollow spheres surrounded by thick walls of dried material.
The foam process produces particles having many internal spaces and relatively thin wall.

Roller Drying (Drum drying): One of the important techniques for drying liquid food products is
the roller drier. Like spray drying, roller drying can only be used for liquid products, which can
either have a low viscosity or be highly viscous to paste like. Roller dryer is also called drum
drying. The metal rollers are heated from inside with condensing steam and the product dries as a
thin film by contact with the cylinder surface. While spray drying is done purely by vaporisation,
evaporation is the main process in roller drying since the saturated vapour pressure is equal to the
atmospheric pressure. The product to be dried is spread as a thin film on to the surface of the hot
drum and after one revolution is scraped off by a knife, in the form of flakes, scales or powder.
A large part of the roller dried whole milk powder is destined for chocolate manufacture. Roller
drying is extensively used for the manufacture of ‘instant’ potato products, potato flakes, and
also for all liquid food products including infant foods, fruit products, eggs, milk and beverages.

Freeze Drying: The Techniques of freeze-drying have been developed over the past half-century
for the purpose of preserving certain biological materials, which are costly to produce, and which
are highly unstable. Perhaps its most notable successes have been in the preservation of human
plasma for transfusion purposes and in the preservation of the early samples of penicillin during
the war. Today it has numerous applications in the pharmaceutical industry, but it falls far short
of requirements for the food industry. The cost of the process is also still too high to make it a
practical proportion for many of the cheaper foods.

In this method of removal of water the product is frozen and the temperature maintained below
the triple point of the constituent aqueous solutions so that the water vapour can be sublimed
from the frozen state. There is, therefore, a direct transfer from solid to vapour without the ice
melting and passing through the liquid phase. The process is carried out under high vacuum to
provide a high vapour diffusion potential and is accelerated by supplying heat in some convenient
form, either radiant, conductive or from microwaves. It is generally considered that as a means of

33
dehydration. It produces a dried product of the highest quality and therefore is potentially an
extremely attractive method.
The major aspects of the mechanism of freeze drying are:
(a) The removal of vapour from the subliming ice front within the material,
(b) The removal of vapour from between the food particles,
(c) The supply of heat to the food particles,
(d) The supply of heat to the ice within the food particles
The conventional freeze drying unit consists of a vacuum chamber into which trays of the
material to be dried can be placed, and a source for supplying heat to the material so that the
sublimation process can be accelerated. The usual method is to arrange the trays on or between
the heated plates, which are either electrically heated or internally heated with steam. The
vacuum is produced either with a mechanical pump, suitable steam ejectors, or refrigerated
condensers.
Other Types of Drying: There are many other dryer types available, such as;
• Osmotic Drying
• Impingement Drying
• Microwave and Dielectric Drying
• Superheated Steam Drying
• Electrohydrodynamic Drying

So far we have learnt about the dehydration process and the different methods which can be used
and are in use in the food industry for dehydration of foods. Next, we shall look at yet another
form of preservation method i.e. concentration.

11.5 PRESERVATION BY CONCENTRATION

First what do we mean by concentration. Concentration is an operation used to remove a liquid

from a solution, suspension, or emulsion by boiling off some of the liquid. It is thus a thermal
separation or thermal evaporation process.

But, why do we need to concentrate foods. Foods are concentrated for many of the same reasons
that they are dehydrated; concentration can be a form of preservation but this is true only for

34
some foods. Concentration reduces weight and volume and results in immediate economic
advantages. Nearly all liquid foods which are dehydrated, need to be concentrated before they
are dried. This is because in the early stages of water removal, moisture can be more
economically removed in highly efficient evaporators than in dehydration equipment. Further,
increased viscosity from concentration often is needed to prevent liquids from running off drying
surfaces or to facilitate foaming or puffing.

Foods are also concentrated because the concentrated forms have become desirable components
of diet in their own right. Thus, fruit juices plus sugar with concentration becomes jelly. The
more common concentrated fruit and vegetable products include items as fruit and vegetable
juices and nectars, jams and jellies, tomato paste, many types of fruit purées used by bakers,
candy makers and other food manufacturers.

The level of water in virtually all concentrated foods is in itself more than enough to permit
microbial growth. Yet while many concentrated foods such as non-acid fruit and vegetable
purées may quickly undergo microbial spoilage unless additionally processed, such items as
sugar syrups, jellies and jams are relatively "immune" to spoilage; the difference of course is in
what is dissolved in the remaining water and what osmotic concentration is reached.

Removal of water by concentration also increases the level of food acids in solution (particularly
significant in concentrated fruit juices). While the preservation effects of food concentration are
important, the main reason of most food concentration is to reduce food weight and bulk.
Tomato pulp, which is ground tomato devoid of the skins and seeds, has a solid content of only 6
% and so a 3.78 liter can would contain only 230 g of tomato solids. Concentrated to 32% solids,
the same can would contain 1.38 kg of tomato solids or six times the value of product. For a
manufacturer needing tomato solids such as producer of soups, canned spaghetti or frozen pizza
the saving from concentration are enormous.

So you realize how concentration as a method of preservation is useful in the food industry.
Further, we would also like to know how the process of concentration is carried out. A brief
discussion on the different methods of concentration which are used at the home or industrial
level follows.

35
11.5.1 Methods of concentration
We define the concentration process as one that starts with a liquid product and ends up with a
more concentrated, but still liquid and still pumpable concentrate as the main product from the
process.

In most cases, it is essential that the product be subject to minimal thermal degradation during
the concentration process, requiring that temperature and time exposure must be minimized.
This and other requirements brought on by the physical characteristics of the processed product
have resulted in the development of a large range of different evaporator types. An evaporator,
as you may have realized, is generally used to concentrate the liquid food products. Some of the
common evaporators frequently used in food industry include falling film evaporators, rising
film evaporators, forced circulation evaporators and plate evaporator. We shall not go into the
details of the functioning of these evaporators, but you should know that in almost all
evaporators the heating medium is steam, which heats a product on the other side of a heat
transfer surface.
Here, however, we would like to bring to your notice some of the simple techniques one can use
for evaporation during concentration process. These include:
a. Solar concentration: As in food dehydration, one of the simplest methods of evaporating
water is with solar energy. A typical example of this method is production at farm level in
developing countries of fruit pastes/leathers (such as apricot or plum pastes).
b. Open Kettles: Some foods can be satisfactorily concentrated in open kettles that are heated
by steam. This is the case for jellies and jams, tomato juices and purées and for certain types
of soups. High temperatures and long concentration times should be avoided in order to
reduce or eliminate damage. It is also necessary to avoid thickening and burn-on of product
to the kettle wall as these gradually lower the efficiency of heat transfer and slow the
concentration process. However, when the process is under control, this type of evaporation
is still highly recommended for small scale operations in developing countries. It is a quite
widely used system, mainly for jellies, jams and marmalades.
c. Vacuum evaporators: It is common to construct several vacuumised vessels in series so that
the product moves from one vacuum chamber to the next and thereby becomes progressively
more concentrated in stages. With such an arrangement the successive stages are maintained
at progressively higher degrees of vacuum, and the hot water vapour produced by the first

36
 stage is used to heat the second stage, the vapour from the second stage heats the third stage
and so on. In this way maximum use of heat energy is made. Such system is called a multiple
effect vacuum evaporator. It is a widely used system for concentrated tomato paste.
d. Freeze Concentration: This process has been known for many years and has been applied
commercially to orange juice. However, high processing costs due largely to losses of juice
occlude [unclear] to the ice crystals, have limited the number of installations to date.

Equipped with the knowledge of how to concentrating foods, with or without evaporators, let us
next learn about the applications of evaporators in food and dairy Industry, where concentration
is carried out. This is highlighted in Table 11.3.

Table 11.3: Some representative applications of evaporators in food and dairy industry,
where concentration is carried out
Milk products Fruit juices
Whole & skim milk Orange & other citrus juices
Condensed milk & Cream Apple & other pomaceous juices
Buttermilk Mixed juices, Tropical fruit juices Coconut
Milk permeate & proteins milk
Sweet whey & sour whey Other applications
Whey permeate & protein Baby food
Lactose solutions Egg white
Vegetable juices Fermentation liquids
Tomato juice Hydrolyzates
Carrot juice Hydrolyzed whey
Beetroot juice Hydrolyzed milk
Grass juice Soup seasoning
Extracts Protein hydrolyzate
Meat & bone extract Organic Natural Products
Coffee & tea extract Fermentation broths
Hop extract Glue & gelatine
Malt extract Emulsions
Yeast extract Extracts

37
 Pectin Stick water
High-protein juices Organic effluents
Soya whey Blood
Yeast extract
Fodder yeast
Finally before we end our discussion on concentration, let us look at the effect of concentration
on physical/nutritional quality of food.

11.5.2 Changes due to Concentration Process

Obviously concentration that exposes food to 100°C or higher temperatures for prolonged
periods can cause major changes in organoleptic and nutritional properties. Cooking of foods and
darkening of colour are two of the more common heat induced results, which must be kept under
control during a well designed process with an efficient evaporator which is still "safe”.

Microbial destruction is another type of change that may occur during concentration and will be
largely dependent upon temperature. Concentration at a temperature of 100 °C or slightly above
will kill many microorganisms but cannot be depended on to destroy bacterial spores. When the
food contains acid, such as fruit juices, the extent of inactivation will be greater but again
sterility is unlikely. On the other hand, when concentration is done under vacuum many bacterial
types not only survive the low temperatures but also multiply in the concentrating equipment. It
is therefore necessary to stop frequently and sanitize low temperature evaporators and where
sterile concentrated foods are required, to resort to an additional preservation treatment.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1. What do you understand by the term ‘concentration’?
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2. Give a few reasons why do we need to concentrate foods.
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38
3. List some of the simple techniques used for evaporation during the concentration
process.
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11.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, you studied the various methods of food processing. You learnt that food being most
vital for the survival of human beings must be processed using scientific techniques. In this
context, you learnt in a great detail about thermal processing i.e., cooking, blanching,
pasteurization, sterilization and canning; dehydration and various drying techniques.

Another aspect which was considered in this unit was the preservation by means of
concentration. In this, the main focus was on the various methods of concentration and the
changes that occur in food as a result of concentration.

___________________________________________________________________
11.7 GLOSSARY
___________________________________________________________________________

Bound water : Water which is in some way bound to the food so that it exerts a
vapour pressure less than that of pure water.
Concentration : An operation used to remove a liquid from a solution, suspension
or emulsion by boiling off some of the liquid.
Conduction : The transfer of energy through a medium without bulk movement
of the medium itself.
Convection : A process of transfer or transmission, as of heat and electricity,
by means of circulation of currents in liquids or gases resulting
from changes of temperature and other causes.
Dry bulb temperature : Air temperature as indicated by an ordinary thermometer.
Food Preservation : A process by which certain foods are prevented from getting
spoilt for a long period of time. It preserves the colour, taste and
nutritive value of the food.
39
Food Processing : Conversion of raw materials and ingredients into a consumer
food product.
Free Water : Water which is bound by such minute forces, that its vapour
pressure is equal to the vapour pressure of pure water.
Heat of vaporization : Heat required to overcome the molecular forces of attraction
between the particles of a liquid, and bring them to the vapour
state, where such attractions are minimal.
Organoleptic properties : Relating to qualities (as taste, colour, odour, and feel of a
substance that stimulate the sense organs.
Relative humidity : Ratio of the quantity of water vapour present in the air to the
highest amount possible at a given temperature, expressed as a
percentage.
Sanitize : To make less offensive or more acceptable by killing all living
including bacteria and algae.
Still retorts : Cylindrical glass containers used in canning plants for heating
foods.
Latent heat of
Vaporization : The amount of heat energy required from the environment to
change the state of a liquid to a gas.
Water activity : Ratio of vapour pressure of a food to the vapour pressure of pure
water.

11.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1.
(i) Preparation of the products fit for consumption and destruction or inactivation of
pathogens found in food.
(ii) Thermal processing
(iii) Any two of the following: Destruction/reduction of microorganisms; Inactivation of
undesirable enzymes; Destruction of hazardous toxins; Alteration of colour, flavor, and
texture; Improved digestibility.

40
(iv) Thermopenetration
(v) Q value

2. The functions of blanching are listed as (any five):

• Inactivate most enzymes
• Cleaning action
• Removes substances in some products
• Activates some enzymes
• Removes undesirable odors/ flavours
• Softens fibrous material and decreases volume
• Expels air and respiratory gases
• Preheating of product prior to canning

3. A few benefits of blanching are:

• cleaning the material and reduce the amount of microorganisms present on surface
• Preserving natural colour in dried products
• Shortening the soaking/ cooking time during reconstitution

4. Pasteurization is a mild heat treatment to kill a part of the microorganisms present in

food. There are two categories of pasteurization. These are:
a) LTLT: In this, the pasteurization time is in the order of minutes and related to the
temperature used. To typical temperature/time combinations are used: 63-65oC over 30
minutes or 75oC over 8-10 minutes.
b) Rapid, high or flash Pasteurization: It is characterized by a pasteurization time in the
order of seconds and temperatures of about 85oC to 90oC or more, depending on the
holding time. Typical temperature/time combinations may be: 88oC for 1 minute; 100oC
for 12 seconds; and 121oC for 2 seconds. The 121oC for 2 seconds treatment gives the
best quality products in respect of flavour and vitamin retention.

5. Thermal conditions required to produce commercial sterility are: nature of the food,
storage conditions during post processing; heat transfer characteristics of food, container
and heating medium; and initial load or quantity or organisms present.
41
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1.
a) Canning is a process for conservation of foods and its nutritional qualities for along
duration at ambient temperature, obtained by a process associating a heat treatment
and a water proof packing.
b) Dehydration is a technique that involves the application of heat to vapourise after its
separation from the fruit/vegetable tissues. It is a combined/simultaneous transfer
operation for which the energy must be supplied.

2. The sequence of canning operations are as: food preparation, filling of can/receptacle,
vaccum production, thermal processing, cooling, labeling and packing.

3. The advantages of canned foods are safe and hygienic and high nutritional value,
economical, availability in a wide assortment and have utility value and can be kept for a
long period

4. The main purpose of drying is to extend the shelf-life of foods by a reduction in water
activity (aw). This will inhibit microbial growth, however, the processing temperature
will not normally be sufficient to cause inactivation, thus care is needed to be taken with
the product on subsequent rehydration.

5. A few factors that affect the drying rate and total drying time are:
• Properties of the products
• Geometrical arrangement of the products
• Physical properties of drying medium/environment
• Characteristics of drying equipment

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1. Concentration is an operation used to remove a liquid from a solution, suspension, or
emulsion by boiling off some of the liquid.

42
2. The reasons to concentrate foods are:
a) it is a form of preservation
b) it reduces weight and volume and results in immediate economic advantages.
c) Concentrated forms have become desirable components of the diet.

3. The simple techniques used for evaporation during the concentration process are solar
concentration, open kettles, vaccum evaporation and freeze concentration.

43
UNIT 12 METHODS OF FOOD PROCESSING – 2

Structure
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Freezing
12.2.1 Freezing Systems
12.3 Microwave Processing
12.3.1 A Look at Microwave Processing
12.3.2 Advantages of Microwave Heating
12.3.3 Microwave Food Processing Applications
12.3.4 Microwave vs. Conventional Heating
12.4 Irradiation
12.5 Fermentation
12.5.1 Types of Fermentation and Fermented Foods
12.6 Deep Fat Frying
12.7 Use of Salt, Sugar and Chemicals as Preservatives
12.8 Let Us Sum Up
12.9 Glossary
12.10 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

12.1 INTRODUCTION

In the previous unit, we began our discussion on the methods of food processing by covering the
two major methods- thermal processing and dehydration. Here, in this unit, we shall focus on
the other food processing methods which include freezing, microwave processing, irradiation,
fermentation, deep fat frying and use of salt, sugar and chemicals as preservatives. What is
freezing and the different types of freezing systems available for foods? How do microwaves
help to process and preserve food? How can simple home-based methods such as deep fat frying
and use of salt, sugar and chemicals act as a preservative technique/measure. These are a few
issues discussed in this unit.

Objectives
After studying this unit you will be able to:
• understand the different food processing techniques
• discuss freezing systems in detail
• describe microwave processing, its applications and advantages

1
 • enumerate the different fermented products and their method of preparation
involving use of various microorganisms and
• explain the use of salt, sugar and chemicals as preservatives.

12.2 FREEZING

Freezing, as a method, is the easiest, most convenient and least time-consuming way of
preserving foods. Freezing does not sterilize foods or destroy the organisms that cause spoilage.
How then does it preserve foods? Well, the extreme cold simply slows the growth of
microorganisms and the chemical changes that affect quality or cause spoilage. You already
know that all microbial and biochemical activities are temperature dependant and slow down as
the temperature is reduced. As a rule of thumb, for every 10°C temperature change, the rate of
reaction changes by a factor of 2 to 3.

Further, freezing helps to preserve food by its action on enzymes. Enzymes, as you already know
are complex proteins, present in all living tissue, that help organisms ripen and mature. During
freezing, enzyme action is slowed but not stopped. If not inactivated, these enzymes can cause
color and flavor changes and loss of nutrients during freezer storage.

We are all familiar with chilling and refrigerated storage. At home or at the industry level,
refrigerated storage of food is generally practiced. In the unit operation of chilling, the
temperature of a food is reduced generally to between –1°C and 7 °C and thus subsequent
storage at refrigerated temperature extends the shelf life of both the fresh and processed foods. It
is also used as an adjunct process to extend the storage life of mildly processed (e.g. pasteurized,
fermented and irradiated) and low-acid foods. In the United States, refrigerated storage of food is
mandated by regulations at temperatures at or below 7.2°C. Such foods are also marketed under
refrigeration and labeled as ‘needing refrigeration’. Commercially sterilized and processed foods
that may become contaminated after opening should also be labeled for refrigerated storage.

Chilling and refrigerated storage prevents the growth of bacteria, particularly the thermophiles
(organisms that grow at high temperature) and mesophiles (organisms that grow at medium
temperature). Psychrophiles (organisms that grow at low temperatures), however, can and do

2
cause food spoilage during low temperatures storage, but there are some psychrophillic
pathogens, as listed in Table 12.1, that need attention.

Table 12.1 Psychrophilic foodborne pathogenic bacterial species

Identified species Foods Associated
Aeromonas hydrophila Sea foods
Escherichia coli Milk and milk products
Pseudomonas species Meat and meat products
Water habitats
Bacillus cereus Cereal and cereal products
Milk and milk products
Meat and meat products
Listeria monocytogenes Milk and milk products
Yersinia enterocolitica Meat and meat products
Campylobacter jejuni

Freezing, you would realize, is the most convenient way of preserving foods. Different types of
freezing systems are available for foods. Let’s get to learn about these systems.

12.2.1 Freezing Systems

Different types of freezing systems are available for foods. No single freezing system can satisfy
all freezing needs, because of the wide variety of food products and process characteristics. Can
you mention a few of these characteristics which may influence the choice for a particular
system? The selection criteria of a freezing system will depend on the type of the product,
reliable and economic operation, easy cleanability and hygienic design, and desired product
quality.

Although all commercial freezing processes are operated at atmospheric conditions, there are
potential applications of high-pressure assistant freezing and thawing of foods. The pressure –
induced freezing point and melting point depression enables the sample to be supercooled to low
temperature (e.g., - 22° C at 207.5 M pa) resulting in rapid and uniform nucleation and growth of
ice crystals on release of pressure.
3
The different freezing systems are summarized herewith:

A. Freezing by Contact with a Cooled Solid: Plate Freezing

In this method, the product is sandwiched between metal plates and pressure is usually applied
for good contact. Plate freezers are only suitable for regular-shaped materials or blocks. When
the product has been frozen, hot liquid is circulated to break the ice seal and defrost. Spacers are
used between the plates during freezing to prevent crushing or bulging of the package.

B. Freezing by Contact with a Cooled Liquid: Immersion Freezing

In this method, the food is immersed in low-temperature brine to achieve fast temperature
reduction through direct heat exchange. The fluids usually used are salt solutions (sodium
chloride), sugar solutions, glycol and glycerol solutions, and alcohol solutions. In order to ensure
that the food does not come into contact with liquid refrigerants, flexible membranes are used to
enclose the food completely, while allowing rapid heat transfer.

C. Freezing by Contact with a Cooled Gas

Different methods are available for freezing by contact with cooled gas. These include:
i) Cabinet Freezing: This method involves circulation of cold air in a cabinet where the product
is placed in a tray. The moisture pick-up from the product may deposit on the cooling coils as
frost, which acts as an insulation.

ii) Air–Blast Freezing: The method employs the use of high velocity cold air to reduce the
temperature of the food. Air velocities between 2.5 and 5 m/s give the most economical
freezing. Lower air velocities result in slow product freezing and higher velocities increase unit
freezing costs considerable. This method can be further divided into fluidized bed freezing, belt
freezing, and tunnel freezing, depending on how the air interacts with the product. Now we will
discuss each of these methods:
• Fluidized Bed Freezing: A fluidized bed freezer consists of a bed with a perforated
bottom through which refrigerated air is blown vertically upwards. The air velocity must
be greater than the fluidization velocity. This freezing method is suitable for small
particulate food bodies of fairly uniform size, e.g., peas, diced carrots, corns and berry

4
 fruits. The high degree of fluidization improves the heat transfer rate and results in good
use of floor space.

• Belt Freezing: The first mechanized air-blast freezers consisted of a wire mesh belt
conveyor in a blast room for continuous product flow. Uniform product distribution over
the entire belt is required to achieve uniform product contact and effective freezing.
Controlled vertical airflow forces cold air up through the product layer, thereby creating
good contact with the product particles and increasing the efficiency. The principal
current design is the two – stage belt freezer. Temperatures used are usually – 10 to 4 °C
in the pre-cool section and – 32 to – 40° C in the freezer section.

• Tunnel Freezing: In this process, the products are placed in trays or racks in a long tunnel
and cool air is circulated over the product.

iii) Cryogenic Freezing: Cryogenic Freezing, as you would realize, is one of the fast, flexible and
cheap method of freezing. In this, the liquefied gases are placed in direct contact with the foods.
Food is exposed to an atmosphere below – 60°C through direct contact with liquid nitrogen or
liquid carbon dioxide or their vapor. This is a very fast method of freezing, thus adequate control
is necessary for achieving quality products. It also provides flexibility by being compatible with
various types of food products and having a low capital cost. The rapid formation of small ice
crystals greatly reduces the damage caused by cell rupture, preserving color, texture, flavor and
nutritional value. The rapid freezing also reduces the evaporative weight loss from the products,
provides high product throughput and has low floor space requirements.

The cryo-mechanical technique utilizes a cryogenic gas to create a frozen crust on a fluid
product, after which the product may be conveyed to a conventional mechanical freezer. The
advantages of liquid nitrogen are that it is colorless, odorless and is chemically inert and boils at
195.8°C. It is usually used for high-value products due to the high capital cost for gas
compression. The product can be exposed to a cryogenic medium in three ways:
(a) The cryogenic liquid is directly sprayed on the product in a tunnel freezer.
(b) The cryogenic liquid is vaporized and blown over the food in a spiral freezer or batch freezer.
(c) The product is immersed in the cryogenic liquid in an immersion freezer.

5
With this, we come to an end on our discussion on freezing as a method of preservation. Let us
now attempt the exercises given in Check your progress exercise 1 and see how much we have
grasped the knowledge on this subject.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1. Fill in the blanks:
(i) The freezing process involves --------------------------------------- and ----------------------- .
(ii) For every 10oC temperature change, the rate of reaction changes by a factor of ------------
(iii) The temperature range which extends the shelf-life of fresh and processed foods is --------
(iv) ------------- organisms cause food spoilage during low temperatures storage.
(v) The selection criteria of a freezing method are -------------------------, -------------------------
--------------------------------- and ---------------------------------------- .
2. Explain how the process of freezing helps in preservation of foods.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. What are the different methods of freezing?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. A single freezing system is enough to satisfy all freezing needs. Why?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5. Explain, very briefly, what is meant by ‘Cryogenic freezing’? Also, give its advantages
over other freezing methods.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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6
12.3 MICROWAVE PROCESSING

You would have realized that usage of microwave, as one of the techniques of food processing,
has tremendously increased in recent times. Can you suggest why? Here, in this section, we
would look into various aspects of microwave processing which make it a choice of food
technologists as well as households.

