Sources for the History of Emotions

Offering insights on the wide range of sources that are available from across the globe
and throughout history for the study of the history of emotions, this book provides
students with a handbook for beginning their own research within the field.
Divided into three parts, Sources for the History of Emotions begins by giving key
starting points into the ethical, methodological and theoretical issues in the field. Part
II shows how emotions historians have proved imaginative in their discovering and use
of varied materials, considering such sources as rituals, relics and religious rhetoric,
prescriptive literature, medicine, science and psychology, and fiction, while Part III
offers introductions to some of the big or emerging topics in the field, including
embodied emotions, comparative emotions, and intersectionality and emotion. Written
by key scholars of emotions history, the book shows readers the ways in which differ-
ent sources can be used to extract information about the history of emotions, high-
lighting the kind of data available and how it can be used in a field for which there is
no convenient archive of sources.
The focused discussion of sources offered in this book, which not only builds on
existing research, but encourages further efforts, makes it ideal reading and a key
resource for all students of emotions history.

Katie Barclay is Deputy-Director of the ARC Centre of Excellence in the History of

Emotions and Associate Professor in History at the University of Adelaide, Australia.
She writes on the history of emotions, family and gender, and with Andrew Lynch and
Giovanni Taratino edits Emotions: History, Culture, Society.

Sharon Crozier-De Rosa is Associate Professor in History at the University of Wol-

longong, Australia. She writes on the history of emotions, gender, militancy and
transnationalism, and her books include Shame and the Anti-Feminist Backlash and
Remembering Women’s Activism. She is Deputy Editor of Women’s History Review.

Peter N. Stearns is University Professor of History at George Mason University, USA.

He has written widely on the history of emotions, with books including American Cool
and Shame: A Brief History. He regularly teaches an undergraduate course on emotions
history, and has collaborated with a number of students on research projects in the field.
Routledge Guides to Using Historical Sources

How does the historian approach primary sources? How do interpretations differ?
How can such sources be used to write history?
The Routledge Guides to Using Historical Sources series introduces students
to different sources and illustrates how historians use them. Titles in the series
offer a broad spectrum of primary sources and, using specific examples, examine
the historical context of these sources and the different approaches that can be
used to interpret them.

History and Material Culture

A Student's Guide to Approaching Alternative Sources, 2nd Edition
Edited by Karen Harvey

Reading Russian Sources

A Student's Guide to Text and Visual Sources from Russian History
Edited by George Gilbert

History and Economic Life

A Student’s Guide to Approaching Economic and Social History Sources
Edited by Georg Christ and Philipp R. Roessner

Approaching Historical Sources in their Contexts

Space, Time and Performance
Edited by Sarah Barber and Corinna M. Peniston-Bird

Reading Primary Sources

The Interpretation of Texts from Nineteenth and Twentieth Century
History, 2nd edition
Edited by Miriam Dobson and Benjamin Ziemann

Sources for the History of Emotions

A Guide
Edited by Katie Barclay, Sharon Crozier-De Rosa and Peter N. Stearns

For more information about this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/

Europa-Regional-Perspectives/book-series/ERP
Sources for the History of
Emotions
A Guide

Edited by
Katie Barclay, Sharon Crozier-De Rosa
and Peter N. Stearns
First published 2021
by Routledge
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and by Routledge
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© 2021 selection and editorial matter, Katie Barclay, Sharon Crozier-De
Rosa and Peter Stearns; individual chapters, the contributors
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
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Names: Barclay, Katie, editor. | Crozier-De Rosa, Sharon, editor. | Stearns,
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Title: Sources for the history of emotions : a guide / edited by Katie Barclay,
Sharon Crozier-De Rosa, Peter N. Stearns.
Description: Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon ; New York,
NY : Routledge, 2020. |
Series: Routledge guides to using historical sources | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020005626 (print) | LCCN 2020005627 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780367261436 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367261450 (paperback) |
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Typeset in Times New Roman

by Taylor & Francis Books
Contents

List of figures vii

List of contributors viii

PART I
Introducing the history of emotions 1
1 Introduction: a guide to sources for the history of emotions 3
KATIE BARCLAY, SHARON CROZIER-DE ROSA AND PETER N. STEARNS

2 Theories and methods in the history of emotions 15

THOMAS DODMAN

3 The practice and ethics of the history of emotions 26

KATIE BARCLAY

PART II
Sources for the history of emotions 39
4 Rituals, relics and religious rhetoric 41
PIROSKA NAGY, XAVIER BIRON-OUELLET AND ANNE-GAËLLE WEBER

5 Prescriptive literature 53
PETER N. STEARNS

6 Medicine, science and psychology 66

ROB BODDICE

7 Legal records 79
ALECIA SIMMONDS

8 Institutional records: a comment 92

CATHARINE COLEBORNE AND PETER N. STEARNS
vi Contents
9 Narratives of the self 99
MARCELO J. BORGES

10 Emotions in fiction 114

LOUISE D’ARCENS

11 Performing emotions 127

ALAN MADDOX

12 Visual sources 143

SARAH HAND MEACHAM

13 The material world 159

SARAH RANDLES

PART III
Emerging themes in the history of emotions 173
14 Comparative emotions 175
JOSEPH BEN PRESTEL

