University of Tennessee, Knoxville

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University of Tennessee Honors Thesis Projects University of Tennessee Honors Program

5-1995

Concepts in Community Health Nursing: A

Family Study
Mary Margaret Rueff
University of Tennessee - Knoxville

Recommended Citation
Rueff, Mary Margaret, "Concepts in Community Health Nursing: A Family Study" (1995). University of Tennessee Honors Thesis
Projects.
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 Community 1

Running head: COMMUNITY HEALTH

Concepts in Community Health Nursing:

A Family study

Mary Rueff

University of Tennessee, Knoxville

College of Nursing

 Community 2

Abstract

This project will explore concepts in community health nursing

utilized in giving comprehensive nursing care to a client and

family in the Knoxville community. Each phase of the nursing

process will be discussed as well as appropriate tools and

methods used in each phase. It will describe methods commonly

used to assess the community environment, individual and family

group needs, family strengths and coping abilities, and current

and potential barriers to health care. It will also discuss

current and potential interventions or resources used to assist

the family and client toward a more optimum level of functioning.

This project will include recommendations for incorporating

community health concepts into the changing health care paradigm.

Finally,the author will reflect on her personal and professional

growth as a result of this nursing experience with the family

and the community as client.

 Community 3

Concepts in Community Health Nursing:

A Family study

Community health nursing is a unique division of health

care in that its focus is on populations rather than individuals.

In this way, a nurse develops an awareness of health risks in

her clients by assessing those of the community as a whole.

Beddome, Clarke, and Whyte (1993) state that "health cannot

be viewed in isolation from the social, political, and physical

environments that people live" (p. 16). Rather, a health care

provider must consider many factors that influence the health

of a client "such as housing, literacy, nutrition, child care

and employment" (p. 16). Clemen-Stone, Eigsti, and McGuire

(1991) point out that by addressing "both the personal and

environmental aspects of health [the nurse can] deal with

community factors which either inhibit or facilitate healthy

living" (p. 50). By focusing on preventive care rather than

curative care, the community health nurse directs resources

toward high risk aggregates and families. Ruth and Partridge

(as cited in Clemen-Stone et al., 1991, p. 50) state that this

allows available resources to be managed more efficiently.

Historical Perspective

The concept inherent in community health nursing has been

in operation since before the turn of this century (Zerwekh,

1992, p. 84). Lillian Wald founded American Public Health

Nursing during the 1890s in response "to the needs of the

populations at greatest risk in our society" (p. 84). Wald

 Community 4

described the public health nurse's role as providing an entry

point for health services into the lives of high risk populations

who otherwise were not exposed to health care (as cited in

Zerwekh, 1992, p. 84).

Zerwekh (1992) points out several characteristics of public

health nursing in Lillian Wald's era that continue to be

prevalent today. For example, Zerwekh describes the

responsibility of public health nurses in the early 1900s to

"make inquiries as to who was in need of help" (p. 86). She

then states that "finding people in the community who are in

need of services is a skill that still distinguishes community

health nursing from acute care nursing" (p. 90). Therefore

casefinding, a role unique to community health nurses today,

has been such since the days of Lillian Walde

The importance of building trust as the foundation for

the client-nurse working relationship is another characteristic

of community health nursing that remains unchanged. In the

writings of Lillian Wald (as cited in Zerwekh, 1992), public

health nurses are described as "steady, competent, and
continuous" (p. 87) as they developed trust through persistence.

Establishing trust continues to be essential in the therapeutic

relationship in that most clients encountered by the community

health nurse have little experience trusting outsiders (Zerwekh,

1992, p. 18).

Zerwekh (1992) states that the central goal of the public

health nurse remains the same today as in the days of Lillian

 Community 5

Walde This goal is to "encourage self-help by promoting capacity

to make healthy choices" (p. 90). Clarke et ale (1993) refer

to this concept of enabling clients to make informed decisions

about their health as "empowerment" (p. 308). Zerwekh (1992)

gives an example of this when she refers to the impact of

community health nursing on maternal-child health care: "Instead

of learned helplessness, the woman begins to learn

self-helpfulness" (p. 19). In this way, the client plays an

active role in her health care by making choices for herself

and her family. This approach also preserves the client's rights

which are often infringed upon when one enters the health care

delivery system. These rights include "the right to be

autonomous, the right to make an informed decision, and the

right to one's domain, including one's body, life, property,

and privacy" (American Nurses' Association, 1986, p. 3).

Home Visiting

The primary technique for assessing a community's health

risks is home visiting. Despite the variations in family

structure that are present in the United states today, "the

family is still the basic social unit in our society"

(Clemen-Stone et al., 1991, p. 184). This is important to

consider in health care delivery due to the tremendous impact

that the family has on one's health choices and behaviors.

Through home visiting, "nurses enter the environment in which

people live, and they practice in this environment, in sharp

contrast to the situation where the client enters the nurse's

 Community 6

environment in a hospital or clinic" (p. 50). This is an

especially valid point to consider when attempting to provide

preventive care to clients and families who are relatively

isolated and thus do not receive regular health care. Many

aggregates served by community health nursing would otherwise

have no or very little access to the health care delivery system.

By utilizing primary and secondary prevention strategies, high

cost emergency room visits may be avoided for these aggregates.

Unfortunately this is currently where most at risk groups enter

the health care system when they are "forced to by pain or

debility" (Reifsnider, 1992, p. 70). Home visiting also gives

the nurse an opportunity to assess the family in context. Using

this strategy allows the nurse to "uncover the causes of signs

and symptoms that present in isolation in a clinic examining

room" (Zerwekh, 1991, p. 30). Zerwekh (1991) points out that

the task oriented nature of medical clinics often overlooks

the biopsychosocial issues that impede health and well-being

(p. 30). She goes on to say that "morbidity can be diagnosed

in the clinic; [but] the environmental and psychosocial origins

of morbidity are found where people live and work" (Zerwekh,

1993. p. 1677).

Critical thinking and intuition are essential in doing

a home visit. Zerwekh (1991) emphasizes this point by studying

the stories of several public health nursing experts. In all

of the personal experiences of these nurses, there was one common

thread: potentially dangerous patterns were identified in a

 Community 7

home visit that would not have been visible outside the client1s

environment. In other words, IIhome visits permit an accurate

view of what is really going on ll (p. 32).

Nursing Process

Assessment

Environmental Assessment

In assessing the home atmosphere, however, the nurse must

do an equally accurate assessment of the environment surrounding

the home. Mary Bayer (1973) states that this assessment is

most telling when all of the nursels senses are used to get

a IIfeel li for the community (p. 712). There are numerous health

hazards present in the community environment that can only be

identified through this preliminary observation (Zerwekh, 1991,

p. 34). Examples of these include, but are not limited to,

inadequate sanitation, lack of proper waste disposal sites,

open ditches, lack of recreational areas, stray animals, and

unusual odors. One way for a community health nurse to complete

this initial observation is by doing a IIwindshield l i assessment

of the client1s or family1s community (Stanhope & Knollmueller,

1992, p. 41). This type of evaluation is a process that helps

the community health nurse in lIidentifying objective data which

will help define the community, the trends, stability, and

changes that will affect the health of the populationll (p. 41).

This gives the nurse a data base on which to build with

additional information obtained from the family or client.

She can then identify strengths, weaknesses, and potential

 Community 8

problems in the community, as well as available resources or

lack there of. This provides a "basis for health planning •

• • [and] a knowledge base to correct deficiencies in the health

care system" (Clemen-Stone et al., 1991, p. 85-86). Correction

of these deficiencies fulfills the community health nurse's

primary responsibility to the community as a whole. Clemen-Stone

et ale (1991) point out yet another use for this environmental

assessment in that it provides rationale for marketing decisions

about what nursing services are needed in a community and at

what depth these should be maintained (p. 86).

The following is an environmental assessment performed

in the community surrounding the horne of a Knox County Health

Department client on October 14, 1994. The residence is within

a group of public housing projects. These homes are red brick

dwellings connected to one another and in rows, surrounded by

a black iron fence. There are openings in the fence without

gates that give access to a busy two-lane street running in

front of the homes. This client's horne faces this busy street.
There is one opening between each row of homes for a car to

pass through into a concrete parking lot between each building.

Therefore each parking lot has only one entrance/exit. The

lawns of these homes are fairly well groomed. Most of the lawns

behind the homes contain clothes lines. The homes on either

side of the public housing projects are primarily wood homes.

The lawns of these homes are not kept, and there is considerable

debris and clutter visible around these houses. Many of them

 Community 9

have boards over the windows and doors, and thus appear to be

condemned. Less than one street over (across the two-lane street

mentioned above) are considerably nicer homes. They are wood

homes close together, but these homes appear to be better

maintained as evidenced by the condition of the paint and lawn.

Many of these homes have bars on the windows or are surrounded

by chain-link fences that have signs indicating security company

protection.

The physical environment of the community is rather crowded

and cluttered. There appears to be no open play areas or parks

available for public use. Knoxville College is approximately

2 blocks from this home. Behind the college are two outdoor

basketball courts and a track and field area. However, the

college is surrounded by a chain-link fence and barbed wire.

Thus it does not appear to be for public use. There is also

a playground behind the Urban Community Vision establishment

about ~ mile from the home, but this too is fenced in. Several

undeveloped vacant areas are present in the community.

Approximately 100 yards from the home is a large gravel lot
about the size of a basketball court. There are three cars
parked in the area whose passengers seem to be conversing, so

this is presumed to be a vacant lot rather that a parking lot.

Adjacent to this area is another concrete vacant lot surrounded

by a chain-link fence. There is a net set up in the lot, but

a sign on the fence says, "No Trespassing." About 100-200 yards

down the two-lane street from the home is a large lot surrounded
 Community 10

by a high chain-link fence. The lot is filled with hundreds

of tires and considerable debris. It appears to be associated

with an adjacent tire store, but tall weeds are visible growing

through and around the tires. This gives the impression that

this lot is essentially a junkyard. Less than a 1~ miles from

the home is a very large dirt hole that appears to be a swimming

pool under construction. There are no fences or ropes around

the area, and therefore this area may be hazardous.

There are several small community markets present in the

community within 2 miles from the home. These include a Bi-Lo

market, a snack bar, a supermarket, a Rexall drug store, and

a liquor store. All of these establishments are quite small

with virtually no available parking space. Most have bars on

the windows and do not appear clean from the outside (i.e. litter

and debris in front, broken sidewalks, unclean windows). There

are also several buildings in the community that appear to have

been stores at one time, but are now closed and boarded up.