Food industry, in the recent years, has witnessed the emergence of microwave oven as a
substitute for thermal oven for a number of food processes and products. Microwave processing
results in an excellent retention of nutritional and sensory value, besides having other advantages
namely savings in energy, cost, time, etc. Though it had a limited applicability in the past,
microwave processing is a boon to the food industry and it has a tremendous potential, if
explored properly. The modern life, as well as, the increasing number of working industries
requires simplified routines and standardization of foods with lesser preparation time and
convenience in usage. The increasing consumer demands for foods, which offer more
convenience in the use and savings in preparation, make the food processor to go for microwave
oven as an alternative to the conventional thermal ovens. The speed with which the heating takes
place in the microwave oven, contributes to the most to its rapid growth and practically, it has
become a household item today.

Let us then understand what are microwave radiation, how they heat and their advantages, in the
following sections.

12.3.1 A look at Microwave Processing

The first thing which comes to our mind while on the topic of microwave processing is what
microwaves are? Microwaves are basically electromagnetic waves that have a frequency
between 300 MHz and 300 GHz. These two frequencies correspond to wavelengths of 1 m and 1
mm, respectively. All domestic microwave ovens and laboratory microwave processors operate
at 2.45 GHz (corresponding to a wavelength of 12.2 cm, or just over 4-3/4"). Microwave energy

7
is not suited for every application. But, in those applications where it fits, it can provide many
process benefits. Let us next look at the microwave process.
The most common way to heat a product is from the outside in - heat penetrates, molecule by
molecule, into the interior of the product. As a rule, when a product’s moisture content is high
(50 to 95%), conventional heating methods are the most economical technology. But, heating
products with low moisture content (below 20%) is difficult. Microwave energy has the unique
ability to heat certain molecules while not heating others. Because of this unique characteristic,
microwave energy often is employed to draw out the last few percent of moisture in a range of
products. This ability can be especially helpful in applications such as drying, where the residual
moisture can have damaging results.

Microwaves pass through a product like light passes through glass. Materials without a dipolar
electrical charge (some plastics, for example) do not react with the waves. However,
asymmetrically charged materials - especially water, which is by far the most common material
with a dipolar charge, react to the microwaves by trying to align themselves, to the
electromagnetic charge. Because of the microwaves’ electromagnetic field reverses as much as a
couple of billions times per second, the dipolar molecules continually change alignment,
producing energy that is converted into heat. The amount of energy converted is dependent on
the electric field strength, the microwave frequency and the dielectric properties of the food. In
effect, the water molecules heat themselves until the product becomes so hot that the water
present in the product evaporates. Combination curing with microwave is better than any other
heating methods. Microwaves can remove the last few percent of moisture from a product’s
interior and this process can be completed rapidly without overheating the already dried material.
In fact, drying materials to levels as low as 3% moisture content, within a relatively short time is
possible with microwaves.

In many applications where microwave technology is considered, a combination of microwave

and conventional heating methods often is the best. Conductive or convective processing steps
can be used before, during and after the microwave stage. The choice depends on product and the
process. If microwaves are used first, the result is more effective for initial heating. If
conventional and microwave heating are applied at the same time, there is a synergistic effect:

8
Microwave heat pumps the product’s moisture to the surface, where it is evaporated by
convective airflow - producing more effective drying than convection-only systems.

The heating of materials by microwave is affected by a number of properties of the equipment

and the material being heated. The important factors influencing the heating patterns are:
• Microwave frequency
• Microwave power and speed of heating
• Mass of the material
• Moisture content of the product
• Product density
• Product temperature

A discussion on these factors follows:

• Frequency: There are two available frequencies for microwave heating - 915 and 2,450
MHz; the frequency affects the depth of penetration into a material. Generally very large
materials such as 30 kg blocks of frozen fish to be tempered might be better processed at
915 MHz, while the cooking of individual sausage patties favor 2,450 MHz.
• Microwave power and speed of heating: Most industrial systems operate at microwave
power outputs ranging from 5 to 100 kW with some extending beyond these limits. The
higher the power output, the faster the heating for a given mass. Varying the power
output usually controls the speed of microwave heating. Speed is usually the most
attractive feature of microwave heating. This is a double-edged sword, however, since it
is possible to heat rapidly cooking, baking and other food processes are complex
physiochemical systems requiring the input of heat to initiate and accelerate reactions.
However, these reactions must occur in a proper order and be given proper time to occur.
One of the best examples of critical nature of the rate of heat input is ‘baking’. Another
problem that can arise from excess speed of heating is non-uniform temperature
distribution. This occurs because the heating may be so fast as to prevent the
effectiveness of thermal conductivity in transferring the heat to the cooler portions.
• Mass: There are two considerations - the total mass being heated at one time and the
mass of an individual piece; the latter will be treated below under physical geometry and
density. As far as the total mass is concerned, there is a direct relationship between the
9
 mass and the amount of microwave power, which must be applied to achieve the desired
heating. Microwave systems can be built to accommodate 25, 250 or 2500 kg or any
amount of material per hour. When total mass is small, this might best be done in a batch
oven, where as a larger throughput, would often be better done in a conveyorised system.
Such systems have an added advantage of providing greater heating uniformity by
moving the product though the microwave field.
• Moisture content: Water content is the major influencing factor that indicates how well
materials, particularly foods, absorb microwave energy. Usually, the more water present,
the higher the dielectric loss factor and hence the better heating. However, the lower
moisture product may also heat well, since its specific heat decreases. As the product
becomes dryer, very often wetter areas absorb the microwave energy preferentially and
moisture-leveling effect is seen. This effect is very useful in drying operations.
• Density: The density of a product has an effect upon its dielectric constant. The dielectric
constant of air is 1.0 and air is for all practical purposes, completely transparent at the
industrial heating frequencies, thus air inclusion will reduce materials’ dielectric constant.
Hence as material's density increases so does its dielectric constant, almost linearly. Very
porous material, such as bread dough, because of air inclusion are good insulators and
become better insulators as they are baked and their density decreases. Thus, heat
transfer into these materials is very difficult and slow, except in microwave heating,
where microwaves penetrates deeply and are able to bake the bread in one third of
conventional time or less.
• Temperature: The temperature of a material plays a role in microwave heating in several
ways:
1) The dielectric loss may increase or decrease with temperature, depending upon the
material since temperatures and moisture levels change during heating, they may have a
profound effect upon the dielectric properties.
2) Freezing has a major effect upon a material's heating ability, because of the vast
difference in dielectric properties of ice and water. Water is highly absorptive and heats
faster, ice is highly transparent and doesn't heat. This is why tempering, the rising of the
temperature of frozen materials to just below the thawing point, is done rather than
thawing.

10
 3) The starting temperature of the food products being heated by microwaves should either
be controlled or known, so the microwave power can be adjusted to obtain uniform final
temperatures. In other words, if a microwave system is set to rise the temperature of the
material from 200 to 800°C, but the starting temperature is only 150°C, it will rise the
temperature to only 750°C unless the microwave power incidence in to the system is
increased.
4) Higher core heating is achieved at 915 MHz and surface heating at 2450 MHz.
5) Edge and corner overheating: Irregular shaped products heat non-uniformly. Chicken
heats more near bone than in the meat.
6) Spot heating in heterogeneous products: Frozen foods heat non-uniformly. Microwave
penetration is greater in ice than in water but absorption in water is higher.

With the basic understanding on microwave heating, can you now enumerate the basic
advantages of microwave processing? Try listing them down and tally your responses with the
advantages enumerated herewith.

12.3.2 Advantages of microwave heating

Compounds with high dielectric constant (e.g. water and ethanol) tend to heat readily under
microwave heating, while less polar materials with no net dipole moment (e.g. CO2) and highly
ordered materials (such as ice) are poor microwave absorbers. This circumstance arises because
energy transfer is not primarily by conduction or convection, as with conventional heating, but
by dielectric loss. The difference in mechanism of heating offers the following advantages for
microwave assisted processing:
1) Rapid response: The sample absorbs the energy directly, so the time required for the heating
up reaction mixtures are short, allowing selectivity in some reactions and enabling operators
to efficiently manage their work.
2) Because the reaction mixture heats directly, the chamber does not heat up substantially.
When the power is turned off, heat input ceases immediately, an important safety
consideration.
3) There are minimal temperature gradients across the reaction vessel, so the temperature of the
material on the wall is not significantly different from that in the body of the reaction mixture

11
4) Both continuous and batch microwave reactors can allow unstable products to be quickly
cooled at the completion of the reaction.

Next, can you suggest the applications of microwave i.e., the uses of microwave at home and/or
industrial level. We have highlighted few of the applications here for your knowledge.
12.3.3 Microwave food processing applications
Table 12.2 lists microwave applications in food processing. In some instances, these processes
can be extended to other similar products, e.g. the pasta drying process could be used in some
variation in the process to dry many other food and agriculture products. Microwave vacuum
drying has been applied to grains, seeds and fruit juices and could also be applied to various
vegetables and other heat sensitive materials. Microwave sterilization of foods in hermetically
sealed containers is just now coming of age and has a great future.
Table 12.2 Food applications of microwave
PROCESS PRODUCTS
Tempering meat, fish, poultry
Cooking bacon, meat patties, Sausage, potatoes, Sardines, chicken.
Drying pasta, onions, rice cakes, egg yolk, snack foods, seaweed
Vacuum drying orange juice, grains, seeds.
Freeze drying meat, vegetables, fruits
Pasteurization bread, yogurt.
Sterilization pouch packed foods
Baking bread, donuts
Roasting nuts, grains
Blanching Vegetables, potatoes, corn, fruits
Rendering lard, tallow

Microwaves are commonly used for reheating of pre-prepared chilled and frozen foods. The
defrosting of frozen foods is best accomplished in stages with resting periods allowed for heat
conduction within the food, so eliminating the formation of hot spots due to uneven microwave
absorption. Most commercial microwave ovens have facilities that allow programming of a
suitable sequence for the defrosting of frozen foods.

12
Whether used in combination with conventional heating or alone, microwaves have a place in
industrial processing. Five potential applications are:
1. Baking: Microwave’s ability to speed up the internal heating can accelerate the baking
process. Microwave heating can be combined with convection heating to create a crispy crust
and pleasing appearance in less time.
2. Curing: Because it leads to rapid heating throughout the product, microwaves may be used
for bulk polymerization reactions that are heat initiated.
3. Blanching: When combined with a humid or steam atmosphere, rapid uniform heating with
microwaves can be effective for blanching fruits and vegetables. Microwave processing does
not incur the leaching losses associated with hot water or steam blanching.
4. Removing Solvent: Many solvents are efficiently vaporized with microwaves, permitting
solvent removal at relatively low temperatures. Microwaves also can be used to cure glue and
other adhesives.
5. Moisture Leveling: Because their heating effect is roughly proportional to the moisture
content, microwaves can be used to equalize the moisture content within a product that has a
non uniform moisture level.

Finally, having read about the advantages and applications of microwave processing, can you
now critically analyze and suggest the advantages of microwave over conventional heating. To
help you in this task we have highlighted the points in the next section, where we have compared
microwave and conventional heating.

12.3.4 Microwave v/s conventional heating

The primary difference between the supply of heat by microwaves or by the conventional
thermal ways is in the initial distribution of heat. In conventional heating, the heat energy is
applied to the outside surface of the food and it is conducted from there to the center of the food.
With microwaves, food is heated principally by the generation and deposition of heat throughout
a 3 dimensional space in the food itself. This is, therefore referred to as volume heating, because
its effect is throughout the product. The food container and air in the oven will be heated only
after they receive heat from the food. Thus, very rapid heating times can be obtained with direct
coupling of the energy in to the product rather than placing the reliance on the transfer of heat
energy through the container surface and subsequent conduction to the center of the mass.

13
The main advantage of microwave oven over conventional electric and gas ovens is its high
thermal efficiency in converting the electrical energy to heat in the food. In ordinary ovens, a
major portion of the energy is lost in heating the air that surrounds the food; fairly a good amount
escapes through the vent, besides being lost through the conduction to the outside air. In contrast,
almost all the heat generated by microwaves, which reaches the interior of the oven, is produced
inside the food material itself. According to the reports, microwave ovens are 40% efficient as
compared to 14% for standard electric ovens and 7% for gas ovens.

In this section, we shall begin our discussion on another major method of food processing,
involving the use of radiation i.e., food irradiation.

12.4 FOOD IRRADIATION

Food irradiation is one of the food processing technologies available to the food industry to
control organisms that cause food-borne diseases and to reduce food losses due to spoilage and
deterioration. Irradiation is the use of radiation from gamma rays, x-rays, electron beams or
radioactive materials on food. The radiation sterilizes food and kills bacteria and controls certain
factors that cause food spoilage, but does not make the food itself radioactive.

Food irradiation technology, too, offers some advantages over conventional processes. Each
application should be evaluated on its own merit as to whether irradiation provides a technical
and economical solution that is better than traditional processing methods.

For products where irradiation is permitted, commercial applications depend on a number of

factors including the demand for the benefits provided, competitiveness with alternative
processes and the willingness of consumers to buy irradiated food products. There are a number
of applications of food irradiation. For each application, it is important to determine the optimum
dosage range required to achieve the desired effect. Too high a dosage can produce undesirable
changes in texture, colour and taste of foods. Irradiation can extend the shelf-life of foods in a
number of ways. By reducing the number of spoilage organisms (bacteria, mould and fungi),
irradiation can lengthen the shelf life of fruits and vegetables. Since ionising radiation interferes

14
with cell division, it can be used as an alternative to chemicals to inhibit sprouting and thereby
extend the shelf life of potatoes, onions and garlic. Exposure of fruits and vegetables to ionising
radiation slows their rate of ripening. Strawberries, for example, have been found to be suitable
for irradiation; their shelf life can be extended three-fold, from 5 to 15 days.
Ionizing radiations can also be used as an alternative to chemical fumigants for disinfestation of
grains, spices, fruits and vegetables. Many countries prohibit the import of products suspected of
being contaminated with live insects to protect the importing country's agricultural base. With
the banning of certain chemical fumigants, irradiation has the potential to facilitate the
international shipment of food products.

Recently, there has been a lot of interest and controversy linked with irradiated foods. In this
context, it is important to know about the global development and international trade perspective
on this issue. The next sub-section throws some light on this interesting issue.

Global Developments and International Trade

Are irradiated foods wholesome and safe? What is the consensus on wholesomeness? Let’s find
out. In 1980, an FAD/IAEA/WHO Expert Committee reviewed in detail all the accumulated data
on food irradiation from the past 40 years. The Expert Committee concluded that irradiation to
an overall dose of 10 kGy (kilograys) presents no toxicological hazard and introduces no special
nutritional or microbiological problems, thus establishing the wholesomeness of irradiated foods
up to an overall average absorbed dose of 10 kGy.

Data were insufficient to formulate conclusions on applications of food irradiation above 10

kGy. Data on radiation chemistry, nutritional and microbiological aspects of food treated above
10 kGy is currently being compiled.

In 1983, the Codex Alimentarius Commission, an international group that develops global food
standards for the FAO and the WHO, incorporated the 1980 Expert Committee's conclusions
regarding the wholesomeness of irradiated foods into the Codex General Standard for Irradiated
Foods. This proposed international standard was submitted to member countries to accept or to
modify according to individual country needs. Currently, most countries that allow food
irradiation approve its use on a case-by-case basis.

15
The Codex Alimentarius Commission has also adopted a Recommended International Code of
Practice for the Operation of Radiation Facilities for the Treatment of Foods. It is intended to
serve as a guide for irradiator operators and government regulators.
What about the international trade?
More than 30 countries have given clearances for the use of food irradiation to process some 40
food items and approximately 30 facilities world-wide treat food by irradiation processing.
Approvals for additional items are being considered in many countries and many food irradiation
facilities are being planned. It was anticipated in 1988 that by 1990 there could be approximately
50 commercial/demonstration irradiators in 25 countries.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. Fill in the blanks:
(i) Microwaves are -------------------------------with a frequency between -------------------------
(ii) Microwaves heat a product from --------------------------------------------------------------------
(iii) Heating products which --------------------------moisture content is difficult as compared to
--------------------------------------------------------moisture content.
(iv) One of the purpose of food irradiation is to --------------------------------------------- .
(v) A high radiation dose can lead to -------------------, --------------------- and ------------------ .
(vi) Ionising radiations can extend the shelf life and inhibit sprouting because they -------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Describe the mechanism of microwave processing.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. What are the factors that influence microwave heating pattern?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. List a few advantages of microwave heating over conventional heating.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

16
5. Mention a few potential applications of microwave heating.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6. Define irradiation.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Now let us study about one of the ancient methods of food processing and preservation i.e.,
Fermentation.

12.5 FERMENTATION

Fermented foods, whether from plant or animal origin, are an intricate part of the diet of people
in all parts of the world. It is the diversity of raw materials used as substrates, methods of
preparation and sensory qualities of finished products that are so astounding, as one begins to
learn more about the eating habits of various cultures. The preparation of many indigenous or
“traditional” fermented foods and beverages remains as a household art. The preparation of
others, e.g., soy sauce, has evolved to a biotechnological state and is carried out on a large
commercial scale.

Fermented foods which are reviewed in the following section, including bread, fermented dairy
products, vegetables and sauces, coffee and cocoa, have been scientifically studied during many
decades and knowledge about these foods keeps pace with developments in modern science. This
resulted in production methods that follow advances in modern technology. Fermented foods,
which are popular in Japan include shoyu (fermented soybean products), miso (fermented

soybean products), natto (soybean products, made by fermentation with bacteria) and sake, have
followed the same modern trend. In contrast, some other fermented foods of Asian and African
countries including emple, gari, kimchi and some other have come to the attention of modern
scientists only in the last two decades and many others have not yet been studied at all.
Consequently, most of these foods are still manufactured according to traditional less

17
technologically advanced methods, using simple equipments and produced on a small village
industrial scale or just at home for family consumption.

Before we continue further with our study on fermented foods, let us first understand what we
mean by fermented foods. Basically, fermented foods are agricultural products which have been
converted by enzymic activities of microorganisms into desirable food products whose properties
are considered more attractive than those of the original raw materials. In addition to its
external attractive properties, its nutritional values and keeping qualities are in many cases better
than the raw materials. Moreover, if the manufacturing procedures are followed, the foods are
usually safe for consumption. All of these beneficial properties of the final product increase the
economic value of the original agricultural commodity. Generally, traditional methods of
manufacturing fermented foods are not complicated and expensive equipment is not required.
Therefore, fermentation of indigenous foods is considered as an inexpensive and effective means
of food production that could be utilized in alleviating World food problems. Some common
fermented foods used in Indian cuisine are highlighted herewith, for your reference and better
understanding of the fermentation process.

Box 1: Fermented Foods of India

You may be familiar with the fermented foods used in India. A brief description of these foods
follows as:
Idli: Idli is a fermented and steamed snack made from various proportions of rice and Black
gram. It is typically eaten for breakfast and is especially popular in South India, although
consumed throughout the country. Proportions of rice to Black gram cotyledons, used to prepare
idli range from 1:4 to 4:1, depending upon the taste preference and availability of ingredients.
Idli containing higher amounts of rice is characterized by a more predominant starchy flavour.
Other ingredients such as cashew nuts, ghee, chilli peppers, ginger, fried cumin seeds or curry
leaves may be added to the dough in small quantities to impart an additional flavour.

Dehulled Black gram and rice are washed and soaked in water separately for 5 to 10 hours at an
ambient temperature. The amount of soaking water can vary from 1.5 to 2.2 times the dry weight
of the black gram or rice. About 1.5 times water over dry ingredients was optimum for
fermentation and for idli preparation. After soaking, the Black gram is ground with water to give

18
a coarse paste, whereas the rice is ground to give a smooth gelatinous paste. Salt (about 0.8%) is
added to the combined mixture of pastes and fermentation is allowed to proceed for 15 to 24
hours. Upon steaming, the softy, spongy final product resembling a sour bread or pancake is
consumed, while still hot. The spongy open texture of idli is attributed to the protein (globulin)
and polysaccharide (arabino-galactan) in Black gram.
Acidification and leavening are the most important processes which occur during fermentation.
Idli batter volume increases 1.6 to 3.1 times, and the pH falls from an initial 6.0 to 4.3 during
fermentation. Thus, the sour taste of idli is a necessary and desirable characteristic. While several
reports have been made on the microbiology of idli fermentation, no comprehensive studies on
the microorganisms involved and the changes brought about by them have been made. Bacteria
identified as a part of the microflora responsible for the production of good idli include
Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Lactobacillus delbrueckii, L.fermenti, L.lactis, Streptococcus
faecalis and Pediococcus cerevisiae. Yeasts involved in idli fermentation include Oidium lactis
(Geotrichum candidum), Torulopsis holmii, T.candida and Trichosporon pullulans. Soured
buttermilk or yeast is sometimes added to the dough to reduce the fermentation time and,
consequently, influence the microbial profile of the total fermentation process.

The lactic acid bacteria are obviously responsible for pH reduction in idli. They may also
contribute significantly to the improvement of the nutritional value of unfermented Black gram
and rice. The effects of Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Lactobacillus fermenti, L.delbrueckii and
Bacillus species on changes in amino nitrogen, free sugar, thiamin, riboflavin and inorganic
phosphate content as well as sensory qualities of traditional idli, rice-soyabean idli (black gram
replaced by soyabeans), dhokla and khaman have been investigated. The increase in thiamine
and riboflavin contents as a result of fermentation is particularly notable in the light of
inadequacies of these vitamins in the diets of some Indian children. Bacteria may also play a role
in the breakdown of phytate present in Black gram. A strain of L.mesenteroides isolated from
soyabean idli secretes –N-acetylglucosaminidase and –D-mannosidase, which are involved in the
hydrolysis of hemagglutinin, has been reported.

There is some debate as to the effect of fermentation of idli on the Protein Efficiency Ratio
(PER). The PER of idli was improved as a result of fermentation. In some cases, an increase in
methionine content resulting from fermentation has been observed. A loss of 77% of the

19
inorganic sulfur during black gram and rice blend fermentation was also reported. Using in-vitro
digestion techniques, an improvement in the availability of essential amino acids during the
fermentation has been reported. Studies on the substitution of other Phaseolus species for Black
gram have shown that the products with acceptability comparable to that of a traditional idli can
be prepared. Evaluation of soyabean idli prepared using several types of bacterial inoculants has
also been attempted. It was concluded that chemical, physical and organoleptic characteristics of
the soybean products are not unlike that of traditional idli. Idli containing Great Northern beans
(Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in place of Black gram, has also been evaluated. Idli containing Great
Northern beans had somewhat different flavour and a sticky top surface. The incorporation of
Great Northern beans into idli would offer the advantage of increased roughage.

Waries: Waries (Punjabi waries) are the spicy condiments shaped in the form of a ball about 3 to
8 cm in diameter, which are used in cooking with vegetables, grain legumes or rice in India.
Dehulled grain legumes are soaked in water, ground into a coarse paste and mixed with spices
and a small amount of paste from a previous fermented batch. Some spices used include
asafetida, caraway, cardamom, cloves, fenugreek, ginger, red pepper and salt. After fermenting
as a mass for 4 to 10 days at ambient temperature, the paste is formed into balls and air-dried in
the sun. The surface of the balls becomes sealed with a mucilaginous coating during the drying
process, thus entrapping gases produced by the yeasts present inside. Yeasts identified as
contributing to fermentation of waries are Candida spp. and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Waries
can also be prepared from Bengal gram and mung bean flours.

Papadam: Papadam is similar to waries, but does not contain fenugreek or ginger. These
circular tortilla-like wafers are prepared from a mixture of Black gram paste and spices, which
have been fermented for 4 to 6 hours. Yeasts responsible for fermentation are the same as those
found in waries. Papadams are served either roasted or deep fat fried and consumed as a relish.

Dhokla: Dhokla is a steamed fermented food prepared from a mixture of wheat semolina and
Bengal gram flours (2:1 ratio). The flours plus about 3% salt are made into a thick batter by
adding water and then allowing them to ferment by adding water and then further allowing them
to ferment for about 14 hours. Chopped fenugreek leaves are added to the dough before steaming
for 20 minutes in a pan with oil. The product is then cut into pieces and may be seasoned with

20
cracked mustard seeds before eating as a condiment with other breakfast foods in India.

Khaman: Khaman is a steamed and fermented condiment prepared from Bengal gram flour in
India. Dehulled seeds are washed, soaked for 4 hrs., ground with water (2:3, Bengal gram:water)
and seasoned with salt before fermenting for 12 hrs. Like dhokla, the dough is then steamed and
seasoned with mustard seeds before eating. Thiamine and riboflavin are reported to increase
significantly.

Kenima: Kenima is a fermented soyabean product prepared in Nepal, Sikkim and Darjeeling
districts of India. Soyabeans are soaked over night, dehulled and cooked in water for 2 to 3 h.
The cooled soybeans are inoculated by the addition of a portion from a fermented batch, wrapped
in leaves and fermented at 22o C to 23oC for 24 to 48 hrs. The microorganisms responsible for
the mucilaginous end product known as kenima have not been identified. When deep fat fried
and salted, kenima has a nut-like flavour, much like that of tempeh.