15 Intersectional identities 185

KATIE BARCLAY AND SHARON CROZIER-DE ROSA

16 Emotions of protest 198

SHARON CROZIER-DE ROSA

17 Technology and feeling 212

SUSAN J. MATT AND LUKE FERNANDEZ

18 Emotions and the body 224

MARK NEUENDORF

19 Epilogue 240
PETER N. STEARNS

Index 243
Figures

5.1 The two Google Books Ngram Viewer graphs represent the
frequency of ‘gratitude’ in American English (top) and British
English (bottom) from 1800 to 2008 62
11.1 Emotional gestures in John Bulwer’s Chirologia, or the Naturall
Language of the Hand (London: Thomas Harper, 1644) 132
11.2 Hamlet, Act III, Scene 1. Frontispiece to Hamlet in Nicholas
Rowe’s 1709 edition (The Picture Art Collection/Alamy Stock
Photo) 133
11.3 Performing the reverence in a basse danse. ‘Turn the body and
face towards the lady and cast a gracious look upon her.’
Thoinot Arbeau, Orchesographie (1588), 26v, Library of
Congress 134
11.4 Albert Graefle, Die Intimen bei Beethoven. Published by Franz
Hanfstaengl, Munich, ca. 1892 (Lebrecht Music & Arts/ Alamy
Stock Photo) 138
11.5 Theodor Hosemann, Liszt and his Admirers (1842) (Granger
Historical Picture Archive/ Alamy Stock Photo) 139
12.1 Colossal heads of Olmec statue in Museo Nacional de
Antropología, Federal District, Mexico (Pascopi/Alamy Stock
Photo) 146
12.2 Johannes Vermeer, Woman Holding a Balance, c. 1664, oil on
canvas, Widener Collection, 1942.9.97, National Gallery of Art,
Washington 148
12.3 Currier & Ives, Low Water in the Mississippi, ca. 1867. New
York: Currier & Ives, photograph, Library of Congress 150
12.4 John Smibert, The Bermuda Group (Dean Berkeley and his
Entourage), 1728, reworked 1739, oil on canvas, Yale University
Art Gallery 152
Contributors