There are three gas stations within this radius including Pilot,

Fina, and Phillips 66.

Various industrial establishments are observed within a

2 mile radius of the home. These include the Knox County

Extinguisher Company, a small furniture store, a window company,

ADF Welding Shop, and the Coca-Cola Bottling Company. All appear

to be in moderate to good repair from an outside windshield

observation. No land used for agricultural purposes is observed

in this community.
 Community 11

The streets in the community are all paved, though many

potholes are present. These are the only type of geographical

or topographical obstacles to travel noted. The residential

streets are quite narrow with cars parked along the sides of

the streets in front of the homes. There are also children's

toys and bicycles along the curbs. The two-lane street running

in front of the home is the most obvious geographical boundary

noted. On one side of the street are the public housing

projects, vacant lots, and boarded up or condemned buildings.

On the opposite side are most of the nicer homes and small

markets.

The sanitation of the community appears to be adequate

from the windshield view. There is not a significant amount

of litter visible. There is considerable clutter noted around

the homes and in the lawns, but these items appear to be of

a residential nature (i.e. furniture, toys, car parts). There

is not as much clutter around the homes in the public housing

project as there is around the other homes. There is a large

trash receptacle behind each row of these homes. No unusual
odors are noted, but the assessment takes place through a

windshield.

Electric lines and utility poles are visible throughout

the community. There are two public pay telephones in front

of a market just across a street from this client's home. There

are several clothes lines hanging throughout the housing projects

and other homes in the community. A laundromat is located

 Community 12

approximately 2 blocks from this client's home.

Multiple domestic animals are noted wandering freely

throughout the community. These are mostly dogs, and some are

wearing collars while others are not. Cats are noted as well.

In a few of the houses across the two-lane street from this

client's home, the pets are kept inside a chain-link fence.

Around the housing projects, however, the animals are not

restrained. It is not distinguishable whether these are stray

animals or pets belonging to people in the community.

The residents of this community are predominately black.

The social atmosphere appears to be quite casual rather than

structured. This is evidenced by the groups of adults and

adolescents clustered in various places conversing. In the

public housing sector, groups of adults sit on the porches while

children play in the lawns in front of the homes. Behind the

buildings, groups of young males stand talking to one another.

Quite a few adults and children can be seen walking along the

roads and sidewalks, some are in clusters and some are alone.
Small children are noted crossing the street without adult

supervision. As stated previously, Knoxville College is located

about 2 blocks from this home, but these grounds do not appear

to be open to the public. The Knoxville Police Academy Moses

Center is about 4 blocks from this home. A child development

center is in the vicinity of the home, approximately 3 blocks

from the public housing projects. There is playground equipment

visible behind this building enclosed in a chain-link fence.

 Community 13

Several public elementary schools can be found in the community.

There is also a Head Start Program in the community less than

~ mile from this client's home. This building is adjacent to

a fenced in playground as well. About five to seven school

buses are parked in front of this building. There is a public

library located less than ~ mile from the home. It is a brick

one story building in good repair that is about the size of

a small house.

In driving through the community, approximately nine

churches are noted within no more than a 2 mile radius of the

home. These include four Baptist churches, one Trinity Chapel,

one AME Zion church, a House of Prayers, a Church of God in

Christ, and one Methodist church. All of these churches are

wood buildings in relatively good repair, but quite small and

located among the homes. The Methodist church is an exception

to this description. It is a much larger stone building located

away from the homes with a fence enclosing much larger grounds.

Several seemingly new vans are parked behind the church bearing
the name of the church.

There are several small establishments that possibly serve

as social gathering places for the members of this community.

These include several bars and taverns, a billiard hall, small

delis and cafes, and a lounge. Most of these establishments

have varying degrees of clutter around them, and the windows

are soiled with dirt and grease to the point that one cannot

see through them. No movie theatres or auditoriums are found

 Community 14

in the community. The child development center mentioned

previously is the only possible children's recreational center

observed.

Several health centers are noted in the community in close

proximity to this client's horne. These include a community

horne health agency, a dental center, and an eye center within

2 miles. A medical clinic is within 1 mile. Its hours of

operation are Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, and Friday-- 9:30 A.M.

to 1 P.M. and 3 P.M. to 6 P.M. Wednesday-- 3 P.M. to 6 P.M.

and Saturday-- 9 A.M. to 1 P.M. The Knox County Health

Department Main Clinic is within 1~ miles. East Tennessee

Children's Hospital and its satellite Non-Emergency Care Center

as well as Fort Sanders Regional Medical Center are all within

1~ miles.

Many automobiles are observed parked along the streets

and driving through the community or behind the public housing

projects where this client lives. It is interesting to note

the wide variations in the value of cars observed. For example,

they range from rather expensive and highly customized cars

to inexpensive older cars in poor condition. At least two bus

stops are noted within 2 blocks of this client's horne, and this

community is located less than 1 mile from access to Interstates

640 and 40. It is also within mile of western Avenue and

Middlebrook Pike. There are at least two police cars noted

cruising through this community, and several cruisers are parked

in front of the police academy mentioned previously.

 Community 15

Neighborhood crime prevention signs can be seen tacked to

numerous utility poles. There is a City Fire Department Station

about 3/4 mile from the home, but no fire hydrants can be seen

on the blocks containing rows of public housing projects.

The overall impression of this community is that of an

unhealthy subgroup of the population. This assumption is based

on the World Health Organization's definition of health as

"complete physical, mental and social well-being and not just

the absence of disease" (as cited in Clemen-Stone et al., 1991,

p. 24). The disease state of this community cannot be accurately

assessed in the windshield assessment. However, a glimpse into

the mental and social well-being of the community is possible.

The lack of recreational facilities or suitable play areas,

and the lack of proper supervision of many children is evidence

of incomplete social well-being. The bars on the windows of

almost all commercial establishments and the distinct differences

noted on either side of the two-lane street suggest impeded

mental well-being in that these suggest feelings of disparity

and insecurity. Clemen-Stone et ale (1991) state that the term
health "assumes that people always have the potential for higher

levels of functioning and that people in all stages of living,

. • • , are growing and developing" (p. 53). This potential

is not clearly represented in the community when one considers

its crowded living conditions and lack of social development.

However certain systems, such as the Head Start Program, numerous

neighborhood watch signs, health clinics, and education programs,

 Community 16

are in place in the community as a possible attempt to promote

more complete health and well-being in this population. A

distinct opportunity exists for a community health nurse to

develop this potential further by such activities as lobbying

for a playground with safe equipment to replace the vacant lot,

organizing community supervised play groups, or providing

parenting education classes.

Multidimensional Family Assessment

After assessing the environment surrounding the client's

horne, the community health nurse must again employ all of her

senses to assess the other factors that influence the health

behaviors of her client. The next portion of this paper will

explore the multidimensional factors affecting the health of

J. R., a referral from the Pediatric Clinic of the Knox County

Health Department. J. R. is being followed for a possible

nutritional deficit and for a history of chronic otitis media.

The purpose of this assessment is to form a data base to refer

to when analyzing, planning, and intervening in the health

promotion and illness prevention of J. R.
According to Clemen-Stone et al. (1991), "the actions and

health status of one family member always affect the behavior

and health status of all other family members" (p. 267).

Therefore when attempting to positively influence the health

and well-being of an individual such as J. R., the community

health nurse cannot view the client in isolation. Clemen-Stone

et al. (1991) refer to this comprehensive examination of family

 Community 17
health as discerning "functional and dysfunctional

characteristics of family dynamics" (p. 268). It is essential,

however, that when performing this assessment, the community

health nurse keeps her personal values and beliefs separate

from her clinical judgment (A. Blatnik, personal communication,

November 4, 1994). This is "because dysfunctional or maladaptive

behavior in one family can be functional or adaptive in another"

(Clemen-Stone et al., 1991, p. 270). Therefore, to accurately

determine whether the family unit is meeting the physical,

emotional, growth, and development needs of its members, the

"family's perceptions about how well it is functioning must

be the key factor which helps a nurse to determine whether or

not a family is reaching its potential" (p. 270).

Health needs.

The health needs of all family members must then be

addressed to determine the needs of individuals and of the family

unit as a whole (A. Blatnik, personal communication, November

4, 1994). If the community health nurse is attempting to provide

health care for one family member in isolation, while ignoring

the health concerns of other members, she may overlook an

important barrier to health promotion of the client she is

attempting to treat. Often all that is needed for another family

member is referral, but in this way the nurse has identified

other stressors in the family while emphasizing her role in

serving the family as a unit. J. R. is an 18 month old male

client with a history of anemia, chronic otitis media, chronic

 Community 18

respiratory infections, and possible developmental delay. He

is currently enrolled in the WIC program, and WIC has been

involved in encouraging J. R.'s mother to supply iron-rich foods

for J. R. He underwent tube placement in both of his ears on

November 2, 1994 at East Tennessee Children's Hospital. He

receives breathing treatments at home every four hours which

his mother administers. The supplies for these treatments are

from Abbey Home Health Care. J. R. is believed to be

developmentally delayed in that he is not yet able to walk and

still drinks from a bottle. He receives primary care from Nancy

Jackson, PNP at the Knox County Health Department. J. R.'s

development seems to be his mother's biggest concern as evidenced

by the amount of time that she spends talking about this in

comparison with J. R.'s other apparent health needs. J. R.

is currently enrolled in day care when both of his parents are

working, and his mother states that he has adjusted quite well

to that environment. J. R.'s mother describes herself and J.

R.'s father as "pretty healthy" with no significant health

problems. J. R.'s parents do not have a primary care provider

and do not receive regular physical examinations. J. R.' s

family needs to be followed quite closely to assist them in

providing a more stimulating environment to foster J. R.'s

physical and psychosocial development. This might include

assisting the family in involving J. R. in a program for children

at high risk for developmental delay. J. R.'s mother also needs

guidance and support in providing appropriate food for J. R.

 Community 19

and taking steps to prevent further respiratory and ear

infections. The parents need to be informed about the importance

of providing primary care for themselves as well.

Horne environment.