Jalebies: Jalebies are a spiral shaped, deep fat fried confectionary product made from fermented
wheat flour. Chickpea flour may be added to the fermented wheat flour before the paste is fried.
The fresh fried jalebies are dipped in the sugar syrup.

Kurdi: Kurdi is a deep – fat fried, salty, crispy product prepared from fermented wheat. Wheat
grains are soaked for about 5 days at 30°C, before the slurry is fried to make the snack, which is
consumed in Central India. Little is known about the fermentation process, although yeasts and
lactic acid bacteria are undoubtedly involved.

Kanji: Kanji is a fermented beer-like beverage, common in the households and market places in
India. North Indian kanji is prepared from purple or occasionally orange cultivars of carrots,
beets, spices, a portion from a previous batch of kanji and water. South Indian kanji is prepared
in two steps, the first involving the preparation of torani (a fermented rice liquor) and the second
involving the fermentation of torani and a mixture of vegetables, spices and water. Hansenula
anomala var. anomalahas been isolated from kanji collected in North India (Delhi) whereas H.
anomala, Candida guilliermondii, C. tropicalis and Geotrichun candidum have been isolated
from the South Indian kanji.

21
In the recent years, a growing number of food scientists and microbiologists have recognized the
value of indigenous fermented foods as a potential source of food supply for many parts of the
world. Special attention is paid to the microorganisms and their role in the fermentation process.
Consequently, in this unit you will find that we have classified indigenous fermented foods
according to the microorganisms involved in the process. Let us learn about these different
fermented foods used worldwide.

12.5.1 Types of fermentation and fermented foods

Some foods are mainly fermented by moulds, others mainly by bacteria, another category by a
mixture of moulds and yeasts and a number are firstly fermented by moulds followed by
fermentation with a mixture of bacteria and yeasts. We will learn about these different fermented
foods, starting with the foods prepared by mould fermentation.

12.5.1.1 Foods Fermented by Moulds

The most well known foods which are manufactured mainly by the activity of moulds are
Temphe (fermented soyabean product from Indonesia), Oncom and Angkak. Tempeh is made by
fermentation of soybeans with Rhizopus Oligosporous, Oncom is made form peanut press cake
and is fermented by Neurospora species, Angkak is made by the fermentation of rice with
Monascus purpureus to produce red coloured kernels. The product itself is not a food, but it is
used to give an attractive red colour to certain products made of fish and soybeans to certain
alcoholic beverages. What is the role of moulds in fermentation of foods? Read and find out.

Role of the Moulds: The different functions of moulds in food fermentation include:
• Synthesis of Enzymes: One of the most important functions of the mould in food
fermentations is synthesis of enzymes. These enzymes generally decompose complex
compounds including proteins, carbohydrates and fats into smaller molecules. At the
same time, other compounds may be synthesized from the food substrate. These complex
chemical changes are accompanied by changes in the original properties of the raw
materials. Taste, flavour, texture, colour, palatibility and other properties of the raw
materials are usually modified in such a way that the final product becomes more
attractive to the consumer.

22
 • Mould Growth: Mould growth on certain products contributes to the appearance of the
food, which is desired by the consumer. For example, Neurospora spp. provides oncom -
cakes with a coating of its pink-orange coloured and powdery conidia. Rhizopus
oligosporus covers tempeh with a clean white mycelium surface layer and additionally
has the function of binding together the soybeans into a solid, compact cake.
• Synthesis of Colouring Compounds: The function of Monascus purpureus during
fermentation of angkak is to produce the red-coloured compound monascorubrin
(C22H24O5) and the yellow pigment monascoflavin (C17H22O4) in soaked rice.
• Protection of the Product: In spite of the deep-seated prejudice against mouldy products
in the Occidental culture, which seems to be justified by the discovery of aflatoxin and
other mycotoxins in the last two decades, studies on certain mould species, which are
traditionally used for fermentation of Oriental foods, showed that they do not produce
toxins, but, on the other hand, they resist accumulation of certain toxins which otherwise
will be produced by other microorganisms in the food. This could be considered as a
protection of the product against other harmful microorganisms. A good example of such
a protective role is demonstrated by Rhizopus oligosporus, the mould species that is used
for fermentation of tempeh. This mould species does not produce aflatoxin. On the
contrary, if aflatoxin is already present in the growth substrate, its content could be
lowered by R.oligosporus to about 40% of its original content. In addition, it was found
that R. oligosporus inhibits growth, sporulation and aflatoxin production by Aspergillus
flavus. Extended studies showed that other species of Rhizopus, including R. arrhizus, R.
oryzae and R. chinensis, do not produce aflatoxin and on addition, inhibit aflatoxin
production by A. flavus and A. parasiticus if they grow in the same substrate. Another
study showed that when, during fermentation of coconut press cake into tempeh
bongkrek, contamination takes place with Pseudomonas cocovenenans, toxin production
by these bacteria under certain conditions is inhibited by R. oligosporous.

12.5.1.2 Foods Fermented by Bacteria

In vegetable, fish as well as some soybean fermentations, one or more species of lactic acid
bacteria play an important role. Their production of organic acids not only contributes to the
desired taste and flavour of the final product, but it also makes the substrates unfavourable for
proliferation of spoilage and other undesirable microorganisms. At the same time, the acids make

23
the substrate more suitable for growth of desirable microorganisms, which improve the
properties of the food. The role of carbon dioxide produced by Leuconostoc mesenteroides is in
different products not the same. In vegetable fermentations, it provides an anaerobic condition,
which inhibits proliferation of aerobic microorganisms. In fermentation of idli and puto, carbon
dioxide is essential for leavening the dough. As you read through this section you will realize
that foods fermented by bacteria are made of different raw materials. In each of these raw
materials, the bacteria involved have a different role. Let us then find out.

A. Fermented Vegetable Products: Production of fermented vegetables on a large scale took

place for the first time during construction of the Chinese Great Wall in the third century B.C.
The foods which were made of cabbage, radish, turnip, cucumber and other vegetables, were
supplied as a portion of the workers’ rations. In general, bacterial activity during fermentation of
vegetables follows the same pattern. The majority of microorganisms on vegetables consists of
strains of soil and water species of genera such as Pseudomonas, flavobacterium,
Achromobacter, Aerobacter, Escherichia and Bacillus. Lactic acid bacteria, which are required
for the desired fermentation, are originally present in comparatively low numbers. At the start of
the fermentation, salt is added in such a concentration (2.5-6.0%) that undesirable putrefactive
bacteria are kept under control, long enough to favour lactic acid producing bacteria to
proliferate. Under these conditions, Leuconostoc mesenteroides is considered to establish proper
environmental conditions for proliferation of other species of lactic-acid bacteria rather than
producing favourful compounds. Lactobacillus brevis is important in imparting character to the
final product and is often characterised by its ability to ferment pentose sugars. Lactobacillus
plantarum is the high acid-producing species, and together with P. cerevisiae plays a major role,
particularly in fermentation of vegetables in brine. In brine, acidity beyond 1% is rarely attained,
while in a dry-salted vegetable an acidity of 2.0-2.5% can be reached if sufficient sugar is
present.

B. Fermented Fish Products: Large quantities of small fish are fermented to produce fish or
shrimp sauces and pastes in South East Asia. The basic procedure is to mix the freshly netted
small and trash fish with sea salt to such an amount that the extracted fish juices contain about
20% salt in final product. The fish sauces are salty condiments to be added in small quantities to
other foods. Similar process in which less hydrolysis occurs, lead to fish or shrimp pastes. The

24
pastes may be mixed with cereals. Despite their high protein content, these products are of
limited nutritional value because of the low level of consumption. The role of microorganisms in
the fermentation process is clearly different form that in fermented vegetable products. The high
salt content of these products leaves only salt-tolerant microorganisms survive. These originated
from the natural microbial population of the fish or shrimp itself, and from the salt and
microorganisms introduced during the manufacturing process from fermentation tanks,
equipments and workers.

C. Fermented Seeds: Here we shall discuss on a few fermented seeds which are generally area-
specific. Let us start our discussion on fermented soyabean products.
Natto: One of the few soybean products, which are made by fermentation with bacteria, is the
Japanese natto. It is made of soaked and cooked soybeans which traditionally are wrapped in rice
straw and left for one or two days in a warm place. The rice straw is considered to have various
functions. It supplies the essential microorganisms for the fermentation, provides the aroma of
straw to the product, which is considered pleasing, and absorbs partly the unpleasant odour of
ammonia, which is released during the fermentation. The essential microorganisms for this
fermentation were found to be Bacillus natto, which is classified as a related strain of B. subtilis.
During the fermentation, the beans become covered with a viscous, sticky polymer. The product
is considered of good quality if long stringy threads are formed when two beans are pulled apart.
Natto has a slimy appearance and has a gray colour; its flavour is strong and persistent. It is
consumed with rice or used as a side dish. Although natto is well known in Japan because of its
exceptional properties, it is not as popular as other fermented soybean products, including miso
and shoyu. Similar to other traditional Japanese fermented foods, natto has been scientifically
studied, and production on a modern technological base using a pure culture starter has been
developed. One of the new developments is production of powdered natto, which could be added
to biscuits or soup.

Thua-nao: Thua-nao is a food product of Thailand, which closely resembles natto. Unlike natto,
however, thua-nao is lightly mashed into a paste to which salt and other flavouring agents are
added.

25
Dage: Dage is an Indonesian food product made of different oil-rich seeds (Mucuna pruriens,
Aleurites moluccana, Arachis hypogae and others) or their residues. Like traditional natto, it is
subjected to natural fermentation by bacteria. On a very limited scale, dage is made at home and
used as a side dish or as an ingredient in preparing certain dishes. Not much is known about the
microbiology and biochemistry of this type of products, which is of very limited importance.
D. Fermented Starch – Rich Raw materials: Fermentation of starch–rich substrates by bacteria
into fermented foods is practised mainly in Africa. The most important raw materials are maize
(Zea mays) and cassava (Manihot sp.)

E. Fermented Maize Products: Not less than 20 different fermented maize products are known in
African countries. Manufacture of these foods follows basically the same outline. Corn is soaked
for one to three days, ground and mixed with some water to make thick dough. During
preparation of banku, kenkey, akpler and other foods, the mash is left one to three days for
fermentation. However, if ogi or agidi are to be made, the mash of ground maize is diluted with
water, sieved to remove the bran and the filtrate left for fermentation. Presumably, the
fermentation process in the thick maize dough as well as in the diluted maize suspension follows
the same pattern. The microorganisms involved may be the same as in ogi. It was found that
Corynebacterium spp. hydrolyzed starch and initiated acidification; later on, it was replaced by
Aerobacter cloace. The highest acidity, mainly attributable to lactic acid was produced by
Lactobacillus plantarum. At the beginning of the souring period, Saccharomyces cerevisiae
proliferates rapidly while, at the end, Candida mycoderma was predominant. These two
microorganisms were considered to contribute to the flavour of the product and to its enrichment
with vitamins. Aerobacter cloacae, on the other hand, decreased the thiamin and panthothenic
acid contents, but increased the riboflavin and niacin contents. In most cases, the fermented mash
is concentrated by cooking until it becomes a thick porridge or cake.

F. Fermented Rice Products: We are all familiar with idli, dosa etc., the fermented rice products
from south of India. Idli is soft and spongy steamed bread, which is now popular all over India. It
is made from a mixture of milled rice and dehulled Black gram (Phaseolus mungo), which is left
for natural fermentation overnight. Instead of yeasts, which are usually required for
manufacturing bread, the predominant microorganism producing acid and gas in the natural
fermentation of idli is Leuconostoc mesenteroides. This bacterium is generally present on Indian

26
Black gram. In the later stages of the fermentation, Streptococcus faecalis and P. cerevisiae may
also play a role. It was reported that the fermentation does not improve the nutritional value, but
it does improves the palatability of the product in terms of flavour, taste and texture. When the
dough has been raised sufficiently, it is steamed and is served while it is hot. It is a common
snack or breakfast food used almost daily in the homes and restaurants in India. Similar foods in
India are dosa and appam which are made by fermentation of a mixture of rice, other legumes
and certain ingredients. These are essentially pancakes, which are prepared on a hot pan after the
fermentation is finished. Puto from the Philippines is essentially steamed bread or cake made by
natural fermentation of fine-ground flour of glutinous rice. The carbon dioxide for leavening the
dough is presumably produced by the same species of lactic acid bacteria as for manufacture of
idli.

G. Fermented Cassava: In several countries of West Africa (Nigeria, Ghana), gari is an

important staple food. For its manufacture, fresh cassava (Manihot utilissima) is peeled, grated
and the greater part of the juice squeezed out. The remaining pulp is left for three or four days
for natural fermentation to occur. In the first stage, Corynebacterium spp. attacks the starch with
production of organic acids. The lower pH value causes hydrolysis of a cyanogenic glucoside
with liberation of gaseous hydrocyanic acid. Organic acids also make conditions favourable for
growth of Geotrichum candidum. This microorganism produces a variety of aldehydes and
esters, which are responsible for the characteristic taste and aroma of gari. Other reports also
mentioned the probable role of Leuconostoc spp. and Streptococcus faecium. The fermented
pulp is finally fried in iron or earthenware pans. Sometimes the pan is greased with palm-oil, in
which case the gari comes out yellow. The resulting product is dry and granular and has the
property of swelling up in cold water. It can be consumed simply with water, without any
cooking. Sugar may be added, or it may be mixed with spices (pepper) or other foods like fish
or egg.

H. Fermented Plant Juice: Throughout the tropics, the sugar of palm trees of many species is
spontaneously fermented into alcoholic beverages. The microflora isolated during this
fermentation are rather complex, but it is considered certain that Zymomonas spp. are largely
responsible for the alcoholic content (4 - 5%) and carbon dioxide formation. The fruity odour
and the taste of palm wine may be also due to production of some acetaldehydes by Zymomonas

27
spp. Lactic acid bacteria contribute to the acidity by producing small amounts of lactic and acetic
acids. Similar bacterial alcoholic fermentation occurs during fermentation of the juice of certain
species of Agave in Mexico to produce the alcoholic beverage pulque. Only small numbers of
yeast cells are usually found in these alcoholic beverages. Because formation of alcohol and
carbon dioxide from sugar fermentation is a characteristic of yeasts, alcoholic fermentation by
bacteria is not a common process.

12.5.1.3 Foods Fermented by a mixture of moulds and Yeasts

After focusing on bacteria, here, we shall look at the fermented foods produced by the action of
moulds and yeasts.

Ragi: Ragi itself is not a food; it is an inoculum used to induce fermentation of certain food
products. It is known in many Asian countries under different names. Most probably, its origin is
China, where ‘chu’ was already described in the Old Chinese classics as the most important
ingredient in the manufacture of alcoholic beverages. Later records gave thorough descriptions of
its preparation and applications. It is made of rice flour, which is moulded into flattened round
cakes of 2-3 cm diameter.

Numerous fungi and yeasts have been isolated from ragi. Of the many mould species which have
been isolated from ragi, Mucor and Rhizopus species are the most important. Chlamydomucor
oryzae, recently re-identified as Amylomycesrouxii, plays a major role. Yeast srains isolated from
ragi included species of Candida, Endomycopsis and also Saccharomyces. They produce alcohol
from the sugar, which is produced from starch by the mould. It was found that, for a good
fermentation of glutinous rice into good quality tape, a combination of Chlamydomucor oryzae
and Endomycopsis chotadi was essential. This combination of microorganisms was the starting
point for later studies on tape fermentation.

When ragi is innoculated into a starch-containing substrate like steamed rice, cassava, maize or
sorghum, a soft juicy product with a sweet, mild sour taste and mild alcoholic flavour is obtained
after two or three days incubation at 25-30oC.

28
Such a product made of rice is known in different countries under different names. It is
consumed as such, without any preparation and is considered as a delicacy. In China, lao-chao
has a unique place in the diets of new mothers. It is believed that lao-chao helps them regain
their strength.

In Indonesia, a confectionary is made by separating the juice which is produced during the
fermentation of tape ketan. Traditionally, the liquid is dried in the sun until a solid cake is
obtained. It is considered a delicacy, particularly for children and is known under the name of
brem.

When fermentation of rice is extended to several weeks, more alcohol and more liquid are
produced. To produce rice wine, the liquid is expressed and kept for clarification and ripening
during several months. The beverage is well known under different names in different countries.
Depending on the fermentation time, the alcohol content differs and a concentration of 15% can
be reached. By distillation, a beverage can be obtained with approximately 50% alcohol.

In Indonesia, peeled, washed and steamed cassava tubers are fermented by inoculation with ragi
to produce tape-ketella or peuyeum. The final product is food with a soft texture, a lightly sour-
sweet taste and a mild alcoholic flavour. It is considered as a delicacy and is usually consumed
without additional preparation. Sometimes it is shortly deep-fried in coconut oil before
consumption. It may also be mixed with other ingredients to make a kind of pie.

12.5.1.4 Foods firstly fermented by moulds followed by fermentation with a mixture of

bacteria and yeasts
The most studied foods in this category are those developed in Japan from traditional foods
produced on a scale ranging from a house industry to high-industrialized products. These include
shoyu, the Japanese type of soy sauce, and miso, a pasty product made of a mixture of rice and
soybeans. For its fermentation, the traditional inoculum Tane koji is applied. Let’s get to know
about these products.

a) Tane koji: Presumably, this starter originated from ancient China and was introduced into
Japan in about 200 A.D. Once in Japan, it followed a typical Japanese way of development.

29
From a traditional inoculum, it has developed into an inoculum made of pure cultures of mould
strains whose properties are studied and controlled with the newest methods of modern
microbiology. It is a green-yellow powder consisting of mould spores of one or more selected
strains of Aspergillus oryzae and A. soyae which produce protease, amylases and a great variety
of other enzymes. Modern day tane koji for a particular fermentation is composed of spores of
several strains of A.oryzae mixed together in a definite proportion in order that various enzymes
can be produced in the proper amounts during the different stages of fermentation.

b) Soy Sauce: Soy sauce is a brown coloured, liquid condiment which has different names in
different countries. It is made by a two-stage batch fermentation, which involves the biochemical
activities of moulds, bacteria and yeasts. The first stage consists of growing one or more mould
species on cooked soybeans or on a mixture of soybeans and wheat, oats, rye or tapioca.
Japanese shoyu is made from equal amounts of soybeans and wheat. For the fermentation of
Japanese shoyu, the raw materials are inoculated with Tane koji, which contains spores of
selected strains of Aspergillus oryzae. and A. soyae. In less sophisticated traditional soysauce
factories throughout South East Asia, mould species grow spontaneously on the soybeans by
natural contamination from the air and from the bamboo trays on which soybeans of former
batches were incubated. The moulds involved are species of Aspergillus, Rhizopus or Mucor.
Some Indonesian kecap manufacturers inoculate the cooked soybeans with tempeh inoculum,
which contains spores of Rhizopus oligosporus. In this first stage of mould fermentation,
enzymic breakdown of insoluble protein in the raw materials into soluble polypeptides, peptides
and amino acids takes place by extracellular proteases of the mould. Starches are hydrolyzed to
disaccharides and monosaccharides by amylase secreted by the mould, while extracellular
invertase hydrolyses sucrose in the soybeans.

When after two or three days, mould growth has reached a certain level, the moulded raw
materials is placed into brine containing 15-20% sodium chloride, in which the second stage of
fermentation takes place. The contribution of bacteria and yeasts in this second part of the
fermentation to the development of flavour and taste of soysauce is well documented. After a
fermentation of at least six months duration and traditionally two or three years, the liquid is
removed by decanting or siphoning. In modern factories, the liquid is expressed with a hydraulic
press from the residue. After final treatments including pasteurization, clarification, filtration and

30
eventually addition of chemical preservatives, the brown liquid is bottled for distribution to the
consumers. Basically, there are two major kinds of soy sauce. The Chinese type is made of
soybeans alone or from a mixture of soybeans and wheat with a higher percentage of the
soybeans. In some cases, wheat could be substituted by wheat bran, oats, kaoliang and rye. An
Indonesian kecap manufacturer uses tapioca-flour for this purpose. The Chinese type soy sauce is
of high specific gravity and viscosity and high nitrogen content; it is dark in colour and is
sometimes sweetened with cane sugar. The Japanese type soy sauce is made of equal amounts of
soybeans and wheat. It is lower in viscosity and lighter in colour than the Chinese type.

c) Other Fermented Soybean Products: Several other soybean products as indicated in Table
12.3 are basically similar to soy sauce with respect to micro-organisms and fermentation
principles, although the composition of raw materials, methods of manufacture, consistency and
appearance of the final foods are all different. In the first stage of fermentation, moulds are
grown on cooked soybeans or on a mixture of soybeans and cassava flour for the manufacture of
taoco. In many Japanese families, breakfast consists of cooked rice and miso soup. Miso is also
used as seasoning agent to prepare fish and vegetable dishes. For production of miso, the moulds
are grown on steamed rice. The moulds are introduced as spores of Aspergillus oryzae and A.
soyae in tane koji. A mixture of soybeans and wheat flour is used for the manufacture of
hamanatto. The other less sophisticated products could be purposely inoculated or naturally
contaminated with strains of Aspergillus oryzae, Rhizopus oryzae, R. oligosporus or a mixture of
two or more species.

Table 12.3 Soybean foods produced by a two stage fermentation

Country Product
Japan Hamanatto
Japan Miso
Orient Soy sauce
Indonesia Taoco
Philippines Tao-si
China Japan Tou-shih

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We conclude our discussion on fermented foods, by presenting a brief summary of specific
aspects of the fermented foods discussed so far.

Check your Progress Exercise 3

1. What do you mean by the term ‘fermented foods’?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. List a few fermented foods that are consumed in India.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. What are the functions of moulds in the fermentation of foods?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. Fill in the blanks:
(a) Some of the beneficial properties of fermented products over original agricultural
commodity are --------------------, -------------------, ----------------------, ------------------ and
------------------- .
(b) The red-coloured compound is synthesized by -------------------------------------------during
fermentation of angirak, while yellow pigment in soaked rice.
(c) In fermentation, salt is added in a concentration of ----------------------- .
(d) -------------------------------- alongwith P.cerevisiae plays a major role in the fermentation
of vegetables in the brine.
(e) The two micro-organisms which contribute to the flavor in fermented maize products are-
------------------------- and ------------------------- .

12.6 DEEP FAT FRYING

All of us enjoy fried products, whether home-made or bought from market. Let us see what is
the technology involved in frying process and the factors affecting it.

32
Deep fat frying is considered one of the oldest processes of food preparation. Deep fat frying can
be defined as a process of cooking and drying through contact with hot oil and it involves
simultaneous heat and mass transfer. For decades, consumers have desired deep-fat fried
products because of their unique flavor-texture combination. During deep fat frying, a food
product’s surface is sealed when the product is immersed in hot oil so that all the flavors and the
juices are retained in a crispy crust. Many foods have been successfully deep fat fried, examples
include potato chips, french fries, doughnuts, extruded snacks, fish sticks and the traditional fried
chicken products.

The frying technology is important to many sectors of the food industry, including suppliers of
oils and ingredients, food service operators, food industries and manufacturers of frying
equipment. The amount of food fried and oils used at both the industrial and commercial levels
are vast.

We will start our understanding on this subject by first learning about the deep fat frying process
and the factors that influence the process.

Deep-Fat Frying Process

Deep fat frying involves simultaneous heat and mass transfer mechanisms. In addition, the
physical properties of the material vary with changing temperature and moisture content.
Therefore, theoretical treatment of the process is very complicated and a complete analytical
solution to deep-fat frying processes is not available. Several simplified models have been
developed, each of which is specified with regard to the material and boundary conditions. Many
physical chemical and nutritional changes occur in foods during deep fat frying. Many of these
changes are functions of oil temperature and quality, product moisture and oil contents and
product residence time in the fryer. Undesirable effects could be minimized and the process
could be better controlled if temperature, moisture and oil distributions in food with respect to
time could be accurately predicted. In general, the frying process of a single product (french
fries, for example) can be divided into four stages that are characterized by the following:
• Initial Heating: Short period; submersion of the food in the hot oil; product’s surface heated
to the boiling temperature of water; natural convection between oil and product’s surface; no
evaporation.