Katie Barclay is Deputy Director of the ARC Centre of Excellence for the History
of Emotions and Associate Professor in History, University of Adelaide, Aus-
tralia. She is the author of Love, Intimacy and Power: Marriage and Patriarchy
in Scotland, 1650–1850 (2011), Men on Trial: Performing Emotion, Embodi-
ment, and Identity in Ireland, 1800–1845 (2019), and numerous articles on
emotion, gender and family life. She is the editor, with Andrew Lynch and
Giovanni Tarantino, of the journal Emotions: History, Culture, Society.
Xavier Biron-Ouellet obtained his PhD at Université du Québec à Montréal,
Canada, and École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales (Paris), and is
presently a post-doctoral fellow at Università Ca’Foscari in Venice, Italy.
His thesis concerns the fourteenth-century Italian preacher Simone Fidati
da Cascia and how he uses emotions to encourage spiritual reform in the
urban context of Florence.
Rob Boddice is Wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter in the Department of History
and Cultural Studies, Freie Universität Berlin, Adjunct Professor in the
Department of Social Studies of Medicine, McGill University, and will
take up a post of University Researcher at the Finnish National Academy
Centre of Excellence for the History of Experiences at Tampere University
in 2020. He is the author of six books, including The Science of Sympathy
(2016), The History of Emotions (2018) and A History of Feelings (2019).
He is a Fellow of the Royal Historical Society.
Marcelo J. Borges is Professor of History and the Boyd Lee Spahr Chair in the
History of the Americas at Dickinson College, USA, where he teaches Latin
American history and migration history. He has been a research fellow at
the Netherlands Institute for Advanced Studies in the Humanities and
Social Sciences and the Nantes Institute of Advanced Studies. He is the
author of Chains of Gold: Portuguese Migration to Argentina in Transat-
lantic Perspective (2009) and co-editor of Migrant Letters: Emotional Lan-
guage, Mobile Identities, and Writing Practices in Historical Perspective
(with Sonia Cancian, 2018) and Emotional Landscapes: Love, Gender, and
Migration (with Sonia Cancian and Linda Reeder, forthcoming 2021). His
 List of contributors ix
current research focuses on personal letters, identity, and emotional con-
nections among migrants from southern Europe to the Americas and their
families.
Catharine Coleborne is a Professor and the current Head of School of
Humanities and Social Science, Faculty of Education and Arts, University
of Newcastle (NSW), Australia. She is the author of four books including
Insanity, Identity and Empire: Colonial Institutional Confinement in Aus-
tralia and New Zealand, 1870–1910 (2015). She is currently part of two
Australian Research Council funded projects, one focused on psychiatric
records and convict lives, and the other on the development of Australian
community psychiatry.
Sharon Crozier-De Rosa is Associate Professor in History at the University of
Wollongong, Australia. Her research is situated at the intersections of
emotions, gender, imperial/colonial and violence histories. It is transna-
tional in scope, spanning Ireland, Britain, Australia and the USA. She is
the author of Shame and the Anti-Feminist Backlash: Britain, Ireland and
Australia, 1890–1920 (2018) and co-author of Remembering Women’s
Activism (with Vera Mackie, 2019). Her current project on the emotional
and material dimensions of women’s efforts to preserve and archive their
own memory has been awarded a National Library of Australia Fellow-
ship (2020). She is the Deputy Editor of Women’s History Review.
Louise D’Arcens is Professor in the Department of English at Macquarie
University, Australia, and Director of the Macquarie node of the ARC
Centre for the History of Emotions. Her publications include Comic Med-
ievalism: Laughing at the Middle Ages (2014), Old Songs in the Timeless
Land: Medievalism in Australian Literature 1840–1910 (2011), and the co/
edited volumes The Cambridge Companion to Medievalism (2016) and
International Medievalism and Popular Culture (2014). She is currently
writing World Medievalism: The Middle Ages in Global Textual Cultures
(2020). Her work in emotions history has included recently co-editing the
journal issues ‘Emotions, History and Philosophy’, Screening the Past
(2016) and ‘Feeling for the Premodern’, Exemplaria (2018).
Thomas Dodman is Assistant Professor of French History at Columbia Uni-
versity, USA. He is the author of What Nostalgia Was: War, Empire, and
the Time of a Deadly Emotion (2018) and has co-edited Une Histoire de la
Guerre, du XIXe siècle à nos jours (2018). He has worked at Emotion
Review and currently co-edits the journal Sensibilités.
Luke Fernandez is Assistant Professor in the School of Computing at Weber
State University, USA. He is co-author with Susan J. Matt of Bored,
Lonely, Angry, Stupid: Changing Feelings about Technology from the Tel-
egraph to Twitter (2019). His writing has appeared in the Washington Post,
Slate, Lapham’s Quarterly and the Chronicle of Higher Education.
x List of contributors
Alan Maddox is Program Leader in Musicology at the Sydney Con-
servatorium of Music, University of Sydney, Australia. Initially trained as
a singer, his research interests focus on Italian Baroque vocal music, Aus-
