ABUBAKAR TAFAWA BALEWA UNIVERSITY, BAUCHI

FACULTY OF SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES

MTH111
Elementary Algebra I
Lecture note

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 1

Course Outline:
Trigonometric functions: Radian measure, Trigonometric identities, Sum, Difference and
Product formulae, Laws of Sine and Cosine, inverse trigonometric functions, Solution of
trigonometric equations.
Exponential functions: Definition of 𝑎 𝑥 for any positive number a and any real number 𝑥,
graphs of exponential functions, Laws of Exponents(indices), the number 𝑒, Natural exponential
function.
Logarithmic functions: Definition of 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 for any positive number a and any positive real
number 𝑥, graphs of logarithmic functions, Laws of Logarithms, the number 𝑒, Natural
logarithmic function.
Algebraic functions: Polynomials, Division algorithms, Long division, Synthetic division, Factor
theorem, remainder theorem.
Rational functions: Asymptotes, Partial fraction decomposition, Roots of a rational functions,
finding the domain.
Complex numbers: Representation in the plane, Sum, Difference, Product and Quotient of
complex numbers, Modulus and Argument of complex numbers, Complex conjugate and its
properties, Polar representation of complex numbers, Unit circle, 𝑛𝑡ℎ root of complex numbers,
De Mover’s Theorem, Zero of polynomials, Quadratic formula.

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 2

 Section A

Trigonometric functions

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 3

Course Outline:
Trigonometric functions: Radian measure, Trigonometric identities, Sum, Difference and Product
formulae, Laws of Sine and Cosine, inverse trigonometric functions, Solution of trigonometric
equations.

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 4

Trigonometric functions:
Measurement of an angle: Angles are generally measured in degree or in radian.

Definition1: A degree is measure of an angle whose vertex is at the center of a circle, and that it
1
intersect an arc equal in length to (360) of the circumference.

Definition2: A radian is a measure of an angle whose vertex is at the center of a circle, and that
it intersect an arc equal in length to the radius of the circle.
Relationship between degree and radian: Let consider a circle ABA with center o, and radius r,
̂.
and that it subtend an angle𝜃, and let S be the length of the arc 𝐴𝐵

A
S
𝜃
rr B

𝜃
⇨ 𝑆= 2𝜋𝑟 . . . (1)
360𝑜

From the definition of radian we have

𝑆
𝜃 = 𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑. . . . (2)

Now if 𝜃= 360𝑜 , then equation(1) reduces to

𝑆 = 2𝜋𝑟 . . . . (3)
Substituting (3) in (2) we have
360𝑜 = 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑. . . . (4)
From equation(4) we have.
𝜋
1𝑜 = 180 𝑟𝑎𝑑. . . . (5)

And
180𝑜
1 rad. = . . . (6)
𝜋

Thus equation (5) and (6) form a basis for conversion from degree to radian and vice-versa.

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 5

Example
1) Express the following angles in radian.
𝑖) 30𝑜 𝑖𝑖) 120𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑖) 270𝑜 𝑖𝑣) 315𝑜
Solution:
𝜋 𝜋
𝑖) 1𝑜 = 180 𝑟𝑎𝑑. 𝑖𝑖) 1𝑜 = 180 𝑟𝑎𝑑.

Multiply both side by 30 we have Multiply both side by 120 we have

𝜋 2𝜋
30𝑜 = 6 𝑟𝑎𝑑. 120𝑜 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑.
3

𝜋 𝜋
𝑖𝑖𝑖) 1𝑜 = 180 𝑟𝑎𝑑.rad. 𝑖𝑣) 1𝑜 = 180 𝑟𝑎𝑑.

Multiply both side by 270 we have Multiply both side by 315 we have
3𝜋 7𝜋
270𝑜 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑. 315𝑜 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑.
2 4

2) Express the following angles in degree.

3𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
𝑖) 𝑟𝑎𝑑. 𝑖𝑖) 𝑟𝑎𝑑. 𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑟𝑎𝑑. 𝑖𝑣) 𝑟𝑎𝑑.
4 12 2 4

Solution:
180𝑜 180𝑜
𝑖) 1𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑖𝑖) 1𝑟𝑎𝑑 =
𝜋 𝜋
3𝜋 𝜋
Multiply both side by wehave Multiply both side by 12 we have
4
3𝜋 𝜋
𝑟𝑎𝑑. = 135𝑜 𝑟𝑎𝑑. = 15𝑜
4 12

180𝑜 180𝑜
𝑖𝑖𝑖) 1𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑖𝑣) 1𝑟𝑎𝑑 =
𝜋 𝜋
3𝜋 5𝜋
Multiply both side by we have Multiply both side by we have
2 4
3𝜋 5𝜋
𝑟𝑎𝑑. = 270𝑜 𝑟𝑎𝑑. = 225𝑜
2 4

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 6

Trigonometric ratios:
Recall the following:
1. Trigonometric functions.
2. SOH, CAH, TOA and CAST, ACTS or ASTC.
3. Pythagoras Theorem.
4. Types of triangle and properties of triangles.

a) Trigonometric ratio some of special angles:

Definition3: Any angle multiple of 15𝑜 including 0𝑜 is called a special angle.

Note: The trigonometric ratios of special angles are frequently used, especially in the areas of
Mechanics, Physics and Engineering, and therefore it is useful to have their values in surd form.
The ratios however can be obtained exactly from consideration of the triangle as follows.

C
30 𝑟
0
2 A
√2 2 B
1
√3 ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵=𝐴𝐶̅̅̅̅ , = 𝑟

45 60 𝐴𝐵̂𝐶 = 𝐵𝐶̂ 𝐴 = 900

1 1
1
𝐶𝐴̂𝐵 = 00

𝜃 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 tan 𝜃

𝑜
0 0 1 0
30𝑜 ½ √3/2 1/√2
45𝑜 1/√2 1/√2 1
60𝑜 √3/2 ½ √3
90𝑜 1 0 ∞

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 7

b) Trigonometric ratio of acute angles:
A
Consider any triangle ABC.
|𝐴𝐵| = 𝑦, |𝐴𝐵| = 𝑥, |𝐴𝐵| = 𝑟, 𝑟 > 0.
𝑦 𝑥 𝑦 𝑟
⇨sin 𝜃 = 𝑟 ,cos 𝜃 = 𝑟 , and tan 𝜃 = 𝑥 , 𝑦

𝑦 2 𝑥 2 𝑦 2
⇨ sin2 𝜃 = ( 𝑟 ) , cos 2 𝜃 = (𝑟 ) , tan2 𝜃 = (𝑥 ) 𝜃
B 𝑥 C
𝑟 𝑟 𝑥
⇨csc 𝜃 = 𝑦, sec 𝜃 = 𝑥 , and cot 𝜃 = 𝑦 ,

𝑟 2 𝑟 2 𝑥 2
⇨ csc 2 𝜃 = (𝑦) , sec 2 𝜃 = (𝑥) , cot 2 𝜃 = (𝑦)

According to Pythagoras theorem,

𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟2 . . . (1)
Dividing (1) by 𝑟 2 on both sides
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑥 2 𝑦 2
+ 𝑟 2 = (𝑟 ) + ( 𝑟 ) = 1
𝑟2

⇨ 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝜽 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝜽 = 𝟏 . . . (2)

Dividing (1) by 𝑦 2 on both sides
𝑥2 𝑟2 𝑥 2 𝑟 2
+ 1 = 𝑦2 ⇨ (𝑦) + 1 = (𝑦)
𝑦2

⇨ 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝟐 𝜽 + 𝟏 = 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐 𝜽 . . . (3)

And dividing (1) by 𝑥 2 on both sides
𝑦2 𝑟2 𝑦 2 𝑟 2
1 + 𝑥2 = 𝑥2 ⇨ 1 + (𝑥 ) = (𝑥)

⇨ 𝟏 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝜽 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝜽 . . . (4)

Equations (2), (3) and (4) are called Simple identities, and the relationship that exist between
these three equations enable us to obtain the other trigonometric ratios if at least one is
known.

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 8

Examples:
12
1) Evaluate sin 𝜃 and tan 𝜃, given that cos 𝜃 = 13 and that 𝜃 is acute.

Solution:

12 144 144 25 5
cos 𝜃 = 13 ⇨ cos2 𝜃 = 169, ⇨ sin2 𝜃 = 1 − 169 = 169 ⇨ sin 𝜃 = 13

12 13 169 169 25
Also cos 𝜃 = 13 ⇨ sec 𝜃 = 12 ⇨ sec 2 𝜃 = 144 ⇨ tan2 𝜃 = 144 − 1 = 144

5
⇨ tan 𝜃 = 12

3 𝜋
2) Evaluate sin 𝜃 and cos 𝜃, given that tan 𝜃 = 2 and that 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2 .

Solution:
3 9 9 13 √13 2
tan 𝜃 = 2 ⇨ tan2 𝜃 = 4, ⇨ sec 2 𝜃 = 4 + 1 = ⇨ sec 𝜃 = ⇨ cos 𝜃 =
4 2 √13

2 4 4 3 3√13
Also cos 𝜃 = ⇨ cos2 𝜃 = 13 ⇨ sin2 𝜃 = 1 − 13 ⇨ sin 𝜃 = =
√13 √13 13

c) Trigonometric ratio of general angles:

Definition: General angle is an angle of any size, including negative angles.
Note: Here, we shall define the trigonometric ratio in such a way that it will be applicable to
angle of any size including negative angles.
𝜋
Let (𝑥, 𝑦)be the Cartesian coordinate of 𝑃, and let |𝑂𝑃| = 𝑟, and 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2 .

𝑦
𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)
𝑟

𝑥
𝑂
r

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 9

Definition: The acute angle between line │OP│ and the horizontal axis (x-axis) is called the basic
angle.

𝑦
P2 P1

∝ ∝ 𝑥
∝ ∝
r

P3 P4

𝑖) Consider the first quadrant:

P 𝑥 P
𝑦 𝑟 𝑟
𝑦 𝑦
𝜃
∝ ∝
𝑥 𝑥r
= 𝜃r

(𝑎) (𝑏)

𝑎) sin 𝛼 = sin 𝜃, cos 𝛼 = cos 𝜃 and tan 𝛼 = tan 𝜃 . . . (1)

𝑏) sin(90𝑜 − 𝜃) = sin 𝛼, cos(90𝑜 − 𝜃) = cos 𝛼 and tan(90𝑜 − 𝜃) = tan 𝛼

𝑦 𝑦
But sin 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos 𝜃 = ⇨ sin 𝛼 = cos 𝜃
𝑟 𝑟
𝑥 𝑥
cos 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 sin 𝜃 = ⇨ cos 𝛼 = sin 𝜃
𝑟 𝑟
𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
tan 𝛼 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 tan 𝜃 = 𝑦 ⇨ cot 𝜃 = 𝑥 ⇨ tan 𝛼 = cot 𝜃

⇨ 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟗𝟎𝒐 − 𝜽) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽, 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟗𝟎𝒐 − 𝜽) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽, 𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝟗𝟎𝒐 − 𝜽) = 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝜽 . . . (2)

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 10

𝑖𝑖) Consider the second quadrant:
𝑦 𝑦
P −𝑥 −𝑥
P
𝑟 𝑦 𝑟 𝑦
𝑦 𝑦
180 − 𝜃
∝ 𝜃 90 𝜃 𝑥
−𝑥 +𝜃 𝑥 −𝑥 =
r r
∝

(𝑎) (𝑏)

𝑎) sin(90𝑜 + 𝜃) = sin 𝛼, cos(90𝑜 + 𝜃) = −cos 𝛼 and tan(90𝑜 + 𝜃) = −tan 𝛼

𝑦 𝑦
But sin 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos 𝜃 = ⇨ sin 𝛼 = cos 𝜃
𝑟 𝑟
−𝑥 −𝑥
cos 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 sin 𝜃 = ⇨ cos 𝛼 = sin 𝜃
𝑟 𝑟
𝑦 −𝑥 𝑦
tan 𝛼 = −𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 tan 𝜃 = ⇨ cot 𝜃 = −𝑥 ⇨ tan 𝛼 = cot 𝜃
𝑦

⇨ 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟗𝟎𝒐 + 𝜽) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽, 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟗𝟎𝒐 + 𝜽) = −𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽, 𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝟗𝟎𝒐 + 𝜽) = −𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝜽 . . . (3)

𝑏) sin(180𝑜 − 𝜃) = sin 𝛼, cos(180𝑜 − 𝜃) = −cos 𝛼 and tan(180𝑜 − 𝜃) = −tan 𝛼

But 𝛼 = 𝜃
⇨ 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟏𝟖𝟎𝒐 − 𝜽) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 , 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟏𝟖𝟎𝒐 − 𝜽) = −𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 , 𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝟏𝟖𝟎𝒐 − 𝜽) = −𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 . . (4)

𝑖𝑖𝑖) Consider the third quadrant:

𝑦
𝑦

270 − 𝜃
180 + 𝜃 −𝑥 𝑥
−𝑥
𝑥 ∝ 𝜃
r
𝜃 r −𝑦 𝑟
−𝑦 −𝑦
𝑟= −𝑦
∝ −𝑥
P −𝑥 P

(𝑎) (𝑏)

𝑎) sin(180𝑜 + 𝜃) = −sin 𝛼, cos(180𝑜 + 𝜃) = −cos 𝛼 and tan(180𝑜 + 𝜃) = tan 𝛼

But 𝛼 = 𝜃
⇨ 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟏𝟖𝟎𝒐 + 𝜽) = − 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 , 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟏𝟖𝟎𝒐 + 𝜽) = −𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 , 𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝟏𝟖𝟎𝒐 + 𝜽) = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 . . (5)

𝑏) sin(270𝑜 − 𝜃) = −sin 𝛼, cos(270𝑜 − 𝜃) = −cos 𝛼 and tan(270𝑜 − 𝜃) = tan 𝛼

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 11

 −𝑦 −𝑦
But sin 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos 𝜃 = ⇨ sin 𝛼 = cos 𝜃
𝑟 𝑟
−𝑥 −𝑥
cos 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 sin 𝜃 = ⇨ cos 𝛼 = sin 𝜃
𝑟 𝑟
𝑦 𝑥 𝑦
tan 𝛼 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 tan 𝜃 = 𝑦 ⇨ cot 𝜃 = 𝑥 ⇨ tan 𝛼 = cot 𝜃

⇨ 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟐𝟕𝟎𝒐 − 𝜽) = −𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 , 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟐𝟕𝟎𝒐 − 𝜽) = −𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 , 𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝟐𝟕𝟎𝒐 − 𝜽) = 𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝜽 . . . (6)

𝑖𝑣)Consider the fourth quadrant:

𝑦 𝑦

270 + 𝜃 360 − 𝜃
𝑥 𝑥
∝ 𝑥 𝑥
𝑟
r −𝑦
∝
= 0𝑟
r −𝑦
−𝑦 𝜃 −𝑦

𝑥 P 𝑥 P

(𝑎) (𝑏)

𝑎) sin(270𝑜 + 𝜃) = −sin 𝛼, cos(270𝑜 + 𝜃) = cos 𝛼 and tan(270𝑜 + 𝜃) = −tan 𝛼

−𝑦 −𝑦
But sin 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos 𝜃 = ⇨ sin 𝛼 = cos 𝜃
𝑟 𝑟
𝑥 𝑥
cos 𝛼 = 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 sin 𝜃 = ⇨ cos 𝛼 = sin 𝜃
𝑟
−𝑦 𝑥 −𝑦
tan 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 tan 𝜃 = −𝑦 ⇨ cot 𝜃 = ⇨ tan 𝛼 = cot 𝜃
𝑥 𝑥

⇨ 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟐𝟕𝟎𝒐 + 𝜽) = −𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 , 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟐𝟕𝟎𝒐 + 𝜽) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 , 𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝟐𝟕𝟎𝒐 + 𝜽) = −𝒄𝒐𝒕 𝜽 . . . (7)

𝑏) sin(360𝑜 − 𝜃) = sin 𝛼, cos(360𝑜 − 𝜃) = −cos 𝛼 and tan(360𝑜 − 𝜃) = −tan 𝛼

But 𝛼 = 𝜃
⇨ 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝟑𝟔𝟎𝒐 − 𝜽) = −𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 , 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝟑𝟔𝟎𝒐 − 𝜽) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 , 𝒕𝒂𝒏(𝟑𝟔𝟎𝒐 − 𝜽) = −𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 . . . (8)

Negative angles: 𝑦
P1
𝑟
𝑦
𝜃 𝑥
𝑥
𝑂 −𝜃 r −𝑦
𝑟

P2

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 12

 𝑦 −𝑦 𝑦
𝑎) sinθ = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 sin(−𝜃) = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − sin 𝜃 = ⇨ sin(−𝜃) = −sin 𝜃
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝑥 𝑥
sinθ = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos(−𝜃) = ⇨ cos(−𝜃) = cos 𝜃
𝑟 𝑟
𝑦 −𝑦 −𝑦
tanθ = 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 tan(−𝜃) = ⇨ − tan 𝜃 = ⇨ tan(−𝜃) = −tan 𝜃
𝑥 𝑥

𝐬𝐢𝐧(−𝜽) = −𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 , 𝐜𝐨𝐬(−𝜽) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 , 𝐭𝐚𝐧(−𝜽) = −𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 . . . (9)

From equations (1-8) above and the negative angles it is clear that trigonometric ratio of any
angle may be expressed in terms of trigonometric ratio of an acute angle, which means that the
table of trigonometric ratios for the angles in the range 0𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑑 90𝑜 are quite sufficient.

Examples:
1. Express the following trigonometric ratios in terms of the trigonometric ratio of an acute
angle. 𝑖) sin 125𝑜 𝑖𝑖) cos 225𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑖) tan 120𝑜

Solution:

𝑖) sin 125𝑜 = sin(90 + 35)𝑜 = cos 35𝑜 𝑜𝑟 sin 125𝑜 = sin(180 − 55)𝑜 = sin 55𝑜
𝑖𝑖) cos 225𝑜 = cos(180 + 45)𝑜 = −cos 45𝑜 𝑜𝑟 cos 225𝑜 = cos(270 − 45)𝑜 = −sin 45𝑜
𝑖𝑖𝑖) tan 120𝑜 = tan(180 − 60)𝑜 = −tan 60𝑜 𝑜𝑟 tan 120𝑜 = tan(90 + 30)𝑜 = −cot 30𝑜

2. Express the following trigonometric ratios in terms of the trigonometric ratio of an acute
angle. 𝑖) csc 240𝑜 𝑖𝑖) sec 315𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑖) cot 320𝑜
Solution:
𝑖) sin 240𝑜 = sin(270 − 30)𝑜 = −cos 30𝑜 𝑜𝑟 sin 240𝑜 = sin(180 + 60)𝑜 = −sin 60𝑜
⇨ csc 240𝑜 = − sec 300 𝑜𝑟 csc 240𝑜 = − csc 60𝑜
𝑖𝑖) cos 315𝑜 = cos(270 + 45)𝑜 = sin 45𝑜 𝑜𝑟 cos 315𝑜 = cos(360 − 45)𝑜 = cos 45𝑜

⇨ sec 315𝑜 = − csc 450 𝑜𝑟 sec 315𝑜 = − sec 45𝑜

𝑖𝑖𝑖) tan 320𝑜 = tan(270 + 50)𝑜 = −cot 50𝑜 𝑜𝑟 tan 320𝑜 = tan(360 − 40)𝑜 = −tan 40𝑜

⇨ cot 320𝑜 = − cot 500 𝑜𝑟 cot 320𝑜 = − tan 40𝑜

3. Express the following trigonometric ratios in terms of the trigonometric ratio of an acute
angles.

𝑖) sin 110𝑜 𝑖𝑖) cos 250𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑖) tan 322𝑜 𝑖𝑣) sin(−120)𝑜 𝑣) cos(−160)𝑜

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 13

Solution:
Do

Examples 4: Without using tables or calculator, find the value of the following
3 𝜋
𝑖) sin 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos 𝐴 , 𝑖𝑓 tan 𝐴 = 0<𝐴<
4 2
−4 3𝜋
𝑖𝑖) sin 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 tan 𝐴 , 𝑖𝑓 cos 𝐴 = 𝜋<𝐴<
15 2
5 3𝜋
𝑖𝑖𝑖) cos 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 tan 𝐴 , 𝑖𝑓 sin 𝐴 = 𝜋<𝐴<
13 2

Solution:
3 9 9 25 5
𝑖) tan 𝐴 = 4 ⇨ tan2 𝐴 = 16 ⇨ sec 2 𝐴 = 1 − 16 = 16
⇨ sec 𝐴 = 4
4 16 16 9 3
⇨ cos 𝐴 = 5 ⇨ cos 2 𝐴 = 25 ⇨ sin2 𝐴 = 1 − 25 = 25 ⇨ sin 𝐴 = 5
−4 16 16 209 √209
𝑖𝑖) cos 𝐴 = ⇨ cos2 𝐴 = ⇨ sin2 𝐴 = 1 − = ⇨ sin 𝐴 =
15 225 225 225 15
16 225 225 209 √209
cos 2 𝐴 = 225 ⇨ sec 2 𝐴 = 16
⇨ tan2 𝐴 = 16
−1= 16
⇨ tan 𝐴 = 4
5 25 25 144 12
𝑖𝑖𝑖) sin 𝐴 = ⇨ sin2 𝐴 = ⇨ cos 2 𝐴 = 1 − = ⇨ cos 𝐴 = −
13 169 169 169 13
144 169 25 5
cos 2 𝐴 = 169
⇨ sec 2 𝐴 = 144 ⇨ tan2 𝐴 = 144 ⇨ tan 𝐴 = 12

Proving Identity I:
There are no specific guidelines for proving identities, but it is allowed to show that
𝑖) LHS = RHS
𝑖𝑖) RHS = LHS
𝑖𝑖𝑖)LHS = P and RHS = P ⇨ LHS = RHS

Example1: Show that

1+sin 𝑥 1+sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥+cos 𝑥
𝑖) ( )( ) = tan 𝑥 𝑖𝑖) = sec 𝑥 + cot 𝑥
1+cos 𝑥 1+csc 𝑥 sin 𝑥

Solution
1 1+cos 𝑥
1+sin 𝑥 1+ 1+sin 𝑥 1+sin 𝑥 1+cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥
cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥
𝑖) (1+cos 𝑥) ( 1 ) = (1+cos 𝑥 ) ( 1+sin 𝑥 ) = (1+cos 𝑥 ) ( ) (1+sin 𝑥) = (cos 𝑥) = tan 𝑥
1+ cos 𝑥
sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥

sin 𝑥
cos 𝑥
+cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥+cos2 𝑥 1 sin 𝑥+cos2 𝑥 sin 𝑥 cos2 𝑥 1 cos 𝑥
𝑖𝑖) = ∗ = = cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥

= sec 𝑥 + cot 𝑥

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 14

Example2: Show that
1−sin 𝑥
𝑖) (tan 𝑥 − sec 𝑥)2 = 1+sin 𝑥 𝑖𝑖) (sin 𝐴 + cos 𝐴)(cot 𝐴 + tan 𝐴) = sec 𝐴 + csc 𝐴

Solution:
𝑖) (tan 𝑥 − sec 𝑥)2 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 − 2 tan 𝑥 sec 𝑥 + sec 2 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 2 tan 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥
1 1 sin 𝑥 sin2 𝑥 1 sin 𝑥 sin2 𝑥
= − 2 (cos 𝑥) (cos 𝑥) + cos2 𝑥 = − 2 (cos2 𝑥) + cos2 𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥

1−2 sin 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥 (1− sin 𝑥)2 (1− sin 𝑥)(1− sin 𝑥) 1− sin 𝑥
= = = =
cos2 𝑥 1− sin2 𝑥 (1− sin 𝑥)(1+ sin 𝑥) 1+ sin 𝑥

𝑖𝑖) (sin 𝐴 + cos 𝐴)(cot 𝐴 + tan 𝐴) = sin 𝐴 cot 𝐴 + sin 𝐴 tan 𝐴 + cos 𝐴 cot 𝐴 + cos 𝐴 tan 𝐴

cos 𝐴 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴 sin 𝐴

= sin 𝐴 ( sin 𝐴 ) + sin 𝐴 (cos 𝐴) + cos 𝐴 ( sin 𝐴 ) + cos 𝐴 (cos 𝐴)

sin2 𝐴 cos2 𝐴
= cos 𝐴 + + + sin 𝐴
cos 𝐴 sin 𝐴

sin 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝐴 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝐴 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠3 𝐴 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴 cos 𝐴

= sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴

sin 𝐴(1−𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴) + 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝐴 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠3 𝐴 + (1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝐴) cos 𝐴

=
sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴

sin 𝐴−𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝐴 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝐴 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠3 𝐴 + cos 𝐴−𝑐𝑜𝑠3 𝐴

=
sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴

sin 𝐴 + cos 𝐴 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴

= = +
sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴

1 1
= +
cos 𝐴 sin 𝐴

= sec 𝐴 + csc 𝐴

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 15

Trigonometric ratio of compound angle:
a) Sum of two angles
𝑦
P
B 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝐴
1
M N

𝐶𝑜𝑠𝐴
𝐴
𝐵
O S 𝑥
R

Consider the figure above

|𝑃𝑁| |𝑂𝑁|
In ∆𝑂𝑃𝑁, sin 𝐴 = |𝑂𝑃| = |𝑃𝑁|, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos 𝐴 = |𝑂𝑃| = |𝑂𝑁|
|𝑃𝑅|
In∆𝑂𝑃𝑅, sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = |𝑂𝑃| = |𝑃𝑅| = |𝑃𝑀| + |𝑀𝑅| = |𝑃𝑀| + |𝑁𝑆|
|𝑃𝑀|
In ∆𝑃𝑀𝑁, cos 𝐵 = sin 𝐴 ⇨ |𝑃𝑀| = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵
|𝑁𝑆|
In ∆𝑂𝑁𝑆, sin 𝐵 = cos 𝐴 ⇨ |𝑁𝑆| = cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵

⇨ sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵 . . . (1)

|𝑂𝑅|
In ∆𝑂𝑃𝑅, cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) = |𝑂𝑃| = |𝑂𝑅| = |𝑂𝑆| − |𝑆𝑅| = |𝑂𝑆| − |𝑀𝑁|
|𝑂𝑆|
In ∆𝑂𝑁𝑆, cos 𝐵 = cos 𝐴 ⇨ |𝑂𝑆| = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵
|𝑀𝑁|
In ∆𝑃𝑀𝑁, sin 𝐵 = sin 𝐴 ⇨ |𝑀𝑁| = sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵

⇨ cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵 . . . (2)

sin(𝐴+𝐵) sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵
From (1)and (2) we have that tan(𝐴 + 𝐵) = =
cos(𝐴+𝐵) cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵

Dividing both the numerator and the denominator by cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 we have
tan 𝐵+tan 𝐴
tan(𝐴 + 𝐵) = . . . (3)
1− tan 𝐴 tan 𝐵

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 16

 b) Difference of two angles.