33
• Surface Boiling: Initial of evaporation; turbulence around the oil surrounding the product;
forced convention between product’s surface and hot oil; initiation crust formation at the
product’s surface.
• Falling Rate: More internal removal of moisture from the food; rise in internal core
temperature to the boiling point; increase of crust layer in thickness; decrease in vapor
transfer to the surface.
• Bubble End Point: Reduction of the rate of moisture removal; decrease of bubbles leaving
from product’s surface; continued increase in the crust layer thickness.

The quality of the products from deep fat frying depends on the process conditions and on the
type of oils and foods used during the process. The factors that influence the frying process
include:
• the temperature of the heated oil, time and the fryer type (batch or continuous).
• the chemical composition of the frying oils, the physical and physico-chemical constants,
• the presence of additives and contaminants. These can have a marked effect on the
palatability, digestibility, and metabolic utilization of a fried food, and
• finally, the food weight / frying oil volume and surface area / volume ratios determine
how much fat penetrates the food.

12.7 USE OF SALT, SUGAR AND CHEMICALS AS PRESERVATIVES

Salt, sugar and chemicals have been used for ages as preservatives. What is the principle behind
their use?

Sugar and salt in concentrated solutions have a high osmotic pressure. When these are sufficient
to draw water from microbial cells or prevent normal diffusion of water into these cells, a
preservative condition exists. The critical concentration of sugar in water to prevent microbial
growth will vary depending upon the type of microorganisms and the presence of other food
constituents, but usually 70% sucrose in solution will stop growth of all microorganisms in
foods. Less than this concentration may be effective but for short periods of time unless the
foods contain acid or they are refrigerated. Salt becomes a preservative when its concentration is
increased. Levels of about 18% to 25% in solution generally will prevent all growth of
34
microorganisms in foods. Except in the case of certain briny condiments, however, this level is
rarely tolerated in foods.

Chemical food preservatives, on the other hand, are those substances which are added in very
low quantities (up to 0.2%) and which do not alter the organoleptic and physico-chemical
properties of the foods or only very little. Many chemicals will kill microorganisms or stop their
growth, but most of these are not permitted in foods. Preservation of food products containing
chemical food preservatives is usually based on the combined or synergistic activities of several
additives, intrinsic product parameters (e.g. composition, acidity, water activity) and extrinsic
factors (e.g. processing temperature, storage atmosphere and temperature). This approach
minimises undesirable changes in product properties and reduces concentration of additives and
extent of processing treatments.

The concept of combinations of preservatives and treatments to preserve foods is frequently

called the ‘hurdle or barrier concept’. Combinations of additives and preservatives systems
provide unlimited preservation alternatives for applications in the food products to meet
consumer demands for healthy and safe foods.

Chemical food preservatives are applied to foods as direct additives during processing, or
develop by themselves during processes such as fermentation. Certain preservatives have been
used either accidentally or intentionally for centuries. These include sodium chloride (common
salt), sugar, acids, alcohols and components of smoke. In addition to preservation, these
compounds contribute to the quality and identity of the products and are applied through
processing procedures such as salting, curing, fermentation and smoking.

Usual accepted chemical food preservatives are detailed in Table 12.4.

35
Table 12.4: Chemical Food Preservatives
Agent Acceptable Daily intake Commonly used levels (%)
(mg/Kg body weight)
Lactic acid No limit No limit
Citric acid No limit No limit
Acetic acid No limit No limit
Sodium Diacetate 15 0.3-0.5
Sodium benzoate 5 0.03-0.2
Sodium propionate 10 0.1-0.3
Potassium sorbate 25 0.05-0.2
Methyl paraben 10 0.05-0.1
Sodium nitrite 0.2 0.01-0.02
Sulphur dioxide 0.7 0.005-0.2

Some common chemical preservatives used in food products are summarized in Table 12.5.

Table 12.5: Common preservatives in food products

Preservative Food products

Citric acid fruit juices; jams; other sugar preserves
Acetic acid vegetable pickles; other vegetable products
Sodium benzoate vegetable pickles; preserves; jams; jellies;
semi-processed products
Sodium propionate fruits; vegetables
Potassium sorbate fruits; vegetables; pickled products; jams,
jellies
Methyl paraben fruit products; pickles; preserves
Sulphur dioxide fruit juices; dried / dehydrated fruits and
vegetables; semi-processed products

Traditional chemical food preservatives and their use in fruit and vegetable processing
technologies could be summarized as follows:
1. Common salt: brined vegetables
2. Sugars (sucrose, glucose, fructose and syrups)
36
 - foods preserved by high sugar concentrations: jellies, preserves, syrups, juice
concentrates
- interaction of sugar with other ingredients or processes such as drying and
heating
- indirect food preservation by sugar in products where fermentation is important
(naturally acidified pickles and sauerkraut).
3. Acidulants and other preservatives formed or added to fruit and vegetable products
include:
Lactic acid: This acid is the main product of many food fermentations. It is formed by
the microbial degradation of sugars in products such as sauerkraut and pickles. The acid
produced in such fermentations decreases the pH to levels unfavourable for growth of
spoilage organisms, such as putrefactive anaerobes and butyric-acid-producing bacteria.
Yeasts and moulds that can grow at such pH levels can be controlled by the inclusion of
other preservatives, such as sorbate and benzoate.

Acetic acid: Acetic acid is a general preservative inhibiting many species of bacteria,
yeasts and to a lesser extent, moulds. It is also a product of the lactic-acid fermentation,
and its preservative action even at identical pH levels is greater than that of lactic acid.
The main applications of vinegar (acetic acid) include products such as pickles, sauces
and ketchup as can be seen in Table 12.5.

Other acidulants include:

• Malic and tartaric (tartric) acids is used in some countries mainly to acidify and
preserve fruit sugar preserves, jams, jellies, etc.
• Citric acid is the main acid found naturally in citrus fruits; it is widely used (in
carbonated beverages) and as an acidifying agent of foods, because of its unique flavour
properties. It has an unlimited acceptable daily intake and is highly soluble in water. It is
a less effective antimicrobial agent than other acids.
• Ascorbic acid or vitamin C, its isomer isoascorbic or erythorbic acid and their salts are

highly soluble in water and safe to use in foods.

Commonly used lipophilic (fat loving) acid food preservatives

37
• Benzoic acid in the form of its sodium salt, constitutes one of the most common
chemical food preservative. Sodium benzoate is a common preservative in acid or
acidified foods such as fruit juices, syrups, jams and jellies, sauerkraut, pickles,
preserves, fruit cocktails, etc as highlighted in Table 12.5. Yeasts are inhibited by
benzoate to a greater extent than are moulds and bacteria.
• Sorbic acid is generally considered non-toxic and is metabolised; among other
common food preservatives. The WHO has set the highest acceptable daily intake (25
mg/kg body weight) for sorbic acid. Sorbic acid and its salts are practically tasteless and
odourless in foods, when used at reasonable levels (< 0.3 %) and their antimicrobial
activity is generally adequate.
• Sorbates are used for mould and yeast inhibition in a variety of foods including fruits
and vegetables, fruit juices, pickles, sauerkraut, syrups, jellies, jams, preserves, high
moisture dehydrated fruits, etc. Potassium sorbate, a white, fluffy powder, is very soluble
in water (over 50%) and when added to acid foods, it is hydrolysed to the acid form.
Sodium and calcium sorbates also have preservative activities, but their application is
limited compared to that for the potassium salt, which is employed because of its
stability, general ease of preparation and water solubility.

4. Gaseous chemical food preservatives:

a) Sulphur dioxide and sulphites. Sulphur dioxide (SO2) has been used for many
centuries as a fumigant and especially as a wine preservative. It is a colourless,
suffocating, pungent-smelling, non-flammable gas and is very soluble in cold water (85 g
in 100 ml at 25°C). Sulphur dioxide and its various sulphites dissolve in water and at low
pH levels yield sulphurous acid, bisulphite and sulphite ions. The various sulphite salts
contain 50-68% active sulphur dioxide. A pH dependent equilibrium is formed in water
and the proportion of SO2 ions increases with decreasing pH values. At pH values less
than 4.0, the antimicrobial activity reaches its maximum. Sulphur dioxide is used as a gas
or in the form of its sulphite, bisulphite and metabisulphite salts which are powders. The
gaseous form is produced either by burning sulphur or by its release from the compressed
liquefied form. Metabisulphite is more stable to oxidation than bisulphites, which in turn
show greater stability than sulphites.

38
 The antimicrobial action of sulphur dioxide against yeasts, moulds and bacteria is
selective, with some species being more resistant than others. Sulphur dioxide and
sulphites are used in the preservation of a variety of food products. In addition to wines,
these include dehydrated/dried fruits and vegetables, fruit juices, acid pickles, syrups,
semi-processed fruit products, etc. In addition to its antimicrobial effects, sulphur dioxide
is added to foods for its antioxidant and reducing properties, and to prevent enzymatic
and non-enzymatic browning reactions.

b) Carbon dioxide: (CO2) is a colourless, odourless, non-combustible gas, acidic in

odour and flavour. In commercial practice, it is sold as a liquid under pressure (58 kg per
cm³) or solidified as dry ice. Carbon dioxide is used as a solid (dry ice) in many countries
as a means of low-temperature storage and transportation of food products. Besides
keeping the temperature low, as it sublimes, the gaseous CO2 inhibits growth of
psychrotrophic microorganisms and prevents spoilage of the food (fruits and vegetables,
etc.). Carbon dioxide is used as a direct additive in the storage of fruits and vegetables. In
the controlled/modified environment storage of fruit and vegetables, the correct
combination of O2 and CO2 delays respiration and ripening as well as retarding mould
and yeast growth. The final result is an extended storage of the products for
transportation and for consumption during the off-season. The amount of CO2 (5-10%) is
determined by factors such as nature of product, variety, climate and extent of storage.

c) Chlorine: The various forms of chlorine constitute the most widely used chemical
sanitiser in the food industry. These chlorine forms include chlorine (Cl2), sodium
hypochlorite (NaOCl), calcium hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)2) and chlorine dioxide gas (ClO2).
These compounds are used as water adjuncts in processes such as product washing,
transport and cooling of heat-sterilized cans; in sanitising solutions for equipment
surfaces, etc. Important applications of chlorine and its compounds include disinfection
of drinking water and sanitation of food processing equipment.
While on the topic of chemical preservatives, we must understand that the use of these
substances are subjected to certain rules. These general rules for chemical preservatives
highlighted below require strict attention.

39
General rules for chemical preservation
Chemical food preservatives have to be used only at a dosage level, which is needed for a normal
preservation and not more. "Reconditioning" of chemical preserved food, e.g. a new addition of
preservative in order to stop a microbiological deterioration already occurred is not
recommended. The use of chemical preservatives MUST be strictly limited to those substances
which are recognized as being without harmful effects on human beings' health and are accepted
by national and international standards and legislation.

Next, you will find some general rules/points which you can keep in mind, while using chemical
preservatives.
As a general rule, it is possible to take the following facts as a basis:
• sulphur dioxide and its derivatives can be considered as an "universal" preservative; they
have an antiseptic action on bacteria as well as on yeasts and moulds;
• benzoic acid and its derivatives have a preservative action which is stronger against bacteria
than on yeasts and moulds;
• sorbic acid acts on moulds and certain yeast species; in higher dosage levels it acts also on
bacteria, except lactic and acetic ones;
• formic acid is more active against yeasts and moulds and less on bacteria.

Remember, while using chemical preservatives, the initial number of micro-organisms in the
treated product determines the efficiency of the chemical preservative. The efficiency is less, if
the product has been contaminated, because of preliminary careless hygienic treatment or an
incipient alteration. Therefore, with a low initial number of microorganisms in the product, the
preservative dosage level could be reduced.

Check your Progress Exercise 4

1. Define deep fat frying as a process of food preparation.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. How can the undesirable changes occurring in foods during deep fat frying be
minimized?

40
 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3. List the stages of frying process and the factors affecting the frying process.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. Explain Barrier concept.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5. Fill in the blanks:

(i) The substances which are added in very low quantities and do not alter the organoleptic
and physico-chemical properties of the foods are ------------------------ .
(ii) -------------, ---------------, --------------, ----------- and -------------- are a few of the
chemical food preservatives.
(iii) An acidulant which has an unlimited acceptable daily intake is ---------------------- .
(iv) SO2 has been used for many centuries as a preservatives because of its -------------------- ,
------------------, ------------------------ and --------------------------- .
(v) A general rule to be kept in mind while using chemical preservatives is ---------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

12.8 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have studied about a few more methods of food processing. Here, we had a
detailed discussion on various commonly used as well as commercially employed methods of
processing. These included simple and ancient methods such as freezing, fermentation, deep fat
frying and use of chemical preservatives to the technologically advanced, recent methods such as
microwave heating and irradiation.

Preparation of certain foods involving these processing techniques (fermentation) have been
described as well.
41
After going through this unit, and the previous one, your knowledge on the various food
processing techniques must be complete.

12.9 GLOSSARY

Acidulant : Food additives that are used to impart a sharp flavor, for instance
citric acid.
Air-blast freezing : A freezing method, in which high velocity cold air is used to
reduce the temperature of the food.
Cabinet Freezing : A method of freezing a product by circulation of cold air in a
cabinet.
Cryogenic Freezing : A fast, flexible and cheap method of freezing in which liquefied
gases at an atmosphere below – 60oC, are placed in direct contact
with the foods.
Deep fat Frying : A process of cooking and drying through contact with hot oil;
involves simultaneous heat and mass transfer.
Hurdle or Barrier concept : Combination of preservatives and treatments to preservatives and
treatments to preserve foods.
Irradiation : Use of radiation on food to sterilize food and kill bacteria and
control certain factors that cause food spoilage, without making the
food itself radioactive.
Sauerkraut : Sour cabbage

12.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1.
(i) slowing down the growth of microorganisms and chemical changes
(ii) a factor of 2-3

42
(iii) –1oC to 7oC
(iv) Psychrophillic
(v) type of product, reliable and economic operation, easy cleanability and hygienic design,
product quality.

2. Freezing, as a method of food preservation, is the easiest, most convenient and least time-
consuming. It does not sterilize foods or destroy the organisms that cause spoilage.
Instead the extreme cold simply slows down the microbial growth and the chemical
changes that affect quality or cause spoilage.

3. Plate freezing, Immersion Freezing, contact with cooled gas are the different methods of
freezing.

4. No, a single freezing system is not enough to satisfy all freezing needs because of a
variety of food products and process characteristics.

5. In cryogenic freezing, the food is exposed to an atmosphere below-60oC through direct

contact with liquefied or vaporized gases such as N2 and CO2. It is a fast method,
flexible, has a low capital cost, reduces evaporative weight loss, high product throughput,
low floor space requirements, decreases damage due to cell rupture, preserves color,
texture, flavor and nutritional value.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1.
(i) Electromagnetic waves; 300 MHz and 300 GHz
(ii) Inside out heat penetrates, molecule into the exterior of the product.
(iii) Low , high
(iv) Control organisms that cause foodborne diseases and reduce food losses
(v) Undesirable changes in texture, colour and taste of foods
(vi) Interfere with the cell division.

43
2. The electromagnetic field of microwaves reacts with water-charged material, an
asymmetrically charged material. This reaction leads to the continual change in the
alignment of dipolar charge of water, and consequently, production of energy that is
converted into heat. This conversion depends on electric field strength, microwave
frequency and dielectric properties of the food.

3. The factors that influence microwave heating pattern are: microwave frequency,
microwave power and speed of heating, mass of the materials, moisture content, density
and temperature.

4. A few advantages of microwave heating over conventional heating are:

• Rapid response, to heat up the reaction mixtures
• The immediate cessation of heat input as soon as the power in turned off.
• Minimal temperature gradients and
• Quick cooling of the unstable products

5. A few potential applications of microwave heating are: baking, curing, blanching,

removing solvents, moisture leveling.

6. Irradiation is the use of radiation from gamma rays, X-rays, electron beams or radioactive
materials on food.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1. Fermented foods are the agricultural products which have been converted by enzymic
activities of micro-organisms into desirable food products whose properties are
considered more attractive than those of the original raw material.

2. Idli, Waries, Papadam, Dhokla, Khaman, Kenima, Jalebies, Kurdi, Kanji are a few
fermented foods that are consumed in India.

3. The functions of moulds in the fermentation of foods are: synthesis of enzymes, mould
growth, synthesis of coloring compounds and protection of the product

44
4.
(a) better nutritional value, shelf-life, safer, inexpensive, effective means of food production.
(b) Monascus purpureus
(c) 2.5-6.0%.
(d) Lactobacillus plantarum
(e) S. cerevisiae and Candida mycoderma

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1. Deep fat frying is a process of cooking and drying through contact with hot oil. It
involves simultaneous heat and mass transfer.
2. The undesirable changes occurring in foods during deep fat frying can be minimized by
predicting the temperature, moisture and oil distribution in foods with respect to time.

3. The stages of frying process are: initial heating, surface boiling, falling rate and bubble
end-point. The factors affecting the frying process are as follows:
• Temperature of the heated oil, time and the type of fryer
• Chemical composition of the frying oils, the physical and physico-chemical constants
• Presence of additives and contaminants
• The food weight/ frying oil volume and surface area/volume ratios

4. Barrier concept is the concept of combinations of preservatives and treatments to

preserve foods.
5.
(i) chemical preservatives.
(ii) Sodium chloride, sugar, acids, alcohols and components of smoke
(iii) Citric acid
(iv) antimicrobial activity, antioxidant, reducing property, preventing enzymatic and non-
enzymatic browning reactions
(v) Any one of the following:
SO2 and its derivative have an antiseptic action on bacteria, yeasts and moulds.

45
 Benzoic acid and its derivatives have a stronger preservative action on bacteria than on
yeasts and moulds.
Sorbic acid acts on moulds and certain yeasts at high dosage, on bacteria except lactic
and acetic.
Formic acid more active against yeasts and moulds than bacteria.

Annexure 1
HINTS FOR FREEZING
• Select only fresh, high-quality ingredients because freezing does not improve quality.
• Slightly undercook prepared foods. They will finish cooking when reheated.
• Cool foods quickly before packaging. Place the pan of food in a large pan of ice water,
crushed ice or ice cubes. Stirring will help cool the food faster. Use a fan to cool foods
that cannot be stirred.
• Freeze food promptly as soon as it is cooled to room temperature.
• Put no more unfrozen food in the freezer than will freeze within 24 hours. Usually this is
2 or 3 pounds per cubic foot of freezer capacity. Stack the food after it is frozen.
• Plan to use frozen prepared foods within a short time. Keep using foods from the freezer
and replenish with fresh stock. This makes greater use of freezer space, lowers the cost
per pound of food stores, and keeps your store of food fresh.
• The temperature of the freezer should not go above 0 °F. Fluctuating temperatures and
temperatures above 0 °F reduce quality.
• Foods that do not freeze well include mayonnaise, cream puddings and fillings, custard,
gelatin salads, cheese, the whites of hard-cooked eggs and uncooked egg yolks, and
gravies made with wheat flour.
• Since spices may change flavor over long storage, add just before serving.

46
UNIT 13: PRE AND PRIMARY PROCESSING – SOME BASIC
CONCEPTS

Structure
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Production, Harvesting and Handling of Fresh Foods
13.3 Preparation of Raw Materials for Processing
13.4 Primary Processing
13.4.1 Cereals
13.4.2 Pulses
13.4.3 Oilseeds
13.4.4 Minimally Processed Fresh Foods
13.5 Let Us Sum Up
13.6 Glossary
13.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

13.1 INTRODUCTION

In the earlier three units, we learnt about the principles and methods of food processing.
Certain issues related to production, harvesting and handling of food prior to processing
needs to be considered. For instance, how is the raw material (i.e., the food) to be
prepared for processing? What are the aspects to be considered while post-harvest
handling of fresh foods? What are the primary processing methods used for foods? In this
unit, we will focus on these aspects. Production, harvesting, handling and preparation of
raw material for processing will be highlighted. All food grains need some kind of
processing, say, primary, secondary and tertiary-for bringing them to a palatable state.
We will learn about these processing techniques in this unit.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• know the production and post-harvest handling of fresh produce
• understand why is the preparation of raw materials essential

1
 • describe the concepts of primary and secondary processing of cereals, pulses and
oilseeds and
• discuss the concepts of minimally processed fresh foods.

13.2 PRODUCTION, HARVESTING AND HANDLING OF FRESH FOODS

India has made a lot of progress in agriculture since independence in terms of growth in
output, yield and area under many crops. It has gone through a green revolution, a white
revolution, a yellow revolution and a blue revolution. Today, India is the world's second
largest producer of food next to China and has the potential of being the biggest with the
food and agricultural sector. India is the largest producer of milk, cashewnuts, coconuts
and tea in the world, the second largest producer of wheat, sugar and fish and the third
largest producer of tobacco and rice, the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables
after Brazil and China respectively.

The present production of fruits and vegetables in India is 47 and 80 million tones
respectively. Among fruits, 63% of world production of mangoes, 14% of banana, 8% of
pineapple and among vegetables, 12.4% of onion, 6% of potato, 7% of tomato, 13% of
cauliflower and 6% of cabbage are produced in India. The per capita availability of food
grains has risen in the country from 350 gm in 1951 to about 500 gm per day now despite
the increase in population from 350 millions to 1000 millions.

The quality and condition of produce sent to the market and its subsequent selling price
are directly affected by the care taken during harvesting and field handling. The
objectives of the grower hence should be:
• to harvest a good quality crop in good condition
• to keep the harvested produce in good condition until it is consumed or sold and
• to dispose off the crop to a buyer or through a market as soon as possible after
harvest.

2
To meet these objectives, success in harvesting and marketing must depend on planning
from the earliest stages of production.

How to determine whether a crop is ready for harvest or not? What are the factors to be
kept in mind that would help to get an optimal yield? What are the environmental
conditions best suited for harvesting? Which harvesting techniques should be employed
to minimize the extent of wastage? Finally, what post-harvest technologies should be
employed to get maximal output as well as reduce the risk of spoilage? In the following
sub-sections, we will study about all these aspects.

Let us begin first with the concept of harvest maturity, what do we mean by it and what
role does it play in the harvesting of crops?
• When is fresh produce to harvest?
Optimum quality of fruits and vegetables is obtained only when they are harvested at the
optimal stage of maturity. A critical time for growers of fruit and vegetables is the period
of decision on when to harvest a crop. Normally, any type of fresh produce is ready for
harvest when it has developed to the ideal condition for consumption. This condition is
usually referred to as harvest maturity. Harvest maturity refers to the time when the
"fruit" is ready to harvest.
• How is harvest maturity identified?
Before harvesting, the first thing to be looked into is the identification of harvest
maturity. We have already seen what the term actually means; let us see how can we
identify it. Picking should be done as per maturity indices, which are different for each
variety of fruit and vegetable. Most growers decide when to harvest by looking and
sampling.

Some of the judgments are based on:

• Number of days from setting
• Sight-colour, size and shape
• Touch-texture, hardness or softness
• Smell-odour or aroma

3
 • Taste-sweetness, sourness, bitterness
• Resonance-sound when tapped.
• Minimum juice content (citrus)
• Break in rind colour (citrus, mango, papaya, pineapple)
• Sugar-acid ratio (citrus, grapes, pineapple)

Experience is the best guide for this kind of assessment. Harvest maturity can be readily
observed in some crops: bulb onions, when their green tops collapse and potatoes, when
the green tops die off. While other crops can be more difficult: avocados remain unripe
off the tree even after maturity.
• When are conditions right for harvesting a crop?
When the crop is ready for harvest, will depend largely on weather conditions and the
state of the market. When the decision to harvest has been made, the best time of the day
must be considered. The aim is to dispatch the produce to market in the best possible
condition, that is, as cool as possible, properly packed and free from damage. The basic
rules to observe are:
• harvest during the coolest part of the day : early morning or late afternoon;
• do not harvest produce when it is wet from dew or rain. Wet produce will
overheat if not well ventilated and it will be more likely to decay. Some produce
may be subject to more damage when wet, e.g. oil spotting and rind breakdown in
some citrus fruits;
• protect harvested produce in the field by putting it under open-sided shade when
transport is not immediately available. Produce left exposed to direct sunlight will
get very hot. For example, potatoes left exposed to tropical sunlight for four hours
can reach temperatures of almost 50° C.

Produce for the local markets can be harvested early in the morning to avoid higher level
of field heat. For more distant markets it may be an advantage-if a suitable transport can
be arranged to harvest in the late afternoon and transport to market at night or early the
next morning.

4
 • Harvesting techniques
Many different harvesting techniques are used depending on the place of sale, the type of
crop and the stage of maturity of the crop to be harvested.