tralian colonial music, music and intellectual history, and music and the
history of emotions. He is University of Sydney Node Leader of the Aus-
tralian Research Council’s Centre of Excellence for the History of Emo-
tions, a member of the University’s Medieval and Early Modern Centre,
consultant musicologist to the Australian Brandenburg Orchestra, and was
until recently a member of the National Committee of the Musicological
Society of Australia.
Susan J. Matt is Presidential Distinguished Professor of History at Weber
State University, USA. She is co-author with Luke Fernandez of Bored,
Lonely, Angry, Stupid: Changing Feelings about Technology, from the Tel-
egraph to Twitter (2019), and author of Homesickness: An American His-
tory (2011) and Keeping Up with the Joneses: Envy in American Consumer
Society, 1890–1930 (2003). With Peter J. Stearns, she co-edited Doing
Emotions History (2013).
Sarah Hand Meacham is an Associate Professor of History at Virginia Com-
monwealth University in Richmond, Virginia, USA. She earned her BA at
Smith College, her MA in American History at Vanderbilt University and
her PhD in American History at the University of Virginia. She is the
author of Every Home a Distillery: Alcohol, Technology, and Gender in the
Early Chesapeake (2009). She has also published articles on colonial art,
pets and girlhood. Currently, she is writing a book about why colonists
invented the idea that Americans ought to be cheerful and the burdens that
this emotion labour has created, as well as publishing an article on the
history of smiling in early American portraiture.
Piroska Nagy is Professor of Medieval History at the Université du Québec à
Montréal, Canada. Her current research explores the relation between col-
lective religious emotions, events and change in the Middle Ages and med-
ieval affective anthropology, especially embodied religious emotions,
experience and charismas. She is author of Le don des larmes au Moyen
Age: Un instrument spirituel en quête d’institution, Ve–XIIIe siècle (2000)
and co-author, with Damien Boquet, of Medieval Sensibilities: A History of
Emotions in the Middle Ages (2018); among her recent publications is co-
editing, with Naama Cohen-Hanegbi, Pleasure in the Middle Ages (2018).
Mark Neuendorf is a Visiting Research Fellow in the History department at
the University of Adelaide, Australia. His research examines the intersec-
tion of emotions and psychiatry, with a focus on legislative and humani-
tarian reform movements within psychiatric medicine. His research has
been published in Medical History, and a monograph, Emotions and the
Making of Psychiatric Reform in Britain, 1770–1820, is forthcoming.
 List of contributors xi
Joseph Ben Prestel is Assistant Professor (wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter) of
History at Freie Universität Berlin, Germany. His teaching and research
focus on the histories of Europe and the Middle East in the modern era,
global history, and urban history. He is the author of Emotional Cities:
Debates on Urban Change in Berlin and Cairo, 1860–1910 (2017).
Sarah Randles is an Honorary Research Fellow in the School of Historical
and Philosophical Studies at the University of Melbourne, Australia, an
Adjunct Researcher in the School of Humanities at the University of Tas-
mania, and a former Postdoctoral Fellow with the Australian Research
Council Centre of Excellence for the History of Emotions. Her research
focuses on medieval and early modern material culture and emotions and
she is the co-editor, with Stephanie Downes and Sally Holloway, of Feeling
Things: Objects and Emotions through History (2018).
Alecia Simmonds is a Lecturer in Law at the University of Technology Sydney
and a Lecturer in Australian Cultural History and Pacific World History at
New York University-Sydney, Australia. She has published on the rela-
tionship between intimacy, imperialism and law, and gender and emotions
in a range of scholarly journals. Her current project examines the legal
regulation of love through the lens of breach of promise of marriage cases
from 1806 to 1975 (forthcoming 2021). Her books include Transnational-
ism and Nationalism in Australian History (2017) and Wild Man: A True
Story of a Police Killing Mental Illness and the Law (2015) which won the
2016 Davitt Award for best crime non-fiction.
Peter N. Stearns is Professor of History at George Mason University, USA.
He has written widely on the history of emotions, with books on grief, fear,
anger, jealousy and most recently shame (Shame: A Brief History, 2018).
His edited volume Death in Modern World History will appear later in
2020, published by Routledge. He currently co-chairs the new North
American Chapter on the History of Emotion. He has taught a course in
the field for several years, and has sponsored several successful under-
graduate research projects.
Anne-Gaëlle Weber is a PhD candidate in Medieval History at UQÀM
(Montréal), Canada. Her research focuses on the relations between identity
and emotions within Carolingian missionary hagiography during the
eighth to ninth centuries and how they are instruments of integration into
the Carolingian Empire.
Part I
Introducing the history of
emotions
1 Introduction
A guide to sources for the history of
emotions
Katie Barclay, Sharon Crozier-De Rosa and Peter
N. Stearns