𝑦
𝑃
1 𝐵

𝑅 𝑆
𝐵 𝐴 𝑥
O
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴

𝑁 𝑇

Consider the figure above

|𝑃𝑁| |𝑂𝑁|
In ∆𝑂𝑃𝑁, sin 𝐴 = |𝑂𝑃| = |𝑃𝑁|, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos 𝐴 = |𝑂𝑃|
= |𝑂𝑁|
|𝑃𝑆|
In ∆𝑂𝑃𝑆, sin(𝐴 − 𝐵) = |𝑂𝑃| = |𝑃𝑆| = |𝑃𝑇| − |𝑇𝑆| = |𝑃𝑇| − |𝑅𝑁|
|𝑃𝑇|
In ∆𝑁𝑃𝑇, cos 𝐵 = ⇨ |𝑃𝑇| = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵
sin 𝐴
|𝑅𝑁|
In ∆𝑂𝑅𝑁, sin 𝐵 = cos 𝐴 ⇨ |𝑅𝑁| = cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵

⇨ sin(𝐴 − 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵 . . . (4)

|𝑂|
In ∆𝑂𝑃𝑆, cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) = |𝑂𝑃| = |𝑂𝑆| = |𝑂𝑅| + |𝑅𝑆| = |𝑂𝑅| + |𝑁𝑇|
|𝑂𝑅|
In ∆𝑂𝑅𝑁, cos 𝐵 = cos 𝐴 ⇨ |𝑂𝑅| = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵
|𝑁𝑇|
In ∆𝑃𝑁𝑇, sin 𝐵 = sin 𝐴 ⇨ |𝑁𝑇| = sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵

⇨ cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 . . . (5)

sin(𝐴−𝐵) sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵− cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵
From (4) and (5) we have that tan(𝐴 − 𝐵) = cos(𝐴−𝐵)
= cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵

Dividing both the numerator and the denominator by cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 we have
tan 𝐵−tan 𝐴
tan(𝐴 − 𝐵) = . . . (6)
1+ tan 𝐴 tan 𝐵

Example1: Without using tables or calculator, find the value of

𝑖) cos 15𝑜 𝑖𝑖) sin 105𝑜 𝑖𝑖𝑖) tan 75𝑜

Solution:
𝑖) cos 15𝑜 = cos(45 − 30)𝑜 = cos 45𝑜 cos 30𝑜 + sin 45𝑜 sin 30𝑜
1 √3 1 1 √3 1 √2(√3+1)
=( ∗ ) + ( 2 ∗ 2) = 2√2 + 2√2 =
√2 2 √ 4

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 17

𝑖𝑖) sin 105𝑜 = sin(60 + 45)𝑜 = sin 60𝑜 cos 45𝑜 + cos 60𝑜 sin 45𝑜
√3 1 1 1 √2(√3+1)
=(2 ∗ ) + (2 ∗ ) =
√2 √2 4
1
tan 45𝑜 + tan 30𝑜 1+
𝑜 𝑜 √3
𝑖𝑖𝑖) tan 75 = tan(45 + 30) = 1 − = 1 = 2 + √3
tan 45𝑜 tan 30𝑜 1−
√3

4 12
Example2: Given that sin 𝐴 = 5 and cos 𝐵 = 13, Find sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) and cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) If

𝑖) 𝐴 and 𝐵 are both acute. 𝑖𝑖) 𝐴 is obtuse and 𝐵 is acute

Solution:
sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = sin 𝐴𝑜 cos 𝐵𝑜 + cos 𝐴𝑜 sin 𝐵𝑜 and
cos(𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑜 = cos 𝐴𝑜 cos 𝐵 𝑜 + sin 𝐴𝑜 sin 𝐵 𝑜
4 16 16 9 3
𝑖) sin 𝐴 = ⇨ sin2 𝐴 = ⇨ cos2 𝐴 = 1 − = ⇨ cos 𝐴 = and
5 25 25 25 5
12 144 144 5
cos 𝐵 = ⇨ cos 2 𝐵 = ⇨ sin2 𝐵 = 1 − ⇨ sin 𝐵 =
13 169 169 13
4 12 3 5 63
⇨ sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = (5 ∗ 13) + (5 ∗ 13) = 65 and
3 12 4 5 16
cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) = (5 ∗ 13) + (5 ∗ 13) = 65

4 16 16 9 3
𝑖𝑖) sin 𝐴 = 5 ⇨ sin2 𝐴 = 25 ⇨ cos 2 𝐴 = 1 − 25 = 25 ⇨ cos 𝐴 = − 5 and
12 144 144 25 5
cos 𝐵 = ⇨ cos 2 𝐵 = ⇨ sin2 𝐵 = 1 − = ⇨ sin 𝐵 =
13 169 169 169 13
4 12 3 5 33
⇨ sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = ( ∗ )+ (− ∗ ) = and
5 13 5 13 65

3 12 4 5 56
cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) = (− 5 ∗ 13) + (5 ∗ 13) = − 65

Exercise:
1
1) Given that sin 𝐴 = √5
5
, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 tan 𝐵 = , find cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) and tan(𝐴 + 𝐵) if A and B are both acute
2
tan 𝜃+ tan 3𝜃
2) If = −1, find tan 𝜃 in surd form.
1− tan 𝜃 tan 3𝜃

3) Verify the following

𝑖) cos(90 − 𝐴) = − sin 𝐴 𝑖𝑖) sin(270 − 𝐴) + sin(270 + 𝐴) = −2 cos 𝐴

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 18

Trigonometric ratio of multiple angles:
From the expression for compound angles we have that
sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵 . . . (1)
cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 . . . (2)
tan 𝐴+tan 𝐵
tan(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 1−tan 𝐴 tan 𝐵 . . . (3)

Without any loss of generality we set 𝐵 = 𝐴

⇨ Eqns. (1),(2) & (3) become
sin 2𝐴 = 2 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐴 . . . (4)

cos2 𝐴 − sin2 𝐴
cos 2𝐴 = 2 Cos 2 𝐴 − 1 } . . . (5)
1 − 2 sin2 𝐴
2 tan 𝐴
tan 2𝐴 = 1−tan2 𝐴 . . . (6)

Equations (4), (5), & (6) are called Multiple angles.

Example1: Show that

1 − tan2 𝐴
𝑖) cos 2𝐴 = 1 + tan2 𝐴

Solution:
sin2 𝐴
1− 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝐴− 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝐴
𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝐴
𝑅𝐻𝑆 = sin2 𝐴
= ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝐴
1+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝐴
𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝐴

𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝐴− 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴+ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝐴

= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴
= cos 2𝐴 = 𝐿𝐻𝑆

3
Example2: Given that cos 2𝐴 = 5 , 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 tan 𝐴

Solution:
3
cos 2𝐴 = 5

cos 2𝐴 = 2 cos2 𝐴 − 1
3
⇨ 2 cos2 𝐴 − 1 = 5

⇨ 10 cos2 𝐴 = 8
4
⇨ cos2 𝐴 = 5

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 19

 5
⇨ sec 2 𝐴 = 4
5 1
⇨ tan2 𝐴 = 4 − 1 = 4
1
⇨ tan 𝐴 = ± 2

Example3: Show that

cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) − sin(𝐴 − 𝐵) sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = cos 2𝐴
Proof
cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵,
cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
⇨ cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) = cos2 𝐴 cos 2 𝐵 − sin2 𝐴 sin2 𝐵 . . . (1)

sin(𝐴 − 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 − cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵 ,

sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵
⇨ sin(𝐴 − 𝐵) sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = sin2 𝐴 cos2 𝐵 − cos 2 𝐴 sin2 𝐵 . . . (2)
From (1) and (2) we have
cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) − sin(𝐴 − 𝐵) sin(𝐴 + 𝐵)
= (cos2 𝐴 cos2 𝐵 − sin2 𝐴 sin2 𝐵) − (sin2 𝐴 cos 2 𝐵 − cos 2 𝐴 sin2 𝐵)
= (cos2 𝐵 + sin2 𝐵) cos 2 𝐴 − (sin2 𝐵 + cos 2 𝐵) sin2 𝐴
= cos2 𝐴 − sin2 𝐴
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝐴

The factor formulae:

From the expression for compound angles we have that
sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) + sin(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 2 sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 . . . (1)
sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) − sin(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 2 cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵 . . . (2)
cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) + cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 2 cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 . . . (3)
cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) − cos(𝐴 − 𝐵) = −2 sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 . . . (4)
Now we set 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝑦
𝑥+𝑦
⇨ 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 2𝐴 ⇨ 𝐴= 2
, 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑥−𝑦
𝑥 − 𝑦 = 2𝐵 ⇨ 𝐵= 2

Substituting for 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 in equation (1),(2),(3) and (4) we have

𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
sin 𝑥 + sin 𝑦 = 2 sin( 2
) cos( 2 ) . . . (5)

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 20

 𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
sin 𝑥 − sin 𝑦 = 2 cos( 2
) sin( 2 ) . . . (6)

𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
cos 𝑥 + cos 𝑦 = 2 cos( ) cos( ) . . . (7)
2 2

𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
cos 𝑥 − cos 𝑦 = −2 sin( 2
) sin( 2 ) . . . (8)

Equations (5),(6),(7),and (8) are called the factor formulae.

Example1: Verify the following identity

𝑖) cos 𝐴 + cos 3𝐴 + cos 5𝐴 + cos 7𝐴 = 4 cos 4𝐴 cos 2𝐴 cos 𝐴
cos 2𝐴+cos 5𝐴+cos 8𝐴
𝑖𝑖) = cot 5𝐴
sin 2𝐴+sin 5𝐴+sin 8𝐴

Solution:
𝑖) cos 𝐴 + cos 3𝐴 + cos 5𝐴 + cos 7𝐴 = (cos 𝐴 + cos 3𝐴) + (cos 5𝐴 + cos 7𝐴)

4𝐴 −2𝐴 12𝐴 −2𝐴

= 2 cos ( ) cos ( )+ 2 cos ( ) cos ( )
2 2 2 2

= 2 cos(2𝐴) cos(𝐴) + 2 cos(6𝐴) cos(𝐴)

= 2 cos 𝐴 (cos 2𝐴 + cos 6𝐴)

8𝐴 −4𝐴
= 2 cos 𝐴 [2 cos ( 2 ) cos ( 2
)]

= 2 cos 𝐴 [2 cos 4𝐴 cos 2𝐴]

= 4 cos 4𝐴 cos 2𝐴 cos 𝐴

cos 2𝐴+cos 5𝐴+cos 8𝐴 (cos 2𝐴 + cos 8𝐴) + cos 5𝐴

𝑖𝑖) =
sin 2𝐴+sin 5𝐴+sin 8𝐴 (sin 2𝐴 + sin 8𝐴) + sin 5𝐴

2 cos 5𝐴 cos 3𝐴+cos 5𝐴

= 2 sin 5𝐴 cos 3𝐴+sin 5𝐴

2[cos 3𝐴+1] cos 5𝐴

= 2[sin 3𝐴+1] sin 5𝐴

cos 5𝐴
= = cot 5𝐴
sin 5𝐴

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 21

Example2: Express the product as a sum or difference
𝑖) sin 7𝑡 sin 3𝑡 𝑖𝑖) cos 6𝑡 cos(−4𝑡)
Solution:
𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
𝑖) cos 𝑥 − cos 𝑦 = −2 sin ( 2
) sin ( 2 )
1 𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
⇨ − 2 (cos 𝑥 − cos 𝑦) = sin( 2
) sin( 2 ) . . . (1)
1
⇨ − 2 (cos 𝑥 − cos 𝑦) = sin(7𝑡) sin(3𝑡) . . . (2)

From (1) and (2) we have

𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
sin( 2
) sin( 2 ) = sin(7𝑡) sin(3𝑡)
𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
⇨ = 7𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 3𝑡
2 2

⇨ 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 14𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑥 − 𝑦 = 6𝑡
(𝑥 + 𝑦) + (𝑥 − 𝑦) = 20𝑡
⇨ 2𝑥 = 20𝑡 ⇨𝑥 = 10𝑡
(𝑥 + 𝑦) − (𝑥 − 𝑦) = 8𝑡
⇨ 2𝑦 = 8𝑡 ⇨ 𝑦 = 4𝑡
Substituting for 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 in (2) we have
1
− 2 (cos 10𝑡 − cos 4𝑡) = sin(7𝑡) sin(3𝑡)

𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
𝑖𝑖) cos 𝑥 + cos 𝑦 = 2 cos ( ) cos ( )
2 2

1 𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
⇨ (cos 𝑥 + cos 𝑦) = cos( ) cos( 2 ) . . . (1)
2 2
1
⇨ (cos 𝑥 + cos 𝑦) = cos(6𝑡) cos(−4𝑡) . . . (2)
2

From (1) and (2) we have

𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
cos( 2
) cos( 2 ) = cos(6𝑡) cos(−4𝑡)
𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦
⇨ 2
= 6𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2
= −4𝑡

⇨ 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 12𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 − 𝑦 = −8𝑡

⇨ (𝑥 + 𝑦) + (𝑥 − 𝑦) = 4𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥 + 𝑦) − (𝑥 − 𝑦) = 20𝑡
⇨ 2𝑥 = 4𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝑦 = 20𝑡
⇨ 𝑥 = 2𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 10𝑡
Substituting for 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 in (2) we have

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 22

 1
(cos 2𝑡 − cos 10𝑡) = cos(6𝑡) cos(−4𝑡)
2

Half angles:
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
sin 𝐴 = sin ( 2 + 2 ) = sin 2 cos 2 + cos 2 sin 2 = 2 sin 2 cos 2 . . . (1)
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
cos 𝐴 = cos ( 2 + 2 ) = cos 2 cos 2 − sin 2 sin 2 = cos2 2 − sin2 2
𝐴 𝐴
cos 2 2 − sin2 2
𝐴
⇨ cos 𝐴 = 2 cos 2 2 − 1 . . . (2)
𝐴
1− 2 sin2 }
2

And
𝐴
2 tan
2
tan 𝐴 = 𝐴 . . . (3)
1−tan2
2

From (2) we have

𝐴
cos 𝐴 = 1 − 2 sin2 2

𝐴 1−cos 𝐴
⇨ sin 2
=√
2
. . . (4)

Also from (2) we have

𝐴
cos 𝐴 = 2 cos2 − 1
2

𝐴 1+cos 𝐴
⇨ cos 2 = √ 2
. . . (5)

And from (4), and (5) we have

𝐴 1−cos 𝐴 1−cos 𝐴
⇨ tan
2
=√
1+𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴
=
sin 𝐴
. . . (6)

Equations (4), (5), and (6) are called half angles formulae.

t-formulae:
From half angles we have that
𝐴 𝐴
sin 𝐴 = 2 sin ( ) cos ( )
2 2
𝐴 𝐴
Dividing both sides by sin2 (2 ) + cos 2 (2 ) we have
𝐴 𝐴
2 sin( ) cos( )
2 2
sin 𝐴 = 𝐴 𝐴
sin2 ( ) + cos2 ( )
2 2

𝐴
Dividing both the numerator and the denominator by cos2 (2 ) we have

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 23

 𝐴
2 tan( )
2
sin 𝐴 = 𝐴 . . . (1)
1+ tan2( )
2

Also from the definition of half angles we have

𝐴 𝐴
cos 𝐴 = cos2 ( ) − sin2 ( )
2 2
𝐴 𝐴
Dividing both sides by sin2 (2 ) + cos 2 (2 ) we have
𝐴 𝐴
cos2( ) − sin2( )
2 2
cos 𝐴 = 𝐴 𝐴
sin2( )+ cos2( )
2 2

𝐴
Dividing both the numerator and the denominator by cos2 (2 ) we have
𝐴
1 − tan2( )
2
cos 𝐴 = 𝐴 . . . (2)
1+ tan2( )
2

Also from half angles we have

𝐴
2 tan( )
2
tan 𝐴 = 𝐴 . . . (3)
1−tan2( )
2

𝐴
Now we set tan (2 ) = 𝑡 in equations (1), (2), and (3) we have
2𝑡
sin 𝐴 = 1 − 𝑡2
. . . (4)
1− 𝑡2
cos 𝐴 = . . . (5)
1+ 𝑡2
2𝑡
tan 𝐴 = . . . (6)
1 − 𝑡2

Equations (4), (5), and (6) are called the t-formulae

𝐴 𝐴
Example1: Given that, tan (2 ) = csc 𝐴 − sin 𝐴, show that tan2 (2 ) = −2 ± √5

Proof:
𝐴
tan ( ) = csc 𝐴 − sin 𝐴, - Given
2
𝐴 1
⇨ tan ( ) = − sin 𝐴,
2 sin 𝐴
1+ 𝑡 2 2𝑡
⇨ 𝑡= 2𝑡
− 1+ 𝑡 2
(1+ 𝑡 2 )2 −4𝑡 2
⇨ 𝑡=
2𝑡(1+ 𝑡 2 )

⇨ 𝑡 4 + 4𝑡 2 − 1 = 0
⇨ (𝑡 2 )2 + 4𝑡 2 − 1 = 0
𝐴
⇨ 𝑡 2 = −2 ± √5 ⇨ tan2 ( 2 ) = −2 ± √5

Hence the proof

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 24

 4 𝐴
Example2: Given that tan 𝐴 = 3, calculate the possible values of tan (2 )

Solution:
4
tan 𝐴 = 3, and
2𝑡
tan 𝐴 = 1 − 𝑡2
2𝑡 4
⇨ =
1 − 𝑡2 3

⇨ 4𝑡 2 + 6𝑡 − 4 = 0
1
⇨ 𝑡= 2
𝑜𝑟 𝑡 = −2

Solution of triangle:
From geometry, is made that the solution of triangles is uniquely determine when
𝑖) Two angles and one side are known (𝐴𝐴𝑆)
𝑖𝑖) One angle and two sides are known(𝐴𝑆𝑆)
𝑖𝑖𝑖) Three sides are known (𝑆𝑆𝑆)
Note: We denote the angles of a triangle by upper case letters, and the sides by lower case
letters.

Sine formulae:
Statement:- In any triangle 𝐴𝐵𝐶 , with the corresponding sides 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
= = = 2𝑟
sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶

C 𝑎 B

2𝑟
𝑂
A
D

Proof:
Let 2𝑟 be the diameter of the circle ABCD with centre O.
Draw a diameter BOD and join CD.
In ∆𝐵𝐷𝐶,
𝐷𝐶̂ 𝐵 = 90𝑜 (Angle in a semi circle),
̂ 𝐶 = 𝐵𝐴̂𝐶
𝐵𝐷 (Angle in the same segment),

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 25

⇨ sin 𝐷 = sin 𝐴
𝑎
But sin 𝐷 =
2𝑟
𝑎
⇨ sin 𝐴 =
2𝑟
𝑎
⇨ sin 𝐴
= 2𝑟 . . . (1)

Draw a diameter BOD and join AD.

We have that, 𝐵𝐴̂𝐷 = 90𝑜 (Angle in a semi circle),
̂ 𝐵 = 𝐴𝐶̂ 𝐵
𝐴𝐷 (Angle in the same segment),
⇨ sin 𝐷 = sin 𝐶
𝑐 𝑐
But sin 𝐷 = 2𝑟⇨sin 𝐶 = 2𝑟
𝑐
⇨ = 2𝑟 . . . (2)
sin 𝐶

Draw a diameter COD and join AD.