In the developing countries, most produce for internal rural and urban markets is
harvested by hand where as sophisticated harvesting machinery will be limited for the
most part to agro-industrial production of cash crops for processing or export or both. In
most circumstances, hand harvesting, picking and catching methods cause less damage
than mechanized techniques. Hand-harvesting is usual where fruit or other produce is at
various stages of maturity within the crop, that is, where there is need for repeated visits
to harvest the crop over a period of time e.g. roots and tuber crops, fruits and vegetables.
Machine harvesting is usually viable only when an entire crop is harvested at one time.
Machine harvesting may improve quality over manual harvesting.
• Post-harvest handling of fresh produce
Fruits and vegetables because of their high moisture content are extremely susceptible to
deteriorate, especially under tropical conditions. It is estimated that about 20-30% of the
fruits and vegetables produced in India annually (worth Rs. 3000-4000 crores) is lost due
to inadequate post-harvest management. These losses result in poor returns to the growers
and increase the cost of raw material, which ultimately affects the consumer. Therefore,
proper handling of fresh produce after harvesting plays a great role for reducing the
losses. Cereals and pulses are relatively stable during transportation and storage due to
their low moisture content and hence, less care is usually taken during post-harvest
handling except bringing down the moisture content to safe level (usually 12 to 14%) by
drying.

At all stages of harvesting and handling of harvested commodities, methods should aim at
avoiding damage and loss to the produce. The main steps to be followed during post-
harvest handling of harvested food commodities or produce are discussed below.
• Field processing: Certain processing techniques at the field itself could help to
reduce the chances of spoilage of the fresh produce, specially during
transportation. Fruits and vegetables are sorted and graded in the field itself. Also

5
 shelling and depodding of peas, beans and lentils can be done in the field. Pre-
cooling of the commodity in the field will help in improving the quality and
reduce heat build up during transport.

• Post-harvest treatments: Certain post-harvest treatments to fruits and vegetables

can bring down spoilage significantly. A wide range of chemicals used to control
post-harvest diseases include chlorine, sulphur dioxide, dichloran etc. Extension
of storage life of fresh produce could be obtained by treatment with skin coatings
like wax coating of fresh fruits and vegetables. Treatment of fruits with ethylene
or ethylene-releasing chemicals such as ethrel or calcium carbide helps in the
induction of early and uniform ripening.

• Packing and Transportation: What steps should be taken to minimize the risk of
spoilage and wastage of the harvested produce during packing and transportation?
What factors need to be considered while transporting these to over long
distances? What packing materials should be used? Let us see and try to
understand all these aspects.

Harvested produce should be collected in a suitable container and well packed,

and then transported quickly to the destination, without exposing it to the
potentially adverse effects of sun, rain or wind. The packing of produce directly
into marketing packages in the field at harvest reduces the damage caused by
multiple handling and is used increasingly by commercial growers. Most
developing countries use traditional baskets, sacks and trays to carry produce to
markets. These are usually of low-cost, made from readily available materials
such as dried grass, palm leaves or bamboo. They serve the purpose for fresh
produce carried over short distances, but they have many disadvantages in big
loads carried long distances.

Farm roads should be kept in good condition for transporting the fresh produce
without damage. Containers must be loaded on vehicles carefully and stacked in

6
 such a way that they do not shift or collapse, damaging their contents. Vehicles
need good shock absorbers and low-pressure tyres and must move with care. At
the destination, the produce has to be transferred immediately to the proper
storage area depending on the chill characteristics of the product. For long
destination, fresh produce may be transported by air or by rail wagon.

Let us now study about how to prepare the raw materials for various processing
techniques in the following section.

13.3 PREPARATION OF RAW MATERIALS FOR PROCESSING

All the incoming raw materials, including packaging materials, should be evaluated and
monitored to prevent potential contamination of the food product manufactured.
Incoming materials must be received into an area, which is separated from processing
areas. The raw materials are then processed as soon as possible in order to avoid
deterioration. Healthy and sound commodities without any infection are selected for
processing. Preliminary preparation of raw materials includes cleaning, peeling, cutting,
trimming and grating, sieving, soaking, processing, coating, blanching, marinating,
sprouting, fermenting, grinding, drying and filtering.
• Cleaning: Cleaning is applicable to vegetables, fruits and many other food
products. One of the aspect of cleaning is soaking or washing and is applicable to
fruits, vegetables, cereals, pulses and non-vegetarian foods. Washing fruits render
them free from dirt, twigs, stalks, sand, soil, insects, pesticides and fertilizer
residues. Soaking helps to loosen the adhered soils particularly on root crops.
Washing cereals or dhals help to remove husk, mud and any other unwanted
matter. Hard vegetables are scrubbed under cold running water.
• Sorting: The purpose of sorting is to separate the ripe fruits from the underripe or
overripe fruits. At the same time, parts of damaged fruits will be removed. Some
fruits are cut in two to check the inside.
• Peeling and stringing: These methods involve the removal of non-edible or
fibrous portion of fruits or vegetables. It may be done (a) by hand ;(b) with steam

7
 or boiling water ;(c) with lye or alkalis (NaOH, KOH) ; and (d) by mechanical
means. Peeling facilitates the operation of cutting the raw material into pieces or
into slices before processing.
• Cutting and grating: Dividing the food into smaller pieces is cutting. This helps in
easy cooking. Various terms used under this are cut, chop, mince, dice and slice.
• Blanching: Blanching is plunging food commonly fruits and vegetables into
boiling liquid and immersing in cold water. This destroys the enzymes present in
food which otherwise causes browning and off-flavor hence, used as pre-
preparation for preservation. Generally tomatoes, potatoes, almonds, carrots and
beans are blanched.
• Sieving: Sieving is done to remove coarse fibres and insects and also in preparing
cakes for blending of flour with baking powder.
• Grinding: The term implies to reduce to powder by friction, as in a mill, or with
the teeth; to crush into small fragment. This includes both wet and dry grinding.
Wet grinding includes the grinding idli batter and preparations of chutneys. Dry
grinding is grinding spices for masala powders and wheat and other cereal grains
to flour.
• Processing: Processing includes all the things to get food ready for cooking and
serving. The various processes included under this are: mixing, blending, binding,
beating, whipping, folding, mashing, rolling and stuffing.
• Marinating: Marinating is nothing but soaking a food in a marinade, which is a
seasoned liquid, usually containing an acid, such as vinegar, lemon juice, or wine
to add flavour or to tenderize it or both. Vegetables, fruits and meats are
marinated with many flavour combinations like oil, flavour and acid. Oil helps to
hold natural juices of meat. Acid is used to tenderize by breaking down
connective tissue. Vegetables like brinjals, onions, radish, bittergourd, potatoes
and chillies are normally marinated.
• Sprouting or Germination: It is defined as the process whereby the seeds sprout
and begin to grow. All kinds of grams like green gram, bengal gram, peas and
cereals like ragi and wheat are generally sprouted. Sprouted pulses are used in
making salads and curries.

8
 • Fermentation: Fermentation is the process of breaking down of complex matter
into simpler ones with the aid of enzymes and bacteria. This can be under aerobic
or anaerobic conditions. Fermented foods are often more nutritious than their
unfermented counterparts.
• Drying: Drying or dehydrating is removal of moisture from food products.
Removal of moisture helps to prolong the shelf life of the food.
• Filtering: This process is generally done to remove dirt, unwanted particles or to
remove moisture from foodstuff. Foodstuffs filtered are coffee, tea, rice, soups,
fruit juices and tamarind water.

POINTS TO REMEMBER

1. India is the world's second largest producer of food next to China, and has the
potential of being the biggest with the food and agricultural sector.

2. Optimum quality of fruits and vegetables is obtained only when they are harvested
at optimal stage of maturity. Harvest maturity refers to the time when the "fruit" is
ready to harvest.

3. Maturity indices of fruits and vegetables are determined based on the number of
days from setting, sight-colour, size and shape, touch-texture, hardness or softness,
Smell-odour or aroma, taste-sweetness, sourness, bitterness

4. When the decision to harvest has been made, the best time of day is during the
coolest part of the day: early morning or late afternoon
5. Hand-harvesting is usual where fruit or other produce is at various stages of
maturity within the crop, where as machine-harvesting is usually viable only when
an entire crop is harvested at one time.
6. It is estimated that about 20-30% of the fruits and vegetables produced in India
annually (worth about Rs. 3000-4000 crores) is lost due to inadequate post-harvest
management.

9
 7. Fruits and vegetables, because of their high moisture content, are extremely
susceptible to deterioration and hence, intense care is taken. Whereas, cereals and
pulses are relatively stable during transportation and storage due to their low
moisture content and hence, less care is usually taken during post-harvest handling.
8. Pre-cooling of the commodities in the field will help in improving the quality and
reduce heat build up during transport.
9. To control post-harvest diseases of fruits and vegetables, chlorine, sulphur dioxide,
dichloran are used. To help in the induction of early and uniform ripening of fruits,
ethylene or ethylene-releasing chemicals such as ethrel or calcium carbide are used.
10. The packing of produce directly into marketing packages in the field at harvest
reduces the damage caused by multiple handling and is used increasingly by
commercial growers.
11. Preliminary preparation of raw materials includes cleaning, peeling, cutting,
trimming and grating, sieving, soaking, processing, coating, blanching, marinating,
sprouting, fermenting, grinding, drying and filtering.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1. Fill up the blanks:
(a) India is the largest producer of (i) ……………………in the world, the second
largest producer of (ii)……………………………. and the third largest producer
of (iii) ………………………………., the second largest producer of
(iv)………………………
(b) The objective of the grower should be:
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
(c) Hand harvesting, picking and catching methods cause……………. than
………………….
(d) …………………of the commodity in the field will help in improving the quality
and ………….. heat build up during transport.
(e) The raw materials are processed as soon as possible after harvest in order to avoid
………………….

10
(f) …………………is a process of heat treatment given to vegetables followed by
cooling prior to dehydration or freezing or canning.
(g) ……………… is the process of breaking down of complex matter into simpler
ones with the aid of enzymes and bacteria.
2. How is harvest maturity identified?
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3. When are conditions right for harvesting a crop for local and distance markets?
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4. List the main steps involved during post-harvest handling fresh produce.
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5. What are the preliminary steps involved during preparation of raw materials?
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13.4 PRIMARY PROCESSING OF CEREALS, PULSES AND OILSEEDS

Both cereals and pulses are nutritionally important, since both together constitute the
staple foods for the population. They are also a relatively cheap source of energy, protein
and important vitamins and minerals. All food grains need some kind of processing for
bringing them to a palatable state and for their efficient and economic utilization. This is
due to the fact that grains contain an outer protective cover of fibrous husk/bran layer.

11
Cereal grains like rice and maize also contain oil rich bran/germ, which are of high
economic value, but are undesirable for the purpose of storage. Separation of these parts
from the grains is generally referred to as primary processing and is a prerequisite to
make them more palatable and safe for storage. The process of preparing certain products
like flour, semolina, flakes and popped grains is referred to as secondary processing.
Tertiary processing further processes these to provide variety in product making and to
meet the growing demands for ready-to-eat or ready-to- use products.

Let us now have a look at the different levels of processing in a variety of food
commodities. We shall begin with cereals-one of the crops that forms a part of the staple
diet.

13.4.1 Cereals
Cereals or grains are the seeds of grasses and include the many species of wheat, rice,
maize or corn, jowar, barley, ragi, bajra, rye and oats. Cereals account for the largest
share, about one-fifth of the consumption expenditure in India. They are mainly
consumed in the form of products obtained from primary processing, such as rice from
paddy and atta or flour from wheat. Rice, wheat, maize and sorghum are the four major
cereals, which are grown and consumed in the country. As per FAO figures for the year
2003, India produces around 102 million MT of rice against world's production of 590
million MT.

The ease with which the grains can be produced and stored, together with the relatively
low cost and nutritional contribution has resulted in the widespread use of cereal foods.

Processing of Cereals
Owing to the low moisture content, cereals and pulses are relatively stable during storage;
and processing is not so much for preservation. However, processing is of primary
importance for bringing them to a palatable state, adding a variety to the diet and in
improving their nutritive value. They are generally milled to remove the outer husk and

12
the resulting product is consumed after cooking and is used in various food preparations.
Cereal processing goes through three stages:

(a) Harvesting: It includes threshing, winnowing and preparation for storage of the cereal
grain.

(b) Primary processing: It involves further treatment of the grain such as cleaning,
dehulling (decorticating), pounding and milling; and

(c) Secondary processing: It involves transforming the primary processed material into
food, i.e., cooking, blending, baking or fermenting and roasting, which makes the grain
suitable for human consumption.

The total post harvest system of cereal processing is given in the following flow chart:

Harvesting
↓
Pre-drying in field
↓
Threshing
↓
Winnowing
↓

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 Drying
↓
Storage
(Sacks, bags, bulk)
↓
Primary Processing
(Cleaning, grading, hulling, pounding, milling)
↓
Secondary Processing
(Cooking, blending, fermentation)
↓
Packaging & Marketing

(a) Let us now take a look at the major steps involved in the post-harvest system of
cereals.
(i) Threshing: The process of threshing separates the kernels from the stalks or panicles
on which they grow. Threshing may take place in the field, or at the homestead or village;
it may be carried out manually with the aid of animals or with machinery. A simple
method consists of beating the cereal heads against a wall or the ground; animals or
humans can also trample the panicles on a hard surface or animals can draw a machine or
sledge over the grain. Maize grains must be separated from the cob after the husk has
been removed.

(ii) Grading: Grading consists of separating the sound kernels from chaff and impurities,
and may be achieved by sieving or winnowing.

(iii) Sieving: Impurities are separated on the basis of their differences in size from the
kernels. Hand sieves are usually used singly. The simpler machines will have two sieves:
one with oversized holes (which retain large impurities and let the grain kernel pass
through) and the other one with undersized holes (which retain the kernels but allow
smaller impurities to pass through).

14
(iv) Winnowing: In this process, the impurities are separated on the principle that their
density differs from that of the grain kernels. The operation depends on air movement to
remove the lighter fractions. The simplest method is to drop a basket of kernels and
impurities in a thin stream onto a clean surface through a slight natural breeze. This is a
slow and laborious process but it is still widely practiced. Winnowing machines operate
on the same principle but a fan creates air movement.

(b) Primary processing of wheat: Wheat is consumed mostly in the form of flour obtained
by milling the grain. Wheat can be broadly classified into three groups from the milling
and baking point of view: (a) Hard wheat, (b) Durum wheat, and (c) Soft wheat. Flour
made from hard wheat is used for bread-making, while flour from soft wheat is used for
biscuits, cakes and breakfast foods. Semolina is prepared from hard wheat and durum
wheat.

Wheat milling: The milling of wheat consists of the separation of bran and germ from
endosperm and reduction of endosperm to fine flour. There are three distinct methods of
milling wheat: stone milling, roller milling, and fragmentation milling. Irrespective of the
method of milling, all wheat grains will go through two main stages before being milled:
1. Cleaning: Cleaning of the grain is the main step before milling. The objective is to
remove grains of other cereals, seeds from a variety of field weeds, straw, dust and mud
from fields, stones, live and dead insects, small rodents and their excreta and small pieces
of metal.
The processing stage of cleaning is usually broken down into four separate operations:
(a) Screening: The grain is passed through several sieving operations to remove
items both larger and smaller than it. It is then passed along a conveyor belt,
where any pieces of metal are removed magnetically and dust, rodent hairs etc.
are removed by the use of current air.
(b) Sorting: At this stage, all non-wheat grains such as barley and oats are removed
by passing through a range of separators which remove all foreign grains by
virtue of their size.

15
 (c) Scrubbing: The grain is passed through scanners which remove any mud or dirt
and the beard and bee wing from each grain (the bee wing is the epidermis or
outer layer of the bran coatings).
(d) Washing: This operation cleans the grains by removing any fine dust and hairs,
and also any stones, which have not been removed previously. After washing
the grain is centrifuged to remove excess surface water.

2. Conditioning: The grain is conditioned to desired moisture content by the addition of

water. The purpose of conditioning is to make the bran and germ pliable, thus preventing
them from getting powdered. This may be done by moistening the grain and allowed for
24-72 hrs, depending on the air temperature. The cleaned and conditioned wheat is then
ready to be milled by one of the following methods:
(i) Stone-milling: The traditional procedure for milling wheat in India has been the stone
grinding (chakki) to obtain whole meal flour (atta). In the stone mill, two circular stones
are used, each with its surface corrugated radially, with the distance between the stones
being smaller towards the outer edge of the stones. In the operation, the cleaned and
conditioned grain enters from the above into an aperture in the center of the top stone.
The bottom stone is stationery at all times whilst the top one revolves, grinding the grain
more finely as it is pushed to the outside of the stones. The resulting flour is then sieved
before being bagged. The method results in 90-95% extraction rate flour, which retains
almost all the nutrients of the grain, while simultaneously eliminating the part of the grain
which is most indigestible, like cellulose and phytic acid, which binds and carries away
the minerals.
(ii) Roller-milling: The roller-milling is a much more complete method than stone-
milling and involves a large amount of specialized equipment. It is concerned with the
milling of white flour, where bran and germ are separated from endosperm and flour of
any extraction rate can be produced. The process can be broken down into two clear
stages:
• Breaking: The cleaned and conditioned grain is passed through a series of break
rolls. These are the grooved rollers, which operate in pairs, rotating in the
opposite direction to each other, the top one rotating two and a half times faster

16
 than the lower roller. It is usual for the mill to have five sets of break rolls, with
each set being more finely set than the previous set of break rolls. Each of the
above are passed through purifiers, where by means of air currents any minute
particles of bran are removed to ensure purity of the white flour end-product.
• Reduction: The purpose of this stage is to reduce the endosperm to fine flour and
to extract the germ. The reduction stage is less complicated than the breaking
stage. It consists of a series of reduction rollers, which are smooth and each pair is
set more finely than the previous set. After passing through each set of reduction
roller, the product is sieved; the coarse particles go to the next set of rollers for
finer reduction. The process is repeated until all the semolina, which was fed into
the reduction rollers, is reduced to fine white flour, germ and a small amount of
branny by-product. The germ is extracted early in the reduction stage, where it is
easily sifted off because being of a tough and oily nature, it is flattened on the
rolls with little fragmentation taking place.

(iii) Fragmentation-milling (Air classification): This is a relatively new method of

milling, by which it is possible to control the protein quality and quantity in the
production of a particular flour. This is a refinement of roller-milling in that after
producing the white flour, it is then processed a further step and is separated by means of
air classification into particles of three broad ranges, lesser the size, higher the protein
content.

Primary processing of Rice

Rice is the staple food for the majority of the world’s population and is cooked in boiling
water and eaten mostly with cooked pulses, vegetables, fish or meat. It is also used in
many food preparations like idli and dosa. Rice with the husk is called paddy. Primary
processing of rice consists of cleaning, grading, dehusking (shelling) and milling
(polishing). Dehusking and polishing are traditionally accomplished by hand pounding,
using pestle and mortar. In modern rice milling, the two main steps involved are
dehusking and polishing.

17
(i) Cleaning and grading: The paddy as received will contain foreign matter such as
stones, clay particles, straw, chaff and dirt. These have to be separated in a paddy cleaner.

(ii) Dehusking (shelling): After cleaning, the outer husk is first removed by shelling
process exposing the grain covered by a brown bran layer. It is sold in this condition as
brown rice. The shelling is carried out normally using two different types of shellers:
(a) Disc sheller: It consists of two discs. The inside surface of the discs is covered
with a mixture of emery and hard cement. The clearance between the discs is
adjusted close to the length of the paddy grain to be shelled. One plate is
stationary, while the second plate revolves. The husk is removed by aspiration.
(b) Roller type Sheller: It consists of two horizontally set rubber rollers rotating in
opposite directions, the differential rotation between the two being kept at about
200 per min. Dehusking is effected by the grain hitting the rotating rollers. The
resulting brown rice contains the pericarp and germ almost intact. The breakage
of rice is minimum with this machine.

(iii) Rice milling (polishing): The brown rice obtained by shelling can be milled
(polished) further in a stage known as “pearling” using either a cone-type polisher or a
horizontal-type polisher to remove the coarse outer layers of bran and germ, leaving a
white grain. Sometimes, the polished rice is further treated with mineral substances such
as talc or sugar to give the grain a bright shining surface.
Subsequently, a simple machine like huller came into existence. Hullers achieve both
dehusking and polishing in one step. It is estimated that there are over 1, 30,000 hullers in
operation throughout the country. They are largely located in the rural areas. More than
30% of paddy produced is processed in hullers.

(iv) Parboiled rice: Parboiling is an ancient process of India. More than 50% of paddy
produced in the country is parboiled. Parboiling means partial boiling and cooking of rice
in a limited water environment. For this reason, prior to milling, the paddy is fully soaked
in water and then the drained paddy is cooked by steaming or by dry heat. The process

18
gelatinizes the starch in the grain aiding the retention of much of the natural vitamin and
mineral content. Surprisingly, parboiled rice takes longer to cook, but has the advantage
of taking up more water during cooking and therefore increasing the yield.

(v) By-products of rice: The important by-products obtained in rice milling are rice bran
oil, bran or polishing (good source of protein and fat), husk (fuel, insulating material,
paper making, production of furfural).

(vi) Rice products: Of the 100 million tones of paddy, about 10% is converted to various
products like flaked rice (Aval, Chewda or beaten rice), expanded rice (Puri, Murmura)
and popped rice (Aralu, Kheel). The other rice products are instant rice (quick cooking
rice), rice flour, rice starch etc.

Processing of minor cereals

Maize, jowar, bajra, ragi and other small millets are important minor cereals of our
country. They are also termed as coarse grains. They are widely consumed without much
refinement by the poorer sections of the population, particularly in the rural areas.
Judicious refining of these grains can upgrade their appearance and eating quality by
removal of the unpalatable rough bran layers without affecting their nutritive quality.

Traditional milling of these grains is done by pounding in a mortar and pestle to remove
the outer bran. Dry and slightly wet (soaked in water to soften the bran) and tempered
grains are used. After pounding, the bran is removed by winnowing and the endosperm is
ground in the same unit or small mechanical hammer/plate mills. Pounding is a very
laborious and time-consuming operation and also the quality of the product is often not
very good because of high moisture content of the flour and mixing of ground bran. In
the mid sixties, it has been observed that when 3-5% water was mixed with the grains and
tempered for 5-15 minutes, the outer bran layers were sufficiently toughened and could
be abraded off (without powdering) in simple abrasive rice polishers (pearlers) without
affecting the inner grain portion, which remained hard. This pearling technique has been

19
applied successfully to jowar, bajra, varagu and wheat. The pearled grains find wide use
for traditional preparations like roti, bhakri, bhath etc.

13.4.2 PULSES
Pulses are the edible fruit or seed of pod-bearing plants and are widely grown throughout
the world. They have a high protein content ranging from 20-40%, which makes them
important as a major source of proteins in the diets of population dependent mainly on
cereals as staple foods around the world. Economically, they provide reasonably good
quality protein at a fraction of the cost of animal proteins. In most of the parts of the
world, pulses are traditionally consumed either in the whole or in the dehulled split form,
as soft-cooked products. Almost all pulses are grown in India. Red gram or tur (arhar or
pigeon pea), Bengal gram or chick-pea (chana), Black gram or urad and Green gram or
mung are considered as major pulses depending on their production and consumption
while moth or tepary bean, lentil, horsegram or kulthi, peas, khesari dhal and others (cow
pea, cluster bean or guar, French bean or kidney bean, Indian bean or field bean and
soybean) etc. are known as minor pulses, since they are grown and consumed only in
certain regions. Many of the pulses contain toxic factors, which cause many diseases in
human. The toxic factors can be eliminated either by heat processing or by leaching them
out in boiling water.

Primary processing of pulses

Dry pulse seeds have a tight and fibrous seed coat (husk or skin) that envelops the
cotyledons, which often is indigestible and may have a bitter taste. In grains like cowpea
and green gram, the seed coat is thin forming 8-10% of the grain, whereas in Bengal
gram and tur, they are thick and constitute 10-14% of the grain. Primary processing of
pulses involves cleaning, removal of husk or skin and splitting.

Pulse Milling
Milling of pulses consists of 2 steps: loosening the husk and its removal followed by
splitting into dhal. Loosening of the husk referred to as “pre-milling treatment” is
normally achieved by wet or dry method, which involves intermittent sun-drying after the

20
application of oil and water. Dehusking or dehulling or milling and splitting are done in
chakkies or power driven machines. Milling is usually done by two methods:

(a) Wet process:

The wet process has been commonly used with pigeon pea or red gram, as the skin in this
grain is difficult to be removed. The process consists of the following steps: (i) soaking
the grain in water overnight, (ii) smearing the soaked grain with red earth mixed with
water and keeping the grain moist as a heap by sprinkling water for 16-24 hours, (iii)
drying the grain in sun, and (iv) dehusking the grain using granite or wooden hullers.