Historical research on emotion has been gaining ground steadily over the past
three decades, becoming a significant subfield in the discipline and tackling a
growing range of topics. Major scholarly centres have emerged in a number of
places, including Britain, Germany and Australia, sponsoring a variety of
publications and conferences. In recent years, historians of emotion have begun
to apply their interests to teaching as well as research. Both undergraduate and
graduate students now have many opportunities to do work in the field, not
only in formal classes but through their own research projects as well.
An increasingly visible research field and the growing involvement of students
create an obvious opportunity to discuss the kinds of sources available for his-
torical work on emotion – and this is the purpose of this collection. Historians of
emotion have been using a number of types of evidence, and many of the cate-
gories are fairly accessible – another reason to provide some guidance in finding
and utilising the building blocks for further historical work.
Primary sources are essential for all types of historical research. History is,
at base, an empirical discipline, and historians get their facts from materials
created in past periods – written records most obviously, but also artistic
materials, artefacts, and for contemporary history oral and digital archives as
well. With rare exceptions, these primary sources were not produced with any
eye towards an audience in the future – and certainly not an audience com-
posed of twenty-first-century historians and history students. (What historians
call secondary sources, in contrast – books and articles by scholars in the
field – do have this kind of audience in mind, and therefore, at least in prin-
ciple, are much easier to interpret.) Thus primary sources may involve police
reports – for example, on the history of crime or protest; or parish registers,
where births and deaths are recoded; or personal diaries and letters; or state-
ments by political parties; or – the list here is a long one. In the essays that
follow, a wide variety of types of sources are covered, correctly suggesting that
emotions history requires a considerable range of evidence.
Utilising primary sources offers two challenges: the first, self-evident, is
finding them in the first place, which can sometimes be difficult. But the
second challenge centres on figuring out what they mean, given the fact that
they were usually created for specific purposes in the past and so their
4 Katie Barclay, Sharon Crozier-De Rosa and Peter N. Stearns
meaning is shaped by that context, reflecting the concerns and interests of the
author. Deriving meaning from primary sources is one of the most enjoyable
tasks for a study of history, but it is not always an easy assignment.
Emotions history is no different from any other field of history in needing
primary sources, but it may involve some unusually difficult interpretive
issues. For, at base, historians of emotion are trying to figure out what people
felt in the past, and this is a really ambitious goal. People often have trouble
figuring out what others are feeling right now, in the present; multiply this
complexity by adding in the dimension of the past, and it is clear that the
emotions history field can require some really complicated assessments of
available evidence.
Historians of emotion make several basic arguments, as they work to define
what their new field is all about. First, and most obviously, they contend that
we will get a much richer picture of the past if we include emotional experi-
ence. People are, after all, not simply rational actors, though rationality
should not be ignored. Reflecting shifting ideas about cognition, emotion is
now recognised as a central part of decision-making, which makes a study of
emotion relevant for almost every area of life. When people form families or
deal with children, or when they take to the streets in protest, or indeed when
they go to war, they are responding to emotional spurs at least in part.
Indeed, emotions history began to take shape when family historians, for
example, realised that understanding past family patterns was not simply a
matter of birth and marriage rates, but had to include a set of emotional
interactions.1 Other historians likewise now realise that understanding past
protest movements is probably impossible if anger is not given serious atten-
tion. Once emotion gains attention, it clearly plays a role in all sorts of other
historical topics, from the study of art and theatre in the past, to an under-
standing of disease and healing, even to the rise of sports and impassioned
spectatorship in modern societies.
But arguing for the importance of emotion in dealing with the past is only
step one. Most emotions historians go on to offer a more challenging con-
tention; emotional combinations in the past are usually not the same, or at
least not quite the same, as emotions in the present. It would be a mistake, for
example, to look back on a group of people in the seventeenth century and
expect them to have the same ideas about happiness that we do today.2 Or
that they would be disgusted by the same things that disgust us.3
Sometimes word use makes it particularly easy to identify emotional dif-
ferences between past and present. The word nostalgia, for example, was
introduced only at the end of the seventeenth century, and for quite a while it
designated a serious mental disorder, requiring medical attention. It settled
into its current meaning only toward the end of the nineteenth century.
Another case: ‘shamefast’ was a fairly common word in English into the
nineteenth century, usually designating people (particularly young women)
who were very sensitive to the need to avoid any shameful behaviour. But in
the nineteenth century the term began to fade away, and it is not used at all
 Introduction 5
today. Experiences of nostalgia or shame in the past were clearly somewhat
different from patterns in contemporary society, which adds a major chal-
lenge to the effort to understand emotions, and the impact of emotions, in
earlier times.4
And this means, finally, that many emotions historians are also deeply
interested in the process of change, when emotions or emotional standards
take on new dimensions. Dealing with change brings historians into questions
of causation (why did nostalgia become a new kind of problem in the late
seventeenth century?) and impact (how did this new ‘problem’ influence the
lives of those living then?). Some emotions historians are eager to apply the
analysis of change to the emergence of contemporary emotional patterns, in
trying to figure out how and why they differ from patterns in the recent past.
Efforts to analyse past emotion and emotional change involve one other
basic challenge that has direct bearing on the kinds of sources emotions his-
torians use and the ways they try to interpret these sources. Ultimately, most
emotions historians are eager to get as close as they can to the actual emo-
tional experience of people in the past, trying to figure out what they felt and
how their feelings affected their outlook and behaviours. But emotions his-
torians also deal with the cultural standards that societies or groups generate
about emotion, for these often are significant in their own right. In the 1920s,
for example, lots of American parents were urged to pay greater attention to
signs of jealousy among their young children – a new term, sibling rivalry,
was introduced to designate what was now regarded as a serious problem.5
The cultural evaluation of jealousy, in other words, was changing. Almost
certainly, this involved some change in the experience of jealousy itself – get-
ting at emotional experiences being the ultimate target for emotions history.
But the new standard was important in its own right, affecting what parents
worried about and how young people interpreted jealousy in their own lives.
Both emotion and emotional culture – or what some sociologists call ‘feeling
rules’ – are significant candidates for historical research.
‘Emotion’ is not an easy word to define.6 Emotion clearly can involve some
instinctive reactions, which in turn call forth chemical responses in the body:
fear and anger obviously involve physiological changes including jolts of
adrenaline and more rapid heartbeats. But emotion – and this is crucial for
historians – also involves cognitive or mental appraisals, which quickly add to
the physiological response. Should I be afraid in this situation? What will
other people think of me? What will I think of myself ? Emotions, in other
words, are partly culturally constructed, and this is where historical factors
can be fundamental. Some emotions, like shame or guilt, have an intrinsic
social component as well – they involve a real or imagined audience – which
adds another potential historical dimension.
Emotions research has been gaining ground in recent decades in a number
of disciplines, partly because of new opportunities to study the brain but
partly also because of new awareness of the importance of emotion in social
interactions. The rise of the history of emotion is thus part of a wider,
6 Katie Barclay, Sharon Crozier-De Rosa and Peter N. Stearns
ultimately interdisciplinary surge, and many emotions historians interact
directly with psychologists and sociologists who share similar interests. But
emotions historians also deal with colleagues in other humanities areas, from
philosophy to art, some of which contribute to the effort to find relevant his-
torical sources. Figuring out the relationship between various other disciplines
and the specifically historical analysis of emotion, and uncovering a wealth of
sources as we do so, is an interesting and essential aspect of the field.