Upon entering the client's horne, the nurse must alert

herself to certain factors existing or not existing within the

internal horne environment that could affect the family's health

status. These include the number of persons living in the horne,

the size and condition of the horne, facilities for privacy,

and safety features or hazards present in the horne (A. Blatnik,

personal communication, November 4, 1994). These factors clearly

affect the health and opportunities for growth and development

of the family unit and of its members. Therefore, assessment

of this nature cannot be overlooked. J. R. and his mother and

father live in a two-room apartment. The entry room contains

a double bed, an end table with a television on it, a portable

electric heater, a high chair, a lounge chair, a cabinet with

stove and sink, a table, and a refrigerator. The room is very

small, and there is very little room to move about. There are

various items, such as a stroller, walker, and clothing, piled

on the floor and on the counter top. There is a full dish drain

on the counter and the sink is full of dishes as well. The

double bed is covered with a mattress pad, a thin brown blanket,

and two pillows without pillow cases. The mattress pad has

brown and yellow stains on it, and the child is sitting in the

middle of the bed eating cookies. Crumbs and dirt are noted
 Community 20

on the mattress pad as well. The floor around the bed is covered

with a red carpet, which is soiled with crumbs, dust, and dirt.

Adjacent to the kitchen area is a smaller room containing a

crib, a couch, and a chest of drawers. A large portable radio

is on top of the chest. The floor is covered with several

laundry baskets and piles of clothing, and there is even less

space to move about in this room. Adjacent to this room is

a small bathroom with a sink, toilet, and bath tub. Insects

are noted crawling along the sink, and piles of clothing and

towels are noted in the floor. There is a window in the front

room with curtains, but the only electric light source in this

room is in the kitchen area. Therefore, the mother frequently

keeps the door to the apartment open. There is a burnt out

light bulb in the back room and a functioning electric light

in the bathroom. The family needs guidance and support in ways

that they can foster physical development in J. R. with the

little space that they have available. They also need

information regarding safety hazards in the home such as the

portable heater and leaving the apartment door open.

Family structure.
The structure of the family is important to assess in that

despite the recent societal changes in family life, the family

remains the "most fundamental, powerful, and lasting influence"

(White House Conference on Families as cited in Clemen-Stone

et al., 1991, p. 184) on the lives and choices of individuals.

However, the nurse cannot make assumptions about a family's

 Community 21

ability to provide for its members physically and emotionally

based only on assessment of the family's organizational structure

(Clemen-Stone et al., 1991, p. 187). According to Orr (1992)

practitioners engaged in home visiting must be prepared to cope

with diverse patterns of family units without viewing "deviations

from the so-called 'normal' family unit. as problems needing

special attention" (p. 123). Instead the nurse uses her

information gathered about the family structure to analyze family

strengths and needs, and to enhance family growth and support

regardless of their family life-style. According to the

traditional family structures presented by the 1970 White House

Conference on Children and C. Ahrons (as cited in Clemen-Stone

et al., 1991), J. R.'s family would be considered a "Nuclear

family-- dual career" (p. 186). This conclusion is based on

J. R.'s mother's report that she and her husband are both

employed, and the two parents and one child are the only

individuals living in the household.

The nurse should also be aware of how family patterns shift

over time in relation to structure, function and circumstance

(Orr, 1992, p. 124). Stanhope & Knollmueller (1992) present

the stages of family development and the appropriate

interventions for the community health nurse "in assisting

families to move successfully through life stages, thereby

reducing the risk of illness or crises" (p. 97). J. R.'s family

is in the "family with preschool and school-age children" stage.

The role of the nurse with this family would include monitoring
 - -----~----------------------------..

Community 22

early childhood development, coordinating with pediatric

services, counseling on nutrition and environmental safety in

the home, and teaching hygiene measures (p. 97).

Family culture.

Exploring the cultural beliefs of a family is essential

in the multidimensional assessment. This is because one's

cultural environment "greatly affects how growth progresses

and what decisions are made about how to handle activities of

daily living" (Clemen-Stone et al., 1991, p. 202). The purpose

of a cultural assessment in community health nursing is to gather

information relevant to health and health practices and to

identify patterns that assist or interfere with healthy behaviors

and intervention (P. Miller, personal communication, September

12, 1994). Relevant information may include nutritional

practices, "childrearing beliefs, attitudes toward health care,

and personal faith in a deity" (Whaley & Wong, 1991, p. 210).

An assessment of the religious orientation of the family must

be included in the cultural assessment because it "dictates

a code of morality as well as influencing the family's attitudes

toward education, male and female role identity, and attitudes

regarding their ultimate destiny" (p. 35). In addition to the

impact that these attitudes have on health, the family's

religious background has a direct impact on an individual's

beliefs regarding illness, injury, or death (p. 49). Even if

the family does not appear to be involved in an organized

religion, the community health nurse cannot assume that

 Community 23

spirituality does not playa significant role in their life.

Personal spiritual beliefs are often a source of comfort for

a family dealing with crisis or an ill member (Clemen-Stone

et al., 1991, p. 205). When the nurse is sensitive to the

religious and spiritual implications of health-related treatment

and intervention, "it is comforting to the family • • • to have

this need recognized and respected" (Whaley & Wong, 1991, p.

49). The nurse can then individualize her planning and

implementation strategies for each family.

Several characteristics of the culture of poverty as

outlined by P. Miller (personal communication, September 12,

1994) are exhibited by the family of J. R. These include their

lack of privacy, low level of education, and sense of

confinement. However, these people do not seem to lack future

orientation as evidenced by J. R.'s mother's comments concerning

her desire to buy a house. This family does not appear to

be involved in an organized religion in that the mother states

that they go to a "Knoxville church every once in while but

not much." There are various items in the home that reflect
the family's spirituality such as a picture on the wall with

the phrase "God Bless Little Boys."

Developmental assessment.

Assessing the developmental level of family members is

essential in order to determine the family's perception of its

own health status (Clemen-Stone et al., 1991, p. 270). According

to Erikson's theory (as cited in Whaley & Wong, 1991), at

 Community 24

progressing stages of psychosocial development an individual

is "confronted with a unique problem requiring the integration

of personal needs and skills with social demands and cultural

expectations" (p. 123). Erikson refers to the individual's

struggle to adjust in the face of this problem as a "crisis"

(p. 123), and believes that "the tension produced by societal

demands must be reduced in order that a favorable outcome can

be achieved" (p. 123). This outcome "provides the resources

for coping" (p. 123). It is therefore essential to evaluate

the developmental level of each family member, rather than only

that of the individual client, to give insight into the family

unit's resources for coping. Erikson describes the major task

of the infant from 1 to 3 years of age as "autonomy vs shame

and doubt" (p. 123). J. R. exhibits a few characteristics of

this stage of development in that he attempts to manipulate

his environment by crawling, reaching for things, and imitating

adults to a limited extent. Erikson's previous stage of "trust

vs mistrust" (p. 123) is characterized by an infant being able

to tolerate "little frustration or delay in gratification" (p.

545) and continuation of oral stimulation as the primary mode

of gratification (p. 545). J. R. continues to exhibit

characteristics of this stage as well, as evidenced by his

inability to accept delayed gratification and continuous use

of the bottle. Erikson's stage of "intimacy vs isolation"

(p. 124) is commonly associated with early adulthood. In this

stage the individual develops intimate relationships with friends

 Community 25

and significant others rather than becoming socially isolated

(p. 124). J. R.'s mother, age 25, exhibits characteristics

of this stage in that socializing with neighbors seems to play

a significant role in her daily life. J. R.'s father, age 26,

is not present for this assessment. Based on Erikson's

description of the young and middle adulthood stage of

"generativity vs stagnation" (p. 124), in which an individual's

energy is directed toward nurturing the next generation, it

is possible that he would be included in this stage since he

currently holds two jobs.

J. R.'s family is in need of intervention to help them

cope with J. R.'s developmental delay. However, they also need

assistance with understanding the level that J. R. is currently

functioning and how this influences the kind of care that he

needs. For example, J. R.'s mother needs to be aware of his

emerging sense of autonomy and desire to manipulate his

environment. This would mean that her stepping outside to smoke

with her friends while J. R. plays on a bed is not appropriate,

especially if an electric heater is on near the bed.

Education.

The educational level of the family members is another

component of the multidimensional assessment of the client's

family. According to White (as cited in Clemen-Stone et al.,

1991), educative nursing is one of the main categories of

community health nursing intervention (p. 55). To be effective,

however, this intervention must be at an appropriate level for

 Community 26

family members and/or the client to grasp. This requires

information about level of formal or informal education and

training or skills required for a particular occupation (Whaley

& Wong, 1991, p. 210). "This information is highly valuable

in planning implementation of care (e.g., counseling, guidance,

or teaching)" (p. 210). J. R.'s mother was a senior in high

school when she dropped out of school. She is currently enrolled

in GED classes and states that she will complete the program

about this time next year. She states that her husband plans

to enroll in the program when she finishes, but she does not

know the highest level of formal education he obtained.

Financial assessment.

Discussion about education often provides a smooth entry

into the sensitive area of assessing the family's economic

resources. This is imperative to address in the multidimensional

assessment because it ultimately affects how well a family can

provide essential items (e.g., food, shelter, and clothing)

for its members (A. Blatnik, personal communication, November

4, 1994). According to the U. S. Congress (as cited in Whaley

& Wong, 1991), "availability of financial assistance is directly

related to use of health care" (p. 209). Therefore, discussion

of medical insurance must be included in this assessment. The

community health nurse is in a position to determine if there

is a need for public resources not currently utilized by the

family. She can then operate as a referral agent or care

coordinator to assist the family in meeting its needs as a whole

 Community 27

or the special needs of an individual member. This serves the

combined community health nursing purpose to "promote high-level

wellness and to enhance self-care capabilities" (Clemen-Stone

et al., 1991, p. 307). The family of J. R. is financially

supported by a variety of means. J. R.'s father works for

MCDonald's and Weigel's, and J. R.'s mother is employed at

Weigel's. The WIC program provides support in meeting the

nutritional needs of J. R. The family also receives food stamps,

though J. R.'s mother is unclear about how much the family

receives in food stamps. The family is medically insured by

Tenncare through Blue Cross & Blue Shield of Tennessee. J.

R.'s mother states that she is currently going through the

application process of acquiring Supplemental Security Income

for J. R. The needs of the family in this regard revolve around

referral and care coordination. J. R.'s parents need to be

referred to a primary care provider that is covered by their

Tenncare plan.

Family functioning.
Jayne Tapia (1972) developed a model for community health

nursing depicting five levels of family functioning. This model

is useful in application to families such as J. R.'s to determine

the "nursing service appropriate to the needs of a particular

family" (p. 267). J. R.'s family may be placed partially on

levels II and III. Tapia describes the second level of family

functioning as the "childhood or intermediate family" (p. 269).