(b) Dry process after conditioning skin with water or oil:

(i) Dry process after conditioning skin with water-chickpea, lentils,
lathyrus, pea and dried peas.
(ii) Dry process after conditioning skin with oil-pigeon pea or red gram,
black gram and green gram

In the first process, the grains are cleaned and after an initial scouring or pitting operation
in roller mills, they are sprayed with water 5-10% by weight of the grain and kept in a
closed vessel for the water to be fully absorbed by the skin. The material is then dried in
the sun. Similarly, in the second process, the cleaned and pitted grains are treated with a
vegetable oil (0.2 to 0.5%). The grains are dried in the sun and then conditioned by
spraying water (about 4-5%). The conditioned grains are again dried in the sun.

In both the pre-milling treatments, adherence of the husk to the cotyledon weakens and
consequently, its removal becomes easy.

The loosened seed coat of the pretreated pulses is then removed in the subsequent
operation of milling. For this purpose, different machines are used depending on the
types of pulses and scale of operation. Pulse milling is practiced at different levels, viz,
(a) home scale, (b) cottage scale, and (c) large scale level and machines like pestle and
mortar, hand-driven chakki are used in home-scale and roller mill in cottage and large-

21
scale operation. There is much loss due to powdering and /or breakage. This process is
dependent on climatic conditions, laborious and does not give more than 70% of
dehusked and split grains although higher yields are possible.

Pulse products:
The important processed pulse products are puffed chickpea and pea, besan, papads,
pulse-based weaning foods, quick cooking dhals, and canned dry peas

13.4.3 Oilseeds
Like pulses, oilseeds and nuts are rich in protein and in addition, they contain a high level
of fat. At present, India accounts for 9.6% of world’s total output of oilseeds. The major
oilseeds produced in the country include groundnut, rapeseed/mustard, castor seeds,
sesamum, nigerseed, linseed, safflower, sunflower and soybean. However, groundnut,
rapeseed/mustard and soybean accounts for a major chunk of the output.

Primary processing of oilseeds

Oilseeds are the major sources of edible oil. Edible oilseed meals (cakes) obtained from
oilseeds are often highly nutritious and can be used for either animal or human food. The
residual oilcake has been used for the preparation of protein foods for feeding the infants
and preschool children in developing countries.

There are four main steps involved in the preparation of oil and edible meal from
oilseeds:
1. Preparation of the raw material
2. Oil Extraction
3. Clarification
4. Packaging and storage

Let us discuss these one by one.

1. Raw material preparation: This involves cleaning and dehusking. Some raw oilseeds
have a fibrous husk or seed coat, and this must be removed prior to processing. The

22
removal is known as decortications and a range of decorticating machines are available
which are suitable for small-scale production. The separation of the husks or seed coat
from the oil-bearing material after decortications is achieved by gently throwing the seeds
into the air and letting the air blow away the husks. This method is called as winnowing
and requires skill and experience. Some of the oilseeds require grinding or flaking.
Traditional hand-pounding methods using a pestle and mortar or more sophisticated roller
mills, may be employed to grind groundnuts into coarse flour. Flakers are used for
sunflower seeds, and hammer mills are applicable for palm kernels. Subsequently, some
of the grounded oilseeds such as groundnuts and sunflower are conditioned with addition
of 10% water followed by heating to 90° C in order to rupture the oil-bearing cells. The
heating is traditionally carried out over open fires, although seed scorchers, which are
basically pans fitted with stirrers, are now available to mix the seeds better.

2. Oil extraction: Extraction of oil from the prepared oilseeds can be done by one of the
following methods: (i) traditional method: ghani, (ii) Improved methods: (a) mechanical
pressing (hydraulic pressing), (b) screw pressing (expeller pressing), (c) prepress solvent
extraction, and (d) direct solvent extraction. Let us study about these methods:
(i) Ghani: It originated in India, but their use is now more widespread. A
ghani consists of a wooden mortar and pestle. The mortar is fixed to the
ground, and the pestle is located in the mortar, where the raw material is
crushed by friction and pressure. An animal is required to move the pestle
and as this continues the oil is pressed out, runs through a hole at the
bottom of the mortar, and the residue (cake) is then scooped out. Ghanis
are limited in that two animals are required, since any one animal will tire
after 3-4 hours. Motorized ghanis are becoming increasingly popular and
are fast replacing animal-powered equipment. Mustard oil, groundnut oil
and sesame oil are traditionally produced by this method.

(a) Hydraulic pressing: Prepared raw materials to be crushed are placed in

heavy perforated or slotted metal cages (12 to 16 Nos.) and a metal
plunger is used to press out the oil. The maximum pressure applied is

23
 2000 psi for a period of 20-50 minutes. The oil content of the press
cake may vary from 5 to 8% depending on the raw material.
(b) Expeller pressing ( screw pressing): The raw material is continuously
fed to the expeller, which grinds, crushes, and presses out the oil as it
passes through the machine. Oil flows through the perforations in the
casing and is collected underneath. The residue, or oilcake, is pushed
out of the end of the unit Most small expellers are power-driven. The
oil content of the press cake after second pressing may vary from 5 to
8%.
(c) Prepress solvent extraction: In this process, the oil from the raw
material is expressed in a screw press by single pressing and then the
residual oil from the press cake is solvent-extracted by using food
grade hexane followed by desolventization of the material. The protein
quality in the meal obtained by this method is not adversely affected.
(d) Direct solvent extraction: This process is used for the oilseeds having
low fat content e.g., soybean. The process consists of the following
steps: (i) cooking of the material in steam and flaking, (ii) solvent
extraction of the flakes using food grade hexane, and (iii)
desolventizing the meal.

3. Clarification of oil: Crude oil contains a suspension of fine pulp and fibre from the
plant material. It also contains smaller quantities of water, resins, colors and bacteria,
which makes it darker in colour. These contaminants are removed by clarifying the oil,
either by allowing the oil to stand undisturbed for a few days and then removing the
upper layer, or by using a clarifier. If further clarification is needed, the oil may be
filtered through a plastic funnel, which has been fitted with a fine filter cloth. Finally, the
oil is heated to boil off the traces of water and destroy any bacteria. For those raw
materials, which are processed wet (such as coconut), heating is applied prior to
clarification in order to break the emulsion. When these impurities are removed, the
shelf-life of the oil can be extended from a few days to several months, provided it is
stored properly.

24
4. Packaging and storage of oil: Rancidity can cause the oil to deteriorate and develop
off-flavors during storage. Using clean, dry containers, which exclude light and heat, and
prevent contact with metals such as iron or copper, may prevent this. Sealed glass or
plastic bottles are adequate packaging materials. The containers should be properly dried
after cleaning to remove all traces of water. If the oil is packaged adequately and kept
away from heat and sunlight, the shelf-life can be expected to be 6-12 months.

13.4.4 Minimally processed fresh foods

Today's consumers are increasingly demanding convenient, ready-to-use and ready-to-eat
foods with a fresh like quality, and containing only natural ingredients. The concept of
minimal processing theoretically involves the care of foods throughout the entire post-
harvest system - from the farm-gate all the way to the consumer, while also meeting the
demands of the consumer for convenience and fresh. This minimal processing approach
is also called as hurdle technology, simply because a series of hurdles is placed in the
way of the micro-organisms growth and survival; e.g. combinations of weak acid
treatments with modified atmosphere packaging or mild heating with reduced water
activity, or alternative doses of mild heating and chilling.

Minimally processed foods include conventional products such as prepared vegetables

and salads, prepared fruits, prepared meat items, heat-and-eat meals and new generation
foods such as fresh pasta and pasta sauces. If these products are heat processed, the heat
treatment is much less than that required of the canned foods. Chilled ready-to-eat or
ready-to-heat foods are a very rapidly growing segment of the market. Some of the best
examples of this are the fresh and sliced apples and potatoes packaged under the modified
atmosphere packaging that have a shelf-life of three weeks. These products are prepared
under very rigorous hygienic conditions, packed under vacuum and cooked at fairly low
temperatures.

The advantages of minimally processed foods are many:

• Maintains freshness and quality;

25
 • Renders fruits and vegetables in convenient and ready-to-cook form;
• Extends the shelf-life;
• Bulk reduction for better storage, easy transportation and packaging;
• Boosts export of vegetable in minimally processed form;
• Renders 60% value addition; and
• Low technology, without involvement of sophisticated machinery.

Increased product safety is also much in demand by the producers and distributors. The
fresh-like products are highly perishable and actions that increase safety are important.
Minimally processed products readily deteriorate in quality than the original raw material
due to the alteration of tissue integrity during processing of these products. Therefore,
minimally processed foods must be held continuously at refrigerated temperatures and
guarded from temperature abuse in distribution and retailing.

POINTS TO REMEMBER

1. Major cereals: Rice, Wheat, and Sorghum; Minor cereals: Maize, Jowar, Bajra,
Ragi and other small millets.

2. Major pulses: Black gram or urad, peas, Green gram or mung, Bengal gram and
Soybean. Minor pulses: Moth or tepary bean, lentil, horsegram or kulthi, khesari
dhal, cow pea, cluster bean or guar, French bean or kidney bean.

3. The important oilseeds are groundnut, rapeseed/mustard, castor seeds, sesamum,

nigerseed, linseed, safflower, sunflower and soybean.

4. All foodgrains need some kind of processing for bringing them to a palatable state,
and for their efficient and economic utilization.

5. Processing of cereals consists of three stages: harvesting, primary processing and

secondary processing.

26
6. The milling of wheat consists of: separation of bran and germ from endosperm and
reduction of endosperm to fine flour. It involves three stages: cleaning, conditioning
and milling.

7. Primary processing of rice (paddy) consist of cleaning, grading, dehusking

(shelling) and milling (polishing).

8. The important by-products obtained in rice milling are rice bran oil, bran or
polishing (good source of protein and fat), husk (fuel, insulating material, paper
making, production of furfural).

9. Primary processing of pulses involves cleaning, removal of husk or skin and

splitting.

10. Using clean, dry containers, which exclude light and heat, and preventing contact
with metals such as iron or copper, can eliminate rancidity in oil during storage.

11. Minimally processed foods are convenient, ready-to-use and ready-to-eat foods
with a fresh like quality, and containing only natural ingredients e.g. prepared fruits,
vegetables, salads, meat items, heat-and-eat meals, fresh pasta and pasta sauces.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. Mention the different methods of wheat milling.
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2. List the important rice products.
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3. Mention one advantage of parboiling of rice.

27
 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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4. Write the purposes of conditioning of wheat prior to milling.
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5. What are the important processed pulse products?
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6. What are the steps involved in pulse milling?
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7. List the main steps involved in the preparation of oil from oilseeds.
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8. List the methods of oil extraction.
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9. What are the impacts of minimally processed foods?
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13.5 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we studied about issues related to production, harvesting and handling of
food prior to processing.

Availability of raw materials is another important consideration for processing. We learnt

about the present scenario of production of agricultural produce like cereals, pulses, fruits

28
and vegetables, milk, sugar, fish etc. in India. We also discussed the importance of right
type of harvesting procedures in order to maintain the quality as well as to minimize the
wastage of fresh produce during post-harvest handling including transportation.

In another section, we learnt about the various steps involved during preliminary
preparation of raw materials prior to processing or to produce finished products. The
important steps are cleaning, washing, sorting, grading, peeling, trimming, blanching, etc.
Though the cereals, pulses and oilseeds are relatively shelf-stable commodities due to
low moisture content, they need to be processed to bring them to a palatable state and in
improving their nutritive value. In this regards, we have studied the various primary-
processing steps involved in cereals and pulses milling and in oil extraction.

There is a growing demand for ready to use and ready to eat foods with a fresh like
quality in the consumers’ market. In this connection, we studied the concept of
preparation of minimally processed fresh food like fruits and vegetables, meats etc. Since
the fresh like products are highly perishable and actions that increase safety are
important.

13.6 GLOSSARY

Acetic acid : active ingredient in vinegar; used in food preservation.

Acid foods : foods which contain enough acid to result in a pH of 4.5
or lower. Includes all fruits except figs; most tomatoes;
fermented and pickled vegetables; relishes; and jams, jellies
and marmalades.
Anaerobic fermentation : fermentation in the absence of air (secondary
fermentation).
Antioxidants : scavengers of particles called oxygen-free radicals.
Asepsis : keeping out microorganisms from food.

29
Blanching : process of exposing a food product to either steam or hot
water for a short time, before being placed in packages and
frozen or dried.
Canning : method of preserving food in air-tight vacuum-containers
and heat processing sufficiently to preserve the food.
Clarifier : a chemical used to help clear water by coagulating smaller
particles into filterable sizes.
Contaminant : an undesirable substance that is considered to make
something impure or dirty.
Curing : a method of food preservation that involves soaking the
food in a strong salt solution.
Decortication : removal of the outer covering of an organ or part.
Dehydrating : method of food preservation that involves removing the
water from the food.
Emulsifier : A substance that is used to prevent the liquids in an
emulsion from separating into layers.
Food additive : a substance added to food that enhance the palatability or
preserve the foods.
Food spoilage : a process which occurs due to growth of microorganisms,
action of enzymes present in the food, mechanical and
insect damage to the food.
Freezer : a reach-in or walk-in food storage unit that maintains a
temperature of 0°F (-18° C).
Freezing : a method of food preservation involving low temperatures
(-18° C), a change of state of a substance from liquid to
solid.
Hermetic seal : an absolutely airtight container seal, which prevents
reentry of air or microorganisms into packaged foods.
Marinating : a form of food preparation; it involves leaving the food
for a given time while it is coated in a liquid. The process
makes the food tastier, easier to chew and digest, and

30
 sometimes it is used as a preparation before other forms of
cooking.
Oxidation : reaction with the oxygen in the air, causes food to go bad.
Par-boiling : partial boiling or cooking of rice in a limited water
environment.
Pasteurization : a heating process designed to destroy the most heat-
resistant pathogenic or disease-causing microorganism in a
food product.
Perishable Food : a food product that spoils readily without special
processing or preservation techniques.
Pickling : the practice of adding enough vinegar or lemon juice to a
low-acid food to lower its pH to 4.6 or lower.
Pounding : repeated heavy blows.
Preservative : a substance used to prolong the shelf life of foods or to
prevent the spoilage of food.
Rancidity : development of any off or disagreeable flavors in oil or
fat due to enzymatic or oxidative reactions.
Sprouting : the process whereby the seeds or spores sprout and begin
to grow.
Staple food : a basic but nutritious food that forms the basis of a
traditional diet, particularly that of the poor.
Sterilization : a process that destroys virtually all microorganisms and
their spores.

13.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1.
(a) (i) Milk, cashewnuts, coconuts and tea; (ii) wheat, sugar and fish; (iii) tobacco and
rice; (iv) fruits and vegetables.

31
(b) (i) to harvest a good quality crop in good condition; (ii) to keep the harvested
produce in good condition until it is consumed or sold; (iii) to dispose of the crop
to a buyer or through a market as soon as possible after harvest.
(c) less damage ; mechanized techniques
(d) Pre-cooling; reduce
(e) Deterioration
(f) Blanching
(g) Fermentation

2. Maturity indices can be determined on the basis of : Number of days from setting,
Sight-colour, size and shape, Touch-texture, hardness or softness, Smell-odour or
aroma, Taste-sweetness, sourness, bitterness, Resonance-sound when tapped,
Minimum juice content, Sugar-acid ratio.

3. The conditions right for harvesting a crop for local markets: harvest in the early
morning to avoid higher level of field heat while for the distant markets: harvest
in the late afternoon and transport to market at night or early the next morning.

4. Main steps involved during post-harvest handling fresh produce are:

Field processing: sorting, grading, shelling and depodding, pre-cooling.
Post-harvest treatments: treatments for controlling disease, for enhancing or
delaying ripening, skin coating
Packing and Transportation: packing in suitable container to prevent damage and
from spoilage during transportation.
5. Preliminary steps involved during preparation of raw materials include cleaning,
peeling, cutting, trimming and grating, sieving, soaking, processing, coating,
blanching, marinating, sprouting, fermenting, grinding, drying and filtering.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. Three methods of wheat milling are stone milling, roller milling and
fragmentation milling.

32
2. The important rice products are flaked rice, expanded rice, popped rice, instant
rice, rice flour, rice starch etc.

3. The advantage of parboiling of rice is to retain natural vitamin and mineral

content in the rice.

4. The purpose of conditioning of wheat prior to milling are to make the bran and
germ pliable, thus preventing them from getting powdered during breaking.

5. Puffed chickpea and pea, besan, papads, pulse-based weaning foods, quick
cooking dhals, and canned dry peas are the important processed pulse products.

6. The important steps involved in pulse milling are - overnight soaking in water,
smearing with red earth mixed with water followed by sprinkling water for 16-24
hours, sun dried, dehusking and splitting.

7. The main steps involved in the preparation of oil from oilseeds are: preparation of
the raw material, extraction, clarification, packaging and storage.

8. The methods of oil extraction are: (i) traditional method (ghani); (ii) improved
methods, such as hydraulic pressing, screw pressing, prepress solvent extraction
and direct solvent extraction.

9. Impacts of minimally processed foods are: it maintains freshness and quality;

convenient and ready-to-cook form products; extended shelf-life; bulk reduction
for better storage, easy transportation and packaging; boosts export potential;
about 60% value addition; low technology, without involvement of sophisticated
machinery.

33
34
UNIT 14: PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT AND EVALUATION

Structure

14.1 Introduction
14.2 Need for the Product Development
14.2.1 Influencing Factors
14.2.2 Consumer Oriented Product Development
14.3 How to Develop a New Product
14.3.1 Statistical Experimental Methods
14.3.2 Modelling for Process and Recipe
14.4 Sensory Evaluation
14.4.1 Acceptance Tests
14.4.2 Sensory Evaluation during Product Life Cycle
14.5 New Products and Ingredients
14.5.1 Functional Foods
14.6 Shelf life
14.6.1 Major Modes of Food Deterioration
14.6.2 Evaluation of the Food Quality
14.6.3 Procedures for Determination and Monitoring of Shelf life
14.7 Let Us Sum Up
14.8 Glossary
14.9 Answer to Check Your Progress Exercises

14.1 INTRODUCTION

In India processed food is gaining importance as “commercial commodity”. It becomes

more evident when we see the wide range of packaged food products available in the
market. Increase in popularity of processed foods can be traced to several causative
factors: growing urbanization, changes in lifestyle, increasing number of nuclear families,
working women and the purchasing power. Food industry in India is broadening its
product range in response to emergence of wider clientele range. The industry has to cope
with the competition from the multinational companies who are launching new products
at regular intervals. In such a situation, the food manufacturers have to be watchful not
only about maintaining and improving the quality of their products in the market but also
about developing new products. These new products shall have advantages such as
offering convenience, better nutritive value, health benefit, superior sensory quality and

1
cost effectiveness. Developmental work in food industry is a continuous process beset
with challenges. This unit will cover important areas of product development and
evaluation.

Objectives
After studying this unit you will be able to:
• explain why is it necessary to develop new products
• describe what are the factors responsible for development of new products
• appreciate the role of sensory evaluation at different stages of product
development
• assess consumer acceptability
• describe what are functional foods
• discuss the ingredients providing health benefits and their use in specialty foods
and
• determine shelf life studies

14.2 NEED FOR PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

In the present market scenario of processed foods we observe that sales profile of
established brand names undergo unpredictable fluctuations. In a few instances, the once
popular product may lose its premium position in the market. Therefore, the manufacturer
should evolve effective strategies to achieve and to retain a well secured place in the
market. One such strategy is to introduce new products having better consumer appeal.
So now in this context, let us first understand what we mean by product development?

Product development is by definition a future-oriented practice. It is an effort to foresee

the future needs of the market place and to translate this information into state-of-the-art
products.

2
In order to develop a new product, the manufacturer should have the knowledge about all
the factors influencing the development of new products. So then let us learn about these
influencing factors.

14.2.1 Factors Influencing Product Development

Product development is an innovative activity designed to meet the changing consumer
demands. It is becoming increasingly important in the dynamics of marketing
environment. Product developers should be familiar with marketing, financial
implications and logistics of introducing a new product into the competitive market.
Moreover, they have to know how to undertake product development work from the
customer’s perspective. Products will have to be developed in response to a specific,
clearly identified market opportunities. In addition to consumer demands, the driving
forces behind new product development are peer competition, availability of new
technology and alternate raw materials, and desire for novelty. Market fragmentation
leads to developing different types of foods for various categories of consumers. As these
are likely to intensify, the product life cycles are likely to shorten. Increase in the
purchase power of sections of population, changing life styles, and increased emphasis on
health and nutrition put pressure on processors to offer something new to the consumer.
Science and technology in the food industry are increasingly defined by the demands and
perception of the market place. To cope with such a situation the food industry has to
resort to product development and innovation as a continuous activity.

But, whatever may be the influencing force, remember it is always important to develop
consumer oriented products. And how do we go about it? Read and find out.
14.2.2 Consumer Oriented Product Development
It is important that new product development strategies are adjusted to identified needs in
the market. This requires an appropriate methodology to translate consumers’ choice or
expectations into identifiable quality characteristics. Once this concept is formed it will
be possible to provide detailed guidance for product development. Consumer oriented
approach consists of five steps:
1. Identify the opportunity for new product

3
 2. Design of the new product
3. Market testing of the new product
4. Launching the product in identified markets and
5. Life – cycle management.

Opportunity identification stage concerns the definition of the best market segment to
introduce the new product, and the generation of new product ideas.

At the product design phase the plan of action is :

1. To identify the key benefits the product is to provide to the consumer
2. Positioning of these benefits versus competitive products and
3. Development of the product and marketing strategy.

Purchasing pattern of the consumer, what they consider important in their choice
behaviour and what they consider short – comings in present product supply provide
insight into some basic issues of product development. Consumer perception and
preference have to be carefully studied while formulating a new product. Market testing
may involve segmentation to identify relevant subgroups of consumers that are
homogeneous in terms of preference and purchasing behaviour. If the new product is
promising, as judged by the testing, it is ready for commercial sale.

With our understanding of the concept of product development and the factors which
influence it, let us now learn the process i.e. the methodology of product development.

14.3 HOW TO DEVELOP A NEW PRODUCT

The process of developing a new product comprises three phases, namely formulation or
recipe development, standardization of processing methods, and evaluation and testing of
quality parameters of the final product.
The critical issues here are:
(i) to find out the optimised recipe,

4
 (ii) to evolve effective processing conditions
(iii) to ensure food products of high quality and
(iv) to accurately predict marketability.

It is well known that most of the food products contain a variety of ingredients and
preparing the product involves several processing steps. So, while working on a new
product one has to study whether the recipes and methods of processing can yield an
acceptable product, or is there a need for modifying them to improve the quality and to
meet the demands of the market. The three phases of product development, you learnt
about earlier, are interrelated and any changes that are made in implementation of one
phase, will affect other two phases. Therefore, the task of planning the work becomes
complicated. The simplest methodology, therefore, in product development is adopting
one – factor – at – a time method which is also known as trial and error method. It is a
simple method in which if changes are to be made in the formulation, only one of the
ingredients can be changed at time. For example flavourings, salt, and sugar are the
ingredients used in the preparation of sweet and spicy varieties of fried snacks. These are
considered as the variables which influence the product quality. Affect of flavourings is
tested by varying its level while maintaining constant salt and sugar levels. The product
with optimal quality is selected. The optimal salt and sugar levels are then determined in
a similar way. The optimal levels of flavourings, salt and sugar are then combined in the
preparation of the sweet and spicy fried snack which will have the overall optimum
quality. The trial and error method has been in use for along time. But this optimization
method has certain disadvantages:
1. It is laborious and time consuming
2. It does not provide information about variable interaction effects, and
3. Achieved optimum consists only one variable levels that are actually tested. This
could lead an inexperienced product developer to unreliable or false optimal results.
In the above example, the change in salt and / or flavourings levels would probably
modify the optimal salt level. Because of these possibilities the “ overall optimum’
achieved might not be the true optimum.

5
 Considering these drawbacks, more effective methods have been introduced in the field
of new product development, which are highlighted now.

14.3.1 Statistical Experimental Methods

Statistical experimental methods are used in product development. In order to adopt the
statistical product design or experimental method, it is necessary to understand the basic
concepts and terms. Important ones among these include:
1. Independent variables also known as factors are the parameters or characteristics,
including ingredients and processing conditions, which have an effect on product quality.
Independent variables can be varied. Amount or type of ingredients, temperature and time
of processing and moisture content are examples of common factors in food production.
2. Dependent variables, or the responses are the important measurable food quality
indices. These are influenced directly or indirectly by different factors. Some examples of
responses are sensory quality, nutritional value, chemical composition, microbiological
characteristics and shelf – life.
3. Test levels or levels are the quantity of factors selected to be tested in the
experimental design. A combination of factor levels is chosen according the experimental
design.
4. A model is a mathematical equation that describes the relationship between the
response values and different factors quantitatively. It can predict optimized combination
of factors to obtain products having required quality.