Research in the history of emotions

The first call for historical work on emotion came from a French historian in the
middle of the twentieth century.7 Obviously, many historians had already been
working on topics related to emotion, but the notion of explicit attention was new –
part of an effort to expand historical research to provide greater understanding of
daily life and the experience of ordinary people. Serious work on emotions history,
however, emerged only in the 1980s and 1990s, as historians began to devote more
attention to topics like the family or the nature of popular beliefs and values.8 Since
that time, work on the history of emotions has accelerated steadily.9 Major aca-
demic centres have formed in Australia, Germany and Britain, but scholars in
many other countries are actively involved. And while the field is still defined pri-
marily by research efforts, it increasingly spills over into teaching as well.
Over the past three decades work on the history of emotion has been applied
to a wide variety of chronological periods – which is what one would expect from
a healthy and expanding scholarly interest. A number of historians have worked
on emotions in classical societies (both Greece and Rome and Confucian
China).10 A large group of medievalists now study emotion, obviously particu-
larly in relationship to the impact of Christianity (like Xavier Biron-Ouellet,
Piroska Nagy and Anne-Gaëlle Weber in this volume).11 A number of really
important contributions to emotions history have come from scholars working
on the early modern period – Renaissance to eighteenth century.12 And a variety
of studies have addressed emotional issues in the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries and into the early twenty-first.13
Geography has been less fully addressed than chronology, in what is still a
fairly new field. A disproportionate amount of emotions history has applied to
developments in Europe and ‘settler societies’ like Australia and the United
States. Interest is growing among scholars dealing with other regions – particu-
larly China and Japan, but increasingly South Asia and Latin America as well.14
Work on the Middle East and Islam is less fully developed, and the same applies
to Africa.15 Some of this geographical unevenness shows up in this book, where
essays on the whole offer fuller references to Western cases than to other regions,
though issues of linguistic fluency are also involved since sources require often
subtle capacities in language. The geography problem is widely recognised in
emotions history, and a number of scholars are now working to provide better
balance and even to venture some comparative work (Joseph Ben Prestel’s
Chapter 14 in this collection helps us to realise the potential in this area).16
 Introduction 7
Social class and race/ethnicity offer other important challenges, and these
also directly affect identification of relevant historical sources (and we discuss
this in greater detail in Chapter 15 ‘Intersectional Identities’). Evidence about
emotional standards and experiences is more abundant for middle and upper
classes than for other groups; and the same point applies to evidence about
changes over time. These were the groups most likely to generate letters or
diaries, which often directly comment on emotion. These were the groups that
provided the most obvious audience for authors offering advice on issues like
how to raise children or how to display good manners. Here too, emotions
historians are actively aware of this challenge, and increasingly use sources
that provide evidence about working-class or immigrant experience, or the
experiences of racial minorities.17 The interesting issue of the emotional life of
rural populations is also gaining some attention – for, obviously, urban sour-
ces are usually more abundant.18 An important approach in emotions his-
tory has emphasised the variety of ‘emotional communities’ that exist in any
complex society, and this directly addresses some of the differences in emo-
tional standards and experiences at any point in time. But there is no
question that social divisions are vital factors in emotions history – factors
that are not easy to address fully, but that directly involve the search for
relevant historical sources.
Gender is also a vital component in emotions history, but it is less clearly
problematic than other social divisions simply because many groups and
societies are quite articulate about what they claim are differences in emotions
and emotional goals for men and for women. Emotional distinctions are often
fundamental to work in gender history overall, and this is also an important
arena for the exploration of emotional change.19 Past claims often invite careful
analysis – emotions have often been used to support gender hierarchies – but
the category itself is usually explicit at least on the surface. While many of the
chapters in this volume consider gender a significant issue for emotions histor-
ians, Chapter 15 ‘Intersectional Identities’ addresses it directly.
As the history of emotions has gained increasing visibility, it has drawn
scholars working on a vast array of specific topics. There is important work
on relationships between emotions history and the history of health and
medicine (which Rob Boddice draws on in his chapter). Art history and the
history of theatre attract growing attention (see chapters by Sarah Hand
Meacham and Alan Maddox). Emotions and technology is becoming an
interesting subfield (and Susan Matt’s and Luke Fernandez’s chapter com-
ments on this). And there are many other examples of topical expansions.
These widening connections testify to the vitality of the field, and they add
important findings and, often, additional kinds of source materials; several of
the essays in this volume reflect these kinds of contributions. Ultimately,
however, it is also important to remember that the history of emotion does
have a common core of interests, in the nature of emotional life in the past
and in the ways that life has changed.
8 Katie Barclay, Sharon Crozier-De Rosa and Peter N. Stearns
The key question
Chronology, geographical range, social and cultural divisions, the variety of
topical connections – these are all important themes in the history of
emotion, and they are gaining increasing attention in the field today. The
central issue in emotions history is, however, quite straightforward: what is
the relationship between the standards a society or group asserts about var-
ious emotions, and the nature of emotional experience for individuals and
groups? And – let’s be honest – it is an issue that is difficult fully to resolve,
simply because of the difficulty of knowing, at any point in time, exactly what
emotional experience is. It is always hard, in any historical field, to claim to
know what the past was like, but emotions history presents this challenge in a
particularly stark fashion.
New methodologies and theories are helping to elucidate these challenges
(Thomas Dodman’s Chapter 2 outlines some of these). As well as concepts
like ‘emotional communities’ and ‘emotional regimes’, which explain how
emotional standards shape group behaviour and which are explained more
fully in Chapter 3, the idea that emotions are ‘practised’ or ‘performed’ is
increasingly popular, as can be seen across this volume.20 Both practice and
performance theories, from slightly different perspectives, suggest that emo-
tional experiences are a form of socialisation, a training that becomes so
natural for the individual that they don’t think about it.21 These ideas are
popular as they explain how ‘culture’ – the lessons we are taught about how
to feel in response to certain situations and the social valuation of that feeling
(whether it is good or bad) – becomes an embodied experience for individuals
and groups. Moreover, they are suggestive that there is an important rela-
tionship between emotional standards and individual experience, which
means that as historians we might have greater confidence that the emotions
we discover in sources have some relationship to personal experience, at least
for the group if not for every individual in a society.
This core issue of the relationship between sources and personal experience
certainly supports the effort to develop a wide variety of sources, to provide
evidence about what emotional values have been in the past and how these
values have applied to the ways people reported on their emotions and emo-
tional behaviours. Figuring out not just what sources are available and what
features each type of source displays, but how sources can be combined to
provide a more complex picture of the emotional experiences and standards
of the past, lies at the heart of good work on emotions history. Here is the
foundation for heightened understanding.
Directly or indirectly, historians have explored an impressive range of
emotions, at least in some times and places. But the vitality of the field also
responds to the many opportunities that remain, particularly as we gain
greater awareness of the kinds of sources that can be brought to bear. One
historian has recently pointed out that we don’t have a lot of work on joy as
yet.22 Loneliness – a vital contemporary topic – is just beginning to gain some
 Introduction 9
23
revealing historical attention. There are only a few studies on the history of
gratitude.24 And even more familiar domains – like fear – inevitably invite
further attention, because of their complexity and importance.25 There is lots
to do, for history students as well as professionals in the field.
And it is vital to remember that, done well, emotions history serves two
purposes. It genuinely expands what we know about the past: the basic claim
that we cannot fully understand earlier societies without including emotions
has been amply demonstrated. But it also can expand what we know about
emotion itself – what shame or loneliness involve, and how current issues have
emerged from the past – making historical work a vital component of emo-
tions research more generally. As we realise how many contemporary issues
have emotional components, from the anger of voters to changes in marriage
rates, the importance of using the past to improve emotional understanding
will continue to support this growing field.