We have that, 𝐷𝐴̂𝐶 = 90𝑜 (Angle in a semi circle),
𝐴𝐶̂ 𝐷 = 𝐷𝐵̂𝐴 (Angle in the same segment),
⇨ sin 𝐶 = sin 𝐵
𝑏 𝑏
But sin 𝐶 = 2𝑟 ⇨ sin 𝐵 = 2𝑟
𝑏
⇨ sin 𝐵
= 2𝑟 . . . (3)
From (1), (2), (3) we have that
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
= = = 2𝑟
sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶

Hence the proof

Cosine formulae
MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 26
Statement:- In any triangle ABC with the corresponding sides 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐
𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 cos 𝐴
𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑎𝑐 cos 𝐵
𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝐶
Proof: 𝐴

𝑐 𝑏

𝐵 𝐶
𝐿
𝑎
In ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶, draw a line from A perpendicular to BC and to meet BC at L
⇨ 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐵𝐿 + 𝐿𝐶
⇨ 𝑎 = 𝑐 cos 𝐵 + 𝑏 cos 𝐶 . . . (1)
In ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶, draw a line from B perpendicular to AC and to meet AC at N
⇨ 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝑁 + 𝑁𝐶
⇨ 𝑏 = 𝑐 cos 𝐴 + 𝑎 cos 𝐶 . . . (2)
In ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶, draw a line from C perpendicular to AB and to meet AB at p
⇨ 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝑃 + 𝑃𝐵
⇨ 𝑐 = 𝑎 cos 𝐵 + 𝑏 cos 𝐴 . . . (3)
Now, we multiply equation (1) by – 𝑎, equation (2) by 𝑏 and equation (3) by 𝑐 and add the three
we have.
𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 cos 𝐴 . . . (4)
Now, we multiply equation (1) by 𝑎, equation (2) by −𝑏 and equation (3) by 𝑐 and add the three
we have.
𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑎𝑐 cos 𝐵 . . . (5)
Now, we multiply equation (1) by 𝑎, equation (2) by 𝑏 and equation (3) by −𝑐 and add the three
we have.
𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝐶 . . . (6)

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 27

Area of a triangle:
𝐴
Consider triangle ABC

𝑏
𝑐

𝐵 𝐶
𝐷
𝑎

Let ∇ denote the area of the triangle ABC

1
⇨ ∇= ∗ 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ∗ ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡`
2

Draw a line from A perpendicular to BC and to meet BC at D we have in ∆𝐴𝐵𝐷

𝐴𝐷
sin 𝐵 = 𝑐
⇨ 𝐴𝐷 = 𝑐 sin 𝐵
1
⇨ ∇= 𝑎𝑐 sin 𝐵
2
. . . (1)

Draw a line from B perpendicular to AC and to meet AC at D we have in ∆𝐵𝐶𝐷

𝐵𝐷
sin 𝐶 = 𝑎
⇨ 𝐵𝐷 = 𝑎 sin 𝐶
1
⇨ ∇= 2 𝑏𝑎 sin 𝐶 . . . (2)

Draw a line from perpendicular to AB and to meet AB at D we have in ∆𝐶𝐴𝐷

𝐶𝐷
sin 𝐴 = 𝑏
⇨ 𝐶𝐷 = 𝑏 sin 𝐴
1
⇨ ∇= 2 𝑐𝑏 sin 𝐴 . . . (3)

From sine formulae we have

𝑎 𝑎
⇨ sin 𝐴
= 2𝑟 ⇨ sin 𝐴 = 2𝑟

Substituting for sin 𝐴 in (3) we have

1
∇= 4𝑟 𝑎𝑏𝑐 . . . (4)

Multiply both sides of (3) by 4 we have

4∇= 2𝑐𝑏 sin 𝐴 . . . (5)
Square (5) on both sides we have
16∇2 = 4𝑐 2 𝑏 2 sin2 𝐴 . . . (6)
From cosine formulae we have
𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 cos 𝐴
⇨ 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2 = 2𝑏𝑐 cos 𝐴 . . . (7)

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 28

Squaring (7) on both sides we have
(𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2 )2 = 4𝑐 2 𝑏2 cos2 𝐴 . . . (8)
Adding (6) and (8) we have
16∇2 + (𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2 )2 = 4𝑐 2 𝑏2 [sin2 𝐴 + cos2 𝐴]
⇨ 16∇2 = 4𝑐 2 𝑏2 − (𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2 )2
⇨ 16∇2 = (2𝑏𝑐)2 − (𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2 )2
⇨ 16∇2 = (2𝑏𝑐 − [𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2 ])(2𝑏𝑐 + [𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2 ])
⇨ 16∇2 = (2𝑏𝑐 − 𝑏 2 − 𝑐 2 + 𝑎2 )(2𝑏𝑐 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2 )
⇨ 16∇2 = (𝑎 + 𝑐 − 𝑏)(𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑐)(𝑏 + 𝑐 − 𝑎)(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)
1
Now we let 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 2𝑆 ⇨ 𝑆 = (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)
2

𝑎 + 𝑐 − 𝑏 + 2𝑏 = 2𝑆 ⇨ 𝑎 + 𝑐 − 𝑏 = 2(𝑆 − 𝑏)
𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑐 + 2𝑐 = 2𝑆 ⇨ 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑐 = 2(𝑆 − 𝑐)
𝑏 + 𝑐 − 𝑎 + 2𝑎 = 2𝑆 ⇨ 𝑏 + 𝑐 − 𝑐 = 2(𝑆 − 𝑎)
⇨ 16∇2 = 2𝑆 ∗ 2(𝑆 − 𝑎) ∗ 2(𝑆 − 𝑏) ∗ 2(𝑆 − 𝑐)
⇨ 16∇2 = 16𝑆(𝑆 − 𝑎)(𝑆 − 𝑏)(𝑆 − 𝑐)
⇨ ∇2 = 𝑆(𝑆 − 𝑎)(𝑆 − 𝑏)(𝑆 − 𝑐)
⇨ ∇= √𝑆(𝑆 − 𝑎)(𝑆 − 𝑏)(𝑆 − 𝑐) . . . (9)
Equation (9) is called Hero’s formulae.
Example1:𝑃, 𝑄 and 𝑅 are on the same horizontal level, the bearing of Q from P is 150𝑜 and the
bearing of R from Q is 060𝑜 , if |PQ|= 50m, and |QR|= 30m. find the area of ∆𝑃𝑄𝑅 .
Solution:
𝑃 1300

30
0

50m 𝑅

30m
300 600

𝑞 2 = 502 + 302 (Pythagoras theorem) Q

⇨ 𝑞 ≅ 58𝑚
1
⇨ 𝑆 = 2 (50 + 30 + 58) = 69𝑚

⇨ ∇ = √69(39)(11)(19) ≅ 750𝑚2

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 29

Example2: A man travel from village A on the bearing of 060𝑜 to village B which is 20km away,
from village B he travel to village C on the bearing of 195𝑜 . If village C is directly east of village
A. find the solution of the triangle ABC.

Example3: Three villages P, Q and R are such that the distance between P and Q is 50km and
the distance between P and R is 90km, if the bearing of Q from P is 075𝑜 and the bearing of R
from P is 310𝑜 . Find the solution of the triangle PQR

Example4: In any triangle ABC, Show that

𝐴+𝐵 𝐶
𝑖) sin(90 + 𝐴) = − cos(𝐵 + 𝐶) 𝑖𝑖) sin ( ) = cos( )
2 2

Proof:
𝑖) sin(90 + 𝐴) = cos 𝐴 . . . (1)
But 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 108 ⇨ 𝐴 = 108 − (𝐵 + 𝐶)
⇨ cos 𝐴 = cos[180 − (𝐵 + 𝐶)]
⇨ cos 𝐴 = − cos(𝐵 + 𝐶) . . . (2)
From (1) and (2) we have that
sin(90 + 𝐴) = − cos(𝐵 + 𝐶)
Hence the proof

𝑖𝑖) 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 180𝑜
⇨ 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 180𝑜 − 𝐶
𝐴+𝐵 𝐶
⇨ ( 2
) = (90𝑜 − 2 )
𝐴+𝐵 𝐶
⇨ sin ( ) = sin (90𝑜 − 2 )
2
𝐴+𝐵 𝐶
⇨ sin (2
) = cos (2 )

Hence the proof

Example5: In any triangle ABC show that

𝐶 𝐴−𝐵 𝐴 𝐵
𝑖) cos 𝐴 + cos(𝐵 − 𝐶) = 2 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶 𝑖𝑖) cos (2 ) + sin ( 2
) = 2 sin ( 2 ) cos ( 2 )

Proof:
𝑖) cos 𝐴 + cos(𝐵 − 𝐶) . . . (1)
But 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 180𝑜
⇨ 𝐴 = 180𝑜 − (𝐵 + 𝐶)

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 30

⇨ cos 𝐴 = cos[180𝑜 − (𝐵 + 𝐶)] = − cos(𝐵 + 𝐶)
Substituting for cos 𝐴 in equation (1) we have
− cos(𝐵 + 𝐶. ) + cos(𝐵 − 𝐶)
Expanding and collecting like terms (or use factor formulae) we have
cos(𝐵 − 𝐶. ) − cos(𝐵 + 𝐶) = 2 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶
⇨ cos 𝐴 + cos(𝐵 − 𝐶) = 2 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶
Hence the proof

𝐶 𝐴−𝐵
𝑖𝑖) cos 2 + sin ( 2
)

But from example4ii we have that

𝐴+𝐵 𝐶
sin ( 2
) = cos(2 )
𝐶 𝐴−𝐵 𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵
⇨ cos (2 ) + sin ( 2
) = sin ( 2
)+ sin ( 2
)

Using the factor formulae we have

𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵 𝐴 𝐵
sin ( )+ sin ( ) = 2 sin ( ) cos ( )
2 2 2 2

Hence the proof

Example6: In any triangle ABC, show that

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝑖) sin 𝐴 + sin 𝐵 + sin 𝐶 = 4 cos ( ) cos ( ) cos ( )
2 2 2
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝑖𝑖) sin 𝐴 + sin 𝐵 − sin 𝐶 = 4 sin( ) sin( ) cos( )
2 2 2

Solution:
𝑖) sin 𝐴 + sin 𝐵 + sin 𝐶 = (sin 𝐴 + sin 𝐵) + sin 𝐶
𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵 𝐶 𝐶
= 2 sin ( ) sin ( )+ sin ( + )
2 2 2 2
𝐶 𝐴−𝐵 𝐶 𝐶
= 2 cos(2 ) cos( 2
)+ 2sin(2 ) cos(2 )
𝐶 𝐴−𝐵 𝐴+𝐵 𝐶
= 2 cos(2 ) cos( 2
)+ 2cos( 2
) cos(2 )
𝐶 𝐴−𝐵 𝐴+𝐵
= 2 cos (2 ) [cos( 2
)+ cos( 2
)]
𝐶 𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= 2 cos (2 ) [2 cos( 2 ) cos( 2 )] = 4 cos( ) cos( ) cos( )
2 2 2

Hence the proof

𝑖𝑖)Similar to 𝑖) above

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 31

Inverse trigonometric functions:
The equation sin 𝜃 = 𝑝 define a unique value of 𝑝 for each given angle 𝜃, but when 𝑝 is known,
the equation may have many solutions or no solution. To express 𝜃 as a function of 𝑝 we write
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sin 𝑝 , 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos 𝑝 or 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan 𝑝

Example1
1
sin 𝜃 = 2
1
⇨ 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sin(2)

⇨ 𝜃= . . . −690𝑜 , −570𝑜 , −330𝑜 , −210𝑜 , 30𝑜 , 150𝑜 , 390𝑜 , 510𝑜 , 750𝑜 ,. . .

Example2
sin 𝜃 = −0.515
⇨ 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sin(−0.515)
⇨ 𝜃= . . . , −149𝑜 , −31𝑜 , 30𝑜 , 211𝑜 , 329𝑜 , 571𝑜 . . .

Example3
1
cos 𝜃 =
√2
1
⇨ 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sin( )
√2

⇨ 𝜃= . . . −675𝑜 , −405𝑜 , −315𝑜 , −45𝑜 , 45𝑜 , 315𝑜 , 405𝑜 , 675𝑜 , . . .

Example4
3
cos 𝜃 = 2
3
⇨ 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sin(2) ⇨ 𝜃= ∞

⇨ there is no solution.

Example5
1
tan 𝜃 =
√3
1
⇨ 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan( )
√3

⇨ 𝜃= . . . −510𝑜 , −330𝑜 , −150𝑜 , −30𝑜 , 210𝑜 , 390𝑜 , 570𝑜 , 750𝑜 ,. . .

Example6: tan 𝜃 = −√3 ⇨ 𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan(−√3)

⇨ 𝜃 = . . . , −420𝑜 , −240𝑜 , −60𝑜 , 120𝑜 ,, 300𝑜 , 480𝑜 , . . .

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 32

Definition: It is necessary to consider the inverse trigonometric function as a singled valued. To
do these, it is generally agreed to select one out of many values corresponding to the given
values of 𝑝. This selected value is called the principal value.

Note: When only the principal value is called for, we write 𝐴𝑟𝑐 sin 𝑝 , 𝐴𝑟𝑐 cos 𝑝 , 𝐴𝑟𝑐 tan 𝑝
respectively.

Selecting the principal value:

1. When 𝑝 is positive or zero and the solution exist, the principal value is the value of 𝜃
𝜋
which lies between 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 inclusive.
2
𝜋
0 ≤ 𝐴𝑟𝑐 sin 𝑝 ≤ 2
𝜋
0 ≤ 𝐴𝑟𝑐 cos 𝑝 ≤2
𝜋
0 ≤ 𝐴𝑟𝑐 tan 𝑝 ≤2

2. When 𝑝 is negative and the solution exist

𝜋
− ≤ 𝐴𝑟𝑐 sin 𝑝 < 0
2
𝜋
2
≤ 𝐴𝑟𝑐 cos 𝑝 ≤ 𝜋
𝜋
−2 ≤ 𝐴𝑟𝑐 tan 𝑝 < 0

Example 1
1 1
𝑖) sin 𝜃 = ⇨ 𝜃 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐 sin ( ) = 30𝑜
2 2
1 1
𝑖𝑖) cos 𝜃 = ⇨ 𝜃 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐 cos( 2) = 45𝑜
√2 √
1 1
𝑖𝑖𝑖) tan 𝜃 = ⇨ 𝜃 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐 tan ( 3) = 30𝑜
√3 √

𝑖𝑣) sin 𝜃 = −0.515 ⇨ 𝜃 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐 sin(−0.515) = −31𝑜

1 1
𝑣) cos 𝜃 = − ⇨ 𝜃 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐 cos (− ) = 125.26𝑜
√3 √3

𝑣𝑖) tan 𝜃 = −√3 ⇨ 𝜃 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐 tan(−√3) = −60𝑜

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 33

General expression for angles with given trigonometric ratio:
The general expression for equations in which the trigonometric ratio of the unknown angles
occurs is given as follows.
1. sin 𝜃 = 𝑝 ⇨ 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜋 + (−1)𝑛 𝜃 𝐼 where 𝑛𝜀𝑍, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 𝐼 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
2. cos 𝜃 = 𝑝 ⇨ 𝜃 = 2𝑛𝜋 ± 𝜃 𝐼 where 𝑛𝜀𝑍, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 𝐼 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
3. tan 𝜃 = 𝑝 ⇨ 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜋 + 𝜃 𝐼 where 𝑛𝜀𝑍, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 𝐼 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

3𝜋
Example1: Given that 𝐴𝑟𝑐 tan 3𝑥 + 𝐴𝑟𝑐 tan 2𝑥 = 4
, find the value of 𝑥

Solution:
3𝜋
𝐴𝑟𝑐 tan 3𝑥 + 𝐴𝑟𝑐 tan 2𝑥 = 4
3𝜋
⇨ tan[𝐴𝑟𝑐 tan 3𝑥 + 𝐴𝑟𝑐 tan 2𝑥] = tan( 4 )
3𝑥+2𝑥 1
⇨ = −1 ⇨ 𝑥=1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥=−
1−(3𝑥)(2𝑥) 6

1 2 1
Example2: Show that 𝐴𝑟𝑐 tan 4 + 𝐴𝑟𝑐 tan 9 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐 tan 2

Solution:
1 2
𝐴𝑟𝑐 tan 4 + 𝐴𝑟𝑐 tan 9
1 2
1 2 + 1
4 9
⇨ tan [𝐴𝑟𝑐 tan + 𝐴𝑟𝑐 tan ] = 1 2 =
4 9 1−( )( ) 2
4 9

1 2 1
⇨ 𝐴𝑟𝑐 tan 4 + 𝐴𝑟𝑐 tan 9 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐 tan 2

Hence the proof

1 1
Example3: Evaluate 𝐴𝑟𝑐 sin + 𝐴𝑟𝑐 sin
√5 √10

Solution:
1 1
Let 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐 sin 𝐵 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐 sin
√5 √10
1 1
⇨ sin 𝐴 = sin 𝐵 =
√5 √10
1 1
⇨ sin2 𝐴 = 5 sin2 𝐵 = 10

4 9
⇨ cos2 𝐴 = cos2 𝐵 =
5 10
2 3
⇨ cos 𝐴 = cos 𝐵 =
√5 √10

⇨ sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 + cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 34

 1 3 2 1 1
⇨ sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) = ( ∗ )( ∗ ) =
√5 √10 √5 √10 √2
1
⇨ sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) =
√2
1
⇨ 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐 sin( 2)
√
1 1 1
𝐴𝑟𝑐 sin + 𝐴𝑟𝑐 sin = 𝐴𝑟𝑐 sin
√5 √10 √2

Hence the proof

1
Example1: Find the value of 𝑥 given that 𝐴𝑟𝑐 tan(2𝑥 + 1) − 𝐴𝑟𝑐 tan(2𝑥 − 1) = 𝐴𝑟𝑐 tan( 8 )

Solution:

Trigonometric Equations:
Here we shall consider and solve equations in which the trigonometric ratios of the unknown
angles occur. The solution of such equations can be reduce to the solution of one or more
equations of the form sin 𝜃 = 𝑝, cos 𝜃 = 𝑝, ortan 𝜃 = 𝑝,

Example1. Find the solution of 8 cos 2 𝑥 + 6 sin 𝑥 − 9 = 0 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋

Solution:
8 cos2 𝑥 + 6 sin 𝑥 − 9 = 0
⇨ 8(1 − sin2 𝑥) + 6 sin 𝑥 − 9 = 0
⇨ 8 sin2 𝑥 − 6 sin 𝑥 + 1 = 0
Let sin 𝑥 = 𝑡
⇨ 8𝑡 2 − 6𝑡 + 1 = 0
⇨ (4𝑡 − 1)(2𝑡 − 1) = 0
1 1
⇨ 𝑡 = 4 𝑜𝑟 𝑡 = 2
1 1
⇨ sin 𝑥 = 4 𝑜𝑟 sin 𝑥 = 2
1 1
⇨ 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐 sin 4 = 14.48𝑜 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐 sin 2 = 30𝑜

⇨ 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋 + (−1)𝑛 14.48𝑜 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋 + (−1)𝑛 30𝑜

⇨ 𝑥 = 14.48𝑜 , 165.52𝑜 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 30𝑜 , 150𝑜
Hence the required solution is 𝑥 = 14.48𝑜 , 30𝑜 , 150𝑜 165.52𝑜

Example2: Solve the equation 2 cos 2 𝑥 = 2 − sin 𝑥 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋

Solution:
2 cos2 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 − 2 = 0
⇨ 2(1 − sin2 𝑥) + sin 𝑥 − 2 = 0

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 35

⇨ 2 sin2 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 = 0
Let sin 𝑥 = 𝑡
⇨ 2𝑡 2 − 𝑡 = 0
⇨ 𝑡(2𝑡 − 1) = 0
1
⇨ 𝑡 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑡 =
2
1
⇨ sin 𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 sin 𝑥 = 2
1
⇨ 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐 sin 0 = 0𝑜 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐 sin 2 = 30𝑜

⇨ 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋 + (−1)𝑛 0𝑜 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 𝑛𝜋 + (−1)𝑛 30𝑜

⇨ 𝑥 = 0𝑜 , 180𝑜 , 360𝑜 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 30𝑜 , 150𝑜
Hence the required solutions are 𝑥 = 0𝑜 , 30𝑜 , 150𝑜 , 180𝑜 , 360𝑜 ,

Exercises: Solve the following equations for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋

1. 3 sin2 𝑥 + 2 cos 𝑥 + 1 = 0
2. 4 tan2 𝑥 + 5 tan 𝑥 + 1 = 0
3. 3 sec 2 𝑥 = 2 tan 𝑥 + 4 = 0
4. sin 2𝑥 = tan 𝑥
5. cos 2𝑥 = cos 𝑥

Expression of the form 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 + 𝒃 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽

Expression of the form 𝑎 cos 𝜃 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃 may be written in the form involving either the sine or
cosine of the other angle, i.e. we can either express 𝑎 cos 𝜃 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃 in the form,
𝑅 sin(𝜃 ± 𝛼) 𝑜𝑟 𝑅 cos(𝜃 ± 𝛼) where 𝑅 is a constant.
𝒂) The form 𝑹𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽 + 𝜶)
If 𝑎 cos 𝜃 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃 = 𝑅 sin(𝜃 + 𝛼)
⇨ 𝑎 cos 𝜃 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃 = 𝑅[sin 𝜃 cos 𝛼 + cos 𝜃 sin 𝛼]
⇨ 𝑎 cos 𝜃 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃 = 𝑅 cos 𝜃 sin 𝛼 + 𝑅 sin 𝜃 cos 𝛼]
Comparing the coefficients we have
𝑎 = 𝑅 sin 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 𝑅 cos 𝛼
⇨ 𝑎2 = 𝑅 2 sin2 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 2 = 𝑅 2 cos 2 𝛼
⇨ 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑅 2 [sin2 𝛼 + cos2 𝛼] = 𝑅 2
⇨ 𝑅 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
𝑎
𝑎 = 𝑅 sin 𝛼 𝑏 = 𝑅 cos 𝛼 tan 𝛼 = 𝑏

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 36

 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎
⇨ sin 𝛼 = 𝑅 ⇨ cos 𝛼 = 𝑅 tan 𝛼 = 𝑏
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎
⇨ 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sin (𝑅) ⇨ 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos (𝑅) 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan (𝑏 )

Example1: Express the following in the form 𝑅 sin(𝜃 + 𝛼)

𝑖) 3 cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜃 𝑖𝑖) 3 cos 𝜃 − 2 sin 𝜃
Solution:
𝑖) 3 cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜃 = 𝑅 sin(𝜃 + 𝛼)
𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = 1 ⇨ 𝑅 = √10
3 3
⇨ sin 𝛼 = ⇨ 𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( ) ≈ 720 ,
√10 √10
1 1
cos 𝛼 = ⇨ 𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) ≈ 720
√10 √10
3 3
tan 𝛼 = 1 ⇨ 𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 (1) ≈ 720

Hence 3 cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜃 = 𝑅 sin(𝜃 + 720 )

𝑖𝑖) 3 cos 𝜃 − 2 sin 𝜃 = 𝑅 sin(𝜃 + 𝛼)

𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = −2 ⇨ 𝑅 = √13
3 3
⇨ sin 𝛼 = ⇨ 𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑆𝑖𝑛 ( ) ≈ 560,
√13 √13
−2 −2
cos 𝛼 = ⇨ 𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) ≈ 560
√13 √13
3 3
tan 𝛼 = −2 ⇨ 𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 (−2) ≈ 560

Hence 3 cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜃 = 𝑅 sin(𝜃 + 560 )

𝒃)The form 𝑹𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜽 − 𝜶)

If 𝑎 cos 𝜃 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃 = 𝑅 sin(𝜃 − 𝛼)
⇨ 𝑎 cos 𝜃 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃 = 𝑅[sin 𝜃 cos 𝛼 − cos 𝜃 sin 𝛼]
⇨ 𝑎 cos 𝜃 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃 = −𝑅 sin 𝛼 cos 𝜃 + 𝑅 cos 𝛼 sin 𝜃]
Comparing the coefficients we have
𝑎 = −𝑅 sin 𝛼 𝑏 = 𝑅 cos 𝛼
⇨ 𝑎2 = 𝑅 2 sin2 𝛼 ⇨ 𝑏 2 = 𝑅 2 cos 2 𝛼
⇨ 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑅 2 [sin2 𝛼 + cos 2 𝛼] = 𝑅 2
⇨ 𝑅 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
𝑎
𝑎 = −𝑅 sin 𝛼 𝑏 = 𝑅 cos 𝛼 tan 𝛼 = − 𝑏
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎
⇨ sin 𝛼 = − 𝑅 ⇨ cos 𝛼 = 𝑅 ⇨ tan 𝛼 = − 𝑏

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 37

 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎
⇨ 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sin(− 𝑅) ⇨ 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos(𝑅) ⇨ 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan(− 𝑏 )

Example1: Express the following in the form 𝑅 sin(𝜃 − 𝛼)

𝑖) 2 sin 𝜃 − 3 cos 𝜃 𝑖𝑖) cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃
Solution:
𝑖) 2 sin 𝜃 − 3 cos 𝜃 = −3 cos 𝜃 + 2 sin 𝜃 = 𝑅 sin(𝜃 + 𝛼)
𝑎 = −3, 𝑏 = 2 ⇨ 𝑅 = √13
3 2 3
⇨ sin 𝛼 = cos 𝛼 = tan 𝛼 = 2
√13 √13
3 2 3
⇨ 𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) ≈ 560 , ⇨ 𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) ≈ 560 ⇨ 𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) ≈ 560
√13 √13 2

Hence 3 cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜃 = 𝑅 sin(𝜃 + 560 )

𝑖𝑖) cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 = 𝑅 sin(𝜃 − 𝛼)

𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = −1 ⇨ 𝑅 = √2
1 −1
⇨ sin 𝛼 = − cos 𝛼 = tan 𝛼 = 1
√2 √2
1 −1
⇨ 𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 (− ) ≈ −450 ⇨ 𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 2) ≈ 1350 ⇨ 𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛(1) ≈ 450
√2 √

Hence 3 cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜃 = 𝑅 sin(𝜃 + 2250 )

𝒄) The form 𝑹𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽 + 𝜶)

If 𝑎 cos 𝜃 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃 = 𝑅 cos(𝜃 + 𝛼)
⇨ 𝑎 cos 𝜃 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃 = 𝑅[cos 𝜃 cos 𝛼 − sin 𝜃 sin 𝛼]
⇨ 𝑎 cos 𝜃 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃 = 𝑅 cos 𝛼 cos 𝜃 − 𝑅 sin 𝛼 sin 𝜃]
Comparing the coefficients we have
𝑎 = 𝑅 cos 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = −𝑅 sin 𝛼
⇨ 𝑎2 = 𝑅 2 cos2 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 2 = 𝑅 2 sin2 𝛼
⇨ 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑅 2 [sin2 𝛼 + cos2 𝛼] = 𝑅 2
⇨ 𝑅 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
𝑏
𝑎 = 𝑅 cos 𝛼 𝑏 = −𝑅 sin 𝛼 tan 𝛼 = −
𝑎
𝑎 𝑏 𝑏
⇨ cos 𝛼 = 𝑅 ⇨ sin 𝛼 = − 𝑅 tan 𝛼 = − 𝑎
𝑎 𝑏 𝑏
⇨ 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos(𝑅) 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sin(− 𝑅) 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan(− 𝑎)

Example1: Express the following in the form 𝑅 sin(𝜃 − 𝛼)

𝑖) 3 cos 𝜃 − 4 sin 𝜃 𝑖𝑖) sin 𝜃 + 3 cos 𝜃

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 38

Solution:
𝑖) 3 cos 𝜃 − 4 sin 𝜃 = 𝑅 sin(𝜃 + 𝛼)
𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = −4 ⇨ 𝑅 = √25 = 5
4 3 4
⇨ sin 𝛼 = cos 𝛼 = tan 𝛼 =
5 5 3
4 3 4
⇨ 𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 (5) ≈ 530 ⇨ 𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 (5) ≈ 530 ⇨ 𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 (3) ≈ 530

Hence 3 cos 𝜃 − 4 sin 𝜃 = 𝑅 sin(𝜃 + 530 )

𝑖𝑖) sin 𝜃 + 3 cos 𝜃 = 3 cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜃 = 𝑅 sin(𝜃 − 𝛼)

𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = 1 ⇨ 𝑅 = √10
1 3 1
⇨ sin 𝛼 = − cos 𝛼 = tan 𝛼 = − 3
√10 √10
1
⇨ 𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 (− ) ≈ −180
√10
3
⇨ 𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) ≈ 180
√10
1
⇨ 𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 (− 3) ≈ −180

Hence sin 𝜃 + 3 cos 𝜃 = 𝑅 sin(𝜃 + 3410 )

𝒅) The form 𝑹𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝜽 − 𝜶)

If 𝑎 cos 𝜃 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃 = 𝑅 cos(𝜃 − 𝛼)
⇨ 𝑎 cos 𝜃 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃 = 𝑅[cos 𝜃 cos 𝛼 + sin 𝜃 sin 𝛼]
⇨ 𝑎 cos 𝜃 + 𝑏 sin 𝜃 = 𝑅 cos 𝛼 cos 𝜃 + 𝑅 sin 𝛼 sin 𝜃]
Comparing the coefficients we have
𝑎 = 𝑅 cos 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 𝑅 sin 𝛼
⇨ 𝑎2 = 𝑅 2 cos2 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 2 = 𝑅 2 sin2 𝛼
⇨ 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = 𝑅 2 [sin2 𝛼 + cos 2 𝛼] = 𝑅 2
⇨ 𝑅 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
𝑎 𝑏 𝑏
𝑎 = 𝑅 cos 𝛼 ⇨ cos 𝛼 = 𝑏 = 𝑅 sin 𝛼 ⇨ sin 𝛼 = and tan 𝛼 =
𝑅 𝑅 𝑎
𝑎 𝑏 𝑏
⇨ 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 cos( ) 𝑜𝑟 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 sin( ) 𝑜𝑟 𝛼 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan( )
𝑅 𝑅 𝑎

Example1: Express the following in the form 𝑅 sin(𝜃 − 𝛼)

𝑖) 4 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 𝑖𝑖) 7 sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃
Solution:
𝑖) 4 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 = 𝑅 sin(𝜃 + 𝛼)
𝑎 = 4, 𝑏 = −1 ⇨ 𝑅 = √17

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 39

 −1 −1
⇨ sin 𝛼 = ⇨ 𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑖𝑛 ( ) ≈ −140
√17 √17
4 4
cos 𝛼 = ⇨ 𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) ≈ 140
√17 √17
−1 −1
tan 𝛼 = ⇨ 𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) ≈ −140
4 4

Hence 3 cos 𝜃 − 4 sin 𝜃 = 𝑅 sin(𝜃 + 3460 )

𝑖𝑖) 7 sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 7 sin 𝜃 = 𝑅 sin(𝜃 − 𝛼)

𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 7 ⇨ 𝑅 = √50 = 5√2
7 7
⇨ sin 𝛼 = 5 ⇨ 𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 (5 2) ≈ 820
√2 √
1 1
cos 𝛼 = ⇨ 𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) ≈ 820
5√2 5√2
7
tan 𝛼 = 1 ⇨ 𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛(7) ≈ 820

Hence 7 sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃 = 𝑅 sin(𝜃 + 820 )

The equation 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 ± 𝒃 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = 𝒄 :

Equation of the type 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 ± 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑐, where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are constants, may be solved by solving
the expression of the form 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 ± 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 in the form 𝑅 cos(𝜃 ∓ 𝛽) or 𝑅 sin(𝜃 ± 𝛽). If we
always write the equation with a positive, we need only use the first form.

Example1: Find the value of 𝜃 between 0 and 360𝑜 which satisfy the equations

𝑖) 3 cos 𝜃 − 4 sin 𝜃 = −2.5 𝑖𝑖) − 7 sin 𝜃 + 24 cos 𝜃 = 12.5

Solution:
𝑖) 3 cos 𝜃 − 4 sin 𝜃 = 𝑅 sin(𝜃 + 𝛼) = −2.5
𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = −4 ⇨ 𝑅 = √25 = 5
3 3
⇨ sin 𝛼 = 5 ⇨ 𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 (5) ≈ 370
−4 −4
cos 𝛼 = 5
⇨ 𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 5 ) ≈ 1430
3 3
tan 𝛼 = ⇨ 𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) ≈ −370 = 1430
−4 −4

Hence 3 cos 𝜃 − 4 sin 𝜃 = 5 sin(𝜃 + 1430 ) = −2.5

⇒ 5 sin(𝜃 + 1430 ) = −2.5
⇒ sin(𝜃 + 1430 ) = −0.5
1
⇒ 𝜃 + 1430 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 (− 2) = −30𝑜

⇒ 𝜃 + 1430 = −30𝑜
⇒ 𝜃 = −30𝑜 − 1430 = −173𝑜 = 1870

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 40

𝑖) − 7 sin 𝜃 + 24 cos 𝜃 = 24 cos 𝜃 − 7 sin 𝜃 = 𝑅 sin(𝜃 + 𝛼) = 12.5
⇒ 24 cos 𝜃 − 7 sin 𝜃 = 𝑅 sin(𝜃 + 𝛼) = 12.5
𝑎 = 24, 𝑏 = −7 ⇨ 𝑅 = √625 = 25
24 24
⇨ sin 𝛼 = 25 ⇨ 𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 (25) ≈ 740
−7 −7
cos 𝛼 = 25
⇨ 𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 25 ) ≈ 1060
24 24
tan 𝛼 = −7 ⇨ 𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 (−7) ≈ −740 = 1060

Hence 24 cos 𝜃 − 7 sin 𝜃 = 25 sin(𝜃 + 1060 ) = 12.5

⇒ 25 sin(𝜃 + 1060 ) = 12.5
⇒ sin(𝜃 + 1060 ) = 0.5
⇒ 𝜃 + 1060 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛(0.5) = 30𝑜
⇒ 𝜃 + 1060 = 30𝑜
⇒ 𝜃 = 30𝑜 − 1060 = −76𝑜 = 1040

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 41

 Section B
− Exponential functions and Logarithmic functions:
− Algebraic functions and Rational functions:

Course Outline:
Exponential functions: Definition of 𝑎 𝑥 for any positive number a and any real number 𝑥,
graphs of exponential functions, Laws of Exponents(indices), the number 𝑒, Natural exponential
function.
Logarithmic functions: Definition of 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 for any positive number a and any positive real
number 𝑥, graphs of logarithmic functions, Laws of Logarithms, the number 𝑒, Natural
logarithmic function.
Algebraic functions: Polynomials, Division algorithms, Long division, Synthetic division, Factor
theorem, remainder theorem.
Rational functions: Asymptotes, Partial fraction decomposition, Roots of a rational functions,
finding the domain.

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 42

 a) Index functions:
Definition: Any function of the form
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 . . . (1)

Is called an exponential function, where 𝑎 is any positive real number called the base, and 𝑥 is
any real number called the index (or exponent or power).

2 𝑥 5 −𝑥
Example: 𝑖) 𝑦 = 2𝑥 𝑖𝑖) 𝑦 = (3) 𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑦 = 2−(𝑥+1) 𝑖𝑣) 𝑦 = (2)

Laws of Indices;
For any positive real numbers 𝑎, 𝑏, and any real numbers 𝑥, and 𝑦, the following postulate hold
For any positive number 𝑎, 𝑏, and any real numbers 𝑥, and 𝑦, the following postulate hold good.

1) 𝑎 𝑥 ∗ 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥+𝑦

Proof:
𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ . . . ∗ 𝑎 (𝑥 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠)𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ . . . ∗ 𝑎 (𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠)
⇨ (𝑎 𝑥 ) ∗ (𝑎 𝑦 ) = [𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ . . . ∗ 𝑎 (𝑥 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠)][𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ . . . ∗ 𝑎 (𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠)
= 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ . . . ∗ 𝑎 (𝑥 + 𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠)
= 𝑎 𝑥+𝑦
𝑎𝑥
2) 𝑎𝑦
= 𝑎 𝑥−𝑦

Proof:

𝑎𝑥 𝑎∗𝑎∗𝑎∗ . . . ∗𝑎 (𝑥 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠)
= 𝑎∗𝑎∗𝑎∗
𝑎𝑦 . . . ∗𝑎 (𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠)

= 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ . . .∗ 𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠)

= 𝑎 𝑥−𝑦

3) (𝑎 𝑥 )𝑦 = (𝑎 𝑦 )𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑥𝑦

Proof:
𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ . . . ∗ 𝑎 (𝑥 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠)
(𝑎 𝑥 )𝑦 = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ . . . ∗ 𝑎 (𝑥 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠))(𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ . . . ∗ 𝑎 (𝑥 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠)) . . .
(𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ . . . ∗ 𝑎 (𝑥 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠))(𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠)
= (𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ . . . ∗ 𝑎 (𝑥𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠) = 𝑎 𝑥𝑦

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 43

4) 𝑎0 = 1

Proof:

The proof follows from (2) when 𝑥 = 𝑦

1
5) 𝑎−𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥

Proof:

𝑎 𝑥 ∗ 𝑎−𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑥+(−𝑥) from (1)

⇨ 𝑎 𝑥 ∗ 𝑎−𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑥+(−𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥−𝑥 = 𝑎0 = 1 . . . (a)

1 𝑎𝑥
Also 𝑎 𝑥 ∗ (𝑎𝑥 ) = 𝑎𝑥 = 1 . . . (b)

1
From (a) and (b) we have that 𝑎−𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥

Hence the proof

𝑎𝑥 𝑎 𝑥
6) 𝑏𝑥
= (𝑏 ) and 𝑎 𝑥 ∗ 𝑏 𝑥 = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏)𝑥

7) If 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑦
1 𝑚
𝑛 𝑛
8) 𝑎𝑛 = √𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 𝑛 = ( √𝑎)𝑚

The graph of exponential function:

1) This is a typical graph of Index function 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 > 1.
If 𝑎 > 1 and 𝑥1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 are real numbers such that 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 ,then 𝑎 𝑥1 < 𝑎 𝑥2 i.e.
𝑓(𝑥1 ) < 𝑓(𝑥2 )
⇨ If 𝑎 > 1, then 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 is increasing throughout its domain.

𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥

𝑎>1
1
𝑥
0

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 44

Observation: If 𝑎 > 1, we can observe that, as 𝑥 decreases through negative values, the graph
approaches the 𝑥-axis but never intersect it since ax> 0 for all 𝑥. That means that the 𝑥-axis
is a horizontal asymptote for the graph. As 𝑥 increases through positive values, the graph rises
very rapidly.
The 𝑦-intercept is always equal to 1, since 𝑎0 = 1.

2) This is a typical graph of exponential function 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝑎 < 1.

If 0 < 𝑎 < 1. and 𝑥1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 are real numbers such that 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 , then 𝑎 𝑥1 > 𝑎 𝑥2
i.e. 𝑓(𝑥1 ) > 𝑓(𝑥2 )
⇨ If 0 < 𝑎 < 1, then 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 is decreasing throughout its domain.

𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥
𝑜<𝑎<1

𝑥
𝑂

Observation: If0 < 𝑎 < 1, we can observe that, as 𝑥 increases through the positive values the

graph approaches the 𝑥-axis but never intersect it. Here also the 𝑥-axis is the horizontal

asymptote for the graph. As 𝑥 decreases through the negative values the graph rises rapidly.

The 𝑦-intercept is always equal to 1, since 𝑎0 = 1

1 𝑛
The number e: The quantity 𝑒 is defined as being the limit of (1 + 𝑛) as 𝑛 → ∞, and its

value is approximated to be 2.7182818281828 . . .

The Index function with base 𝑒 is called natural Index.
e.g. 𝑦 = 𝑒 3𝑥+1

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 45

Normal and Index form of writing numbers
Normal form Index form Normal form Index form Normal form Index form
2 2 1 3 31 5 51
4 22 9 32 25 52
8 2 3 27 33 125 53
16 2 4 81 34 625 54
32 25 243 35 3125 55
64 2 6 729 36 15625 56
. . . . . .
. . . . . .

Examples:
𝒂) index expression:
Simplify the following index expressions;
2 1 1 1
𝑖) (64)3 × (9)2 × (2)−3 𝑖𝑖) (125)−3 × (49)−2 × 100
Solution:
2 1 1 1
𝑖) (64)3 × (9)2 × (2)−3 𝑖𝑖) (125)−3 × (49)−2 × 100
2 1 1 1
= (26 )3 × (32 )2 × (2)−3 = (53 )−3 × (72 )−2
= 24 × 3 × 2−3 = 5−1 × 7−1
1 1
= 24 × 2−3 × 3 = 5×7
1
= 2×3=6 = 35

Exercises:
Simplify the following index expressions .
1 1 1 3 1
𝑖) (0.027)−3 𝑖𝑖) (125)−3 × (64)3 × 810 𝑖𝑖𝑖) (625)8 × (5)2 ÷ 25
1
1 1 1 4 −2 1 −2 1
𝑖𝑣) (27)−3 × (64)−2 × 4−2 𝑣) (25) × (2)4 ÷ (8) 𝑣𝑖) × (9)𝑛−1 × (27)𝑛+1
35𝑛
2 2
4√3 ×16√3 1 1
0 (27)3 ×(32)−5
𝑣𝑖𝑖) 𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖) (8) × (25) × 8
3 2 𝑖𝑥) 1 𝑥) (27)𝑚+2 × (4)𝑚 ÷ 62𝑚
43√3−1 (64) −
2

𝑛
𝑚−
1 3 3 1 𝑎 3 ×𝑏 3𝑚−𝑛
𝑥𝑖) 2𝑎−2 × 𝑡 2 ÷ 2𝑎−2 × 𝑡 −2 𝑥𝑖𝑖) 3 𝑚3 𝑛
(𝑎𝑏 ) √𝑎

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 46

𝒃) Index equations:
Example1: Solve the following index equations.
𝑖) 3𝑥 = 81 𝑖𝑖) 42𝑥 = 26𝑥−2 𝑖𝑖𝑖) 2𝑥 + 2𝑥−1 = 48

Solution:
𝑖) 3𝑥 = 81 𝑖𝑖) 42𝑥 = 26𝑥−2 (iii) 2𝑥 + 2𝑥−1 = 48
⇨ 3𝑥 = 34 ⇨ (22 )2𝑥 = 26𝑥−2 ⇨ 2𝑥 + (2𝑥 )(2−1 ) = 48
⇨ 𝑥=4 ⇨ 6𝑥 − 2 = 4𝑥 ⇨ 2(2𝑥 ) + 2𝑥 = 96
⇨ 𝑥=1 ⇨ 3(2𝑥 ) = 96
⇨ 2𝑥 = 32 = 25 ⇨ 𝑥 = 5
Exercises:
Solve the following index equations.
1 1
𝑖) 42𝑥−1 − 8 = 0 𝑖𝑖) 4𝑥 = 4√2 𝑖𝑖𝑖) 4𝑥 = 0.25 𝑖𝑣) 9𝑥 = 729

𝑣) 32𝑥 = 0.5 𝑣𝑖) 8𝑥 = 0.25 𝑣𝑖𝑖) 10𝑥 = 0.0001 𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖) 32𝑥 = 243
1
𝑖𝑥) 4𝑥 = 22 × 8 𝑥) 32(𝑥+1) = 27𝑥 𝑥𝑖) 5𝑥−1 = 0.2 𝑥𝑖𝑖) 23𝑥+1 = 1
𝑥 3 3
81𝑥−2 1 92𝑥−3
𝑥𝑖𝑖𝑖) 92𝑥−1 = 3𝑥
𝑥𝑖𝑣) 81𝑥−2
= 271−𝑥 𝑥𝑣) 3𝑥+3
=1 𝑥𝑣𝑖) 82 = 28 × 44

𝑥𝑣𝑖𝑖) 92𝑥−1 × 33𝑥+1 = 27𝑥+3

𝒄) index equations reducible to quadratic equation:

Example1: Solve the following index equations.
𝑖) 2(22𝑥 ) − 5(2𝑥 ) + 2 = 0 𝑖𝑖) 22𝑥 + 4(2𝑥 ) − 32 = 0

Solution:
𝑖) 2(22𝑥 ) − 5(2𝑥 ) + 2 = 0 𝑖𝑖) 22𝑥 + 4(2𝑥 ) − 32 = 0
⇨ 2(2𝑥 )2 − 5(2𝑥 ) + 2 = 0 ⇨ (2𝑥 )2 + 4(2𝑥 ) − 32 = 0
Let 2𝑥 = 𝑡 Let 2𝑥 = 𝑡
⇨ 2𝑡 2 − 5𝑡 + 2 = 0 ⇨ 𝑡 2 + 4𝑡 − 32 = 0
⇨ (2𝑡 − 1)(𝑡 − 2) = 0 ⇨ (𝑡 − 4)(𝑡 + 8) = 0
1
⇨ 𝑡 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑡 = 2 ⇨ 𝑡 = 4 𝑜𝑟 𝑡 = −8
1
⇨ 2𝑥 = 2 𝑜𝑟 2𝑥 = 2 ⇨ 2𝑥 = 4

⇨ 2𝑥 = 2−1 𝑜𝑟 2𝑥 = 21 ⇨ 2 𝑥 = 22
⇨ 𝑥 = −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 1 ⇨ 𝑥=2

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 47

Exercises:
Solve the following equations:
𝑖) 2𝑥 + 2−𝑥 = 2 𝑖𝑖) 22(𝑥+1) + 8 = 33(2𝑥 ) 𝑖𝑖𝑖) 22𝑥+1 − 15(2𝑥 ) = 8

𝑖𝑣) 32(𝑥−1) − 8(3𝑥−2 ) = 1 𝑣) 4𝑥 − 6(2𝑥 ) − 16 = 0 𝑣𝑖) 32𝑥+1 + 26(3𝑥 ) − 9 = 0

2 1 2
𝑣𝑖𝑖) 22𝑥 − 5(2𝑥 ) + 4 = 0 𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖) 2𝑥 − 4 (8𝑥 ) = 0 𝑖𝑥) 3𝑥 = 9𝑥+4

𝑥) 22𝑥+1 − 9(2𝑥 ) + 4 = 0 𝑥𝑖) 2𝑥+3 − 15 = 21−𝑥 𝑥𝑖𝑖) 3𝑥 + 31−𝑥 = 4

𝑥𝑖𝑖𝑖) 4(4𝑥 − 2𝑥 + 1) = 2𝑥 𝑥𝑖𝑣) 32𝑥−3 − 4(3𝑥−2 ) + 1 = 0 𝑥𝑣) 52𝑥 + 1 = 26(5𝑥−1 )

𝑥𝑣𝑖) 9𝑥 − 4(3𝑥 ) + 3 = 0 𝑥𝑣𝑖𝑖) 27𝑥−3 = 3(9𝑥−2 ) 𝑥𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖) 6(3𝑥 + 3−𝑥 ) = 20

𝑥𝑖𝑥) 32𝑥 − 3𝑥+2 = 3𝑥+1 − 27 𝑥𝑥) 52𝑥 + 1 = 26(5𝑥−1 )

𝒅) Index equations reducible to simultaneous linear equations:

Example1: Solve the following simultaneous index equations

𝑖) 2𝑥+𝑦 = 8 𝑖𝑖) 2𝑥−𝑦 = 8
. 32𝑥−𝑦 = 27 23𝑥−𝑦 = 128

Solution:

𝑖) 2𝑥+𝑦 = 8 𝑖𝑖) 2𝑥−𝑦 = 8

. 32𝑥−𝑦 = 27 23𝑥−𝑦 = 128

⇨ 2𝑥+𝑦 = 23 ⇨ 2𝑥−𝑦 = 23
and 32𝑥−𝑦 = 33 and 23𝑥−𝑦 = 27
⇨ 𝑥+𝑦 =3 ⇨ 𝑥−𝑦 =3
and 2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 3 and 3𝑥 − 𝑦 = 7
⇨ 𝑥 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 1 ⇨ 𝑥 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 1

Exercises:

𝑖) 84−𝑥 = 21−𝑦 𝑖𝑖) 3𝑥+𝑦 = 9𝑥+𝑦 𝑖𝑖𝑖) 3𝑥 = 9𝑦

. 3𝑥+1 = 9−𝑦 2𝑥−𝑦 = 8𝑥−3 4𝑥𝑦 = 2𝑥+𝑦

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 48

b) Logarithmic functions:

Definition1: Any function of the form

𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 . . . (2)
is called a logarithmic function, where 𝑎, is any positive number called the base, and 𝑥 is any
positive real number.
Examples:

𝑖) 𝑦 = log 2 𝑥 𝑖𝑖) 𝑦 = log 4 ( 5 + 𝑥 ) 𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑦 = log 6 ( 2𝑥 − 3 )

Definition2: if 𝑥 is any positive real number, then the unique exponent 𝑦 such that
𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑥 is called the logarithm of 𝑥 with base a denoted 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥
Note: To every logarithmic equation there is a corresponding exponential equation.

⇨ if 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 , then 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑥

e.g. log 2 8 = 3 ⇨ 23 = 8. log 7 49 = 2 ⇨ 72 = 49.

1
log 4 2 = 12 ⇨ 42 = 2. log10 1000 = 3 ⇨ 103 = 1000.

Law of logarithms:
If M and N are any positive real numbers, and 𝑎 is a positive real number, then the following
Postulates hold good.

1) log 𝑎 𝑎 = 1 and log 𝑎 1 = 0.

Proof:
The proof follows from definition 2.