While dealing with the experimental design method, different kinds of system problems
are encountered. These are discussed next.
A. Product process problem
In food product design, there are two different kinds of system problems – process and
mixture problems – that should be dealt with by different statistical experimental
methodologies.

In the process problem, all the independent variables are not related to each other but are
orthogonal to each other. The change of one variable is not restricted by another

6
variable. Geometrically, the lines representing these variables meet at right angles. In
bread making for example, the temperature of the baking oven can, in principle, be
chosen without any influence on the setting of baking time. Of course, only suitable
settings of oven temperature and baking time can lead to desired bread baking results. To
solve a process problem, the statistical experimental designs used should contain no or
few correlations between the independent variables, so that their natural or original
properties of “independence” can be retained. These kinds of statistical experimental
designs are usually factorial experimental designs or designs derived from it.

B. Recipe problem
Recipe is one of the most important factors leading to successful food products. A recipe
usually includes several ingredients, which have different effects on specific food quality.
To study these effects is the prerequisite for being able to choose the optimal recipes.

Many food products are manufactured by mixing two or more ingredients. In bread and
cake formulations, for example, flour, sugar, baking powder, shortening, and water are
used. In this case, one or more properties of the food product generally depend only on
the proportions of the ingredients present in the mixture and not on the amount of the
mixture. One ingredient (an independent variable) cannot vary without changing at least
one of the other ingredients in the mixture, because all the ingredients will be part of a
constant sum of 100%. In other words, the variables or the ratios of different ingredients
in the recipe are dependent on each other. These phenomena do not meet the
orthogonality requirement of a conventional factorial design. Therefore, to study and
model the effects that different ingredient components in a mixture have on the food
product properties of interest, the factorial experimental design is no longer suitable
unless it is modified. The effect of ingredient components (mixture variables) on food
quality (response) are modeled differently from those effects based on the usual factorial
experimental methodology.

As described above, the distinguishing feature of a mixture problem is that the

independent or controllable factors represent proportionate amounts of the mixture rather

7
than unrestrained amounts. These proportions are measured by volume, by weight, or by
mole fraction. These are nonnegative numbers, and, if expressed as fractions of the
mixture, they must add up to a unity, especially if the ingredients to be studied are the
only ingredients comprising the mixture.

So you realize, how the process and the recipe, are important in development process.
How do we get about with them? Let’s get to know.

14.3.2 Modelling for process and recipe

Generally, all problems that appear in food product design can be divided into mixture or
process problems, with the latter having the dominant share. Sometimes a problem that
seems to be a mixture problem is really a process problem and can only be solved with a
corresponding factorial experimental method. As explained above, the difference
between a process and a mixture study is quite distinct, and these studies need different
statistical experimental techniques to deal with. In practice, it is not easy to distinguish a
process problem with a mixture problem, when the food product design is only concerned
with recipe or formulation development. To get a better understanding of the difference
between them, a short description of performing a factorial experiment for solving a
process problem and of running a mixture experiment is given:
1. A factorial experiment: It studies the effect of some independent variables on food
quality indices (response) through varying two or more of these independent variables,
such as temperature, time, pressure and pH value. A series of values or test levels of each
factor is selected, and certain combinations of their levels are tested.
2. A mixture experiment: An experiment in which the food quality indices (response)
are assumed to depend only on the relative proportions of the ingredient
components present in the mixture and not on the amount of the mixture. In such an
experiment, if the total amount of the mixture is held constant, the value of the
response changes when changes are made in the relative proportions of the
ingredients.

8
 The development of bakery powder is described as a practical example that will help you
in understanding the difference between a factorial and a mixture experiment.

A premixed bakery powder for biscuit making consists of wheat flour F and three
different chemical compounds A, B and C, which would be tested in the biscuit making
according to a standard bakery experiment. The flour is used as a diluting medium,
whereas A, B and C will be effective at different baking temperatures or baking phases.
To develop an optimal baking powder formulation from F, A, B and C, the effect of
various formulations are tested. Three different statistical experimental approaches are
applied.

Strategy 1
Wheat flour F 3940 g is, mixed with 60g of A, B and C, yielding a ratio of chemicals to
flour of 3:197 in all formulations. All mixtures are produced in total amount of 4000 g. In
all tests, the amount of flour F in the baking powder is fixed, and the amounts of the three
chemicals A, B and C are varied as indicated in Table 13.1.
Table 13.1: Mixture Experiment (Strategy 1)
Chemicals Flour Chemicals Flour Total R
(g) (g) (%) (%) atio of
Chemical:
F
A B C Total F Total (g) A B C Total F (%)
40 10 10 60 3940 4000 1.00 0.25 0.25 1.5 98.5 100 3:197
30 15 15 60 3940 4000 0.75 0.375 0.375 1.5 98.5 100 3:197
30 20 10 60 3940 4000 0.75 0.50 0.25 1.5 98.5 100 3:197
20 20 20 60 3940 4000 0.50 0.50 0.50 1.5 98.5 100 3:197

Strategy 2
The wheat flour amount is fixed at 3940g, but that of the active ingredients is varied from
30 to 60 g with the ratio of A : B : C fixed at 3:2:1. The combinations to be tested are
listed in the table 13.2.

9
 Table 13.2: Mixture Experiment (Strategy 2)
Chemicals (g) Flour Chemicals Flour Total Ratio of
(g) (%) (%) Chemical:
F
A B C Total F Total (g) A B C Total F (%)
30 20 10 60 3940 4000 0.750 0.500 0.250 1.500 98.500 100 0.0152
25 16.7 8.3 50 3940 3990 0.627 0.418 0.209 1.254 98.746 100 0.0127
20 13.3 6.7 40 3940 3980 0.502 0.335 0.167 1.004 98.996 100 0.0101
15 10 5 30 3940 3970 0.378 0.252 0.126 0.756 99.244 100 0.0076

It is a single-factor experiment with four test levels of baking powder. Actually only the
ratio of chemicals to flour are changed in the study. In this way the effect of changing the
chemicals: flour ratio or of changing the amount of chemicals while holding the amount
of flour constant can be measured. In this experimental design the effect of ratio of the
chemicals to flour would be examined. Note that if the percentages of A, B and C are
varied in addition as in the first experiment, this would then constitute a flour-component,
mixture-amount experiment.

Next look at the third strategy.

Strategy 3
Two levels of wheat flour 3960g and 3940g and two levels of baking powder 60g and
40g are selected to be tested. In all trials the percentages of A, B and C are fixed at 3:2:1.
The formulations are as in Table 13.3. This is obviously a factorial experiment in which
we are interested in measuring how the biscuit quality will be influenced by changing the
level of flour and chemicals.

Table 13.3: Mixture Experiment (Strategy 3)

10
 Chemicals Flour Chemicals Flour Total Ratio of
(g) (g) (%) (%) Chemical:
F
A B C Total F Total (g) A B C Total F (%)
30 20 10 60 3940 4020 0.497 0.497 0.249 1.5 98.50 100 0.01523
30 20 10 60 3940 4000 0.500 0.500 0.250 1.5 98.50 100 0.01523
15 10 5 40 3960 4000 0.250 0.250 0.125 1.0 99.00 100 0.01010
15 10 5 40 3940 3980 0.254 0.254 0.127 1.0 99.00 100 0.01010

The example above gives a fair idea about how the factorial, mixture experiments are
conducted for product development. With this we end the first section. Read the points to
remember given herewith to recapitulated what you have learnt so far. Now attempt the
check your progress exercises given herewith to judge for yourself how much you have
grasped about the subject so far.

Points to remember
1. Product development is an innovative activity designed to meet the identified
needs in the market.
2. Consumer perception and preference have to be studied while formulating a new
product.
3. Product development comprises formulation, standardization of processing
method and evaluation and testing of final product.
4. The simplest methodology in product development is the trial and error method.
5. Statistical methods of product development are Factorial experiment and mixture
experiment.

Check your progress Exercise 1

1. Define product development

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2. List the factors influencing product development.
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3. What is trial and error method?

11
 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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4. What are Independent and dependent variables?
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5. What are factorial experiment studies?
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6. What is a mixture experiment?
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The next crucial aspect of product development is sensory evaluation i.e. to evaluate the
product on the basis of appearance, acceptability on part of the consumer or on
information based on food acceptance data. These aspects are discussed within the next
sub-section entitled sensory evaluation.

14.4 SENSORY EVALUATION

We begin our discussion on sensory evaluation by first understanding what we mean by

sensory evaluation. Sensory evaluation is a scientific discipline used to evoke, measure,
analyse and interpret reactions to those characteristics of foods and material as they are
perceived by the senses of sight,smell, taste, touch and hearing. Next, why use sensory
evaluation? Well, sensory evaluation is used to:
• evaluate a range of existing food products
• analyse a test kitchen sample for improvements
• gauge consumer response to a product
• check that the final product meets its original specifications

12
One may further wonder, why does the food industry need sensory assessment? Well, the
food industry always try to :
• develop new products by modifying existing formulations
• enter new markets
• compete more effectively in existing market
• keep a high level of quality
These compulsions, therefore, make sensory evaluation very essential. Food quality, or
from the consumer view point, food acceptance is the most critical aspect of food. The
collection of food acceptance data is a key component in studies on product
development, quality control, food product acceptance in the market place and food
service evaluation. How is this data collected? What are the different processes involved
in the assessment of the product being developed? Usually, a sensory panel is constituted
to conduct periodic quality assessment of the product, followed by consumer testing.
Let’s learn about these processes.

A. Sensory panel
During the product development cycle it is necessary to conduct periodic quality
assessment of the product being developed. This is done either with a consumer panel or
a trained panel. Both kinds of panels are required as constituents of product development
team. The trained panel is selected and trained in such a way that the panelists are
capable of giving high reliability of judgments independent of psychological factors such
as bias, motivation and individual experience. The expert is not viewed as representing
the consumer. The role of the expert in product development is to determine flaws in the
development process (too salty, poor texture etc), and possibly to attribute these flaws to
specific processing steps, eg: burnt note attributable to overheating or higher processing
temperature. This information is used by the developer to alter the formulation or to
improve processing. As a result of experimentation and sensory evaluation an optimized
product is developed. This is then submitted to a consumer to be maximally effective.

13
B. Consumer testing
Consumer testing is the next crucial aspect in product development. Consumer testing
can be done in three ways:
1. in-house laboratory testing
2. home testing and
3. institutional testing
Let us discuss each of these next.

1. In-house laboratory acceptance testing represents the most controlled environment in

which to conduct acceptance tests. Within the laboratory testing area, one can control a
number of environmental variables (odour, light, temperature, humidity etc) and a
number of stimulus variables (serving temperatures, portion size etc). In-house testing
utilizes either laboratory personnel or consumers brought in for the tests.

2. In home testing, the selection and maintenance of a consumer panel is a key issue.
The co-operation rate from consumer home panels is approximately 50 percent. It has
been found that co-operation is best in households with:
a) more than two members
b) a younger housewife and
c) more education.
But home testing presents a practical problem, that is, the process of data collection is not
done under the supervision of the investigator. Therefore, validity of the procedure and
resulting data cannot be directly assessed.

3. The institutional food service setting, on the other hand, provides an excellent
opportunity to collect food acceptance information. It is preferable to collect the food
acceptance ratings from the consumers as they are eating, or just after they have
completed eating. Collection of direct consumer acceptance ratings also provides the
researcher with an opportunity to observe the food system in operation and to interact
with consumers. Food acceptance data is collected by using feedback forms that are filled
by the consumers. For their effective use the feed back forms should be brief and clear; it

14
 should take only 1–2 min to fill out. Secondly, the format of questions should provide
information which can be acted upon. Data collected on a number of food products
showed that the card or form with different scales for different food attributes was most
effective and useful. One example of a feed back form used in the consumer testing of
low fat cake is given here.

FEED BACK FORM

After you have tested the Low Fat Cake, please rate it for each of the following characteristics by checking one
box in each category.

Temperature Flavour Portion Size Texture

Too Hot Good Flavour Too Big Bad Texture

Slightly Too Hot Slightly Good Flavour Slightly Too Big Slightly Bad Texture
Just Right Neutral Flavour Just Right Neutral Texture
Slightly Too Cold Slightly Bad Flavour Slightly Too Small Slightly Good Texture
Too Cold Bad Flavour Too Small Good Texture

Considering everything, how was the Low fat Cake

Good Slightly Good Neutral Slightly Bad Bad

COMMENTS

You would have made note of the fact that food acceptance data is collected by the
consumers by using feedback forms. There are a few acceptance tests normally carried
out to evaluate product acceptability. What are these tests and how they are conducted?
How is the sensory evaluation carried out during the product life cycle? These are some
other crucial aspect we should know while on the topic of sensory evaluation. Read the
next sub section and find out.

15
14.4.1 Acceptance tests
What are Acceptance Tests? Acceptance tests are used to evaluate product acceptability
or liking or to determine which of a series of products is the most acceptable or the most
preferred. It should, however, be emphasized that acceptability and preference are not the
same thing. For example, a person may prefer product A to product B, but actually find
them both unacceptable.

Information derived from acceptance testing will only be of value if it reflects the results
that would be obtained in the population at large, and this is unlikely to be achieved
unless a panel which represents the target population is recruited. Such consumer panels
are usually quite large, and their use in product testing has tended to be the responsibility
of the market researcher rather than the sensory analyst. However, there are common
features in the test methodology and common products being studied, so it is appropriate
for the sensory analyst to be aware of the existence and purpose of these acceptability
tests, if only in the interests of the effective interdepartmental communication. In
addition, the sensory analyst can sometimes apply acceptance tests in a limited way to
obtain an indication about product acceptability and may be asked to pilot such
“consumer guidance” tests during product development and before products are subjected
to more detailed market research.

There are three main methods of sample presentation that are used in acceptance tests –
monadic, sequential monadic and paired presentation.
1. In monadic tests, samples are presented one at a time.
2. In sequential monadic tests, samples are presented in sequence, to be assessed one
at a time.
3. In paired tests, samples are presented two at a time, generally with some form of
direct comparison in mind.

What are the Types of Acceptance Tests?

There are two main aspects to acceptance testing:
• Measurement of Acceptability

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 • Comparison of acceptability or preference

These tests supply information about people’s likes and dislikes of a product. Note, these
tests do not intend to evaluate specific characteristics, such as crunchiness or smoothness.
A discussion on these tests follows:

a. Hedonic Rating
In this test the assessor is asked to record the extent of liking for a product, usually by
selecting a category on a “hedonic” or liking scale that runs from “extreme like” to
“extreme dislike”. A number of different scales have been developed and used.
A very popular scale is the following nine – point hedonic scale:
• Like extremely
• Like very much
• Like moderately
• Like slightly
• Neither like nor dislike
• Dislike slightly
• Dislike moderately
• Dislike very much
• Dislike extremely

The categories on this scale are equally spaced and it is quite common for the data to be
analysed by assigning the values 1 to 9 to the categories on the scale, and then assuming
that the intervals are equal. With this assumption, the data can be summarized by
recording average liking “Scores”.

b. Interval Scales
An alternative approach is to rate liking on a proper interval scale or on a continuous line
– scale, with only the ends of the scale being labeled “ extreme like” and “ Extreme
dislike’. The distance of the mark along the scale or line can then be used as a genuine
score.

17
c. Ratio scales
It is also possible to record liking or acceptability using magnitude estimation scaling
methods, but consumers may find it difficult to handle the concept of ratios without some
initial practice, and may also feel uncomfortable with the arbitrary liking score that must be
defined for the opening reference product.
d. Paired Comparison (Preference) Test
In this test the assessor is presented with two coded products and asked to indicate whether
there is a preference between them. The test design should ensure that each sample is
assessed equally often in first and second position.

The panel size should be at least 50. If the panel is drawn from staff on site, care should be
taken to exclude people who may have particular knowledge of the nature of the work or
knowledge of the objectives for carrying out the work. Bear in mind that such a panel is
unlikely to be representative of the target consumer population.

At the simplest level the assessor is asked to state which sample is preferred and to offer
reasons for preference. No – preference discussions are usually allowed and although, they
are excluded from analysis, they are usually reported. This is a two – tailed test, as it is not
known in advance which product is preferred, and both directions are of equal interest. The
basic statistical analysis is by reference to two – tailed binomial tables, and the reasons for
preference are tabulated.

Comparative assessments of acceptability or preference can be undertaken using the paired

(preference) method or by the ranking test.

What Sort of Panel Is Required for Acceptance Tests?

Consumer panels are the best group to use for evaluating the acceptability of a product or a
range of products because they can be recruited to a quota that matches the profile of the
target consumer population in terms of product usage, demographics etc. when using
consumers for such tests, there are relevant codes of practice and guidelines to be followed.

18
An untrained panel of at least 50 people, possibly drawn from an “in-house” panel of
company employees may on occasion be asked to evaluate the acceptability of a product
or a range of products. However, this panel will not normally be representative of the
target consumers, so should only be used to provide an initial indication of acceptability
or as a “consumer guidance” study. As always this panel should be drawn from people
who have no particular knowledge of the nature of the work.

Under no circumstances should a trained panel be asked to evaluate the acceptability or

preference of a product. Training encourages assessors to be diligent in focusing on
objective measurement and generating information on the full range of product attributes.
They can no longer be expected to behave as naïve consumers and provide simple
subjective value judgments.

After a detail discussion of sensory tests and evaluation let us learn about the role of
sensory evaluation during the product life cycle.

14.4.2 Sensory evaluation during product life cycle

The basic procedure for developing a new product, and supporting it while marketed,
included distinct steps that are constant no matter what type of product is produced.

Initial screening in product development roughly defines the final product. The objective
during this phase of life cycle is to formulate and physically prepare a prototype that is
close to the final product, yet knowing the product will go through extensive
optimization. The different stages during product life cycle are summarized herewith:

A. Product Optimization
Sensory analysis during this phase of product development is critical and includes
extensive evaluation with many kinds of tests, each playing a specific role in optimization
of the new product. Trained descriptive panels are used to characterize the flavour profile
and other characteristics compared to what is already in the market. Consumer panel are
used to determine product acceptability and aid in defining the formula and product

19
specifications such as moisture, oil, salt, seasoning and oil flavour in fresh and aged
products. Product testing by consumer panel can be conducted by the company
developing the product or by an independent consumer evaluation agency.

B. Scale up
At this phase, sensory analysis consists of tests that compare the production samples with
the optimized product. Depending on the resources available, either consumer panels or
descriptive panels can qualify the production samples.

Sensory specifications are also determined before the product is taken into full
production. This is a time consuming-process, similar to establishment of analytical
specifications. The first step consists of screening of samples that represent reasonable
extremes in the manufacturing process and also represent different raw material samples.
Descriptive analysis is then used to characterize the products in quantitative terms.
Consumer data are used to determine which attributes are critical and to set acceptable
limits around the optimum target.

C. Production
Sensory analysis does not stop after the product has been developed and is being
produced routinely. However, it is critical that products continue to be analyzed to ensure
the finished goods are consistently manufactured to design criteria and that the product
profile does not “drift” over time.

Typically, products and packages are inspected shortly after production in what is
sometimes called a sample-cutting meeting. Persons involved in evaluating freshly made
products must become familiar with how products with varying characteristics age during
their expected shelf life. Traditional difference and / or variation testing should be
conducted on a routine basis for quality assurance purposes. At this point, shelf-life
testing should be conducted to ensure the product meets specifications till the end of its
declared shelf life.

20
The entire discussion so far has been summed up in points to remember. Read them
carefully. Next, answer the check your progress exercise to recapitulate what you have
learnt so far.

Points to remember
1. During product development cycle it is necessary to conduct periodic quality
assessment by employing sensory evaluation methods.
2. A trained sensory panel helps in development of the formulation and improving /
modifying processing steps.
3. Consumer acceptance data is vital for studying the product quality and to predict
acceptance in the market.
4. Hedonic rating is a well known acceptance test. Usually a nine point hedonic
scale is used.
5. In paired comparison test the assessor is asked to indicate whether there is a
preference between two samples.
6. Sensory evaluation during product life cycle consists of initial screening, product
optimization, evaluation of product prepared during scale of studies and during
regular production.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. What is a trained sensory panel?
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2. Name the three ways in which consumer testing can be done.
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3. Why are acceptance tests used?
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4. Give the nine point hedonic scale.
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5. What is paired comparison test?
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6. Mention the stages in product life cycle, at which sensory evaluation is used.
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So far we have learnt about the need for developing a product and the methodology of
doing it. Now let us learn what are the ingredients that could be used in a product too
make it a speciality product.

14.5 NEW PRODUCTS AND INGREDIENTS

Present day needs as well as future trends in food product development are taken into
consideration in selecting the ingredients.

Increasingly the issue for the food industry becomes one of understanding the health
benefits of food and diet and of targeting research towards elucidating the physiologically
active components and their mechanisms of action. Many of these physiologically active
compounds are found in well-known food sources, in addition to those less recognized.
Soya, cereal bran, onion, garlic, many fruits and vegetables, are just a few among a wide
variety of foods with potential health benefits. Research designed to understand and
enhance these benefits is critically important. Clearly, such a targeted approach could
lead to the development of “functional foods”. What are these functional foods? The next
sub-section focuses on this aspect.

22
14.5.1 Functional Foods
Traditionally, food products have been developed for taste, appearance and convenience
for the consumer. With the increasing awareness of the role of diet in disease prevention
there is an emergence of a new category of food products which provide health benefits.
Generally, this type of foods, are called as functional foods. These foods provide nutrition
as well as certain health benefits. A functional food is similar in appearance to
conventional foods. It is consumed as part of a usual diet and has physiological benefits
and / or reduces the risk of chronic disease. Functional food is also known as “ A food
that has a component incorporated into it to give a specific medical or physiological
benefit, other than a purely nutritional benefit”. In other words these are the food
products having a defined and well established health claim.

Health claim can relate to components of food or foods themselves. Three types of health
claim are:
1. generic
2. commodity specific and
3. product specific.

Generic health claims are those that relate a nutrient of a food product to a particular
disease or condition. One example of health claim permitted in USA is as follows: “Diets
low in saturated fat and cholesterol and rich in fruits, vegetables and grain products that
contain some type of fibre, particularly soluble fibre, may reduce the risk of heart
disease, a disease associated with many factors”. On the basis of this statement, new
products containing one or more of the above ingredients could be developed.

Commodity claim describes the claim for commodities or ingredients. Statements

permitted in USA for oatmeal and oat bran reads: “Diets high in oat bran / oatmeal and
low in saturated fat and cholesterol may reduce the risk of heart disease”. This
highlights the health benefits of oat bran and meal. However, it does not indicate in the
claim that the product on which the claim is placed is protective.

23
A product specific claim states that the product on which the claim is placed has a
protective effect against a disease. For this type of claim, the product itself, rather than
the ingredients or nutrients in it, have to be shown to have benefit. In all the above three
types of claims, it is essential to provide scientific evidence in support of the beneficial
effect of the commodity or ingredient or the product in the prevention or treatment of a
condition.

From the above information, we have a fair idea about how to plan development of a
functional food. In order to do this, we must know about the special ingredients required
for the formulations. A few such ingredients are described here.

A. Oat products
Oats fulfill admirably the description of a functional food, as one that, in addition to
providing all normal attributes of a food – basic sustenance, pleasing taste and texture –
also confers a specific health benefit.

The outer layers of oats are similar to those of other cereals in being a good source of
insoluble dietary fibre with the attendant capacity to improve colonic function and
possibly reduce the risk of colon cancer. Many other functionally distinct components
such as waxes, lignin, phytate, vitamins, minerals and phenolics concentrate in these
layers. Some of these compounds are powerful antioxidants and may possess potent
pharmacological properties. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of the USA has
recently allowed a health claim for an association between consumption of diets high in
oatmeal, oat bran, or oat flour and reduced risk of coronary heart disease. This represents
the first health claim for a specific food under the Nutrition Labeling and Education Act
(1990).The overall conclusion from the FDA review was that oats could indeed lower
serum cholesterol levels, specifically low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, without
change in the high-density lipoprotein (HDL) fraction; on this basis a health claim for
reduced heart disease risk was allowed. The FDA has allowed that the main active
ingredient, in this respect, is the soluble fibre (1->3) (1->4)-β-D-glucan, or β-glucan.