Enabling future research

This book is organised into three sections: the first introduces readers to some
key considerations when ‘doing’ the history of emotions; the second surveys a
range of source materials, exploring how they can be used by historians of
emotions; and a final section addresses some emerging themes in the field,
introducing readers to new research and new approaches that are being
developed. The goal of the volume is to provide students and those new to the
field with key skills in conducting empirical research in this area and to offer
some insight into important developments in the practice of emotions history.
Beginning with this chapter, Part I introduces students to the field of the
history of emotions and offers a brief survey of the coverage of the current
scholarship in the field. The history of emotions – perhaps because it deals
with a historical phenomenon that is so ephemeral and abstract – has more
than most fields of history deployed a range of theories and methodologies to
help us interpret our source material. Thomas Dodman in Chapter 2 provides
a survey of the main approaches, highlighting how they can be applied to
sources to enrich our analysis of the material. Katie Barclay concludes this
part with a discussion of the practice and ethics of the history of emotions.
Like any field, the history of emotions is underpinned by a set of guiding
rules, principles and assumptions that shape our work. This chapter highlights
some of these, such as the importance of interdisciplinarity to our field and
our engagement with the biological and psychological sciences, before turning
to the importance of ethical research practice within the field. This chapter
finally concludes by discussing the feelings of the historian, asking what dif-
ference our emotions make to our research.
Part II consists of ten chapters that each approaches a key source material
used by historians of emotion in their scholarship. The sources covered range
from those that provide access to emotional standards (and occasionally
deviance from them), such as religion, prescriptive literature, fiction, popular
10 Katie Barclay, Sharon Crozier-De Rosa and Peter N. Stearns
culture and visual arts (in chapters by Piroska Nagy and others, Peter N.
Stearns, Louise D’Arcens and Sarah Hand Meacham) – standards that
evolved over time – to others that, if still representational, perhaps provide
better access to how individuals have interpreted and applied those standards
in their own lives. These include legal and institutional records, medical
records and ‘narratives of self ’, that is letters, diaries and other similar
accounts of personal experience (see contributions by Alecia Simmonds,
Catharine Coleborne, Rob Boddice and Marcelo J. Borges). This division is
of course somewhat artificial. Fictional sources, for example, often draw clo-
sely on the personal experience of the author or those they have researched;
the efficacy of a good novel, for example, typically relied on the capacity of
the writer to capture in words experiences that felt universal to their readers –
to give voice to feeling.26 Similarly personal writings, from the medical case
file to the letter, acted to shape the experience of emotion for the individual
and for their readers. As the authors of these chapters point out, no source
provides unmediated access to people’s inner experiences, but they do provide
opportunities to understand how those people articulated their emotions and
how they managed them in relation to wider norms and power relationships.
An important form of historical source in a chapter by Sarah Randles, and
also engaged with in a chapter on rituals and relics, are material culture
sources – the physical traces that humans leave behind them and which are
marked by their use in both ritual contexts and everyday life. If written
sources appear more straightforward in giving access to emotion words and
accounts of personal emotional experience, material sources offer an impor-
tant reminder that our personal experiences are shaped by material structures
and deployed through the use of physical items, such as when we give gifts as
a mark of love. Material culture sources open up alternatives to under-
standing emotion from those that focus just on language or verbal expression,
acknowledging the dimensions of emotional experience that go unspoken.
The visual and performing arts offer similar benefits, providing insight into
physical gesture and appearance (how emotions are displayed on the body) and
in allowing us, if not without important limits, to also imagine how a body might
have expressed emotion through responding to a piece of music or performing a
dance. Listening to music, playing historic instruments or dancing with our own
bodies – especially trying to replicate the manner, style and practices of past
societies – can give us an alternative research tool to reading text, while recog-
nising (just like when we read) that we can never quite replicate the experience of
those we study. Chapters on these topics remind us that the experience of
emotion is shaped not just by ideas but through our senses and movements of the
body, and that it can be useful to explore sources that help us access that part of
human experience. Across Part II, readers are provided with a broad range of
access points into historical sources for emotions research, but, of course, such a
survey can never be comprehensive and so students and scholars are encouraged
to be imaginative in their approach to finding relevant sources and to reading
their material carefully to uncover emotional insights.27
 Introduction 11
The final part of the volume provides an introduction to some key topics and
points of discussion in the field. Joseph Ben Prestel offers a discussion of how to
do comparative work in the history of emotions, where emotions are compared
across different cultures, periods or nations. For a field where the question of the
‘naturalness’ of emotion and biological determinism still lingers, such comparative
research can provide important insights into similarities and differences in emo-
tional experience. It can prompt us to consider ways in which we can have con-
versations across borders within our field. Katie Barclay and Sharon Crozier-De
Rosa offer a similar methodological discussion in their chapter on intersectional
identities. The experience of emotions was shaped not just by history and culture,
but by the significant social divisions that mark most times and places. Accessing
the experience of emotion requires historians to take account of how social posi-
tioning provided limitations and opportunities for emotional experience and how
individuals negotiated emotional norms in response to wider social structures.
The final three chapters explore important emerging topics in the field of
the history of emotions, which are opening up new ways of thinking about the
relationship between the body, emotion, environment and society. Sharon
Crozier-De Rosa offers a survey of the history of protest, a site long asso-
ciated with emotion yet where emotion was considered problematic as it
conflicted with norms for ‘rational’ political exchange. Histories of protest
however are not just interesting for the insight they offer into political change,
but because they require us to consider how the emotions of the individual
intersects with those of the group, even to the question of whether emotion
can become contagious. Debates in this area have allowed scholars to move
beyond discussions of emotional standards and individual experience to
emotion as something performed and experienced by groups.
If a history of emotional protest extends the individual to the group, then
Susan J. Matt’s and Luke Fernandez’s discussion of emotion and technology
asks how technology intertwines with the individual in the production of emo-
tion. This is a question of relevance to all historical sources, which are all a form
of ‘technology’ through which emotion is expressed, but Matt and Fernandez
also remind us how technologies can place limits on emotional experience or
open up opportunities for new types of emotion. Technologies, associated with
particular historic periods, are therefore a critical component of how we ‘do’
emotions. Our body might be considered a technology, or at least an organism
that technology can enhance and extend. Mark Neuendorf’s contribution turns
to the body and embodiment as a key site of current analysis by historians, a
source material in its own right. Here he highlights how the idea of uniformity of
the body – a stable entity over time – is actually itself a topic of contest and
debate that has bearing for how we understand emotion to work. Neuendorf
also highlights how a scholarship of emotions is intersecting with research on the
history of the senses, material culture and the self. Both of these chapters
highlight how new researchers in the field might deploy insights from their dis-
cussions to analysis of their material to enable richer and more nuanced insights
of how emotions are produced within particular historical contexts.
12 Katie Barclay, Sharon Crozier-De Rosa and Peter N. Stearns
As Peter N. Stearns highlights in his Epilogue, the history of emotions is
coming to maturity, yet it is still a field with plenty of gaps – especially when
considered in a global context – that provide opportunities for original
research for scholars at all levels. This volume offers a starting point to using
sources for research in emotions history, but it is certainly not an end point.
Turning an ‘emotions eye’ to other types of sources will no doubt enable new
insights, perspectives and emotional experiences to emerge. New methodolo-
gies may open up new ways of analysing well-trodden sources, and new
research findings will enliven ongoing debate in the field. This volume hopes
to enable a new generation of researchers to produce this research.