This type of family is slightly more organized than the level

 Community 28

one family, in that the family is more able to provide for the

physical and security needs of its members. However, the level

two family is "still unable to support and promote the growth

of its members • • • • This family does not seek help actively

and requires much assistance before the members are able to

acknowledge their problems realistically" (p. 269). This family

is more able to trust the community health nurse than the level

one family, and thus "have more hope for a better way of life"

(p. 269). In this type of family the nurse would attempt to

promote the trust relationship which she uses as "a stepping

stone to help the family begin to understand itself more clearly"

(p. 269). Tapia describes the third level of family functioning

as the "adolescent or family with problems" (p. 269). While

she describes this family as "essentially normal" (p. 269),

she states that this family has an unusual amount of problems.

In this family, "members demonstrate greater trust in people,

have the knowledge and ability to utilize some community

resources, and are less openly hostile to outsiders" (p. 269).

This family is better able than the level two family to recognize

its problems and search for solutions through utilization of

resources outside of the family (p. 270). The nurse's function

in this type of family is aimed at helping the family to solve

those problems identified by the members (p. 270). She does

this "by providing teaching, information, coordination, referral,

team-work, or special technical skills" (p. 270). For placement

of J. R.'s family on Tapia's model of family functioning, refer

 -----------------------------..."

Community 29

to Appendix A.

Family coping.

An assessment of family coping is another tool that is

useful in helping the community health nurse individualize her

care plan for a specific family. In 1964 Freeman and Heinrich

developed a family coping index "as an approach to identifying

the family need for nursing care and assessing the potential

for behavioral changes, and as a method of determining in a

more systematic way how the nurse can help the family to manage"

(as cited in Stanhope & Knollmueller, 1992, pp. 79-80). Nine

categories are included in the index. The first is "physical

independence" (p. 80). This category deals with the family's

competence in maintaining physical competence of its members.

Even if one member of the family is dependent on the family

unit for basic physical activities such as those of daily living,

"if the family is able to compensate for this the family may

be independent" (p. 80). The next category is "therapeutic

competence" (p. 81), and deals with a family's ability to provide

prescribed treatment of a medical condition. The third category

is "knowledge of health condition" (p. 81). In assessing this

category, the nurse evaluates a family's knowledge of "the

particular health condition that is the occasion for care" (p.

81). Without this knowledge, the family cannot be expected

to provide for the basic physical and developmental needs of

its members. The next category is concerned with the family's

independence in applying "principles of personal and general

 Community 30

hygiene" (p. 82). Examples of these principles include proper

nutritional support, appropriate safety and sanitation in the

home, and preventive health activities (p. 82). The next

category deals with the family's general attitudes concerning

health care and public health intervention (p. 82). The sixth

category is "emotional competence" (p. 83). This deals with

"the maturity and integrity with which the members of the family

are able to meet the usual stresses and problems of life" (p.

83). This includes the members' ability to recognize the needs

of the family unit as well as their personal needs and the

discipline with which they accept behavior guidelines imposed

by the family unit and society (p. 83). "Family living patterns"

(p. 83) is the next category addressed in the coping index.

This is concerned with the interpersonal relationships among

the family members, the family process of decision making, issues

of discipline, displays of affection, and respect that each

member has for one another (p. 84). The eighth category is

concerned with the physical environment surrounding the family

and how this affects their health and well-being (p. 84). The
nurse would pay attention to "condition for housing, presence

of accident hazards, s~reening, plumbing, [and] facilities for

cooking and for privacy" (p. 84). This category would also

include those factors affecting health noted by the nurse during

the assessment of the outside environment of the home such as

available schools and transportation and social hazards such

as gangs and pollution (p. 84). The final category addressed

 Community 31

by the family coping index deals with "the degree to which the

family knows about and the wisdom with which they use available

community resources for health, education and welfare" (p. 85).

Whether or not a family has a particular need for such resources

has no bearing on the coping index. Instead this addresses

how well a family is able to cope when such services are needed,

even if the condition prompting the resource utilization is

not corrected (p. 85). Please refer to Appendix B for placement

of J. R.'s family on the coping index.

Family needs.

The needs of the family based on the coping index include

assistance with dealing with and providing for the special needs

of J. R. in regard to his developmental delay. J. R.'s parents

also need assistance with achievement of a higher level of

therapeutic competence in maintaining the proper environment

for a child with J. R.'s respiratory condition. They would

also benefit from a greater understanding of strategies to

prevent recurrent ear infections. Education about general

personal hygiene such as importance of adequate rest and

nutrition for all members of the famiy is needed. The parents

of J. R. also need encouragement to obtain appropriate health

care for themselves. strategies to enhance the mother's

emotional competence is needed as she appears unable to accept

the degree to which J. R. may be delayed. Intervention is needed

to assist the family in providing a safer horne environment for

J. R. in terms of awareness of physical safety hazards and

 Community 32

possible problems that could arise with intoxicated neighbors

being with the child in the home. The family also needs further

intervention focused on fostering the trust relationship, as

they seem to feel threatened rather than assisted by community

health nursing interventions of the student.

Establishing trust.

Before the needs of the family can be effectively addressed,

the nurse and the family must build a working relationship.

This relationship must have trust as its foundation for tasks

to be accomplished (Zerwekh, 1992, p. 17). According to

Clemen-Stone et ale (1991), this trust relationship must be

established early because it is a "critical factor in helping

the client [and family] determine whether or not to accept the

assistance offered by the community health nurse" (p. 263).

However, the trust relationship must strengthen over time to

make a lasting impact in the life of the client and family.

Zerwekh (1992) points out that the clients served in community

health often "have little experience with trust" (p. 18). With
these clients, persistence and consistency are required for

the family to realize that the community health nurse will not

desert or betray them (p. 18). J. R.'S family seemed very

receptive to the student community health nurse initially.

On the first home visit, J. R.'S mother was eager to answer

questions about J. R.'S health status and agreed to make a list

before the next visit of what she thought would be important

to accomplish in the next home visit. At the second visit,

 Community 33

however, she had not compiled such a list and was considerably

less receptive. This was evidenced by her hesitancy to make

eye contact with the student and her brief responses. It was

during this visit that a developmental screen was performed

on J. R. She may have perceived this as a test of herself and

her parenting abilities, and this possibly was why she was less

interactive with the student.

According to Clemen-Stone et ale (1991), promoting trust

involves "explaining the purpose of community health nursing

visits, describing services the community health nurse can

provide, and fostering a nonthreatening atmosphere which allows

the client to share data at his or her own pace" (p. 263).

These strategies were employed in the first visit with J. R.'s

family and were reinforced in the subsequent visits. Zerwekh

(1992) states that to build trust, the community health nurse

must foster "a sense of worth among those who often considered

themselves worthless" (p. 19). In order for J. R.'s mother

to have confidence in her abilities as a parent in the face

of J. R.'s considerable developmental delay, it was important

for the student nurse to affirm the positive aspects of the

care that she provides for J. R. The student was straightforward

and honest while avoiding false reassurance and displays of

disapproval. In this way the student's personal integrity was

demonstrated without negatively affecting the mother's self

esteem. Both purposes served to strengthen the trust

bond.
 Community 34

Nursing Diagnosis

With trust as the foundation, the nurse and family can

then work together in analyzing the needs of the client and

family unit. In this phase of the relationship, data gathered

in the assessment phase of the nursing process is synthesized

to build on needs previously identified in order to make a

nursing diagnosis (A. Blatnik, personal communication, November

11, 1994). Gordon defines a nursing diagnosis as an inference

about "the individual's, the family's, or the community's health

problem/condition and the primary etiological or related

factor(s) contributing to the problem/condition that is the

focus of nursing treatment" (as cited in Clemen-Stone et al.,

1991, p. 272). In community health, nursing diagnoses are used

to examine actual or potential problems as well as strengths

of the client and family (A. Blatnik, personal communication,

November 11, 1994). Diagnoses that identify actual or potential

problems assist the nurse in providing needed anticipatory

guidance as a primary prevention strategy (Clemen-Stone et al.,

1991, p. 273). On the other hand, diagnosing strengths aids

the nurse in choosing activities that promote independence in

the family (p. 273). According to Clemen-Stone et ale (1991),

when the client is actively involved in determining health needs,

he or she is more likely to change health behaviors than one

who has no voice in such decisions (p. 281). The diagnoses,

therefore, must be validated by the client.

In working with J. R. and his family, it was important

 Community 35

to determine early if J. R. was indeed developmentally delayed

and to what extent. The Denver Developmental Screening Test

[DDST] assesses "a child's performance on various age-appropriate

tasks • • • . [and] is valuable in screening asymptomatic children

for possible problems, in confirming intuitive suspicions with

an objective measure and in monitoring children at risk for

developmental problems" (Frankenburg et al., 1992, p. 1). This

was considered an appropriate tool to use with J. R. in that

N. Jackson, PNP was suspicious of a delay. J. R.'s mother was

concerned about his development, but did not seem to accept

the reality of a delay. The objective nature of the DDST would

confirm the suspicion while providing concrete data to work

with in presenting the results to J. R.'s mother. According

to Frankenburg et ale (1992), the test result is suspect if

one or more delays are discovered (p. 13). Refer to Appendix

C for the suspect test result of the DDST performed on J. R.

Planning

After diagnoses are established by the nurse and client,

the relationship moves into the planning phase of the nursing

process (Clemen-Stone et al., 1991, p. 279). In this phase

client centered goals and objectives are formulated and

interventions are identified (p. 279). A goal is defined as

a "broad desired outcome toward which behavior is directed"

(p. 279), and an objective "delineates client behaviors which

reflect that a goal has been reached" (p. 279). The

interventions are activities to be carried out by the client,

 Community 36

community health nurse, or other professional to help reach

the identified goal (p. 279). Clemen-Stone et ale (1991) set

forth three main principles to be considered in the planning

process: "(1) individualization of client care plans; (2) active

client participation; and (3) the client's right to self

determination" (p. 280). Therefore, since each client has unique

needs, the client must be actively involved in mutual goal

setting with the nurse (p. 280). According to Twinn (1991)

this philosophy of practitioner forming a partnership with the

client is quite different from the traditional health care

paradigm in which "practitioners generally work with clients

in a directive manner" (p. 969). This active participation

"also promotes client commitment to goal attainment and decreases

resistance to change" (Clemen-Stone et al., 1991, p. 280).

If the nurse were to enter the relationship and take over for

the family, she may decrease the family's self esteem while

fostering dependence or resentment of authority figures (p.