24
B. Wheat bran
The useful role of wheat bran in promoting regularity in colonic function and preventing
constipation is generally accepted. In addition, growing research has focused its
protective effect against colon and breast cancers.

Amount of fibre in the diet has an effect on colonic function, the type of fibre and its
digestibility or fermentability also play a significant role. Both soluble and insoluble
fibres have value in promoting regularity in colonic function, as measured by stool
weight and transit time, but they promote regularity via different mechanisms. Insoluble
fibres, such as those from wheat bran, are resistant to fermentation by colonic bacteria
and increase fecal bulk by retaining water.

Among the different sources of dietary fibre as fecal bulking agents, wheat bran is
probably the most studied and among the most effective. Wheat bran ranked among the
highest in fecal bulking, exceeding fibres from fruit and vegetables, gums and mucilages,
cellulose, oats, corn, legumes and pectin.

From a food processing perspective, the range of particle size in commercially available
wheat bran offers many functional benefits. While fiber particle size may affect its
colonic effects, the range of particle size typically found in commercially available wheat
bran (coarse bran > 1400 µm to very finely ground bran <500 µm) is well within that
reported to be associated with fecal bulking effects.

C. Rice bran
Rice bran contains primarily insoluble fiber (cellulose) and soluble fiber (hemicellulose).
Insoluble fiber adds bulk to the gastrointestinal (GI) track in humans causing more
frequent stools that pass through the system more quickly, requiring less pressure to
expel, and absorbing more bile acids thereby preventing their re-entry into circulation.
This lowers the amount of bile absorption/reabsorption of dietary and or endogeneous
lipid by the lower intestinal tract and promotes the synthesis of more bile acids from
available cholesterol. Lowering serum cholesterol levels in the blood, specifically the

25
low-density lipoprotein (LDL) fraction, aids in cardiovascular health and tends to lessen
gallstone formation.

Rice bran is potentially valuable source of natural antioxidants such as tocopherols,

tocotrieols, and oryzanols. Increased concern over the safety of synthetic antioxidants
like butylated hydroxynisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) has increased
the interest in finding effective and economical antioxidants. Antioxidants extracted from
rice bran potentially could satisfy this demand.

Defatted rice bran contains an increased percentage of fiber ranging from 35 – 48%, and
can be used in speciality high – fiber products and baked goods. Rice bran fractions also
possess emulsifying and foaming properties for baked products, meringues and whipped
toppings. These fractions reportedly provide other benefits, such as leavening and
texturization.

D. Soya bean products

Soya bean and its flours are used in the preparation of a variety of fermented and non-
fermented products in Asian countries. However in India, food use of soya bean or soya
flour is limited to a few extruded and texturised products. Soya proteins are known to
reduce cholesterol levels in hypercholesterolemic individuals. The effect is greatest on
those with the highest starting levels of cholesterol. These findings strongly support the
inclusion of soya proteins (soya protein isolate and soya protein concentrate) in a wide
variety of common food products. An average of 17-25 gms of soya protein per day was
found to be effective in lowering serum cholesterol. Epidemiological and animal studies
have indicated that there could be a correlation between consumption of soya proteins
and certain chronic diseases like breast and prostrate cancer. In India food grade soya
meal (defatted soya flour) is available which can be used in formulation of new foods
having health benefits.

26
E. Grapes
The components of grapes and grape products believed to play a significant role in
preventing or delaying the onset of diseases including cancer and cardiovascular diseases
are the phenolic compounds. These compounds are secondary plant metabolites that
contribute in an important manner to the flavour and colour characteristics of grapes,
grape juices and wines. The phenolic compounds of grapes include phenolic acids,
anthocyanins, flavonols, flavan-3-ols, and tannins. The flavonoids (C6-C3-C6), which
include the anthocyanins, flavonols and flavan-3-ols, are powerful antioxidants, and are
found in high concentration in grapes and grape products. These compounds exhibit a
wide range of biochemical and pharmacological effects including antiinflamatory and
antiallergic effects.

From the foregoing, it is evident that the grapes and grape products are rich in phenolic
compounds, particularly flavonoids, which have demonstrated a wide range of
biochemical and pharmacological effects, including anticarcinogenic, antiatherogenic,
anti-inflamatory, antimicrobial, and antioxidant activities. The available information
suggests that the regular consumption of currently available grape products should have a
long-term health benefit. However, for increased concentration of grape phenolics, such
as resveratrol, ellagic acid and flavonoids, new food products rich in these
phytochemicals need to be developed. The byproducts of wine-making, grape skins,
seeds and cluster stems are rich in catechins, proanthocyanidins and/or natural
antioxidants, which can then be incorporated in the variety of foods such as breakfast
cereals, bakery products and confectionaries.

F. Citrus Fruits
A large number of constituents in citrus products have been shown to be capable of
preventing or alleviating diseases and promoting health. Vitamin C, E, and carotenoids,
for instance, are thought to play a role in preventing or delaying the onset of major
degenerative diseases of aging such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, and cataracts by
counteracting oxidative processes. Similarly, several “non nutrient” components of citrus,

27
including limonoids and flavonoids, appear to inhibit carcinogenesias by acting as
blocking and / or suppressing agents.

G. Onion and Garlic

Onions (A. cepa), and garlic (A. sativam), have been used in traditional and folk medicine
for over 4000 years. Disorders for which both garlic and onions have been used include
asthma, arthritis, arteriosclerosis, chicken pox, the common cold, diabetes, malaria,
tumors and heart problems. Modern science has shown that alliums and their constituents
have several therapeutic effects, including antiplatelet aggregation activity, fibriolytic
activity, anticarcinogenic effects, antimicrobial activity, and anti-inflamatory and anti-
asthmatic effects.

Onion and garlic based products are currently marketed in a variety of forms. They
include, for onions: dehydrated onion pieces, onion powder, onion flavourings,
encapsulated flavours, oleoresins and essential oils, onion salt, pickled onions, canned,
frozen and packaged onions; for garlic: dehydrated garlic powder, garlic salt, garlic juice,
and garlic flavouring, encapsulated flavours, oleoresins and essential oils.

The processed products have considerable advantages to the food industry. The reduction
in bulk means lower transport and distribution costs, the products are not subject to
seasonal fluctuation in availability and prices, are more reproducible in organoleptic
quality, and are more readily dispersed in food products than is the case with the
chopped, sliced or blended fresh or stored vegetables.

The primary function of existing onion and garlic products is to provide consumers with
the characteristic pungent flavour imparted by volatile sulfur compounds. In the past,
value of both garlic and onion in disease prevention and health promotion, has been of
little consideration in the development of consumer products from alliums. In recent
years, their therapeutic properties have been recognized in the processing of onion and
garlic capsules, tablets and even in the development of odorless products. These products,
however, are more like drugs than true functional foods. Significant progress has been

28
made in designing lower salt-, lower calorie-, lower cholesterol-, and higher fibre- and
calcium containing foods, using new food ingredients, such as artificial sweeteners and
carbohydrate or protein-based fat substitutes and new processing methods. Thus, one
possible approach in development of novel-value-added allium-based functional foods
involves incorporation of garlic and/or onion into food products such as bakery products,
imitation meats and sausages, and meat pies. The key to the more widespread and
increased consumption of onion and garlic and consequently to the increased exploitation
of their medicinal and physiological properties, is improvement or elimination of the
flavour of these vegetables.

G. Mustard
Although the primary use of mustard seeds is a condiments, important new food
applications are regularly being found. Commercially available mustard products include
mustard oil, mustard flour, ground and prepared mustards, and mustard bran. Mustard
mucilage has rheological and interfactial properties that should find a wide range of
applications in the food industries. Many of the components of mustard have beneficial
physiological effects. These include isothiocyanates for possible effects on cancer
prevention and antimicrobial activity; the viscous fibre and its effects on glucose and
lipid metabolism; and the potential health benefits of phytates, dithiolthiones and
proteins.

H. Marine lipids
Marine lipids originate from the liver of lean white fish such as cod, the body of oily fish
such as mackerel, and the blubber of marine mammals such as seal. These oils consists
of saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). There are two
classes of PUFA, namely, the omega-3 and omega-6 families, which are differentiated
from one another based on the location of the double bond from the terminal methyl
group of the fatty acid molecule. Unlike saturated and monosaturated fatty acids, which
can be synthesised by all mammals, including humans, the PUFA cannot be easily
synthesized in the body and it must be provided through the diet. The omega-3 family of
PUFA is descended from linolenic acid while its omega-6 counterparts are descended

29
from linoleic acid. The unique feature that differentiates lipids of marine species from
those of land animals is the presence of long-chain PUFA, namely, eicosapentaenoic acid
(EPA; C20:5 ω3), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; C22:6 ω3) and, to a lesser extent,
docosapentaenoic acid (DPA; C22:5 ω3).

Consumption of marine oil results in a decrease in plasma lipids by reduced synthesis of

fatty acids and low-density lipoproteins. It has also been suggested that marine oils may
retard atherogenesis through their effect on platelet function, platelet-endothelial
interactions and inflammatory response.

I. Sources of antioxidants
The primary biological role of antioxidant is in preventing the damage that reactive free
radical can cause to cells and cellular compounds. In fact, almost all the food constituents
having a protective effect against specific diseases seem to have some kind of antioxidant
property. Free radical is a group of atoms that behave like a unit, eg.: Carbonate radical,
(CO3- -), Nitrate radical (NO3- ), and Methyl radical (CH3- ). Free radical contains one or
more unpaired electrons. Human body naturally produces free radicals as it metabolises
oxygen. Reactive free radicals are able to produce metabolic disturbances and to damage
membrane structures in a variety of ways. This may lead to cardiovascular disease,
cancer and other health problems.

The current dietary recommendation to increase fruit and vegetable consumption is one
which is widely perceived as health-promoting. Consistent epidemiological links
worldwide between high fruit and high vegetable consumption and a greater life
expectancy warrant more emphasis given to this particular dietary recommendation. Fruit
and vegetables are the rich sources of the antioxidants, vitamin C, vitamin E, various
carotenoids, flavonoids, isoflavones, organo-sulphur compounds, copper, manganese and
magnesium and may also contribute to pools of endogenously produced antioxidants such
as ubiquinol. Fruit and vegetables, however, are not the only dietary source of

30
antioxidants and other rich sources of vitamin E include nuts and seeds, wholegrain
breakfast cereals, wholemeal bread, eggs, margarine, vegetable oils, and dairy products.
A list of plant-based sources of antioxidants is presented herewith.
Plant-based Sources of Antioxidants
I. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) – blackcurrants, green peppers, guava, gourds, greens,
strawberries, kiwi fruits, citrus fruits, paw – paws, brussel sprouts, new potatoes
II. Vitamin E – sweet potatoes, spinach, broccoli, pulses, kale, tomatoes, asparagus,
herbs
III. Carotenes – carrots, sweet potatoes, herbs, pumpkins, spinach, greens, kale,
canloupes, chicory, squashes, red peppers, mangoes, apricots
IV. Lycopene – guaves, pink grapefruits, tomatoes
V. Lutein and zeaxanthin – kale, spinack, herbs, greens, celery, scallions, leeks
VI. Flavonoids – onions, strawberries, apples, citrus fruits, greens, broad beans,
peanuts, grapes, tea
VII. Isoflavones – pulses, especially soya bean and linseed products.
VIII. Organo-sulphur compounds – allium vegetables; garlic, onions, chives, leeks
IX. Ubiquinol – beans, garlic, spinach
X. Copper – pulses, mushrooms, olives, gourds, avocados, lychees, blackberries,
blackcurrants, kiwi fruits, grapes, mangoes, guaves, bananas, raspberries, plums,
asparagus, potatoes
XI. Manganese – beetroot, blackberries, pineapples, pulses, spinach, greens, bananas,
raspberries

Points to remember
1. Functional foods provide specified medical or physiological benefits.
2. Oats lower serum cholesterol level, specifically LDL cholesterol. Both soluble
and insoluble fibres of wheat bran promote regularity in colonic function.
3. Rice bran ids a valuable source of natural antioxidants such as tocopherols,
tocotrienols, and oryzanols.
4. Soya protein has the effect of reducing cholesterol levels.

31
5. Phenolic compounds of grapes play a significant role in preventing or delaying
the onset of cancer and cardiovascular diseases.
6. Consumption of marine oil results in a decrease in plasma lipids.
7. Antioxidants prevent the damage that reactive free radicals can cause to cells and
cellular compounds.
8. Several fruits and vegetables are rich sources of natural antioxidants.

Check your progress Exercise 3

1. Define functional food.

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2. Name the main active ingredient in oat products.
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3. Mention the role of insoluble fibres from wheat bran.
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4. Name the phenolic compounds of grapes and their significance.
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5. Name the types of food in which onion or garlic can be used for imparting health
benefit.
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6. Consumption of marine oils results in:
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7. Name the health benefit of soya protein
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h) Name the plant based sources of the following antioxidants: Vitamin C, lycopene,
isoflavones and organo sulphur compounds.
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Our last discussion in this unit is on shelf life of products.

14.6 SHELF LIFE

Foods are perishable by nature. Numerous changes take place in foods during processing
and storage. It is well known that conditions used to process and store foods may
adversely influence the quality attributes in foods. Upto storage for a certain period, one
or more quality attributes of a food may reach an undesirable state. At that instant, the
food is considered unsuitable for consumption and it is said to have reached the end of its
shelf life.

Shelf life of a food product may be actually defined as the time between the production
and packaging of the product and the point at which it becomes unacceptable under
defined environmental conditions. Storage and distribution are necessary links in the food
chain, and hence considered as factors influencing the shelf life. We are all aware of the
fact that food deteriorates with time and become unacceptable. In this context, it is useful
to understand the factors that influence food deterioration. We will learn about these
factors next.

14.6.1 Major modes of food deterioration

During storage and distribution, foods are exposed to a wide range of environmental
conditions. Environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, oxygen and light can
trigger several reaction mechanisms that may lead to food degradation. As a consequence
of these mechanisms, food may be altered to such an extent that they are either rejected
by the consumer, or they may become harmful to the person consuming them. Chemical,

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physical and microbiological changes are the leading causes of the food deterioration. A
discussion on these changes follows.
Physical Changes
Physical changes are caused by mishandling of foods during harvesting, processing and
distribution; these changes lead to reduced shelf life of foods.
Crushing of dried snack during distribution seriously affects their quality.
Dried foods when kept in high humidity may pickup moisture and become soggy.

Chemical Changes
During the processing and storage of foods, several chemical changes occur that involve
the internal food components and the external environmental factors. These changes may
cause food deterioration and reduce the shelf life. The most important chemical changes
are associated with enzymic action, oxidative reactions, particularly lipid oxidation that
alters the flavor of many lipid containing foods, and non-enzymic browning that causes
changes in appearance.

Fruits upon cutting tend to brown rapidly at room temperature due to the reaction of
phenolase with the cell constituents that are released upon cutting of the tissue in
presence of oxygen. Enzymes such as lipoxygenase, if not denatured during the blanching
process, can influence food quality even at sub-freezing temperatures. In addition to the
temperature, other environmental factors such as oxygen, water and pH induce
deleterious changes in foods that are catalyzed by enzymes.

The presence of oil and fats containing unsaturated fatty acids is a prime reason for the
development of rancidity in foods during storage as long as oxygen is available.
Development of off-flavours which is markedly noticeable in rancid foods is the result of
autoxidation of unsaturated fatty acids. The generation of free radicals during the
autocatalytic process leads to other undesirable reactions, for example, loss of vitamins,
alteration of colour, and degradation of proteins. In addition to lipid oxidation, there are
other chemical reactions that are induced by light such as loss of vitamins, and browning
of meats.

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Non-enzymic browning is a major cause of quality change and degradation of nutritional
content in many foods. This type of browning reaction occurs due to the interaction
between reducing sugars and amino acids. These reactions result in the loss of protein
solubility, darkening of lightly coloured dry products and the development of bitter
flavours. Environmental factors such as temperature, water activity and pH have an
influence on non-enzymic browning.

Microbiological changes
Microbes have the ability to multiply at high rates when favourable conditions are
present. Prior to harvest, fruits and vegetables have generally good defense mechanisms
against microbial attacks, however, after separation from the plant they can easily
succumb to microbial proliferation. Similarly, meat upon slaughter is unable to resist
rapidly growing microbes.

Microbial growth in foods results in food spoilage with the development of undesirable
sensory characteristics and in certain cases the food may become unsafe for consumption.
The pathogenicity of certain microorganisms is a major safety concern in processing and
handling of foods upon ingestion. Microorganisms such as Salmonella species and
Escherichia coli strains cause infection while others such as Aspergillus flavus,
Clostridium botulinum and Staphylococcus aureus produce chemicals in foods that are
toxic to humans.

From our discussion above it is imperative that we develop mechanisms to determine,

monitor and evaluate the shelf life of food products. How is this task done? Let’s find
out.

14.6.2 Evaluation of food quality

A common practice employed to evaluate the shelf life of a given food product is to
determine changes in selected quality characteristics over a period of time. One may
consider quality of a food as a gross measure of the food deterioration occurring in food
item. However, it should be recognized that the term quality is meant to encompass

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several quality attributes or characteristics. From a consumer’s standpoint, the sensory
expectations derived from the presence (or absence) of desirable (or undesirable)
characteristics of a given food determine the quality of a product. Therefore a food
product noted for its high quality has more of the desirable characteristics.

Empirical or analytical techniques may be used to quantify the quality attributes of food.
For example, enumeration of microbes or determination of chemical components of a
product are analytical techniques, whereas the human subjects to monitor changes in the
magnitudes of quality characteristics constitute empirical techniques.

14.6.3 Procedures for determination and monitoring of shelf life

Direct shelf life determination requires batches of samples to be taken at significant
stages in the development or modification of the product. These samples should be
examined during storage, usually under controlled environmental conditions, until their
quality becomes unacceptable. The time when this occurs is the maximum product shelf
life, and therefore the determination necessarily requires at least this time to complete.

Significant sampling stages within the programme of shelf life evaluation include:
1. The successful experimental kitchen or pilot plant batch. At this stage it is possible to
investigate formulation, process or packaging changes to improve the shelf life
without the costs of factory time and material quantities.
2. The successful full scale factory batch. This is the most important sampling stage.
This will provide the data for the setting of shelf life and specification standards.
3. The first continuous production trial. Examination of products should confirm the
data from earlier samplings.

As part of an on-going surveillance system, samples should be taken at suitable intervals

for storage trial. The sampling interval should typically be 20% of the shelf life which
will provide samples of 6 different ages from fresh to full shelf life. For long life products
more frequent intervals may be useful to detect any changes in storage performance (e. g.
every two months for a two year shelf life).

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Shelf life samples should be subjected to conditions effectively simulating the normal
storage and distribution conditions the food is likely to encounter.Shelf life examination
is done by employing appropriate methods of: sensory evaluation; chemical analysis and
microbiological analysis.

In sensory evaluation appearance, smell, texture and flavour being the main attributes to
assess. Such assessments are frequently inexact as there may not be a suitable control
sample with which to compare the stored samples, this being particularly so for new
products. However, under appropriate test conditions using control sample it is possible
to get a fair idea about the quality and acceptability of stored products.

Quantitative measurements, for example of colour, texture, viscosity and amount of water
or oil separation should be included if they either closely relate to the sensory quality or
can be used as reliable indicators of quality deterioration.

In addition to subjective assessments, other tests may be necessary. These may include
tin content of products in unlacquered cans, vitamin content where a claim is made.
Microbiological examination of fresh and stored products is highly essential in order to
determine whether they are safe for human consumption.

Points to remember

1. Shelf life of a product is the time between the production and the point at which it
becomes unacceptable.
2. Mode of distribution and environmental conditions of storage also influence the a
shelf life of a product.
3. Chemical, physical and microbiological changes are the leading causes of food
deterioration during storage.
4. Shelf life examination is done by employing methods of sensory evaluation,
chemical analysis and microbiological analysis.

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Check your progress Exercise 4

1. Define shelf life.

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2. List the major chemical changes occurring in food.
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3. Name the harmful microorganisms found in food.
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4. Mention the sampling stages of shelf life evaluation.
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5. Methods of shelf life examination are:
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14.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we studied about product development, which is an innovative activity

designed to meet the demands of the market. There are various factors influencing the
product development activity. As you learnt, the process of developing a new product
comprises of formulation or recipe development, standardization of processing methods
and evaluation and testing of quality parameters of the final product. While studying this
process, you got to know that the simplest method in product development is known as
one factor at a time, or trial and error method.

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You also studied about the various problems that appear in food product design. These
can be divided into two types- mixture problem and process problem. Further, we learnt
that functional foods have physiological benefits and reduce the risk of chronic diseases.
Some of the food ingredients of this category are oat products, wheat bran, rice bran, soya
products, fruits onion and garlic, mustard and marine lipids. The types of health claims
are: generic, commodity and product specific.

Finally, we learnt that shelf life of a food product is a crucial time. Other factors that
affect the shelf life are mode of distribution and environmental conditions.

14.8 GLOSSARY

Acceptance test : a method of evaluating product acceptability or

liking by adopting a suitable sensory evaluation
procedure.
Factorial experiment : a design of experiment to study the effect of
independent variables on food quality indices.
Hedonic rating : a sensory evaluation method using a nine point
scale that runs from like extremely -------neither
like nor dislike ------dislike extremely.
Mixture experiment : an experiment in which food quality indices are
assumed to depend on ingredient components.
Shelf life : time between the production and packaging of the
product and the point at which it becomes
unacceptable under defined environmental
conditions.
Statistical experimental method : product development activity carried out
according to the statistically designed experimental
method.

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14.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1. Product development is a future oriented practice and an effort to foresee the
future needs of the market place and to translate this information into new
products.

2. The factors influencing product development are: growing urbanization, changes

in life style, increasing number of small families and working women and the rise
in power of purchasing consumers.

3. Trial and error method is the simplest methodology in product development. Only
one ingredient in the formulation is changed at a time and its effect on the quality
of the final product is tested.

4. Independent variables are the parameters such as ingredients and processing

condition which have effect on product quality. Dependent variables also known
as responses are the important measurable food quality indices.

5. Factorial experiment studies determine the effect of some independent variables

on food quality indices through varying two or more independent variables.

6. Mixture experiment is an experiment in which food quality indices are assured to

depend on the relative proportion of ingredients.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. A sensory panel is the panel of members of which are capable of giving high
reliability of judgements, independent of psychological factors such as bias,
motivation and individual experience.

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2. The three ways by which consumer testing can be done are: inhouse laboratory
testing, home testing and institutional testing

3. Acceptance tests are used to evaluate product acceptability or liking or to

determine which product is the most acceptable or the most preferred.

4. The nine point Hedonic scale is: Like extremely, like very much, like moderately,
like slightly, neither like nor dislike, dislike slightly, dislike moderately, dislike
very much and dislike extremely.

5. In paired comparison test, the assessor is presented with two products and asked
to indicate whether there is a preference between them.

6. Initial screening, product optimization, scale up and production are the stages in
product life cycle at which the sensory evaluation is used.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1. Functional food is a food that has a component incorporated into it to give a
specific medical or physiological benefit, other than a purely nutritional benefit”.

2. Soluble fibre and β-glucan are the main active ingredients in oat products.

3. The insoluble fibres from the wheat bran are resistant to fermentation by colonic
bacteria and increase fecal bulk by retaining water.

4. Phenolic acid, anthocyanins, flavonols, flavon-3-ols and tannins are the phenolic
compounds of grapes. They prevent or delay the onset of diseases including
cancer and cardiovascular diseases.

5. Bakery products, imitation meats and sausages and meat pies are the types of
foods in which onion or garlic can be used for imparting health benefit.

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6. Consumption of marine oils result in decrease in plasma lipids by reduced
synthesis of fatty acids and low density lipoproteins.

7. Soya protein reduces cholesterol levels in hypercholesterolemic individuals.

8. Vitamin C: Greens and citrus fruits

Lycopene: Guava and tomato
Isoflavones: Soya bean and linseed
Organo sulphur compounds: Onion and garlic

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1. Shelf life is the time between the production and packaging of the product and the
point at which it becomes unacceptable under defined environmental conditions.

2. The major chemical changes occurring in food are: lipid oxidation leading to
rancidity, loss of vitamins and degradation of proteins; non-enzymic browning
resulting in darkening of lightly coloured products; and development of bitter
flavour and loss of protein solubility.

3. The harmful microorganisms found in food are Salmonella species, E. coli, A.

flavus, C. botulimum and S. aureus

4. The sampling stages of shelf life evaluation are: Experimental kitchen or pilot
plant batch, full scale factory batch and first continuous production trial.

5. Methods of shelf life examination are sensory evaluation, chemical analysis and
microbiological analysis.

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