2) log 𝑎 𝑀𝑁 = log 𝑎 𝑀 + log 𝑎 𝑁

Proof:
Let log 𝑎 𝑀 = 𝑝 ⇨ 𝑎𝑝 = 𝑀 . . . (1)
And log 𝑎 𝑁 = 𝑞 ⇨ 𝑎𝑞 = 𝑁 . . . (2)
⇨ 𝑀𝑁 = 𝑎𝑝 ∗ 𝑎𝑞 = 𝑎𝑝+𝑞 ( from rules of exponent ) . . . (3)
Taking log to base 𝑎 on both side of equation (3)
⇨ log 𝑎 𝑀𝑁 = log 𝑎 𝑎𝑝+𝑞 .
⇨ log 𝑎 𝑀𝑁 = 𝑝 + 𝑞 (from definition 2)
⇨ log 𝑎 𝑀𝑁 = log 𝑎 𝑀 + log 𝑎 𝑁

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 49

 𝑀
3) log 𝑎 ( 𝑁 ) = log 𝑎 𝑀 − log 𝑎 𝑁

Proof:
Let log 𝑎 𝑀 = 𝑝 ⇨𝑎𝑝 = 𝑀 . . . (1)
And log 𝑎 𝑁 = 𝑞 ⇨ 𝑎𝑞 = 𝑁 . . . (2)

𝑀 𝑎𝑝
⇨ 𝑁
= 𝑎𝑞 = 𝑎𝑝−𝑞 (from rules of exponent)
𝑀
⇨ 𝑁
= 𝑎𝑝−𝑞 . . . (3)

Taking log to base a on both side of equation (3)

𝑀 𝑀
⇨ log 𝑎 ( 𝑁 ) = log 𝑎 𝑎𝑝−𝑞 ⇨ log 𝑎 ( 𝑁 ) = 𝑝 − 𝑞
𝑀
⇨ log 𝑎 ( 𝑁 ) = log 𝑎 𝑀 − log 𝑎 𝑁

4) log 𝑎 𝑀𝑘 = 𝑘 log 𝑎 𝑀 where k is any arbitrary constant.

Proof;
Let log 𝑎 𝑀 = 𝑝 ⇨ 𝑎𝑝 = 𝑀
⇨ 𝑀 = 𝑎𝑝
⇨ 𝑀𝑘 = 𝑎𝑝𝑘
Taking log to base 𝑎 on both side
⇨ log 𝑎 𝑀𝑘 = log 𝑎 𝑎𝑘𝑝
⇨ log 𝑎 𝑀𝑘 = (kp)log 𝑎 𝑎 = 𝑘𝑝 ⇨ log 𝑎 𝑀𝑘 = 𝑘 log 𝑎 𝑀
5) If log 𝑎 𝑀 = log 𝑎 𝑁 , then 𝑀 = 𝑁

6) Change of base.
log𝑏 𝑀
log 𝑎 𝑀 =
log𝑏 𝑎

Proof:
Let log 𝑎 𝑀 = 𝑥 ⇨ 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑀
Taking log to base 𝑏 on both side
⇨ log 𝑏 𝑎 𝑥 = log 𝑏 𝑀
⇨ 𝑥 log 𝑏 𝑎 = log 𝑏 𝑀
log𝑏 𝑀
⇨ 𝑥= log𝑏 𝑎
,
log𝑏 𝑀
⇨ log 𝑎 𝑀 = log𝑏 𝑎
,

Hence the proof

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 50

The nature of graph of logarithmic function:
1) This is a typical graph of logarithmic function 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 or 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑦 for 𝑎 > 1.

If 𝑎 > 1 and 𝑦1 and 𝑦2 are real numbers such that 𝑦1 <𝑦2 , then 𝑎 𝑦1 < 𝑎 𝑦2 i.e.

𝑓(𝑦1 ) < 𝑓(𝑦2 )

⇨ If 𝑎 > 1, then 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑦 is increasing throughout its domain (i.e. as 𝑦 increases, 𝑥 increases).

𝑦
𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥

𝑎>1

𝑥
O 1

Observation: If 𝑎 > 1, we can observe that, as 𝑦 decreases through negative values, the
graph approaches the 𝑦-axis but never intersect it since 𝑎 𝑦 > 0 for all 𝑦. That means that the

𝑦-axis is a vertical asymptote for the graph. As𝑦 increases through positive values, the graph

rises very rapidly.

The 𝑥-intercept is always equal to 1, since 𝑎0 = 1.

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 51

2) This is a typical graph of Logarithmic function 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑦 , for 0 < 𝑎 < 1.
If 0 < 𝑎 < 1 and 𝑦1 and 𝑦2 are real numbers such that 𝑦1 >𝑦2 , then 𝑎 𝑦1 > 𝑎 𝑦2 i.e. 𝑓(𝑦1 ) > 𝑓(𝑦2 )
⇨ If 0 < 𝑎 < 1, then 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑦 is decreasing throughout its domain (i.e. as 𝑦 increases, 𝑥 decreases)

0<𝑎<1

𝑥
𝑂 1

𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥

Observations: If 0 < 𝑎 < 1, we can observe that, as 𝑥 increases through the positive values, the
graph approaches the 𝑦-axis but never intersect it. Here also the 𝑦-axis is the vertical
asymptote for the graph. As 𝑦 decreases through the negative values the graph rises rapidly
The 𝑥-intercept is always equal to 1, since 𝑎0 = 1

Definition: The logarithmic function with base 𝑒 is called natural (or Napier an) logarithm
usually denoted. 𝑦 = ln 𝑥

Examples:
𝑎) Simplifying logarithmic expressions:
Simplify the following logarithmic expression
𝑖) log 64 + 2 log 5 − 2 log 40 𝑖𝑖) log 5 (35) + 3 log 5 (15
2
) − log 5 (81
8
)
Solution:
𝑖) log 64 + 2 log 5 − 2 log 40 𝑖𝑖) log 5 (35) + 3 log 5 (15
2
) − log 5 (81
8
)
15 3
= log 64 + log 52 − 2 log 402 = log 5 (35) + log 5 ( 2 ) − log 5 (81
8
)

= log 64 + log 25 − 2 log 1600 = log 5 (35) + log 5 (3375

8
) − log 5 (81
8
)
3 3375
64×25 1600 × 3375
= log ( 1600 ) = log (1600) = log 1 = 0 = log 5 (5 8
81 ) = log 5 (35 × 8
8
× 81 )
8

= log 5 25 = log 5 52 = 2 log 5 5 = 2

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 52

Exercises:
Simplify the following logarithmic expressions:
𝑖) log 9 27 − log 3 81 − 3 log 27 3 𝑖𝑖) log 2 (53) + log 2 (67) − log 2(28
5
)
𝑏) Logarithmic equations:
1) Solve the following equations.
𝑖) log 4 3𝑥 − 4 log 4 3 = 0 𝑖𝑖) log 3 ( 4𝑥 + 1 ) − log 3 ( 3𝑥 − 5 ) = 2
Solution:
𝑖) log 4 3𝑥 − 4 log 4 3 = 0 𝑖𝑖) log 3 ( 4𝑥 + 1 ) − log 3 ( 3𝑥 − 5 ) = 2
4𝑥 + 1
⇨ log 4 3𝑥 − log 4 34 = 0 ⇨ log 3 ( 3𝑥 − 5
)=2
4𝑥 + 1
⇨ log 4 3𝑥 = log 4 34 ⇨ = 32
3𝑥 − 5

⇨ 3 𝑥 = 34 ⇨ 9(3𝑥 − 5) = 4𝑥 + 1
⇨ 𝑥=4 ⇨ 𝑥=2

Exercises:
Solve the following logarithmic equations
10
𝑖) log 3 𝑥 + log 𝑥 3 = 3
𝑖𝑖) log 𝑥 9 + log 𝑥 2 3 = 2.5 𝑖𝑖𝑖) log 𝑥 + 2 log 5 = 2

𝑖𝑣) log(2𝑥 + 1) − log(3𝑥 + 2) = 1 𝑣) log 5 0.04 = 𝑥 𝑣𝑖) log 27 𝑥 = 23

𝑣𝑖𝑖) log 3 (4𝑥 + 1) − log 3 (3𝑥 − 5) = 2

𝑐) Logarithmic equations reducible to quadratic equations:

1) Solve the following logarithmic equations

𝑖) 2 log 5 𝑥 − log 5 (3 + 2𝑥 ) = 0 𝑖𝑖) log 6 ( 𝑥 + 9) = 1 + log 6 (𝑥 + 3) − log 6 ( 𝑥 + 2).
Solution:

𝑖) 2 log 5 𝑥 − log 5 (3 + 2𝑥 ) = 0 𝑖𝑖) log 6 ( 𝑥 + 9) = 1 + log 6 (𝑥 + 3) − log 6 ( 𝑥 + 2).

⇨ log 5 𝑥 2 − log 5(3 + 2𝑥 ) = 0 ⇨ log 6 ( 𝑥 + 9) − log 6(𝑥 + 3) + log 6 ( 𝑥 + 2) = 1
(𝑥+9)(𝑥+2)
⇨ log 5 𝑥 2 = log 5 (3 + 2𝑥 ) ⇨ log 6 (𝑥+3)
=1

𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 + 18
⇨ 𝑥 2 = 3 + 2𝑥 ⇨ 𝑥+ 3
=6

⇨ 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 3 = 0 ⇨ 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 = 0
⇨ (𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 1) = 0 𝑥(𝑥 + 5) = 0
⇨ 𝑥 = 3 or 𝑥 = −1 ⇨ 𝑥 = 0 or 𝑥 = −5

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 53

Exercises:
1) Solve the following equations.
𝑖) log10 (𝑥 2 + 9) − 2 log10 𝑥 = 1 𝑖𝑖) log10 (𝑥 2 + 24) − log10 𝑥 = log10 10
𝑖𝑖𝑖) log 4 𝑥 + log 𝑥 4 = 2.5 𝑖𝑣) log 3 𝑥 + log 3 (2𝑥 + 3) = 3
𝑣) log10 (𝑥 − 8) = 1 − log10(𝑥 + 1) 𝑣𝑖) log 3 (𝑥 2 – 𝑥 − 2) = 2 log 3 (𝑥 + 1)
𝑣𝑖𝑖) log10(𝑥 + 9) = 1 + log10(𝑥 + 1) − log10(𝑥 − 2) 𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖) log 3 (𝑥 − 7) = 2 − log 3 (𝑥 + 1)
𝑥𝑖) log 6(𝑥 + 9) = 1 + log 6 (𝑥 + 3) − log 6 (𝑥 + 2) 𝑥) log 3 (𝑥 − 7) = 2 − log 3 (𝑥 + 1)
10
𝑥𝑖) log10 (𝑥 2 + 24) − log10 𝑥 = log10 10 𝑥𝑖𝑖) log 3 𝑥 + log 𝑥 3 = 3

𝑥𝑖𝑖𝑖) log 𝑥 9 + log 𝑥 2 3 = 2.5 𝑥𝑖𝑣) log10 (𝑥 2 + 9) − 2 log10 𝑥 = 1

𝑑) Logarithmic equations reducible to simultaneous linear equations:

Given that log 4(𝑥 − 1) + log 4 ( 𝑦2 ) = 1
log 2 (𝑥 + 1) + log 2 (𝑦) = 2
Solve for 𝑥 and 𝑦
Solution:
log 4 (𝑥 − 1) + log 4 ( 𝑦2 ) = 1 . . . (1)
log 2(𝑥 + 1) + log 2 (𝑦) = 2 . . . (2)
From equation (1) we have
𝑦(𝑥 − 1) = 8 . . . (3)
From equation (2) we have
𝑦(𝑥 + 1) = 4 . . . (4)
Solving (3) and (4) simultaneously we have
𝑥 = −3, 𝑦 = 4

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 54

General exercises:
𝑥2
1) Show that log 𝑎 (𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 ) = 2 + log 𝑎 ( 1 − 𝑎2 )
1 1 1
2) Given that, 𝑝 = log 𝑎 ( 1 + 8 ), 𝑞 = log 𝑎 ( 1 + 15 ), and 𝑟 = log 𝑎 ( 1 + 24 ),
1
Show that, 𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟 = log 𝑎 ( 1 + 80 ),
1 1 1
3) Given that, 𝑙 = log 𝑎 ( 1 − ), 𝑚 = log 𝑎 ( 1 − ), and 𝑛 = log 𝑎 ( 1 − ),
8 15 24
1
Show that, 𝑙 − 𝑚 − 𝑛 = log 𝑎 ( 1 − ),
46

4) Given that log 3 ( 𝑥 − 6) = 2𝑦, and log 3 ( 𝑥 − 7) = 3𝑦, Show that 𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 + 42 = 72𝑦 . If 𝑦 = 1
find the possible values of 𝑥.
2𝑏 𝑏2
5) Show that 2 log(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 2 log 𝑎 + log (1 + + )
𝑎 𝑎2

6) Given that log 4 𝑎 = 1 + log 2 𝑏,. Find a relation between 𝑎 and 𝑏 without involving logarithms
7) Given that 1 + log 3 𝑝 = log 27 𝑞,. Find a relation between 𝑝 and 𝑞 without involving logarithms
8) Show that log 𝑏 𝑎 ∗ log 𝑎 𝑏 = 1
9) Show that log 𝑐 𝑎 ∗ log 𝑏 𝑐 ∗ log 𝑎 𝑏 = 1
10) Given that 𝑝 = log 𝑎 𝑏𝑐, 𝑞 = log 𝑏 𝑐𝑎, 𝑟 = log 𝑐 𝑎𝑏,
Show that 𝑝 ∗ 𝑞 ∗ 𝑟 = 𝑝 + 𝑞 + 𝑟 + 2
11) Given that 𝑥 = log 𝑎 𝑛, 𝑦 = log 𝑐 𝑛, 𝑛 > 1,
𝑥+𝑦 log𝑏 𝑐 + log𝑏 𝑎
Show that = 𝐻𝑖𝑛𝑡: 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 (𝑥 + 𝑦), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 (𝑥 − 𝑦), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒
𝑥−𝑦 log𝑏 𝑐−log𝑏 𝑎

12) If 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐, are real numbers, Show that

1 1 1
log𝑎 𝑎𝑏𝑐
+ log + log =1
𝑏 𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑐 𝑎𝑏𝑐
𝑡
13) Suppose log 27 𝑚 = 2, and log 3 3𝑚 = 𝑙, where 𝑙 − 𝑡 = 4

Show that 𝑚 = 273

Algebraic functions:

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 55

Polynomials:
Definition: Any function of the form

𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + . . . +𝑎0 𝑥 0 = ∑𝑛𝑖=0 𝑎𝑖 𝑥 𝑖

Is called a polynomial function, where 𝑎𝑖 are real numbers called the coefficients, and 𝑛 is a
non-negative integer.

Example:

𝑖) 𝑃(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 1, 𝑖𝑖) 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1

𝑖𝑣) 𝑃(𝑥) = 12 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 4

Definition: Let 𝑃(𝑥) = ∑𝑛𝑖=0 𝑎𝑖 𝑥 𝑖 where 𝑎𝑖 𝜀 𝑅

𝑖) A polynomial which has only one term is called a monomial.

e.g. 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3

𝑖𝑖) The highest power of 𝑥 in a polynomial is called the degree of the polynomial.

e.g. 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1 is a polynomial of degree 3

𝑖𝑖𝑖) The coefficient of the term with the highest power of 𝑥 is called the leading coefficient.

e.g. If 𝑃(𝑥) = 12 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 4 , then the leading coefficient is −1

𝑖𝑣) A polynomial whose leading coefficient is equal to one is called monic polynomial.

e.g. 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1is a monic polynomial.

𝑣) If all the coefficients of a polynomial are zero, the polynomial is called zero Polynomial.

e.g. 𝑃(𝑥) = 0

𝑣𝑖) A polynomial of degree one is called linear, of degree two is called quadratic, of

degree three is called cubic, of degree four is called quartic.

Definition: Let 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = ∑𝑛𝑖=0 𝑎𝑖 𝑥 𝑖 and 𝑄𝑛 (𝑥) = ∑𝑛𝑖=0 𝑏𝑖 𝑥 𝑖 , Then 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑄𝑛 (𝑥) iff 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑏𝑖

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 56

Algebraic operations:

− Addition:

Let 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = ∑𝑛𝑖=0 𝑎𝑖 𝑥 𝑖 and 𝑄𝑛 (𝑥) = ∑𝑛𝑖=0 𝑏𝑖 𝑥 𝑖 Let m ≤ n.

Then 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) + 𝑄𝑛 (𝑥) = ∑𝑛𝑖=0 𝑎𝑖 𝑥 𝑖 + ∑𝑛𝑖=0 𝑏𝑖 𝑥 𝑖 = ∑𝑛𝑖=0(𝑎𝑖 + 𝑏𝑖 )𝑥 𝑖 + ∑𝑛𝑖=0 𝑎𝑖 𝑥 𝑖

Example: Given that 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 − 11𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6 and 𝑄(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 20𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 8

Then.

𝑃(𝑥) + 𝑄(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 − 11𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6

. 2𝑥 3 + 20𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 8
2𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 2

Example: Consider the following polynomials

𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 + 3𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 and 𝑄(𝑥) = 2𝑥 5 − 4𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 7.
Find 𝑃(𝑥) + 𝑄(𝑥)
Solution: Do.
− Subtraction:

Let 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = ∑𝑛𝑖=0 𝑎𝑖 𝑥 𝑖 and 𝑄𝑚 (𝑥) = ∑𝑚

𝑖=0 𝑏𝑖 𝑥
𝑖
Let m ≤ n.
Then 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) − 𝑄𝑚 (𝑥) = ∑𝑛𝑖=0 𝑎𝑖 𝑥 𝑖 − ∑𝑚 𝑖 𝑛 𝑖 𝑚
𝑖=0 𝑏𝑖 𝑥 = ∑𝑖=0(𝑎𝑖 − 𝑏𝑖 )𝑥 + ∑𝑖=𝑛+1 𝑎𝑖 𝑥
𝑖

Example: Given that 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 − 11𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6 and 𝑄(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 20𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 8

Then,
𝑃(𝑥) − 𝑄(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 3 − 11𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6
0𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 + 20𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 8
2𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 − 31𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 − 14

Example: Consider the following polynomials

𝑃(𝑥) = 10𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 and 𝑄(𝑥) = 2𝑥 5 − 4𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 + 5𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 5.
Find 𝑃(𝑥) − 𝑄(𝑥)
Solution: Do.

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 57

− Multiplication:

Let 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = ∑𝑛𝑖=0 𝑎𝑖 𝑥 𝑖 and 𝑄𝑚 (𝑥) = ∑𝑚

𝑖=0 𝑏𝑖 𝑥
𝑖
m ≤ n
Then 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) ∗ 𝑄𝑚 (𝑥) = (∑𝑛𝑖=0 𝑎𝑖 𝑥 𝑖 ) ∗ (∑𝑚 𝑗 𝑛
𝑗=0 𝑏𝑗 𝑥 ) = ∑𝑖=0(𝑎𝑖 ∗ 𝑏𝑖 )𝑥
𝑖+𝑗

Note: If 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) has degree 𝑛 and 𝑄𝑚 (𝑥) has degree 𝑚, then their product 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) ∗ 𝑄𝑚 (𝑥) has
degree (𝑚 + 𝑛).

Example: Consider the following polynomials. 𝑃(𝑥) = 6𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3 and 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3

Then 𝑃(𝑥) ∗ Q(𝑥) = (6𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 3) = 𝑥(6𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3) + 3(6𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 3)
= 6𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 18𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 − 9 = 6𝑥 3 + 20𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 9

Example: Given that 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 and 𝑄(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 − 1. Find 𝑃(𝑥) ∗ Q(𝑥)

Solution: Do.

− Division:
In the process of dividing the polynomials 𝑃(𝑥) and 𝑄(𝑥) we usually arrive at a result of the
𝑃(𝑥) 𝑟(𝑥)
form 𝑄(𝑥)
= 𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑄(𝑥) 𝑄(𝑥) ≠ 0

Where 𝑃(𝑥) is called the dividend, 𝑄(𝑥) the divisor, 𝑞(𝑥) the quotient, and 𝑟(𝑥) the
Remainder, and that the degree of 𝑄(𝑥) is less than or equal to the degree of 𝑃(𝑥).

Definition: The process of carrying out the division (or the steps in carrying out the division) is
called 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑔𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚.
Theorem: Let 𝑃(𝑥) and 𝑄(𝑥) be two polynomials, and 𝑄(𝑥) ≠ 0, then there exist a unique
Polynomials𝑞(𝑥) and 𝑟(𝑥) such that, 𝑃(𝑥) = Q(x)𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟(𝑥) Where, either 𝑟(𝑥) = 0, or the
degree of 𝑟(𝑥) is less than the degree of 𝑄(𝑥).

𝑎) Long division:
Steps in the process of long division:
𝑖) Arrange the terms of the polynomials 𝑃(𝑥) and 𝑄(𝑥) in descending powers of 𝑥, and if a
power is missing write the term with zero coefficient.
𝑖𝑖) Divide the first term of the dividend by the first term of the divisor, and write the answer
directly above the first term of the dividend.

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 58

𝑖𝑖𝑖) Multiply the divisor by the quotient and subtract the product from the dividend.
𝑖𝑣) Repeat steps 2 and step 3 until the degree of the remainder is less than the degree of the
divisor.
𝑃(𝑥) 𝑟(𝑥)
𝑣) Write the answer in the form 𝑄(𝑥)
= 𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑄(𝑥) .

Example: Divide the polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) = 3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 7 and 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 2.

using the process of long division.
Solution:
3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 13
(𝑥 − 2)√3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 7
. 3𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2
4𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 7
4𝑥 2 − 8𝑥
13𝑥 − 7
13𝑥 − 26
3𝑥 3 −2𝑥 2 +5𝑥−7 19
19. ⇨ 𝑥−2
= (3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 13) + 𝑥−2 .

Example: Divide the polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 + 4𝑥 4 − 3𝑥 + 5 by 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 + 1 using the

process of long division.
Solution:
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 2
(𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1)√𝑥 5 + 4𝑥 4 + 0𝑥 3 + 0𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 5
𝑥 5 + 0𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2
4𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 5
4𝑥 4 + 0𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 + 4𝑥
2𝑥 3 +7𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 5
2𝑥 3 +0𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 2
7𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 3

𝑥 5 + 4𝑥 4 − 3 𝑥 +5 7𝑥 2 − 3 𝑥 + 3
⇨ 𝑥3 − 2 𝑥 + 1
= (𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 2) + 𝑥3 – 2 𝑥 + 1

Exercises:
𝑖) Divide the polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 + 4𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 + 5 by 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 + 1
sing the process of long division.
𝑖𝑖) Divide the polynomial 5𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 22𝑥 + 55 by 𝑄(𝑥) = 5𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 + 11
using the process of long division.

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 59

𝑖𝑖𝑖) Find 𝑟(𝑥) such that 5𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 = (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1) + 𝑟(𝑥)

𝑖𝑣) Find 𝑞(𝑥) such that 3𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 4 = (3𝑥 + 1)𝑞(𝑥) + (10𝑥 + 7)

Synthetic division:
In this method, the divisor 𝑄(𝑥) must be a linear factor of the form (𝑥 − 𝑐), and 𝑟(𝑥) = 0
or the degree of 𝑟(𝑥) is equals zero. In the method we usually arrive at a result of the form.

𝑃(𝑥) 𝑟
𝑥−𝑐
= 𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑥−𝑐

Steps in the process of Synthetic division:

𝑖) Since the divisor is of the form 𝑥 − 𝑐, we write 𝑐 in the box, and arrange on the same Row1
the coefficients of the dividend in descending powers of 𝑥, putting zero coefficient for every
missing power.
𝑖𝑖) Copy the leading coefficient of the dividend on the third row.
𝑖𝑖𝑖) Multiply the leading coefficient you copied by the number 𝑐 in the box and write the result
in the second row under the coefficient next to the leading coefficient and add the numbers in
that column.
𝑖𝑣) Multiply the sum in 𝑖𝑖𝑖) by the number 𝑐 in the box and write the result in the second row
next to the one obtained in step 3 and add the numbers in that column.
𝑣) Continue as in step 3 and step 4 until there is an entry on the third row for each entry in the
first row.
𝑣𝑖) The last number in the third row is the remainder 𝑟, and the other numbers before the last
are the coefficient of the quotient.

Example: Use synthetic division to obtain the quotient and the remainder when

𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 − 10𝑥 2 − 23𝑥 + 6 is divided by 𝑥 − 3.