280). However, it is sometimes appropriate for the community

health nurse to develop a nurse centered goal. This would be

appropriate if the nurse identifies a problem that the family

is not aware of and determines by professional judgment that

it is necessary to increase the family's awareness of the problem

(A. Blatnik, personal communication, November 11, 1994). Refer

to Appendix D for a care plan containing nursing diagnoses,

goals, and interventions developed in working with the family

of J. R.
 Community 37

Implementation

After diagnosing needs and setting goals, the client and

community health nurse must develop a contract which "clearly

identifies what each person in the relationship can expect from

the other person in the relationship" (Clemen-Stone, 1991, p.

281). This provides a framework from which to evaluate the

effectiveness of interaction between the family and the nurse

(p.281). The contract must be mutually agreed upon and must

be continuously negotiable (A. Blatnik, personal communication,

November 11, 1994). The nurse and client work together towards

an agreement, either written or oral, which outlines the

responsibilities of each member in achieving the stated goals

(Clemen-Stone et al., 1991, p. 281). In working with J. R.'s

family, a written contract explaining the purpose of the family

study and the duties of the student was signed by J. R.'s mother

and the student on the first home visit. This written contract

outlined the time parameter of the relationship, when visits

would take place, and how many visits were to occur. (Refer
to Appendix E for a sample contract.) There was also an oral

contract between J. R.'s mother and the student made at the

end of each visit regarding each party's duties in the week

before the next visit. Before each termination the student

and mother would come to a mutual agreement as to what would

be accomplished by each in the coming week.

With the contract as a framework, the client and nurse

move into the implementation phase of the nursing process in

 Community 38

which "activities are carried out to achieve client goals"

(Clemen-Stone et al., 1991, p. 284). A supportive atmosphere

should be developed by the nurse to reinforce accomplishments

and provide positive feedback (p. 284). Throughout this phase,

new data may be gathered that must be analyzed to determine

the need for care plan revision (p. 284). As in all phases

of the nursing process, the client must be involved in

implementing the care plan. This aids the family in assuming

responsibility for themselves as a unit rather than fostering

dependency (p. 285). If the client fails to follow through

with an agreed upon intervention, the nurse must determine why

the client is not taking action (p. 285). Such a situation

may precede the need for modification of the mutual goals and

plans (p. 285).

Evaluation

Evaluation must take place throughout each phase of the

nursing process so that the community health nurse can accurately

identify what has or has not been accomplished (Clemen-Stone

et al., 1991, p. 285). This process is facilitated by
establishing objectives in the planning phase that contain the

potential for evaluation (p. 285). It is also imperative to

elicit ongoing feedback from the client and family in order

to determine if interaction remains focused and effective (p.

285). Clemen-Stone et ale (1991) state that when evaluation

is deleted from the relationship the process is prolonged (p.

285). Clearly this represents an ineffective use of resources.

 Community 39

Evaluation also aids the community health nurse in determining

why goals have not been achieved (p. 286). However, outcomes

of interaction must be examined rather than simply observing

that the family is participating in the process (p. 286). When

coordinating services among professionals, evaluation aids the

nurse in determining the need for referrals or the need to

terminate nursing services (p. 286). It is then necessary "to

evaluate the effectiveness of referrals that have been made"

(p. 286). Refer to Appendix D for evaluation of nursing goals

and objectives in the care of J. R.

Termination

Through accurate evaluation, the community health nurse

can make decisions regarding when nursing services are no longer

needed. The client-nurse relationship then enters the

termination phase (A. Blatnik, personal communication, November

18, 1994). However, certain interventions must be implemented

by the nurse throughout the relationship in order to prepare

the family for termination. These include:

1. Stating the termination date, if known, in the beginning
of the relationship and throughout consecutive meetings

2. Discussing thoughts and feelings about termination

prior to the last meeting

3. Identifying signs of separation anxiety in the family

and personally

4. Encouraging the family to compare past separations

with the present one

 Community 40

5. Promoting the family's evaluating and summarizing the

relationship in terms of its goals, expectations,

satisfactions, and dissatisfactions (Cronin-Stubbs, 1983,

p. 405).

Kelly defines termination as "the period when the client

and nurse deal with feelings associated with separation and

when they distance themselves" (as cited in Clemen-Stone et

al., 1991, p. 287). Strong feelings such as anger and sadness

are often experienced by the client and nurse, and these feelings

must be discussed and dealt with (p. 287). Clemen-Stone et

ale (1991) state that it is the nurse's responsibility to

initiate such a discussion in order to create a supportive

atmosphere for the client to express feelings and emotions

regarding the termination (p. 287). It is important for the

client and nurse to review what has and has not been accomplished

in their relationship and why termination is indicated (p. 288).

The nurse must remind the client of the continued availability

of health care services in the community even though the home

visits will not continue (A. Blatnik, personal communication,

November 18, 1994). Termination with J. R.'s family was less

than ideal in that the time frame was predetermined rather than

being based on evaluation of accomplishments. However,

termination was integrated throughout the relationship in that

a contract with a specified number of visits was signed by both

parties at the first visit, and J. R.'s mother was reminded

about the number of visits remaining upon each visit. At the

 Community 41

final visit the student initiated discussion about termination,

and the client expressed little emotion about the reality of

termination. Progress made was reviewed with the client,

specifically that the mother was now more aware of age

appropriate tasks for J. R., and she was aware of the importance

of maintaining her own health. A list of family strengths

identified by the student was shared with the mother. She seemed

very pleased with the student's conclusions and added some items

to the list. Plans for the mother's continued effort towards

the goals identified were mutually agreed upon, specifically

that the mother would follow up with N. Jackson, PNP regarding

program placement for J. R., would obtain a thermometer, would

apply for the Empty Stocking Fund, and would obtain an

appointment for herself to have a physical exam. J. R.'s mother

was reminded that the services of the Knox County Health

Department are still available to the family despite the fact

that home visits by the student nurse would not continue.

Family Strengths
Inherent in each phase of the nursing process is utilization

of family strengths to increase successful achievement of goals.

Herbert otto (1973) defines family strengths as "those factors

or forces that contribute to family unity and solidarity and

that foster the development of the potentials inherent within

the family" (p. 88). Once strengths are identified they can

then be mobilized in working out problems that exist or arise

within the family (p. 87). The community health nurse is in

 Community 42

a position "to support the family in exploring the application

of family strengths to the problem configuration" (pp. 92-93).

Pointing out the positive aspects of the family unit can prompt

clients to realize that they are not helpless, but in fact are

quite capable of developing more healthy patterns by making

use of available resources. Often the community health nurse

identifies "latent family strengths, or family potentials" (p.

92). otto (1973) defines these as strengths that are present

but not being utilized by the family (p. 92). Discovering and

building on these strengths provides a positive balance in the

community health setting. Often nurses become preoccupied with

the pathologic patterns occurring in the family, and too little

attention is paid to the positive potential of the family (p.

91). Recognizing strengths reminds clients that they are

valuable individuals despite their areas of need. Refer to

Appendix F for assessment of strengths in J. R.'s family.

Barriers to Health Care

In evaluating the progress that a client and/or family

is making toward a goal, it is important for the community health

nurse to be sensitive to the often invisible factors which

obstruct progress. Clemen-Stone et ale (1991) cite "various

reasons why clients are unable to alter their behavior in a

way to help them resolve their stress appropriately" (p. 244).

Often the family does not know why they are experiencing

difficulty in taking action, yet they are aware "that something

is wrong because symptoms of anxiety are present" (p. 244).

 Community 43

In these situations, the community health nurse must explore

with the family the possible causes for their inability to take

action and obtain the appropriate health care. Clemen-Stone

et ale (1991) give examples of these causes which are primarily

psychosocial: the client has not identified the specific nature

of the problem; the client cannot acknowledge feelings or

distinguish between feeling and fact; the client does not assume

responsibility for feelings; the client has no problem solving

experience; or the client has missed successful completion of

tasks in skill development (pp. 244-245).

The community health nurse must also be aware of those

factors that adversely affect the family's use of referral

services. Clemen-Stone et ale (1991) define these factors as

"barriers to utilization of the referral process" (p. 322) and

give examples of barriers that are inherent in the resource

and those that exist within the client or family. Resource

barriers may include the attitudes of health care professionals,

the accessibility of the resource to the community, and the

cost of the service (pp. 322-323). Barriers within the client

or family may include where the service falls on their list

of priorities, how well they understand the need for the service,

the family's motivation to act on the need that initiated the

referral, the family's prior experience with utilization of

referral services, the family's awareness of available services,

the family's self image, cultural differences, and the family's

ability to pay for the service and/or get to the facility (pp.
 Community 44

323-324). The community health nurse must be consciously looking

for these factors because clients may not bring them to her

attention due to embarrassment or their lack of awareness of

the barrier. For example, a client or family may acknowledge

a need but repeatedly fail to act on the need. The nurse must

be able to differentiate between their readiness to work on

the need as opposed to their awareness of the need. In this

situation the nurse can assist the family in prioritizing needs

that they are ready to act upon (p. 323). Refer to Appendix

G for barriers to obtaining health care identified when working

with J. R.'s family.

Utilization of Community Resources

Various agencies in the community are currently being used

by this family. The agency that they use most frequently is

the Pediatric Primary Care Clinic at the Knox County Health

Department [KCHD]. This is a clinic in which health care is

provided by physicians and nurse practitioners to those patients

who do not have a primary care physician (K. Boggan, personal

communication, August 26, 1994). The clinic offers "clinical

services, sick care, immunizations and WIC" (KCHD, 1994, p.
2). It is not designed to be a walk-in clinic, but rather its

purpose is to provide regular primary care. Without this

service, these clients would probably go to the emergency room

for sick care only. Here they would be seen by a different

physician who was not aware of their personal health history

on each visit (K. Boggan, personal communication, August 26,

 Community 45

1994). Thus the clinic provides for continuity of care, and

it prevents unnecessary (and costly) visits to the emergency

room. Nancy Jackson, PNP is the primary care provider for J.

R., and Donna Richter is a social worker that operates through

this clinic. Both were consulted in this case to discuss

possible sources for obtaining developmentally stimulating toys

for J. R. and options regarding J. R.'s placement in a special

program for developmentally delayed children. This resource

has several positive effects on this family's level of

functioning. For example, the health care providers at the

Pediatric Clinic discovered J. R.'s health problems and initiated

home visits to this client by the student nurse. Without this

intervention, this child's developmental delay and need for

placement in a special program may have gone undetected until

much more lengthy and costly intervention would be required.

The family's ongoing rapport with the providers at the clinic

has been a positive experience for J. R.'s family as evidenced

by his mother's positive and affectionate comments about N.

Jackson, PNP. This experience has a positive influence on the

family's future use of health care services.

The Supplemental Food Program for Women, Infants, and

Children [WIC] is a federally funded program offered through

the KCHD that provides various food services to pregnant or

breast feeding women and children under the age of five (KCHD,

1994, p. 2). To be eligible for the program, "participants

must meet financial eligibility and have documented medical

 Community 46

or nutritional risk" (p. 2). WIC offers vouchers redeemable

at local grocery stores for items such as milk, cheese and

cereal, and the program "includes mandatory nutrition education

and health assessment" (McGuire, 1994, p. 7). The role of the

community health nurse in WIC is be aware of possible

beneficiaries of the program and provide the client with

information about how to contact the program. J. R. is currently

enrolled in the WIC program due to his financial need and

documented iron-deficiency anemia. The program has intervened

to educate and encourage J. R.'s mother to feed him foods rich

in iron and Vitamin C. These interventions were supported and

reinforced by the student nurse.

J. R.'s family also receives nutritional support from the

food stamp program. This is a federal-state assistance program

designed "to improve the nutritional adequacy of low-income

individuals and families" (McGuire, 1994, p. 7). The community

health nurse should be able to identify possible candidates

for food stamps and direct these clients to the state Department

of Human or Social Services to apply for the program.

Supplemental Security Income [SSI] "is a federal-state

assistance program for qualifying aged, blind or disabled

individuals" (McGuire, 1994, p. 6). This program is designed

"to develop a uniform national minimum cash income for the

indigent aged, blind, and disabled" (Clemen-Stone et al., 1991,

p. 117). J. R.'s mother is in the application process for

obtaining SSI benefits for J. R. He has been evaluated for

 Community 47

physical and mental disability to determine if he is eligible.

He has not been rejected or accepted by the program to date.

Children's Special Services [CSS] is a program offered

by the KCHD that "provides comprehensive medical care for

handicapped children from birth to 21 years of age who meet

the medical and financial eligibility requirements" (KCHD, 1994,

p. 3). CSS provides diagnostic evaluation, medical treatment,

and speech and hearing screening tests (p. 3). Community health

nurses play an essential role in CSS in that they identify

possible beneficiaries of the program and provide information

to the family. CSS nurses then act as care coordinators and

provide evaluation, assessment, and health education in the

home (p. 3). J. R. was referred by the student nurse to CSS

for evaluation due to his considerable developmental delay.

J. R.'s mother expressed concern that his inability to walk

may be due to an orthopedic problem. The student thought that

CSS would have resources to diagnose such a problem if it

existed. The student also felt that further home visits were
needed by this client, and that CSS would have the resources

to continue these visits. The CSS program was discussed with

J. R.'s mother, and she was given the phone number and instructed

to make an appointment for evaluation of J. R. The appointment

was made but not kept. When questioned about the missed

appointment, J. R.'s mother stated that after discussing CSS

with N. Jackson, PNP, she decided that she would explore other

programs. She agreed to follow up with N. Jackson, PNP regarding

 Community 48

other options.

The Empty Stocking Fund is a program that "provides needy

individuals and families with a Christmas basket of food and

toys for children under 14 ("Milk Fund," 1994, p. A1). The

program is funded by contributions and conducted by the Knoxville

News-Sentinel. The program is designed to help those in the

Knoxville community who would otherwise have no means to help

them celebrate the holidays (Brown, 1994, p. A1). Individuals

must apply for the baskets, and information is documented and

verified to determine who will receive a basket (p. A1). It

is possible that J. R.'s family would be considered in need

of a basket due to their financial stress. Therefore, J. R.'s

mother was given information about where, when, and how she

could apply for the Empty Stocking Fund by the student nurse.

Recommendations

A commonly accepted opinion is that the American health

care delivery system needs restructuring due to its inability

to meet the health needs of many citizens (Knauth, 1994, p.

140). There appears to be "an oversupply of physician

specialists and an undersupply of primary care services" (p.

140)-- an imbalance that leads to high cost and often

inappropriate care for a few and inadequate care for many.

However, governments continue to emphasize high tech secondary

and tertiary health care and "lack faith in low-cost community­

based [health care] activities" (Clarke et al., 1993, p. 308).

As a result "public health nursing has been diverted from its

 Community 49

ideal of primary prevention to provide damage control for

individuals and families already suffering from medical,

psychological, and social problems" (Zerwekh, 1993, p. 1676).

However, these health promotion and disease prevention strategies

have been proven to be cost effective in that they prevent the

need for more expensive forms of inpatient care (Hawkins &

Higgins, 1990, p. 117). In studies of home visits by nurses

in New York, cost effective outcomes included reduced emergency

visits, fewer days on public assistance, higher levels of

employment, and reduced instances of failure to thrive, foster

home placement, or child abuse (Zerwekh, 1993, p. 1676). Another

study of home visitation programs to socially disadvantaged

women and children succeeded in improving women's health-related

behavior during pregnancy resulting in increased birth weight

of their babies (Olds & Kitzman, 1990). In the same study,

postpartum intervention influenced improved childhood behavioral

and developmental status and decreased emergency room visits

and hospitalizations for injury, as well as decreased unintended

subsequent pregnancies (Olds & Kitzman, 1990).

As trusted health professionals, community health nurses

have the unique capability to move into communities and "bridge

the gaps between science, policy, and the people" (Salman, 1993,

p. 1675). In this way, communities that have previously not

been reached by the health care system will be accessed and

taught how to use the health care system. A reformed health

care system that boasts universal access is not sufficient.

 Community 50

Salman (1993) uses school-aged children as an example and points

out that just because a parent is able to take a child in for

health care services does not ensure that this will take place

(p. 1675). But even if parents access health care delivery

(as J. R.'s parents have), "such services do not cover the scope

of health-related activities necessary to ensure the health

of all children" (p. 1675). There are many public health issues

not present in the clinic that can be overlooked. For example,

J. R. presented in the clinic with chronic respiratory and ear

infections and developmental delay. These symptoms were being

treated without getting to the root of the problem, which was ­

found in the community, home, and interpersonal family

environment. The root of J. R.'s chronic respiratory infections

was related to the fact that the apartment door was kept open,

and J. R. was dressed in inadequate clothing for the climate.

Upon visits to the clinic, J. R. was dressed appropriately and

the environment of his home could not be assessed. His chronic

ear infections were related to the fact that he was still being
bottle fed, and was often placed in his crib with a bottle

propped, causing a reflux of milk into the eustachian tube

creating a reservoir for bacteria to thrive. Insight into J.

R.'s delayed gross motor development was also gained only through

a visit to his environment. It is not surprising that the child

was unable to walk considering the lack of space in the crowded

apartment for him to move about. He spends most of his waking

hours playing on the double bed in the entrance room of the

 Community 51

apartment which does not provide adequate opportunity for his

large muscles to strengthen and develop coordination necessary

for standing and walking. The contributing factors to J. R.'s

chronic anemia and reported lack of appetite were also

discovered through a visit to the home. Upon arriving to the

home on each visit, the child was found sitting on the double

bed nibbling on crackers, potato chips, candy, etc. It is not

surprising that he was then not interested in eating at mealtime,

and was not receiving the recommended amounts of essential

nutrients. Obviously, the potential for injury and infection

discovered only through a visit to his home, would not have

been realized in a visit to the clinic.

Community health nurses present in the community are able

to address these public health issues. studies have shown that

nurses, especially advanced practice nurses can provide

comparable primary care at a lower cost than doctors do (Aiken

& Fagin, 1993). Nurses are also more accessible to those

communities most in need of primary care when one considers

the current shortage of primary care physicians in the United

states (Aiken & Fagin, 1993). However, nurses, even advanced

practice nurses, are continually "restricted by the scope of

practice laws, malpractice costs, admitting privileges,

reimbursement procedures, and lack of prescriptive power"

(Reverby, 1993, p. 1663). These restrictions tend to limit

how the nation views and utilizes nurses for primary care.

In order to overcome these restrictions community health

 Community 52

nurses must be prepared to present their services as an essential

piece in health care reform alternatives to the present system.

Beddome, Clarke, and Whyte (1993) point out that just because

preventive services have been identified as a key to better

health does not mean that people will actively seek these

services or that government will incorporate these services

into a reformed health care system (p. 16). Another important

concept in utilizing community health strategies more effectively

involves empowering the public. Nursing's Agenda for Health

Care Reform, a public policy statement written in 1991 by the

National League for Nursing and the American Nurses Association,

emphasizes the role of the consumer in health care decision

making and encourages consumers to become better informed about

the range of services and providers available (as cited in

Kna u th , 1 994, p. 1 4 1 ) • Providing primary health care in

community-based settings is presented in this document as a

strategy for enhancing consumer access in a restructured health

care system (American Nurses Association, 1991). Public health

nurses are trained to foster client autonomy while "developing

mutually negotiable relationships" (Zerwekh, 1992, p. 104).

However, it is counterproductive to encourage self-care when

people lack environments conducive to health (Clarke et al.,

1993, p. 308). Public health nurses are also trained to enter

an unfamiliar environment, the patient's turf, and assess "the

social determinants of health (e.g., housing, employment,

literacy)" (p. 308). The nurse must then be prepared to use

 Community 53

this assessment data to influence public health policy locally

and nationally (Twinn, 1991, p. 971). Clarke et ale (1993)

suggest that nurses become active in influencing public policy

towards an agenda that is focused more on prevention and health

promotion rather than the present system which has an acute

care focus (p. 308). This shift in focus would obviously require

a redistribution of health care funding.

Registered nurses represent the largest subgroup of the

healthcare work force ("The Nurses' Agenda", 1995). However,

"as a group, nurses have tended to be reactive rather than

proactive • . • • [and] choose not to be powerful or to become

involved politically" (Bushy & Smith, 1990, p. 39). However,

nurses are capable of using collective power to influence public

opinion and policy effectively. Nurses can begin with

"grass-roots activities to mobilize support and/or educate

legislators and/or constituents" (p. 39). They can organize

group power by writing letters to the editor of major newspapers

and magazines and engaging in media activities to raise public

awareness. Nurses can utilize their vast network of nursing

journals to raise awareness in their own profession and thus

elicit unity and group effort. Nurses can also use their

professional organizations to support a candidate for public

office that agrees with the nursing agenda for health care

reform. The possibilities are endless if nurses as a group

could combine creativity, knowledge, and professional strength

with a genuine concern for the health of the public.