Solution:

3√ 2 0 − 10 − 23 6
6 18 24 3
2 6 8 1 9

2𝑥 4 − 10𝑥 2 − 23𝑥 + 6 9
⇨ 𝑥−3
= (2𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 1) + 𝑥−3

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 60

Example: Use synthetic division to obtain the quotient and the remainder when
𝑃(𝑥) = 3𝑥 4 + 8𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 + 4 is divided by (𝑥 + 2).

Solution:

−2√ 3 8 −2 − 10 4
−6 −4 12 − 4
3 2 −6 2 0

3 𝑥 4 + 8 𝑥 3 − 2 𝑥 2 − 10 𝑥 + 4 0
⇨ 𝑥+2
= (3𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 2) + 𝑥+2

Exercises:
1. If 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 5, Use synthetic division to find 𝑃(2) and 𝑝(−2).
2. Find the quotient and the remainder when 3𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 + 54 is divided by 𝑥 − 2
using synthetic division.
3. Use synthetic division to find the value of𝑘 if 𝑥 3 + (𝑘 − 1)𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + (5 − 𝑘)
is divided by (𝑥 + 𝑖), and leave remainder zero.

Remainder theorem:
Whenever we divide a polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) by (𝑥 − 𝑐) we always get some quotient 𝑞(𝑥) and
a remainder 𝑟 such that
𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑐)𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟 . . . (1)
Setting 𝑥 = 𝑐 in equation (1) we have,
𝑃(𝑐) = 𝑟 . . . (2)
From equation (2), we have that whenever𝑃(𝑥) is divided by (𝑥 − 𝑐) the remainder is 𝑃(𝑐).

Theorem: When a polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) is divided by (𝑥 − 𝑐), then the remainder is 𝑃(𝑐).

Example1: Find the value of 𝑘 if the remainder when 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 + 𝑘𝑥 3 − 11𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 12

Is divided by (𝑥 − 3) is 60.
Solution:
𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 + 𝑘𝑥 3 − 11𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 12
𝑃(3) = 60 . . . (1)
𝑃(3) = 2(3)4 + 𝑘(3)3 − 11(3)2 + 4(3) + 12 = 87 + 27𝑘 . . . (2)
⇨ 87 + 27𝑘 = 60 ⇨ 𝑘 = −1

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 61

Example2: Find the value of 𝑘 for which a polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 + 𝑘𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 + 1 leaves a
remainder 5 when divided by 𝑥 + 2

Solution:
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 + 𝑘𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 + 1
𝑃(−2) = 5 . . . (1)
𝑃(−2) = (−2)5 + 𝑘(−2)4 − 2(−2) + 1 = 16𝑘 − 27 . . . (2)
⇨ 16𝑘 − 27 = 5 ⇨ 𝑘=2

Example3: A polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 3 has factor 𝑥 + 1 and when divided by 𝑥 − 4

leaves a remainder 15. Find 𝑎 and 𝑏 and factorize 𝑝(𝑥) completely and also obtain its zero’s
Solution:
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 3
𝑃(−1) = 0
𝑃(−1) = 𝑎(−1)3 + 𝑏(−1)2 − (−1) + 3 = −𝑎 + 𝑏 + 4
⇨ −𝑎 + 𝑏 = −4 . . . (1)

𝑃(4) = 15
𝑃(4) = 𝑎(4)3 + 𝑏(4)2 − (4) + 3 = 64𝑎 + 16𝑏 − 1 = 15
⇨ 4𝑎 + 𝑏 = 1 . . . (2)
Solving equations (1) and (2) simultaneously we have
𝑎 = 1 and 𝑏 = −3
Hence 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 3 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 3 = 0
⇨ (𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 ) − (𝑥 − 3) = 𝑥 2 (𝑥 − 3) − (𝑥 − 3) = (𝑥 2 − 1)(𝑥 − 3) = 0
⇨ (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 3) = 0 ⇨ 𝑥 = 1, 𝑥 = −1, 𝑥 = 3

Example4: Find the value of 𝑎 and 𝑏 for which a polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4 leaves
a remainder 35𝑥 − 32 when divided by 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2
Solution:
𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 − 3𝑥−4 35𝑥−32
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2
= 𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑥 2 – 3𝑥 +2

⇨ 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4 = (𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2)𝑞(𝑥) + 35𝑥 − 32
⇨ 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 4 = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 1)𝑞(𝑥) + 35𝑥 − 32

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 62

Now we set 𝑥 = 1
⇨ 𝑎(1)3 + 𝑏(1)2 − 3(1) − 4 = 35(1) − 32
⇨ 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 10 . . . (1)
Again we set 𝑥 = 2
⇨ 𝑎(2)3 + 𝑏(2)2 − 3(2) − 4 = 35(2) − 32
⇨ 2𝑎 + 𝑏 = 12 . . . (2)
Solving (1) & (2) simultaneously we have
𝑎 = 2 and 𝑏 = 8

Example5: A polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 6 has remainder 4 − 4𝑥 when divided by 𝑥 2 −

3𝑥 + 2. Find the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏

Solution:
𝑥 + (𝑎 + 3)
2
(𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 2)√𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 6
𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥
(𝑎 + 3)𝑥 2 + (𝑏 − 2)𝑥 + 6
(𝑎 + 3)𝑥 2 − 3(𝑎 + 3)𝑥 + 2(𝑎 + 3)
(3𝑎 + 𝑏 + 7)𝑥 − 2𝑎

⇨ (3𝑎 + 𝑏 + 7)𝑥 − 2𝑎 = −4𝑥 + 4

Comparing the coefficients
⇨ 3𝑎 + 𝑏 + 7 = −4 and −2𝑎 = 4
⇨ 𝑎 = −2 and 𝑏 = −5

Example6: The remainder when a polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 8 is divided by 2𝑥 2 +

𝑥 − 1 is 8𝑥 + 5, find the values of 𝑎 and 𝑏
Solution:
4𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+8 8𝑥+5
2𝑥 2 + 𝑥−1
= 𝑞(𝑥) + 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥−1
⇨ 4𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 8 = (2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1)𝑞(𝑥) + 8𝑥 + 5
3 2

⇨ 4𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 8 = (2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)𝑞(𝑥) + 8𝑥 + 5

Now we set 𝑥 = 12
⇨ 4(12)3 + 𝑎(12)2 + 𝑏(12) + 8 = 8(12) + 5
⇨ 𝑎 + 2𝑏 = 2 . . . (1)

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 63

Again we set 𝑥 = −1
⇨ 4(−1)3 + 𝑎(−1)2 + 𝑏(−1) + 8 = 8(−1) + 5
⇨ 𝑎 − 𝑏 = −7 . . . (2)
Solving (1) & (2) simultaneously we have
𝑎 = −4 and 𝑏 = 3

Example7: The remainder when 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 1 is divided by (𝑥 − 1) is 7, when divided by

(𝑥 − 2) the remainder is 39. Find 𝑎 and 𝑏.
Solution:
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 1
𝑃(1) = 13 + 𝑎(1)2 + 𝑏(1) + 1 = 7
⇨ 𝑎+𝑏 =5 . . . (1)
𝑃(2) = 23 + 𝑎(2)2 + 𝑏(2) + 1 = 39
⇨ 2𝑎 + 𝑏 = 15 . . . (2)
Solving eqn. (1) and (2) simultaneously, we have
𝑎 = 10 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = −5
Example8: When 5𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 𝑏 is divided by (𝑥 − 2) the remainder is 3, given that (𝑥 − 1) is
also a factor. Find 𝑎 and 𝑏.
Solution:
𝑃(𝑥) = 5𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 𝑏
𝑃(2) = 3
} ⇨ 42 − 4𝑎 − 𝑏 = 3 . . . (1)
𝑃(2) = 42 − 4𝑎 − 𝑏
𝑃(1) = 0
} ⇨ 6−𝑎−𝑏 = 0 . . . (2)
𝑃(1) = 6 − 𝑎 − 𝑏
Solving eqn. (1) and (2) simultaneously we have
𝑎 = 11 and 𝑏 = −5

Example9: The expression 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 6 is divisible by (𝑥 − 1), it has remainders −4 and

18 when divided by (𝑥 − 2) and (𝑥 − 4) respectively. Find the values of 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐
Solution:
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 6
𝑃(1) = 0
𝑃(1) = 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 6
⇨ 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐+6 = 0 . . . (1)

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 64

𝑃(2) = −4
𝑃(2) = 8𝑎 + 5𝑏 + 2𝑐
⇨ 8𝑎 + 4𝑏 + 2𝑐 + 6 = −4 . . . (2)

𝑃(4) = 18
𝑃(4) = 64𝑎 + 16𝑏 + 4𝑐 + 6
⇨ 64𝑎 + 16𝑏 + 4𝑐 + 6 = 18 . . . (3)
Solving eqn. (1), (2) and (3) we have

𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = −2, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 = −5

Exercises:
1. Find the remainder when 𝑃(𝑥) = 3𝑥 100 + 5 𝑥 85 − 4𝑥 38 + 2𝑥 17 − 6 is divided by 𝑥 + 1
2. Find the value of 𝑘 for which 𝑥 5 + 𝑘𝑥 4 − 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1, leaves a remainder 3 when divided
by (𝑥 + 2)
Factor theorem:
Whenever we divide a polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) by (𝑥 − 𝑐) we always get some quotient 𝑞(𝑥) and
a remainder 𝑟 such that
𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑐)𝑞(𝑥) + 𝑟 . . . (1)
Now when the remainder 𝑟 = 0, equation (1) becomes,
𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑐)𝑞(𝑥) . . . (2)
Equation (2), implies that(𝑥 − 𝑐) is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥). And if 𝑥 = 𝑐, equation (2) reduces to.
𝑃(𝑐) = 0 . . . (3)

Theorem: A polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) has a factor (𝑥 − 𝑐) if and only if 𝑃(𝑐) = 0.

Definition: If 𝑃(𝑐) = 0, 𝑐 is called the zero (or the root) of the polynomial 𝑃(𝑥).

Example1: For what value of 𝑎 is (𝑥 + 1) a factor of 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2.

Solution:
𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2.
𝑃(−1) = 0. . . . (1)
𝑃(−1) = 2(−1)4 + 2(−1)3 + 𝑎(−1)2 − 3(−1) + 2 = 𝑎 + 5 . . . (2)
⇨ 𝑎 + 5 = 0.
⇨ 𝑎 = −5

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 65

Example2: Find the value of 𝑎 which makes (2𝑥 − 1) a factor of 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 + 6

Solution:

𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 − 13𝑥 + 6
𝑃(12) = 0. . . . (1)
3
𝑃(12) = 2(12) + 𝑎(12)2 − 13(12) + 6 = 14𝑎 − 14 . . . (2)
1
⇨ 4
𝑎 − 14 = 0.
⇨ 𝑎−1=0
⇨ 𝑎=1

Example3: When is (𝑥 + 4) a factor of 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 8.

Solution:
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 8.
𝑃(−4) = 0. . . . (1)
𝑃(−4) = 2(−4)3 + (−4)2 + 𝑎(−4) + 8 = −4𝑎 − 40 . . . (2)
⇨ −4𝑎 − 40 = 0.
⇨ 𝑎 = −10

Exercises:
1. Determine the value of 𝑘 so that 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑘𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥 + 3 is divisible by (𝑥 + 3).
2. Show that (𝑥 + 2) is a factor of 𝑥 12 − 4096
3. For what value of 𝑚 is 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 𝑚 divisible by (𝑥 + 8).

Rational functions
Definition: A rational function is a quotient of two polynomial functions, Thus, 𝑓(𝑥) is a rational
𝑔( 𝑥 )
function if ∀𝑥 in its domain.𝑓(𝑥) = ℎ( 𝑥 ) .where 𝑔(𝑥) and ℎ(𝑥) are polynomials, and that ℎ(𝑥) ≠ 0.
𝑥−1 𝑥2 − 𝑥 5𝑥
Example: 𝑖) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 – 𝑥 − 6 . 𝑖𝑖) 𝑓(𝑥) =
16 − 𝑥 2
𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑓(𝑥) =
4 − 𝑥2

Note: The numerator and the denominator will not have the same zero.

Example: if one root of the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 is twice the other, Show that 2𝑏 2 =
9𝑎𝑐, hence if 𝑎 = 3 and 𝑏 = 2, find the value of 𝑐.

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 66

Algebraic operations:

− Addition and Subtraction:

We are familiar with the technique of forming the sum or difference of two or more than two
algebraic fractions.
Example:
2 1 3𝑥+7 4 2 2𝑥+26
𝑖) + = 𝑖𝑖) − =
𝑥+1 𝑥+3 (𝑥+1)(𝑥+3) 𝑥−3 𝑥+5 (𝑥−3)(𝑥+5)

𝑥+1 5 −4𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 22 1 2 𝑥+1 4𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 + 3

𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑥−4
+ 𝑥+2 = (𝑥−2)(𝑥+2)
, 𝑖𝑣) 𝑥−1
− 𝑥+5 + 𝑥+1
= (𝑥−1)(𝑥+1)(𝑥+1)

Partial Fraction decomposition:

From the examples above, we notice that the addition or subtraction of algebraic fraction
results into an algebraic fraction. The reversed operation is known as partial fraction
decomposition.

Definition: The process of decomposing a single fraction into the sum or difference of two or
more than two fractions is called partial fraction decomposition.

Guidelines in partial fraction decomposition:

G1: If the degree of the numerator is greater than or equal to the degree of the denominator,
carry out long division to obtain a quotient together with a fraction whose degree of the
numerator is less than the degree of the denominator.
Example:
𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 6𝑥 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 −11𝑥−11 40𝑥−119
𝑖) 𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 2
= 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 2 𝑖𝑖) 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥+12
= (𝑥 + 9) + 𝑥 2 −7𝑥+12

𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 +5 5𝑥+2 2𝑥 2 +2𝑥−1 3
𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑥 2 +2𝑥−3
= (𝑥 − 1) + 𝑥 2 +2𝑥−3 𝑖𝑣) 𝑥 2 + 𝑥−2
= 2 + 𝑥 2 +𝑥−2

2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 −6𝑥+1 4𝑥−11 3𝑥 2 +21𝑥+32 2

𝑣) 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥+3
= (2𝑥 + 4) + 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥+3 𝑣𝑖) 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥+10
= 3 + 𝑥 2 + 7𝑥+10

Definition: Linear factors are factors of the form (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) where 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 are real constants.

G2: If the denominator can be factored into linear factors of which none is repeated, then to
𝐴
each linear factor in the denominator, there corresponds a partial fraction of the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏,

where 𝐴 is a constant to be determine.

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 67

Note: To determine the values of 𝐴, we employ any of the following methods.
i) Cover-up rule. ii) Elimination method. iii) Method of undetermined coefficients.
6𝑥
Example: Decompose into partial fraction 𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 2

Solution:
6𝑥 6𝑥 𝐴 𝐵
𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 2
= (𝑥+2)(𝑥−1)
= (𝑥+2)
+ (𝑥−1)
− Using cover-up rule: To obtain 𝐴 we set 𝑥 + 2 = 0 so that 𝑥 = −2, then in the expression
6𝑥
(𝑥+2)(𝑥−1)
, we cover 𝑥 + 2 and substitute −2 for 𝑥 in the remaining,we have A = 4. And to
6𝑥
obtain 𝐵 we set 𝑥 − 1 = 0 so that 𝑥 = 1, then in the expression (𝑥+2)(𝑥−1) , we cover 𝑥 − 1 and

substitute 1 for𝑥 in the remaining,wehave 𝐵 = 2.

− Using elimination method: In elimination method we clear fraction by multiplying both sides
by (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1), so that.
6𝑥 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 1) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 2) . . . (1)
To obtain 𝐴 we set (𝑥 + 2) = 0, so that𝑥 = −2. Substituting 𝑥 = −2 in equation (1) we have
𝐴 = 4. And to obtain 𝐵 we set (𝑥 − 1) = 0, so that 𝑥 = 1. Substituting 𝑥 = 1 in equation (1)
we have 𝐵 = 2.
− Using the method of undetermined coefficients: Here also we clear fraction by multiplying
both sides by (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1), so that.
6𝑥 = 𝐴(𝑥 − 1) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 2) . . . (1)
Expanding the RHS of eqn. (1) and collecting like terms we have
6𝑥 = (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑥 + (−𝐴 + 2𝐵).
Comparing the coefficient we have
𝐴+𝐵 =6 . . . (2)
−𝐴 + 2𝐵 = 0 . . . (3)
Solving equations (2) and (3) simultaneously we have 𝐴 = 4, and 𝐵 = 2
6𝑥 6𝑥 4 2
⇨ 𝑥2+ 𝑥 − 2
= (𝑥+2)(𝑥−1) = (𝑥+2) + (𝑥−1)

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 68

Exercises:
Decompose the following into partial fraction
6𝑥 − 9 𝑥+2 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 5 7𝑥−4
𝑖) 𝑖𝑖) 𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑖𝑣)
𝑥2 − 1 𝑥2 − 𝑥−2 ( 𝑥+1 )( 𝑥−3 )(2 𝑥 – 1 ) 𝑥 2 − 7𝑥+12

5−𝑥 5𝑥+2 3𝑥 + 7 2+ 𝑥
𝑣) 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 8
𝑣𝑖) 𝑥2− 𝑥 − 2
𝑣𝑖𝑖) ( 𝑥+1 )( 𝑥+3 )
𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖) ( 𝑥−5 )( 𝑥+3 )

2𝑥+5 2𝑥+26 1 4𝑥−1

𝑖𝑥) ( 𝑥−2 )( 𝑥+1 )
𝑥) ( 𝑥−3 )( 𝑥+5 )
𝑥𝑖) ( 𝑥−1 )( 𝑥−2 )
𝑥𝑖𝑖) ( 𝑥−1 )( 𝑥+3 )

G3 : If the denominator can be factored into linear factors with some being repeated, then to
each linear factor of the form (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 in the denominator, there corresponds a partial
fraction of the form.
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3 𝐴𝑛
+ + + . . . +
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 ( 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 )2 ( 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 )3 ( 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 )𝑛
Where 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , 𝐴3 . . . 𝐴𝑛 are constants to be determine.
Note: To determine the value of 𝐴1 , 𝐴2 , 𝐴3 . . . 𝐴𝑛 , we employ cover-up rule method,
elimination method and method of undetermined coefficient combine.
𝑥
Example: Decompose into partial fraction ( 𝑥+1 )2 ( 𝑥+ 2 )

Solution:
𝑥 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
( 𝑥 + 1 )2 ( 𝑥+ 2 )
= + +
𝑥 +1 ( 𝑥 + 1 )2 𝑥+2

We obtain the value of 𝐶 = −2 using cover-up rule. ⇨ 𝐶 = −2

𝑥 𝐴 𝐵 −2
⇨ ( 𝑥 + 1 )2 ( 𝑥+ 2 )
= 𝑥 +1
+ ( 𝑥 + 1 )2 + 𝑥+2

Next clear the fraction by multiplying both sides by (𝑥 + 1)2 (𝑥 + 2), so that.
𝑥 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐵(𝑥 + 2) − 2(𝑥 + 1)2
Setting 𝑥 = −1, we have 𝐵 = −1. (Using elimination method)
⇨ 𝑥 = 𝐴(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 2) − (𝑥 + 2) − 2(𝑥 + 1)2
Expanding the RHS and collecting like terms we have.
𝑥 = (𝐴 − 2)𝑥 2 + (3𝐴 − 5)𝑥 + (2𝐴 − 4)
Comparing the coefficients we have that, 𝐴 − 2 = 0, 3𝐴 − 5 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2𝐴 − 4 = 0 ⇨ 𝐴 = 2
𝑥 2 1 2
⇨ ( 𝑥 + 1 )2 ( 𝑥+ 2 )
= 𝑥 +1 − ( 𝑥 + 1 )2 − ( 𝑥 + 2 )

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 69

 𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 36
Example: Decompose into partial fraction 𝑥 ( 𝑥−3)2

Solution:
𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 36 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝑥 ( 𝑥−3)2
= 𝑥
+ ( 𝑥−3) + ( 𝑥−3 )2

Using cover-up rule we obtain the value of 𝐴 = −4.

𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 36 −4 𝐵 𝐶
⇨ 𝑥 ( 𝑥−3)2
=
𝑥
+
( 𝑥−3)
+
( 𝑥−3 )2

Next clear the fraction by multiplying both sides by 𝑥(𝑥 − 3)2 , so that.
𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 36 = −4(𝑥 − 3)2 + 𝐵(𝑥 − 3)𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥.
Setting 𝑥 = 3, we have 𝐶 = 1. (Using elimination method)
⇨ 𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 36 = −4(𝑥 − 3)2 + 𝐵(𝑥 − 3)𝑥 + 𝑥 ,
Expanding the RHS and collecting like terms we have.
𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 36 = (−4+𝐵)𝑥 2 + (25 − 3𝐵)𝑥 − 36
Comparing the coefficients we have that, 𝐵 − 4 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 25 − 3𝐵 = 10, ⇨ 𝐵=5
𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 − 36 −4 5 1
⇨ 𝑥 ( 𝑥−3)2
= 𝑥
+ ( 𝑥−3) + ( 𝑥−3 )2

Exercises:
Decompose the following into partial fraction
𝑥2− 6 2 3 2𝑥
𝑖) ( 2𝑥−1 ) ( 𝑥+2)2
𝑖𝑖) ( 𝑥+2 )( 𝑥+3)3
𝑖𝑖𝑖) ( 𝑥−2 ) ( 𝑥−3)2
𝑖𝑣) ( 𝑥−1)3 (𝑥+2)
1 3 1 1
𝑣) ( 𝑥+1 ) ( 𝑥−5)2
𝑣𝑖) ( 𝑥−3 ) ( 𝑥+2)2
𝑣𝑖𝑖) ( 𝑥+1)( 𝑥+2)2 (𝑥+3)
𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖) ( 𝑥−1)2 (𝑥+2)

G4: If the denominator contains irreducible quadratic factor(s) 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, none of which is

repeating, then to each quadratic factor in the denominator there corresponds a partial
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵
fraction of the form. 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
, where 𝐴 and 𝐵 are constants to be determine.
Note: To determine the values of 𝐴 and 𝐵, we employ elimination method and the method of
undetermined coefficients combine.
𝑥 2 – 𝑥 − 21
Example: Decompose the following into partial fractions. (𝑥 2+ 4 ) ( 2𝑥 − 1 )

Solution:

𝑥 2 – 𝑥 − 21 𝐴𝑥+ 𝐵 𝐶
(𝑥 2 + 4 ) ( 2𝑥 − 1 )
= 𝑥2 + 4
+
2𝑥 − 1

Clear the fraction by multiplying both sides by (𝑥 2 + 4 ) ( 2𝑥 − 1 ), so that.

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 70

𝑥 2 – 𝑥 – 21 = (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵)(2𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶(𝑥 2 + 4).
1
Setting 𝑥 = 2 , we have 𝐶 = −5

⇨ 𝑥 2 – 𝑥 – 21 = (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵)(2𝑥 − 1) − 5(𝑥 2 + 4).

Expanding the RHS and collecting like terms we have.

𝑥 2 – 𝑥 – 21 = (2𝐴 − 5)𝑥 2 + (2𝐵 − 𝐴)𝑥 − (20 + 𝐵).
Comparing the coefficients we have
2𝐴 − 5 = 1 ⇨ 𝐴 = 3 and
−20 − 𝐵 = −21 ⇨ 𝐵 = 1
𝑥 – 𝑥 − 21 3𝑥+ 1 5
⇨ (𝑥 2 + 4 ) ( 2𝑥 − 1 )
= 𝑥2 + 4
− 2𝑥 − 1
9𝑥 2 – 3𝑥 + 8
Example: Decompose the following into partial fractions. 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥

Solution:
9𝑥 2 – 3𝑥 + 8 9𝑥 2 – 3𝑥 + 8 𝐴 𝐵𝑥+ 𝐶
= = +
𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 𝑥( 𝑥 2 + 2 ) 𝑥 𝑥2 + 2
Using cover-up rule we have that 𝐴 = 4
Clear the fraction by multiplying both sides by 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 so that.
9𝑥 2 – 3𝑥 + 8 = 4(𝑥 2 + 2) + (𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶)𝑥 .
Expanding the RHS and collecting like terms we have
9𝑥 2 – 3𝑥 + 8 = (4 + 𝐵)𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝑥 + 8
Comparing the coefficients we have,
4 − 𝐵 = 9 ⇨ 𝐵 = 5 and 𝐶 = −3
9𝑥 2 – 3𝑥 + 8 9𝑥 2 – 3𝑥 + 8 4 5 𝑥− 3
⇨ 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥
=
𝑥( 𝑥 2 + 2 )
=
𝑥
+
𝑥2 + 2

Exercises:
Decompose the following into partial fractions.
1 3 2𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 – 5𝑥 + 1 1
𝑖) ( 𝑥 +1)(𝑥 2 + 1 )
𝑖𝑖) ( 𝑥 +2)(𝑥 2 +2𝑥+ 3 )
𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑥 3 − 𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 1
𝑖𝑣) ( 𝑥−3)(𝑥 2 −5𝑥+ 3 )

2𝑥−1
𝑣) ( 𝑥−1)(𝑥 2 +3𝑥+ 1 )

G5: If the denominator contains irreducible repeated quadratic factor(s) (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)𝒏 , then
to each repeated quadratic factor in the denominator there corresponds a partial fraction of
the form.