 Community 54

Author's Summary of Experience

In reflection on my experience with this family and

community, I feel that I grew both professionally and personally

as a result. I experienced a bit of a shock when I first

encountered this family and J. R. in that I had never experienced

such need in my own country. Through involvement in a mission

experience in Mexico, I had seen the face of poverty. But before

this community health experience I suppose I was under the

false notion that I had to leave America to serve the needy.

I realized, however, that community health nursing is not

charity. That is the unique beauty of it. When I first began

working with this family, I saw so many things that I wanted

to do for them. I wanted to bring them sheets and blankets.

I wanted to buy toys for J. R. I even wanted to clean their

apartment. However, I soon learned that while noble, these

gestures were far from therapeutic for this family. I was there

as a facilitator. My role was not to fix everything or even

point out all that needed to be fixed. Rather, I was there

to give the family information so that they could work with

me to mutually identify problems. I then worked with them to

set mutual goals for fixing those problems, and gave them the

tools they needed to do so. This concept reminds me of an

ancient Chinese proverb that was relayed to me by a very special

woman who taught me in high school. It says, "If you give a

man a fish, you feed him for a day. If you teach a man to fish,

you feed him for a lifetime" (cited by Sr. L. deMarillac,

 Community 55

personal communication, 1989). In other words, empowering

clients to help themselves is much more effective in the long

run.

Nursing in the community had a positive influence on how

I am able to interact with those that come from a different

background and have different lifestyles than me. I often had

to make a conscious effort to remain nonjudgmental in the first

few visits with J. R.'s family. But as I became more familiar

with community health concepts, I began to realize how vital

this nonjudgmental attitude was to my relationship with this

family. I began to see how J. R.'s mother and father looked

to me for reassurance and reinforcement, and how my attitude

towards them affected their attitudes toward themselves and

their child. I realized that judging a family or client, either

with approval or disapproval, serves no therapeutic purpose.

Again, it was my role to supply them with information that they

could use to come to their own decisions regarding necessary

lifestyle adjustments.
Working with this family and community also helped me to

learn about the many resources that are available in the

community. I never really understood what the health department

was about until this experience, and now I am amazed at the

powerful impact it can have on people's health if they were

only aware of its wide range of services. I was not aware of

the WIC program either, and I believe this is a fantastic

resource in that it serves so many people in such an essential

 Community 56

way. Resources such as these are intrinsically linked to

community health nursing. Referring clients to such agencies,

enables them to take initiative and help themselves.

Prior to this experience, I don't think I was aware of

the many factors that influence one's health behaviors. I became

aware of these factors while doing the multidimensional

assessment. I also was ignorant of the ways that nurses must

use all their senses in assessment. I had heard this concept

before, but reading about and implementing the strategies

described in Mary Bayer's (1973) article helped me to grasp

how useful my five senses could be in improving my assessment

skills.

Finally, this experience showed me yet another unique role

that nurses play in health promotion. Prior to this, I suppose

I still placed nursing primarily in the hospital. But working

through the health department, and seeing how the satellite

clinics are run by nurses independently, I saw what a difference

nursing is making in preventive health. This experience opened

my eyes to many more opportunities that nurses have to be

independent professionals and influence public policy on a

national level.
 Community 57

References

Aiken, L., & Fagin, C. (1993, March 11). More nurses,

better medicine. The New York Times, p. A23.

American Nurses' Association. (1986). Standards of

community health nursing practice. Kansas, MO: Author.

American Nurses' Association. (1991). Nursing's agenda

for health care reform: Executive summary. Washington, DC:

Author.

Bayer, M. (1973). Community diagnosis-- through sense,

sight, and sound. Nursing Outlook, 21(11),712-713.

Beddome, G., Clarke, H. F., & Whyte, N. B. (1993). Vision

for the future of public health nursing: A case for primary

health care. Public Health Nursing, 10(1), 13-18.

Brown, J. (1994, November 20). Sign up for fund begins

Monday. The Knoxville News-Sentinel, pp. A1, A17.

Bushy, A., & Smith, T. O. (1990). Lobbying: The hows

and wherefores. Nursing Management, 21(4), 39-45.

Clarke, H. F., Beddome, G., & Whyte, N. B. (1993). Public

health nurses' vision of their future reflects changing
paradigms. Image: Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 25(4),

305-310.
Clemen-Stone, S., Eigsti, D. G., & McGuire, S. L. (1991).

Comprehensive family and community health nursing (3rd ed.).

st. Louis, MO: Mosby.

 Community 58

Cronin-stubbs, D. (1983). Interpersonal relationships

in community health nursing practice. In W. Burgess (Ed.),

Community health nursing: Philosophy, process, practice (pp.

393-418). Norwalk, CT: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Frankenburg, W. K., Dodds, J., Archer, P., Bresnick, B.,

Maschka, P., Edelman, N., & Shapiro, H. (1992). Denver II

training manual. Denver, CO: Denver Developmental Materials,

Inc.

Hawkins, J. W., & Higgins, L. P. (1990). Financing health

care in American: Who pays? In S. J. Wold (Ed.), Community

health nursing: Issues and topics, (pp. 97-125). Norwalk,

CT: Appleton & Lange.

Knauth, D. G. (1994). Community nursing centers: Removing

impediments to success. Nursing Economics, 12(3), 140-145.

Knox County Health Department. (1994). Knox County health

department programs and services [Handout]. Knoxville, TN:

Author.

McGuire, S. L. (1994, August 29). Unites States health

care delivery system [Handout]. Knoxville, TN: UTK College

of Nursing.
Milk Fund donation drive coincides with ESF. (1994, November

28). The Knoxville News-Sentinel, p. A1.

Olds, D. L., & Kitzman, H. (1990). Can home visitation

improve the health of women and children at environmental risk?

Pediatrics, 86(1), 108-115.

 Community 59

Orr, J. (1992). Health visiting and the community. In

K. Luker & J. Orr (Eds.), Health visiting: Towards community

health nursing (2nd ed., pp. 73-106). Oxford, England:

Blackwell Scientific Publications.

otto, H. A. (1973). A framework for assessing family

strengths. In A. Reinhardt & M. Quinn (Eds.), Family-centered

community nursing (pp. 87-93). st. Louis, MO: Mosby.

Reifsnider, E. (1992). Restructuring the American health

care system: An analysis of nursing's agenda for health care

reform. Nurse Practitioner, 17(5), 65-75.

Reverby, S. M. (1993). From Lillian Wald to Hillary Rodham

Clinton: What will happen to public health nursing? American

Journal of Public Health, 83(12), 1662-1663.

Salmon, M. E. (1993). Editorial: Public health

nursing-­ The opportunity of a century. American Journal of

Public Health, 83(12), 1674-1675.

Stanhope, M., & Knollmueller, R. N. (1992). Handbook

of community and home health nursing. st. Louis, MO: Mosby.

Tapia, J. A. (1972). The nursing process in family health.
Nursing Outlook, 20(4), 267-270.
The nurses' agenda: Priorities for 1995. (1995). Nursing

Management, 26(2), 21-23.

Twinn, S. F. (1991). Conflicting paradigms of health

visiting: A continuing debate for professional practice.

Journal of Advanced Nursing, 16(8), 966-973.

 Community 60

Whaley, L. F., & Wong, D. L. (1991). Nursing care of

infants and children (4th ed.). st. Louis, MO: Mosby.

Zerwekh, J. V. (1991). Tales from public health nursing:

True detectives. American Journal of Nursing, 91(10), 30-36.

Zerwekh, J. V. (1992). Laying the groundwork for family

self-help: Locating families, building trust, and building

strength. Public Health Nursing, 9(1), 15-20.

Zerwekh, J. V. (1992). Public health nursing legacy:

Historical practical wisdom. Nursing & Health Care, 13(2),

84-91 .
Zerwekh, J. V. (1992). The practice of empowerment and

coercion by expert public health nurses. Image: Journal of

Nursing Scholarship, 24(2), 101-105.

Zerwekh, J. V. (1993). Commentary: Going to the

people-- Public health nursing today and tomorrow. American

Journal of Public Health, 83(12), 1676-1678.

 Community 61

Appendix A

Tapia's Model

Level II-III

Family placed at this level because:

This family is partially in Level II (childhood stage)

because they are better able to meet their needs for security

and survival than a family in Level I (infancy stage). However

this family still seems unable to support the growth and

development of its members as evidenced by J. R.'s developmental

delay and his mother's lack of adequate rest. The family also

needs help with acknowledging their problems realistically as

evidenced by J. R.'s mother's inability to state her concerns

about J. R.'s health. This family also exhibits characteristics

of Level III (adolescent stage) as well in that they have the

knowledge and ability to utilize some community resources and

are not hostile to help from outside the family. The family

also shows signs of a future orientation such as J. R.'s mother's

comments about one day buying a house and her effort to obtain

a high school diploma.

Nursing services and activities appropriate for this family

based on the model:

Support of the trust relationship is very important, and

this must be used to help the family see its problems and

strengths more realistically. Activities must be performed

consistently and with genuine concern so the family can get

to the point where they are no longer speculative of the

 Community 62

intervention and begin to work on their problems. The nurse

begins to help the family work through what they see as

problematic by teaching and referring them to community

resources. She works as a care coordinator, but constantly

encourages the family to make their own decisions. In J. R.'s

family, his mother is not hostile to the community health nurse

but doesn't realize that the nurse is there to help rather than

condemn. Therefore the trust relationship is the primary

concern. Then J. R.'s mother must be assisted to come to terms

with J. R.'s health problems as well as how those problems affect

her own health and well-being. Care coordination is the next

most important nursing service for this family by supporting

WIC intervention and hooking them up with programs aimed at

providing a more stimulating environment for J. R.'s development

and growth.
 Community 63

Appendix B

Family Coping Estimate

Coping Area (Rating-- 0 Poor to 5 Excellent): Justification

1. Physical Independence (3): Mother is providing personal

care for herself and partial care for J. R. However, certain

physical care such as appropriate clothing and cleanliness are

not being provided for J. R.

2. Therapeutic Independence (3): Mother provides breathing

treatments for J. R. but leaves the door open to the apartment

and J. R.'s play area is soiled with dust and dirt. J. R. is

not kept properly clothed for the climate of the environment.