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 71

 𝐴1 𝑥 + 𝐵1 𝐴 𝑥 + 𝐵 𝐴 𝑥 + 𝐵 𝐴𝑛 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑛
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
+ (𝑎𝑥 22+ 𝑏𝑥 + 2𝑐 )2 + (𝑎𝑥 23+ 𝑏𝑥 + 3𝑐 )3 + . . . + (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 )𝑛

Where 𝐴1 , 𝐵1 , 𝐴2 , 𝐵2 , 𝐴3 , 𝐵3 , . . . 𝐴𝑛 , 𝐵𝑛 , are constants to be determine.

Note: To determine the values of 𝐴1 , 𝐵1 , 𝐴2 , 𝐵2 , 𝐴3 , 𝐵3 , . . . 𝐴𝑛 , 𝐵𝑛 , we employ the method of
undetermined coefficients.
𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥
Example: Decompose the following into partial fractions. ( 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2 )2

Solution:
𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷
= +
( 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2 )2 ( 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2 ) ( 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2 )2
Clear the fraction by multiplying both sides by ( 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2 )2 , so that.
𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 = (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2)(𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵) + (𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷)
Expanding the RHS and collecting like terms we have.
𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 = 𝐴𝑥 3 + (2𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑥 2 + (2𝐴 + 2𝐵 + 𝐶)𝑥 + (𝐷 + 2𝐵)
Comparing the coefficients we have
𝐴 = 1,
2𝐴 + 𝐵 = 1 ⇨ 𝐵 = −1,
2𝐴 + 2𝐵 + 𝐶 = 2 ⇨ 𝐶 = 2, 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐷 + 2𝐵 = 0 ⇨ 𝐷=2
𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 𝑥− 1 2𝑥 + 2
⇨ = +
( 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2 )2 ( 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2 ) ( 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 2 )2

4𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 2
Example: Decompose the following into partial fractions. ( 𝑥 2 + 1 )2

Solution:
4𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 2 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷
( 𝑥 2 + 1 )2
= ( 𝑥 2 + 1 ) + ( 𝑥 2 + 1 )2

Clear the fraction by multiplying both sides by ( 𝑥 2 + 1 )2 , so that.

4𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 2 = (𝑥 2 + 1)(𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵) + (𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷)
Expanding the RHS and collecting like terms we have.
4𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 2 = 𝐴𝑥 3 + 𝐵𝑥 2 + (𝐴 + 𝐶)𝑥 + (𝐷 + 𝐵)
Comparing the coefficients we have
𝐴 = 4, 𝐵 = −1,
𝐴+𝐶 =4 ⇨ 𝐶 = 0, 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐵+𝐷 =2 ⇨𝐷=3

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 72

 4𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 2 4𝑥− 1 3
⇨ = + 2
( 𝑥 2 + 1 )2 ( 𝑥2 + 1 ) ( 𝑥 + 1 )2

Exercises:
Decompose the following into partial fractions.
3𝑥 3 + 13𝑥 − 1 𝑥3
𝑖) ( 𝑥 2 + 4 )2
𝑖𝑖) ( 𝑥 2 + 1 )2

− Multiplication and division:

We multiply (divide) algebraic fractions in the same way we multiply (divide) fractional
numbers.

Note: Of major importance are the zero’s (roots) of the numerator and the denominator. 𝑓(𝑐) =
0 if and only if 𝑔(𝑐) = 0, and hence the zero’s of the numerator𝑔(𝑥) are the zero’s of 𝑓(𝑥).
However, if 𝑐 is the zero of the denominator ℎ(𝑥), then 𝑓(𝑐) = ∞, and the behavior of 𝑓(𝑥)
when 𝑥 is near 𝑐 requires special attention.

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 73

− Graph of rational functions:

Definition: The line 𝑥 = 𝑐 is a vertical asymptote for the graph of a function 𝑓, if 𝑓(𝑥) → ±∞ as
𝑥 → 𝑐 either from the right from the left.

𝑦 𝑦

𝑥 𝑥
O
𝑐 O 𝑐

𝑦
𝑦

O
𝑥
𝑐

𝑥
O 𝑐

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 74

Guidelines for Sketching the graph of rational functions:
G1: Find the real zero’s of the numerator, and use them to plot the points corresponding to the
𝑥-intercept.

G2: Find the real zero’s of the denominator; for each zero 𝑐, the line 𝑥 = 𝑐 is a vertical
asymptote. (represent the line 𝑥 = 𝑐 with dotted lines).

G3: Find the sign of 𝑓(𝑥) in each of the intervals determine by the zero’s of the numerator and
denominator, use these signs to determine whether the graph lies above or below the 𝑥-axis in
each interval.

G4: If 𝑥 = 𝑐 is a vertical asymptote, use the information in G3 to determine whether

𝑓(𝑥) → ∞ 𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑥) → − ∞ as 𝑥 → 𝑐 − 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 → 𝑐 + .

G5: Use the information in G3 to determine the manner in which the graph intersects the 𝑥-axis.

G6: Determine the behavior of 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 → ∞ or 𝑥 → −∞ , if 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝑏, then the line 𝑦 = 𝑏 is

a horizontal asymptote. (if 𝑏 ≠ 0, represent line 𝑦 = 𝑏 by dotted lines)

G7: Sketch the graph, plotting points whenever necessary.

𝑥−1
Example: Sketch the graph of 𝑓 if 𝑓(𝑥) = ( 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6 ) .

Solution:

(𝑥 – 1) (𝑥 – 1)
𝑓(𝑥) = ( = ( 𝑥 + 2 )( 𝑥 − 3
𝑥2− 𝑥 − 6 ) )

𝐺1 : (𝑥 − 1) = 0 ⇨ 𝑥 = 1. Hence the numerator has zero 𝑐 = 1.

𝐺2 : (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 3) = 0 ⇨ 𝑥 = −2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 3. Hence the denominator has zero’s 𝑐=

−2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 = 3.
𝐺3 : The zero’s −2, 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 determine the following intervals (−∞ − 2), (−2 1), (1 3) and
(3 ∞), Since 𝑓(𝑥) is a quotient of two polynomials, it follows that 𝑓(𝑥) always positive or
always negative throughout each of these intervals. Using test values to determine the sign of
𝑓(𝑥), we arrives at the following table.

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 75

 Interval Test Values Sign Position of the graph
(−∞ − 2) 2 −𝑣𝑒 Below 𝑥-axis
𝑓(−3) = −3
(−2 1) 1 +𝑣𝑒 Above 𝑥-axis
𝑓(0) = 6
(1 3) 1 −𝑣𝑒 Below 𝑥-axis
𝑓(2) = −4
(3 ∞) 1 +𝑣𝑒 Above 𝑥-axis
𝑓(4) = 2

𝐺4 : We shall use the fourth column of the table to investigate the behavior of 𝑓(𝑥) near each
vertical asymptote.

𝑎) Consider the vertical asymptote 𝑥 = −2, since the graph lie below the 𝑥-axis throughout the
interval(−∞ − 2), it follows that 𝑓 (𝑥) → −∞ 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → −2− . And since the graph lie above the
𝑥-axis throughout the interval (−2 1), it follows that𝑓(𝑥) → ∞ 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → −2+ .

𝑏) Consider the vertical asymptote 𝑥 = 3, since the graph lie below the 𝑥-axis throughout the
interval (1 3), it follows that𝑓(𝑥) → −∞ 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → 3− . And since the graph lie above the𝑥-axis
throughout the interval (3 ∞) it follows that 𝑓(𝑥) → ∞ 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → 3+ .

𝐺5 From the fourth column of the table, we see that the graph crosses the 𝑥-axis at 𝑥 = 1.
𝐺6 To determine what is true if 𝑥 → ∞or → − ∞ , we divide both the numerator and the
denominator by 𝑥 2 obtaining 𝑓(𝑥) → 0. Thus the line 𝑦 = 0 (i.e. the 𝑥-axis) is the horizontal
asymptote for the graph.

𝐺7 Using the information in 𝐺1 𝑡𝑜 𝐺6 and plotting several points gives us the sketch
𝑦

∗
−2 0 ∗
1
∗3 𝑥

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 76

 𝑥2 − 𝑥
Example: Sketch the graph of 𝑓 if 𝑓(𝑥) = ( 16 − 𝑥2 ) .

Solution:
𝑥 2 −𝑥 𝑥(𝑥−1)
𝑓(𝑥) = (16−𝑥) = (4−𝑥)(4+𝑥)

𝐺1 : 𝑥( 𝑥 − 1) = 0 ⇨ 𝑥 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 1. Hence the numerator has zero’s 𝑐 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 = 1.

𝐺2 : (4 − 𝑥)(4 + 𝑥) = 0 ⇨ 𝑥 = −4 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 4. Hence the denominator has zero’s
−4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4.
𝐺3 The zero’s−4, 0, 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4 determine the following intervals (−∞ − 4), (−4 0), (0 1),
(1 4), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (4 ∞). Since 𝑓(𝑥) is a quotient of two polynomials, it follows that 𝑓(𝑥) is

always positive or always negative throughout each of these intervals.

Using test values to determine the sign of 𝑓(𝑥), we arrives at the following table.
Interval Test Values Sign Position of the graph
(−∞ − 4) 10
𝑓(−5) = − −𝑣𝑒 Below 𝑥-axis
3
(−4 0) 12 +𝑣𝑒 Above 𝑥-axis
𝑓(−3) =
7
(0 1) 1
𝑓 (2) = −63
1 −𝑣𝑒 Below 𝑥-axis
(1 4) 6 +𝑣𝑒 Above 𝑥-axis
𝑓(3) =
7
20
(4 ∞) 𝑓(5) = − 9 −𝑣𝑒 Below 𝑥-axis

−4
∗ 0 ∗1 ∗4 𝑥

−1

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 77

Exercises:
Sketch the graph of 𝑓 if
5𝑥 𝑥2 2
𝑖) 𝑓(𝑥) = 4−𝑥 2
𝑖𝑖) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−5
𝑥 2𝑥 2 −3
𝑖𝑣) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−5
𝑣) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 +1 𝑣𝑖) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥− 2

Note: Vertical asymptotes are common characteristics of graphs of rational functions. Indeed, if
𝑐 is a zero of the denominator ℎ(𝑥), then the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) has vertical asymptote at 𝑥 = 𝑐.
Moreover, we can make 𝑓(𝑥) as close to zero as we pleased by choosing𝑥 sufficiently large.
𝑓(𝑥) → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → ±∞

Definition: The line 𝑦 = 𝑏 is a horizontal asymptote for the graph of a function 𝑓, if 𝑓(𝑥) →
0 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → ±∞

Note: The graphs of a rational function often have a horizontal asymptote. Some typical cases
for 𝑥 → ∞ are illustrated below, the manner in which the graph approach the line 𝑦 = 𝑏 may
vary depending on the function. Similar sketches may be made for the case 𝑥 → −∞

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 78

 Section C

Complex numbers

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 79

Course Outline:
Complex numbers: Representation in the plane, Sum, Difference, Product and Quotient of
complex numbers, Modulus and Argument of complex numbers, Complex conjugate and its
properties, Polar representation of complex numbers, Unit circle, 𝑛𝑡ℎ root, De Moivre’s
Theorem, Zero of polynomials, Quadratic formula.

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 80

Complex Numbers:
Introduction: The concept of imaginary numbers has had its origin in the fact that the solution
−𝑏±√𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
of the quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, leads to the expression 2𝑎
, which is not

meaningful if 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0, in that square root of number which had hitherto fore been
developed could be negative . In this context, Euler (1707 – 1783) was the first Mathematician
who introduce the symbol 𝑖 for √−1 with the property 𝑖 2 = −1 and accordingly, a root of the
equation, 𝑥 2 + 1 = 0. He also called the symbol 𝑖 imaginary number

Definition1: Any number of the form 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 where 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 are real numbers is called a
complex numbers denoted, 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦.

Note: The number 𝑥 is called the real part, and the number 𝑦 is called the imaginary part.

Example: 𝑧 = 3 + 2𝑖 is a complex number having real part 𝑥 = 3 and imaginary part 𝑦 = 2

Definition2: In any complex number, 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, then if

𝑖) 𝑦 = 0, the number 𝑧 is purely real, denoted 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 0𝑖 or 𝑧 = 𝑥
𝑖𝑖) 𝑥 = 0, the number 𝑧 is purely imaginary, denoted 𝑧 = 0 + 𝑖𝑦 or 𝑧 = 𝑖𝑦
𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑥 = 𝑦 = 0 the number 𝑧 is called zero complex number denoted 𝑧 = 0 + 0𝑖 or 𝑧 = 0
𝑖𝑣) 𝑥 < 0, 𝑦 < 0, the number 𝑧 is called negative complex number.
Note: The set of all complex numbers is denoted ₵
𝑖. 𝑒. ₵ = {𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 , . . . 𝑧𝑛 }

Properties of complex numbers:

If 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 , . . . 𝑧𝑛 are complex numbers, and ₵ = {𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 , . . . 𝑧𝑛 } is the set of complex
numbers the following properties hold good
1. 𝑧𝑖 + 𝑧𝑗 = 𝑧𝑘 ⇨ Closure
2. 𝑧𝑖 ∗ 𝑧𝑗 = 𝑧𝑟 ⇨ Closure
3. 𝑧𝑖 − 𝑧𝑗 = 𝑧𝑟 ⇨ Closure
𝑧𝑖
4. 𝑧𝑗
= 𝑧𝑟 𝑧𝑗 ≠ 0 ⇨ Closure

5. 𝑧𝑖 + 𝑧𝑗 = 𝑧𝑗 + 𝑧𝑖 ⇨ Commutative laws hold good

6. 𝑧𝑖 ∗ 𝑧𝑗 = 𝑧𝑗 ∗ 𝑧𝑖 ⇨ Commutative laws hold good.

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 81

7. 𝑧𝑖 + (𝑧𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘 ) = (𝑧𝑖 + 𝑧𝑗 ) + 𝑧𝑘 , ⇨ Associative laws hold good.
8. 𝑧𝑖 ∗ (𝑧𝑗 ∗ 𝑧𝑘 ) = (𝑧𝑖 ∗ 𝑧𝑗 ) ∗ 𝑧𝑘 ⇨ Associative laws hold good.
9. 𝑧𝑖 ∗ (𝑧𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘 ) = (𝑧𝑖 ∗ 𝑧𝑗 ) + (𝑧𝑖 ∗ 𝑧𝑘 ) ⇨ Distributive laws hold good.
10 𝑧𝑖 + 0 = 0 + 𝑧𝑖 = 𝑧𝑖 , ⇨ Existence of additive identity.
11 𝑧𝑖 ∗ 1 = 1 ∗ 𝑧𝑖 = 𝑧𝑖 ⇨ Existence of multiplicative identity.
12 If 𝑧𝑖 ≠ 0, there exist 𝑧𝑗 in ₵ such that 𝑧𝑖 + 𝑧𝑗 = 0, ⇨ Existence of additive inverse
13 𝑧𝑖 ∗ 𝑧𝑗 = 𝑧𝑗 ∗ 𝑧𝑖 = 1 ⇨ Existence of multiplicative inverse

Definition; Let 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 and 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 be any two complex numbers, we say that
𝑧1 = 𝑧2 if and only if 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 and 𝑦1 = 𝑦2 ,

Example: Let 𝑧1 = 𝑥 + 4𝑖 and 𝑧2 = 3 + 𝑖𝑦, Then, 𝑧1 = 𝑧2 if and only if Let 𝑥 = 3 and 𝑦 = 4

The number 𝒊
The symbol 𝑖 was introduce to represent √−1 with the property that
𝑖 𝑛 , 𝑛 𝜀 𝑍 + always assumed any of the following numbers 1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑖 𝑛 = 1, −1, 𝑖, 𝑜𝑟 − 𝑖

Example: Simplify the following 𝑎) 𝑖 8 𝑏) 𝑖 10 𝑐) 𝑖 30 𝑑) 𝑖 19 , 𝑒) 𝑖 91

Solution:
𝑎) 𝑖 8 = (𝑖 2 )4 = (−1)4 = 1 𝑏) 𝑖 10 = (𝑖 2 )5 = (−1)5 = −1
𝑐) 𝑖 13 = (𝑖 2 )6 𝑖 = (−1)6 𝑖 = 𝑖 𝑑) 𝑖 19 = (𝑖 2 )9 𝑖 = (−1)9 𝑖 = −𝑖

Exercises: Simplify the following 𝑎) 𝑖 12 𝑏) 𝑖 27 𝑐) 𝑖 30 𝑑) 𝑖 120

Fundamental operations with Complex Numbers:

In performing operations with complex numbers we can proceed as in the algebra of real
numbers replacing 𝑖 2 by −1 when it occurs.
Let 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 and 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2 , then
1. Addition: 𝑧1 + 𝑧1 = (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) + (𝑦1 + 𝑦2 )𝑖
2. Subtraction: 𝑧1 − 𝑧1 = (𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ) + 𝑖(𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )
3. Multiplication: 𝑧1 ∗ 𝑧1 = (𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑦1 𝑦2 ) + 𝑖(𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑦1 𝑥2 )
|𝑧1 | 𝑥1 +𝑖𝑦1 𝑥1 𝑥2 +𝑦1 𝑦2 𝑦1 𝑥2 −𝑥1 𝑦2
4. Division: |𝑧2 |
= 𝑥2 +𝑖𝑦2
=( 𝑥22 +𝑦22
)+ 𝑖( 𝑥22 +𝑦22
)

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 82

Examples 1: Given that 𝑧1 = 3 + 4𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2 = 2 + 5𝑖
𝑧1
Find 𝑎) 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 𝑏) 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 𝑐) 𝑧1 ∗ 𝑧2 and 𝑑) 𝑧2

Solution:
𝑎) 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = (3 + 4𝑖) + (2 + 5𝑖) = 5 + 9𝑖
𝑏) 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = (3 + 4𝑖) − (2 + 5𝑖) = 1 − 𝑖
𝑐) 𝑧1 ∗ 𝑧1 = (3 + 4𝑖) ∗ (2 + 5𝑖) = (3 ∗ 2 − 4 ∗ 5) + 𝑖(3 ∗ 5 + 4 ∗ 2) = −14 + 23𝑖
𝑧1 3+4𝑖 (3+4𝑖)(2−5𝑖) 26−3𝑖 26 3
𝑑) 𝑧2
= 2+5𝑖 = (2+5𝑖)(2−5𝑖) = 29
= 29 − 29 𝑖

Exercises:
1. Given that, 𝑧1 = 7 − 5𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2 = 2 − 3𝑖.
𝑧1
Find 𝑎) 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 𝑏) 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 𝑐) 𝑧1 ∗ 𝑧2 𝑑) 𝑧2

2. Write each of the following in the form 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦

𝑎) − (−3 + 7𝑖) + (−6 + 6𝑖)
𝑏) (16 + 10𝑖) − (9 − 15𝑖)
𝑐) (−7 + 𝑖)(3 − 𝑖)

3. Express each of the following in the form 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦

3
1 √3 1 √3 3
𝑎) (1 + 𝑖)4 𝑏) (− − 𝑖) 𝑐) (− + 𝑖)
2 2 2 2

4. Solve for 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 in each of the following if 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 are real numbers.
𝑎) 3𝑥 + 6𝑖 = −9 + (2𝑦)𝑖
𝑏) 9 − (2𝑦)𝑖 = 6𝑥 + 8𝑖
𝑐) 𝑖(2𝑥 + 4𝑦) = (2𝑥 − 4) + (3𝑦)𝑖
𝑑) (2𝑥 + 𝑦) + (3𝑥 − 4𝑦)𝑖 = (𝑥 − 2) + (4𝑦 − 5)𝑖

Geometrical representation of complex numbers (Argand Diagram):

If in the 𝑓𝑖𝑔. below the point 𝑧 represents the complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 and if the length
𝑜𝑧 is denoted by 𝑟 and the angle 𝑎𝑜𝑧 by 𝜃 we have

𝑦
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦

𝑟
𝑦

𝜃
𝑥
0 𝑥

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 83

Definition3: The absolute value or Modulus of a complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 is defined as |𝑧| =
|𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
Properties of absolute values:
If 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 , . . . 𝑧𝑛 are complex numbers, the following properties hold good

1. |𝑧1 𝑧2 | = |𝑧1 ||z2 |

2. |𝑧1 + 𝑧2 | ≤ |𝑧1 | + |𝑧2 |
3. |𝑧1 − 𝑧2 | ≥ |𝑧1 | − |𝑧2 |
𝑧 |𝑧 |
4. |𝑧1 | = |𝑧1 | Provided 𝑧2 ≠ 0
2 2

5. |𝑧|2 = 𝑧𝑧

Definition 4: If 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦. Is a complex number, then the number z = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦. Is called the
complex conjugate of 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦.
𝑦
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦

Properties of complex conjugate: 𝑟

If 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 are complex numbers, then

𝑥
0

1. 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 + 𝑧2
𝑟
2. 𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 𝑧2
𝑛 𝑧 = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦
3. 𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑧
4. 𝑧̿ = 𝑧
5. 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
6. 𝑧 + 𝑧 = 2𝑎
7. 𝑧 − 𝑧 = 2𝑖𝑏

𝐸𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑒:
𝑎) Let 𝑧1 = 2 + 3𝑖 and 𝑧2 = 4 − 5𝑖 Showing the details of your work, Write the following
complex numbers in the form 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
𝑧1 + 𝑧2 𝑧1 𝑧1
𝑖) (5𝑧1 + 3𝑧2 )2 𝑖𝑖) 𝑧1 − 𝑧2
𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑅𝑒(𝑧22 ) ∗ (𝑅𝑒(𝑧2 ))2 𝑖𝑣) 𝑧2
𝑣) ⁄𝑧2
1 2 3 9
𝑏) Given that 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, find the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦 if 𝑧
+𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖 𝐴𝑛𝑠: 𝑥 = 10 and 𝑦 =
10

𝑏) Given that √𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏, show that 𝑥 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 , 𝑦 = 2𝑎𝑏 and find 𝑎 and 𝑏 if 𝑥 = 3, 𝑦 = 4

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 84

Definition 5: The positive angle between the complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 and the positive real
axis is called the amplitude (or argument) of the complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 denoted arg(𝑧) =
𝑦
𝜃 and define by 𝜃 = tan−1(𝑥 ).

Note: Every non-zero complex number admits of an infinite number of arguments and of all
these arguments there is one and only one argument 𝜃 such that 0 < 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋. This argument is
called the principal argument.

Properties of amplitude (or argument):

If 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 , . . . 𝑧𝑛 are complex numbers, the following properties hold good

1. arg(𝑧𝑖 ∗ 𝑧𝑗 ) = arg(𝑧𝑖 ) + arg(𝑧𝑗 )

𝑧
2. arg (𝑧 𝑖 ) = arg(𝑧𝑖 ) − arg(𝑧𝑗 )
𝑗

Example 1:
Given that, 𝑧1 = 3 + 5𝑖, 𝑧2 = −5 + 4𝑖, 𝑧3 = −2 − 3𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧4 = 7 − 5𝑖

𝑎) Represent the complex numbers on the Argand diagram and

𝑏) Find the modulus and the argument of,𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧4 .