3. Knowledge of Condition (3): Mother understands the

need for placement of ear tubes (for J. R.) and how to care

for them, such as not emerging J. R. in water. She also is

aware of symptoms of complications to watch for. However, she

is not aware of how to prevent ear infections.

4. Application of Principles of Personal Hygiene (2):

Father carries two full time jobs. J. R. rarely sleeps more

than 3 hours at a time according to mother and is not dressed

adequately in relation to weather. There is dirty laundry and

dishes throughout the horne and the diet of J. R. is questionable.

Immunizations have been secured for J. R.

5. Attitude Toward Health Care (4): Mother accepts the

need for health care for J. R. However, she and her husband

do not receive preventive health care despite being insured

by Tenncare.
 Community 64

6. Emotional Competence (3): Father has not been observed.

Mother seems unable to face the reality of J. R.'S developmental

delay. She also frequently leaves the child unattended while

outside smoking.

7. Family Living Patterns (3): Mother responds quickly

to J. R.'s needs, but leaves him alone in apartment playing.

Mother feels that she needs to discuss possible interventions

with her husband (J. R.'S father).

8. Physical Environment (1): Very little facilities for

privacy, neighborhood houses people that are questionable

intoxicated. No play space except parking lot. Very little

room to walk inside home. Electric portable heaters. Very

little covers for bed. Deteriorated building. No phone in

home.

9. Use of Community Resources (4): Mother is aware of

community resources such as W1C, SS1, food stamps, adult GED

program, and health department services. However she seems

to not realize that the community health nurse is there to help

rather than condemn.
 VI VI
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MONTHS YEARS
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 Community 66

Appendix D

Goals for Health Supervision and Interventions

Client Name: J. R. and family

The letter "M" indicates that the goal was mutually

identified with the client.

1. Nursing Diagnosis: Altered growth and development related

to lack of available play area and environmental stimulation,

possible mental handicap.

Goal #1- M: J. R.'s family will provide an environment

that maximizes the developmental potential of J. R.

Nursing Interventions:

a) Perform DDST to confirm delay. Discuss with mother

the implications of J. R.'s performance on the DDST and age

appropriate tasks of an 18 month old child.

b) Consult D. Richter, SW and N. Jackson, PNP about DDST

results and possibility of enrolling J. R. in a specialized

program for developmentally delayed children.

c) Suggest strategies to maximize J. R.'s developmental

potential with family such as giving him nontoxic crayons, giving

him a spoon at mealtime, providing simple toys that he can

manipulate easily. Suggest ways to make and places to obtain

age appropriate toys for J. R. Give information about applying

for Empty Stocking Fund.

d) Refer client to CSS. Give mother phone number and

encourage her to make and keep appointment for J. R.

Evaluation: Objectives met-- Mother is able to identify

 Community 67

at least 4 tasks that an 18 month old child should have achieved

and a strategy to promote each with J. R., mother is able to

give examples of at least 2 age appropriate toys for J. R. and

how to make or obtain them, mother can verbalize reasons for

follow up with N. Jackson, PNP to discuss J. R.'s enrollment

in a special program, mother made appointment with CSS.

Objectives not met-- mother did not keep CSS appointment but

agrees to follow up with N. Jackson, PNP instead.

2. Nursing Diagnosis: High risk for injury related to safety

hazards present in the home and lack of appropriate protection

from outside environment.

Goal #2: J. R.'s family will provide a home environment

free from safety hazards.

Nursing Interventions:

a) Provide anticipatory guidance regarding J. R.'s

increasing mobility and curiosity and how certain physical

hazards in the home could be harmful.

b) Give suggestions about ways home environment can be

modified to reduce risks of injury.

c) Encourage mother not to leave child in apartment

unattended, especially if he is eating or playing on an elevated

surface (such as the bed in the front room).

Evaluation: Objectives met-- mother is able to identify

at least 3 age appropriate tasks of J. R. that require

modifications in his environment, mother can explain importance

of remaining inside apartment with J. R., mother keeps door

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to apartment closed, mother can identify at least 2 ways that

the horne environment can be modified to reduce risk of injury,

mother agrees to take the appropriate action to modify the horne

environment.

3. Nursing Diagnosis: High risk for infection related to

history of respiratory infections and otitis media (OM), lack

of appropriate clothing, frequent exposure to outside air,

insects in horne, and nutritional deficit.

Goal #3-M: J. R.'s family will provide environment that

reduces risk of infection.

Nursing Interventions:

a) Discuss importance of weaning J. R. from the bottle

including tendency toward OM. Suggest strategies for doing

so.

b) Discuss importance of and guidelines for dressing J.

R. appropriately for climate. Suggest resources to obtain warm

clothes if needed (Goodwill, Ladies of Charity).

c) Discuss importance of keeping door to apartment closed,

i.e. decreasing insects in horne and decreasing potential

respiratory irritants that J. R. is exposed to.

d) Provide information about where to obtain thermometer

and cost range.

e) Reinforce WIC interventions such as suggestions to

increase iron rich foods and Vitamin C.

f) Encourage to keep appointments at Pediatric Clinic

at KCHD.
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Evaluation: Objectives met-- mother keeps J. R.'s

appointments at Pediatric Clinic, mother states she is

implementing strategies to wean J. R. from bottle and can

describe them, mother can verbalize guidelines for dressing

J. R. appropriately and agrees to do so, mother keeping door

to apartment closed, mother states she will obtain thermometer,

mother verbalizes understanding of WIC interventions.

4. Nursing Diagnosis: High risk for altered parenting related

to physical exhaustion of mother, child's inability to sleep

more than 2-3 hours at a time.

Goal #4-M: Functional parenting patterns will be

maintained.

Nursing Interventions:

a) Discuss the importance of mother's own health

maintenance and her ability to meet J. R.'s needs. Assist her

in locating provider that accepts Blue Cross Tenncare and

encourage her to make appointment.

b) Discuss strategies for promoting prolonged nocturnal

sleep patterns for J. R. Encourage mother to establish

consistent bedtime rituals and to place child in crib while

he is awake. Suggest that bed be used for sleeping only.

Encourage mother to offer last feeding as close to bedtime as

possible (no bottles in bed) and increase daytime feeding

intervals to 4 hours or more (Whaley & Wong, 1991, p. 568).

Discourage allowing child to nibble between meals.

c) Discuss ways for mother to deal with nighttime crying

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such as entering room and reassuring child, but avoiding holding

or rocking, taking him to parents bed, or giving him bottle

(p. 568).

d) Warn mother that these strategies are difficult to

implement and encourage her to share them with her husband.

e) Identify sources of family support and encourage their

use.

Evaluation: Objectives met-- mother indicates awareness

of potential difficulties in parenting child with J. R.'s health

needs, mother can verbalize the impact that her health has on

caring for J. R. and the importance of maintaining her own

health. Objectives not met-- mother did not make appointment

with health care provider for herself before termination of

horne visits. Objectives in progress at termination: child

will be sleeping through the night by the end of December 1994.

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Appendix E

The University of Tennessee, Knoxville

College of Nursing

Nursing 403

Contract for Health Supervision in the Home

NAME OF CLIENT

CLIENT'S PHONE NUMBER

ADDRESS

CLINIC/PHYSICIAN

************************************************************
I hereby grant my permission to participate in a family study

and to be visited by a senior nursing student from The University

of Tennessee, Knoxville on a regular basis during the period

specified. I understand that any and all information obtained

by the student will be maintained in strict confidence and will

be utilized only for the purposes of developing appropriate

nursing care plans.

Guardian or Client's Signature

Date

I hereby assume responsibility for giving this family nursing

care under the guidance of faculty and in collaboration with

other members of the Health Team for the period of: (Date)

to

Signature of Student

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Appendix F

Family strengths

1. Parents are generally in good health

2. Parents seem genuinely concerned about child's welfare and

express strong desire to provide for him properly as evidenced

by their keeping appointments, their willingness to accept

outside assistance, and their application to obtain SSI for

J. R.

3. Parents are responsive to child's cues and speak to him

verbally

4. Role flexibility is present in that father supports mother's

efforts to obtain GED and plans to complete his GED when she

is finished; both parents work and assume responsiblity for

child care

5. Close supportive relationship with J. R.'s maternal

grandmother and aunts is described by J. R.'s mother; these

people are available to keep child

6. Parents are friendly with neighbors in that they are able

to use phone next door (could be weakness if substance abusing

neighbors spend time in home with child)

7. Mother expresses future orientation in that she has plans

to move into a larger home and is working on her GED

8. Parents encourage involvment of J. R. with other children

his age (i. e. day care, children of friends); this represents

an effort to broaden J. R.'s social development

Family's awareness of its strengths:

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This is evidenced by J. R.'S mother's ability to expand

on the above mentioned strengths and give specific examples

of them.

Ways that family can be helped to develop these strengths:

Positive reinforcement was provided by the student to help

J. R.'S parents realize that they are caring for their child

well despite his problems and needs. Examples of how these

strengths can be mobilized to foster J. R.'S developmental growth

were suggested by the student (i. e. obtaining preventive health

care for themselves, suggestions for providing a safer and more

stimulating environment for J. R., utilizing support systems

to allow time for physical and emotional rest).

Latent strengths in this family:

J. R.'S father was only present for about 10 minutes during

one of the visits. In this short period of time, however, he

seemed very eager to discuss J. R.'S condition and was very

interactive with the child. The student also noted that this

visit was the only one at which J. R. was dressed appropriately.

The father's willingness to work with the student and his

devotion to J. R. is a strength that was not able to be maximally

utilized in this relationship due to lack of contact with him.

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Appendix G

Barriers to Obtaining Health Care

Client Barriers:

1. Family has not specifically identified the nature of the

problem (i. e. lack of environmental stimulation of child,

possible mental disability)

2. Family has an interest in not identifying the problem

3. Family is unable to generate alternative options during

problem solving

4. Other needs considered higher priority than utilizing

referral services

5. Family is aware of problems but not yet ready to deal with

them (lack of motivation)

6. Lack of knowledge about available resources

7. Lack of understanding regarding the need for referral

8. Limited financial resources, limited transportation

9. Physical exhaustion of mother

10. Limited educational background and lack of familiarity

with patterns of growth and development

11. Mother doesn't give high priority to health care for herself

Resource Barriers:

1. Limited physical accessibility (not within walking distance)

*No other resource barriers identified as mother describes a

positive rapport with health care providers, there is no cost

for services rendered to J. R. at KCHD, and family is covered

by Blue Cross & Blue Shield Tenncare.