Solution:
𝑎) 𝑧1 = 3 + 5𝑖, 𝑧2 = −5 + 4𝑖, 𝑧3 = −2 − 3𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧4 = 7 − 5𝑖

𝑧1 = 3 + 5𝑖
𝑧2 = −5 + 4𝑖 5
4

-5 -2 3 7

-3
𝑧3 = −2 − 3𝑖
-5 𝑧4 = 7 − 5𝑖

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 85

𝑏𝑖) 𝑧1 = 3 + 5𝑖,
5
⇨ |𝑧1 | = |3 + 5𝑖| = √32 + 52 = √34 and arg(𝑧1 ) = tan−1 ( ) = 59.04
3

𝑧1 = 3 + 5𝑖
5
4

59

-5 -2 3

-3

𝑖𝑖) 𝑧2 = −5 + 4𝑖,
⇨ |𝑧2 | = |−5 + 4𝑖| = √(−5)2 + 42 = √41 and
4
arg(𝑧2 ) = tan−1 (−5) = (−38.650 + 1800 ) = 141.340

5
𝑧2 = −5 + 4𝑖
4

141

-5 -2 3

-3

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 86

𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑧3 = −2 − 3𝑖,
⇨ |𝑧3 | = |−2 − 3𝑖| = √(−2)2 + (−3)2 = √13 and
−3
arg(𝑧4 ) = tan−1 ( ) = (56.310 + 1800 ) = 236.310
−2

236

-2 3

-3
𝑧4 = −2 − 3𝑖

-5

𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑧3 = 7 − 5𝑖,
⇨ |𝑧4 | = |7 − 5𝑖| = √72 + (−5)2 = √74 and
−5
arg(𝑧4 ) = arg(𝑧3 ) = tan−1 ( )= (−35.540 + 3600 ) = 324.460
7

324

-2 3 7

-
3
- 𝑧3 = 7 − 5𝑖
5

Exercise1:
Given that, 𝑧1 = 2 + 3𝑖, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2 = 4 − 5𝑖,
𝑧1 + 𝑧2
Find the modulus and the argument of, 𝑖) (5𝑧1 + 3𝑧2 )2 𝑖𝑖) 𝑧1 − 𝑧2

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 87

Polar Representation of Complex numbers:
The complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 can be expressed in terms of its modulus 𝑟 and argument 𝜃 by
the relation 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) as follows:
In the 𝑓𝑖𝑔. below let the point 𝑧 represents the complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 and if the length 𝑜𝑧
is denoted by 𝑟 and the angle 𝑎𝑜𝑧 by 𝜃 we have
𝑦
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦

𝑟
𝑦

𝜃
𝑥
0 𝑥

𝑥 𝑦
cos 𝜃 = 𝑟 ⇨ 𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 sin 𝜃 = 𝑟
⇨ 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃,

⇨ 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝑖𝑟 sin 𝜃 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)

⇨ 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) . . . (1)
And is called the polar form of complex numbers

Example 1: Given that 𝑧1 = 2 + 3𝑖, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2 = −3 + 4𝑖. Find the polar representation of
𝑧1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2
Solution:
3
𝑖) 𝑧1 = 2 + 3𝑖, ⇨ 𝑟 = √22 + 32 = √13 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) = 56.31
2

⇨ 𝑧1 = √13(cos 56.31 + 𝑖 sin 56.31)

4
𝑖𝑖) 𝑧2 = −3 + 4𝑖, ⇨ 𝑟 = √(−3)2 + 42 = 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) = −53.13 + 180
−3

⇨ 𝑧2 = 5(cos 126.87 + 𝑖 sin 126.87)

Exercises: Represent the following complex numbers in the form 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)

1 𝜋 −6 + 5𝑖 2 + 3𝑖 3√2 +2𝑖
𝑖) +4𝑖 𝑖𝑖) 𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑖𝑣)
2 3𝑖 5 + 4𝑖 −√2− (23)𝑖

Note: For any complex number 𝑧 ≠ 0 there corresponds only one value of 𝜃 in 0 ≤ 𝜃 < 2𝜋,
however, any interval of length 2𝜋 for example −𝜋 < 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋, can be used. Any particular choice,
decided upon in advance, is called the 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 and the value of 𝜃 is called its
𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒.

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 88

Theorem: If 𝑧1 = 𝑟1 (cos 𝜃1 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃1 ) and 𝑧2 = 𝑟2 (cos 𝜃2 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃2 ) then,

1. 𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 {cos(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖 sin( 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 )} . . . (a)

𝑧1 𝑟
2. 𝑧2
= 𝑟1 {cos(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖 sin( 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )} . . . (b)
2

Proof:
1. Let 𝑧1 = 𝑟1 (cos 𝜃1 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃1 ) and 𝑧2 = 𝑟2 (cos 𝜃2 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃2 ), then

𝑧1 ∗ 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 (cos 𝜃1 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃1 ) ∗ 𝑟2 (cos 𝜃2 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃2 )

= 𝑟1 𝑟2 {(cos 𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 − sin 𝜃1 sin 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖(sin 𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 + cos 𝜃1 sin 𝜃2 )}

= 𝑟1 𝑟2 {cos(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖 sin( 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 )}
Hence the proof:
𝑧1 𝑟 (cos 𝜃 +𝑖 sin 𝜃 ) 𝑟 (cos 𝜃 +𝑖 sin 𝜃 ) (cos 𝜃 −𝑖 sin 𝜃 )
2. 𝑧2
= 𝑟1 (cos 𝜃1 +𝑖 sin 𝜃1 ) = 𝑟1 ((cos 𝜃1 +𝑖 sin 𝜃1 ) ∗ (cos 𝜃2 −𝑖 sin 𝜃2 ))
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

𝑟 (cos 𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 +sin 𝜃1 sin 𝜃2 )+𝑖(sin 𝜃1 cos 𝜃2 − cos 𝜃1 sin 𝜃2 )

= 𝑟1 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃2 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃2
2

𝑟
= 𝑟1 [{cos(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖 sin( 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )]
2

Hence the proof:

Example1:
Given that, 𝑧1 = 2√3 − 2𝑖, 𝑧2 = −1 + √3𝑖, Obtain the polar representation of 𝑧1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2 , and
𝑧1
find 𝑧1 ∗ 𝑧2 , and 𝑧2
in polar form

Solution:
11𝜋 11𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑧1 = 4 [cos( 6
)+ 𝑖 sin( 6
)] and 𝑧2 = 2 [cos( 3 ) + 𝑖 sin( 3 )]
𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
⇨ 𝑧1 ∗ 𝑧2 = 4 ∗ 2 {cos( − 6 + 3
) + 𝑖 sin( − 6 + 3
)}
5𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= 8 {cos( 2
)+ 𝑖 sin( 2
)} = 8 {cos( 2 ) + 𝑖 sin( 2 )} = 8𝑖
𝑧1 4 7𝜋 7𝜋 √3 1
⇨ 𝑧2
= 2 {cos( 6
)+ 𝑖 sin( 6
)} = 2 (− 2
+ 𝑖(− 2)) = −√3 − 𝑖

Example2:
Given that 𝑧1 = 1 − 𝑖, 𝑧2 = −2 − 2𝑖. Find the polar representation of 𝑧1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2 , and
𝑧1
Find 𝑧1 ∗ 𝑧2 and 𝑧2
, in polar form

Solution: Do

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 89

In the same way, if
𝑧1 = 𝑟1 (cos 𝜃1 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃1 ), 𝑧2 = 𝑟2 (cos 𝜃2 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃2 ) and 𝑧3 = 𝑟3 (cos 𝜃3 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃3 ) then
𝑧1 ∗ 𝑧2 ∗ 𝑧3 = 𝑟1 ∗ 𝑟2 {cos(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 + 𝜃3 ) + 𝑖 sin( 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 + 𝜃3 )}
Now if 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) , then
𝑧 2 = 𝑧 ∗ 𝑧 = 𝑟 2 (cos 2𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 2𝜃)
𝑧 3 = 𝑧 2 ∗ 𝑧 = 𝑟 3 (cos 3𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 3𝜃)
𝑧 4 = 𝑧 3 ∗ 𝑧 = 𝑟 4 (cos 4𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 4𝜃)
And in general
𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 (cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃)

Theorem (De Moivre’s): Given that 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)is a non-zero complex number, then
𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 (cos 𝑛𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝜃)
Example 1:
Given that 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖, Find 𝑧 20 .
Solution:
𝜋 𝜋
𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖, = √2 {cos ( ) + 𝑖 sin( )}
4 4
1
𝜋 𝜋
𝑧 20 = (22 )20 [cos 20 ( ) + 𝑖 cos 20 ( )] = 210 [cos 5𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 5𝜋]
4 4

Example 2:
1 3
Given that 𝑧 = − 2 − √2 𝑖, Find 𝑧 20 .

Solution:
Do
Example 3: Use De’ Moivre’s theorem to show that
cos 3𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 3𝜃
= cos 8𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 8𝜃
cos 5𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 5𝜃

Solution:
cos 3𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 3𝜃 cos 3𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 3𝜃 cos 5𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 5𝜃 cos(3𝜃+5𝜃) + 𝑖 sin(3𝜃+5𝜃)
= ∗ = = cos 8𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 8𝜃
cos 5𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 5𝜃 cos 5𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 5𝜃 cos 5𝜃+ 𝑖 sin 5𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 5𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 5𝜃

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 90

Roots of Complex Numbers:
Let 𝑧 be a non-zero complex number ( 𝑧 ≠ 0 ), a number 𝑤 is called an 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 of a complex
1
number 𝑧 if 𝑤 𝑛 = 𝑧 and we write 𝑤 = 𝑧 𝑛 .
Let 𝑤 = 𝑠(cos 𝛼 + 𝑖 sin 𝛼) . . . (1)
⇨ 𝑤 𝑛 = 𝑠 𝑛 (cos 𝑛𝛼 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝛼)
and
𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃), then,
𝑠 𝑛 (cos 𝑛𝛼 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝛼) = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) . . . (2)
⇨ 𝑠𝑛 = 𝑟
𝑛
And since 𝑠 ≥ 0, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 ≥ 0 we have 𝑠 = √𝑟
𝑛
Now substituting 𝑠 = √𝑟 in equation (2) we have
𝑟(cos 𝑛𝛼 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝛼) = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
⇨ (cos 𝑛𝛼 + 𝑖 sin 𝑛𝛼) = (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
⇨ cos 𝑛𝛼 = cos 𝜃 and sin 𝑛𝛼 = sin 𝜃 . . . (3)

Since both the two functions in two have period 2𝜋, the two equations are true if and only if
𝑛𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 differ by a multiple of 2𝜋. Thus for any integer ,𝑛𝛼 = 𝜃 + 2𝜋𝑘.
𝜃+2𝜋𝑘
⇨ 𝛼=
𝑛
𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, . . . (𝑛 − 1) . . . (4)

Substituting (4) into (1) we have

1
𝜃+2𝑘𝜋 𝜃+2𝑘𝜋
⇨ 𝑤 = 𝑟 𝑛 {cos (
𝑛
)+ 𝑖 sin (
𝑛
)} 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . (𝑛 − 1) . . . (5)
1
Which follows that, there are 𝑛 different values of 𝑧 𝑛 , i.e. 𝑛 different 𝑛𝑡ℎ roots of 𝑧

Theorem: if 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) is any non-zero complex number and if,𝑛 is any +𝑣𝑒 integer,
then 𝑧has precisely 𝑛distinct 𝑛𝑡ℎ root. Moreover, the roots are given by.

1
𝜃+2𝑘𝜋 𝜃+2𝑘𝜋
𝑤𝑘 = 𝑟 𝑛 {cos ( 𝑛
)+ 𝑖 sin ( 𝑛
)} , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . (𝑛 − 1) . . . (6)

Note:
1. The 𝑛𝑡ℎ root of 𝑧 all have modulus 𝑛√𝑟, and hence they lie on the circle of radius 𝑛√𝑟 with
centre at 𝑜. Moreover, they are equally spaced on this circle since the difference in the
2𝜋
arguments of successive 𝑛𝑡ℎ roots is 𝑛
.

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 91

2. It is sometimes convenient to use degree measure for 2𝜋, so that equation (4) becomes
1
𝜃+𝑘∗360𝑜 𝜃+𝑘∗360𝑜
𝑤 = 𝑟 𝑛 {cos ( )+ 𝑖 sin ( )} , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . (𝑛 − 1) . . . (7)
𝑛 𝑛

Example1: Find the four fourth root of the complex number 𝑧 = −8(1 + 𝑖√3)
Solution:
2 −8√3
𝑟 = √(−8)2 + (−8√3) = √256 = 16and, 𝜃 = tan−1 ( −8
) = tan−1 (√3)

= (60𝑜 + 180𝑜 ) = 240𝑜 since the complex number lie in the third quadrant.
⇨ 𝑧 = 16(cos 240𝑜 + 𝑖 sin 240𝑜 )
1
240𝑜 +𝑘∗360𝑜 240𝑜 +𝑘∗360𝑜
⇨ 𝑤𝑘 = (16)4 {cos ( 4
)+ 𝑖 sin ( 4
)} , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . (𝑛 − 1)
1
240𝑜+𝑘∗360𝑜 240𝑜 +𝑘∗360𝑜
= (24 )4 {cos ( 4
)+ 𝑖 sin ( 4
)} , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 = 0,1, 2, 3, . . . (𝑛 − 1)

= 2{cos(60𝑜 + 𝑘 ∗ 90𝑜 ) + 𝑖 sin(60𝑜 + 𝑘 ∗ 90𝑜 )}, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . (𝑛 − 1)

For 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, 3. We have the four fourth roots as follows.
𝑤0 = 2{cos 60𝑜 + 𝑖 sin 60𝑜 } = 1 + √3𝑖 𝑤1 = 2{cos 150𝑜 + 𝑖 sin 150𝑜 } = −√3 + 𝑖
𝑤2 = 2{cos 240𝑜 + 𝑖 sin 240𝑜 } = −1 − √3𝑖 𝑤3 = 2{cos 330𝑜 + 𝑖 sin 330𝑜 } = √3 − 𝑖

Example2: Find the 𝑛 𝑛𝑡ℎ root of the following complex number

8 4 3
𝑖) √−𝑖 𝑖𝑖) √1 𝑖𝑖𝑖) √−1 𝑖𝑣) √3 + 4𝑖
Solution:
Example2: Find the six sixth root of the complex number 𝑧 = −1 + 0𝑖
Solution:
0
𝑟 = √(−1)2 + (0)2 = √1 = 1and, 𝜃 = tan−1 (−1) = tan−1 (0) = (0𝑜 + 180𝑜 ) = 180𝑜 since the

complex number lie in the on the negative 𝑥-axis.

⇨ 𝑧 = 1(cos 180𝑜 + 𝑖 sin 180𝑜 )
1
180𝑜+𝑘∗360𝑜 180𝑜 +𝑘∗360𝑜
⇨ 𝑤𝑘 = (1)6 {cos ( )+ 𝑖 sin ( )} , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . (𝑛 − 1)
6 6

= {cos(30𝑜 + 𝑘 ∗ 60𝑜 ) + 𝑖 sin(30𝑜 + 𝑘 ∗ 60𝑜 )}, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . (𝑛 − 1)

For 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. We have the six sixth roots as follows.
√3 1
𝑤0 = {cos 30𝑜 + 𝑖 sin 30𝑜 } = 2
+ 2𝑖 𝑤1 = {cos 90𝑜 + 𝑖 sin 90𝑜 } = 0 + 𝑖
√3 1 √3 1
𝑤2 = {cos 150𝑜 + 𝑖 sin 150𝑜 } = 2
+ 2𝑖 𝑤3 = {cos 210𝑜 + 𝑖 sin 210𝑜 } = − 2
− 2𝑖
√3 1
𝑤4 = {cos 270𝑜 + 𝑖 sin 270𝑜 } = 0 − 𝑖 𝑤5 = {cos 330𝑜 + 𝑖 sin 330𝑜 } = 2
− 2𝑖

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 92

The 𝒏𝒕𝒉 root of Unity:
The special case in which 𝑧 = 1 is of particular interest that leads to the 𝑛 distinct𝑛𝑡ℎ root of 1
are called the 𝑛𝑡ℎ root of unity and are given by

𝑧 = cos(0𝑜 ) + 𝑖 sin(0𝑜 ),
2𝑘𝜋 2𝑘𝜋
𝑤𝑘 = cos ( 𝑛
) + 𝑖 sin ( 𝑛 ),

Geometrically, they represent the 𝑛 vertices of a regular polygon of 𝑛 sides inscribed in a circle
of radius one with center at the origin. This circle has the equation |𝑧| = 1 and is often called
the 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒.

Example1: Find the three third root of unity.

Solution:
𝑟 = |𝑧| = √(1)2 + (0)2 = √1 = 1 and,
0
𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1(0) = 0𝑜 since the complex number lie on the +𝑣𝑒𝑥-axis.
1

⇨ 𝑧 = 1(cos 0𝑜 + 𝑖 sin 0𝑜 )
1
𝑘∗360𝑜 𝑘∗360𝑜
⇨ 𝑤 = (1)3 {cos ( )+ 𝑖 sin ( )} , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . (𝑛 − 1)
3 3

= {cos(𝑘 ∗ 120𝑜 ) + 𝑖 sin(𝑘 ∗ 120𝑜 )}, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . (𝑛 − 1)

For 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, . We have the six sixth roots as follows.
1 √3
𝑤0 = {cos 0𝑜 + 𝑖 sin 0𝑜 } = 1 + 0𝑖 𝑤1 = {cos 120𝑜 + 𝑖 sin 120𝑜 } = − 2 + 2
1 √3
𝑤2 = {cos 240𝑜 + 𝑖 sin 240𝑜 } = − 2 − 2

Euler’s formula:
By assuming that the infinite series
𝑥2 𝑥3
𝑒𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + 2!
+ 3!
+. . . . . . (1)

Holds good, substituting 𝑥 = 𝑖𝜃 in (1) we arrive at a result

𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃
and is called 𝐸𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 ′ 𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎
⇨ 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
⇨ 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃
⇨ 𝑧 𝑛 = (𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝜃

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 93

Example: Given that 𝑧 = 3 + 5𝑖, find 𝑧 6 in exponential form
Solution:
𝑧 = 3 + 5𝑖
5
⇨ |𝑧| = √32 + 52 = √34 = 𝑟 and 𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) ≈ 590
3

𝑧 𝑛 = 𝑟 𝑛 𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝜃
6
⇨ 𝑧 6 = 𝑟 6 𝑒 𝑖6𝜃 = (√34) 𝑒 6(59)𝑖 = (34)3 𝑒 6(59)𝑖

Polynomial Equations:
Often in practice we require solutions of polynomial equations having the form
𝑃𝑛 (𝑧) = 𝑎0 𝑧 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑧 𝑛−1 + 𝑎2 𝑧 𝑛−2 + . . . +𝑎𝑛−1 𝑧 + 𝑎𝑛 = 0
Where 𝑎0 ≠ 0, 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ,. . . 𝑎𝑛 are given real coefficient and 𝑛 is a positive integer called the
degree of the equation. Such solutions are also called 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 of the polynomial, or 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 of the
equation.

Theorem: Every polynomial equation

𝑃𝑛 (𝑧) = 𝑎0 𝑧 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑧 𝑛−1 + 𝑎2 𝑧 𝑛−2 + . . . +𝑎𝑛−1 𝑧 + 𝑎𝑛 = 0
𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0 of degree 𝑛 ≥ 1 has at least one solution in the field of complex numbers

Exercise:
Show that every real is a complex number, but not every complex number is a real number.
Proof:
Each complex number 𝑧 may be express in the form 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are real
numbers.
So when 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 0𝑖 ⇨ 𝑧=𝑥
⇨ 𝑧 is purely a real number
But when 𝑦 ≠ 0 , then 𝑧 cannot be entirely real.

Proposition: In the field of complex numbers, the only polynomials which cannot be factorized
further are of the form 𝑎1 𝑧 + 𝑎0 (i.e. the polynomial of degree one)
Note: Given a polynomial equation
𝑃𝑛 (𝑧) = 𝑎0 𝑧 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑧 𝑛−1 + 𝑎2 𝑧 𝑛−2 + . . . +𝑎𝑛−1 𝑧 + 𝑎𝑛 = 0
If 𝑥 = 𝑐 is a root (or zero, or solution) then, 𝑃𝑛 (𝑐) = 0, and 𝑧 = 𝑐 is a factor.

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 94

 Exercise: Show that the polynomial

𝑓(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 + 34 𝑧 + 7
Is factorizable over the complex field but not factorizable over the real field

Proposition: If 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 is a root of
𝑃𝑛 (𝑧) = 𝑎0 𝑧 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑧 𝑛−1 + 𝑎2 𝑧 𝑛−2 + . . . +𝑎𝑛−1 𝑧 + 𝑎𝑛 = 0
Where 𝑎0 ≠ 0, 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ,. . . are real number, then 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 is also a root.

Example: show that the polynomial 𝑃(𝑧) = 2𝑧 2 + 2𝑧 + 1

Has its two roots 𝑧 = −1 + 𝑖 and 𝑧 = −1 − 𝑖

Proposition:
At least one of the roots of
𝑃𝑛 (𝑧) = 𝑎0 𝑧 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑧 𝑛−1 + 𝑎2 𝑧 𝑛−2 + . . . +𝑎𝑛−1 𝑧 + 𝑎𝑛 = 0
With real coefficients and 𝑛 odd must be real.

Example; 𝑃5 (𝑧) = 𝑧 5 + 5𝑧 4 + 10𝑧 3 + 10𝑧 2 + 9𝑧 + 5 = 0

Proposition:
A polynomial of degree 𝑛 ≥ 1 has at most 𝑛 distinct roots

Example; 𝑃5 (𝑧) = 𝑧 5 + 5𝑧 4 + 10𝑧 3 + 10𝑧 2 + 9𝑧 + 5 = 0

Has at most 5 distinct roots

Example; 𝑃3 (𝑧) = 𝑧 3 − 5𝑧 2 + 16𝑧 − 5 = 0, has at most 3 distinct roots

Complex Numbers as Ordered pairs:

From a strictly logical point of view it is desirable to define a complex number as an ordered
pair (𝑥, 𝑦) of real numbers 𝑥 and 𝑦 subject to certain operational definitions which turn out to
be equivalent to those above.
Let 𝑧1 = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )and 𝑧2 = (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ), be any two complex numbers then
1. Addition: 𝑧1 + 𝑧1 = (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) + 𝑖(𝑦1 + 𝑦2 )
2. Subtraction: 𝑧1 − 𝑧1 = (𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ) + 𝑖(𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )
3. Multiplication: 𝑧1 𝑧1 = (𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑦1 𝑦2 ) + 𝑖(𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑦1 𝑥2 )
|𝑧1 | 𝑥1 +𝑖𝑦1 𝑥1 𝑥2 +𝑦1 𝑦2 𝑦1 𝑥2 −𝑥1 𝑦2
4. Division: |𝑧2 |
=
𝑥2 +𝑖𝑦2
=(
𝑥22 +𝑦22
)+ 𝑖(
𝑥22 +𝑦22
)

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 95

Exercises:
1. Given that 𝑧1 = 7 + 5𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧2 = 2 − 3𝑖.
Write the following complex numbers in ordered pairs,
𝑖) (𝑧1 + 𝑧2 )9
𝑖𝑖) 𝑧1 − 𝑧2
𝑧1 2
𝑖𝑖𝑖) 2
∗ 𝑧2 𝑖𝑣) 𝑧2

2. Write each of the following in the form (𝑥, 𝑦)

𝑖) – (−3 + 7𝑖) + (−6 + 6𝑖)
𝑖𝑖) (16 + 10𝑖) − (9 − 15𝑖
𝑖𝑖𝑖) (−7 + 𝑖)(3 − 𝑖)

MTH111 (Elementary Algebra I) Manual: DMS ATBU, Bauchi-Nigeria Page 96