Notes
1 For example, Hans Medick and David Warren Sabean, ed., Interest and Emotions:
Essays on the Study of Family and Kinship (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1984).
2 For a history of happiness, see Darrin M. McMahon, Happiness: A History (New
York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2006).
3 Winfried Menninghaus, Disgust: Theory and History of a Strong Sensation, transl.
Howard Eiland and Joel Golb (New York: State University of New York Press,
2003).
4 For a historical survey of nostalgia, see Malcolm Chase and Christopher Shaw,
eds, The Imagined Past: History and Nostalgia (New York: Manchester University
Press. 1989), and Thomas Dodman, What Nostalgia Was: War, Empire, and the
Time of a Deadly Emotion (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2018). For
shame, see Peter N. Stearns, Shame: A Brief History (Urbana: University of Illi-
nois Press, 2018).
5 Peter N. Stearns, Jealousy: The Evolution of an Emotion in American History (New
York: New York University Press, 1989).
6 Jan Plamper, The History of Emotions: An Introduction (Oxford: Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 2012).
7 Lucien Febvre, ‘Sensibility and History: How to Reconstitute the Emotional Life
of the Past’, in A New Kind of History: From the Writings of Lucien Febvre, ed.
Peter Burke (New York: Harper & Row, [1941] 1973).
8 There are too many works to list here. However, see, for example, the work of Peter
Stearns and others including: Peter N. Stearns and Carol Z. Stearns, ‘Emotionology:
Clarifying the History of Emotions and Emotional Standards’, The American His-
torical Review 90, no. 4 (1985): 813–36; Carol Z. Stearns and Peter N. Stearns, Anger:
The Struggle for Emotional Control in America’s History (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1986); Stearns, Jealousy; Peter N. Stearns, American Cool: Construct-
ing a Twentieth-Century Emotional Style (New York: New York University Press,
1994); and Peter N. Stearns and Jan Lewis, eds, An Emotional History of the United
States (New York: New York University Press, 1998).
9 Individuals and groups of researchers working in this field have begun to collate
bibliographies. See, for example, Jan Plamper’s ‘Bibliography’ in The History of
Emotions; and an online Bibliography that continues to be updated on the website
of the Society for the History of Emotions (Australia): http://www.historyofem
otions.org.au/publications-resources/, accessed 10 November 2019.
10 For example, Angelos Chaniotis, ed., Unveiling Emotions: Sources and Methods for
the Study of Emotions in the Greek World (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2012);
Laurel Fulkerson, No Regrets: Remorse in Classical Antiquity (Oxford: Oxford
 Introduction 13
University Press, 2013); and William V. Harris, Restraining Rage: The Ideology of
Anger Control in Classical Antiquity (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press,
2001).
11 See also, for example, the work of Barbara Rosenwein including: Barbara H.
Rosenwein, ed., Anger’s Past: The Social Uses of an Emotion in the Middle Ages
(Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998); Barbara H. Rosenwein, Emotional Com-
munities in the Early Middle Ages (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2006); and,
Barbara H. Rosenwein, ‘Thinking Historically about Medieval Emotions’, History
Compass 8, no. 8 (2010): 828–42.
12 These include research on topics as diverse as family and war. See, for example:
Nicole Eustace, Passion is the Gale: Emotions, Power, and the Coming of the
American Revolution (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008); and
Katie Barclay, Love, Intimacy and Power: Marriage and Patriarchy in Scotland,
1650–1850 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2011).
13 Again there are far too many to list here. But see, for example, modern literature
on the workings of shame and associated emotions through modernity, including:
Deborah Cohen, Family Secrets: Shame and Privacy in Modern Britain (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2013); Judith Rowbotham, Marianna Muravyeva and
David Nash, eds, Shame, Blame and Culpability: Crime and Violence in the
Modern State (Abingdon: Routledge, 2013); Stearns, Shame (2018); and Sharon
Crozier-De Rosa, Shame and the Anti-Feminist Backlash: Britain, Ireland and
Australia, 1890–1920 (New York: Routledge, 2018). For a wide-ranging survey of
emotions (including shame) in their nineteenth-century contexts, see Margrit
Pernau et al., Civilizing Emotions: Concepts in Nineteenth Century Asia and Europe
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015).
14 See works from diverse regions including: Rebecca Earle, ‘Letters and Love in
Colonial Spanish America’, Americas 62, no. 1 (2005): 17–46; Paolo Santangelo,
Sentimental Education in Chinese History: An Interdisciplinary Textual Research in
Ming and Qing Sources (Leiden: Brill, 2003); Monika Freier, ‘Cultivating Emo-
tions: The Gita Press and its Agenda of Social and Spiritual Reform’, South Asian
History and Culture 3, no. 3 (2012): 397–413; and, William Reddy, The Making of
Romantic Love: Longing and Sexuality in Europe, South Asia & Japan, 900–1200
(Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2012). For a recent collection of articles on
emotions in urban South Asia, see Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 27, no. 4
(2017), especially introductory essay, Elizabeth Chatterjee, Sneha Krishnan and
Megan Eaton Robb, ‘Feeling Modern: The History of Emotions in Urban South
Asia’: 539–57
15 For research on Africa, for example, see Kathryn M. de Luna, ‘Affect in Ancient
Africa: Historical Linguistics and the Challenge of “Emotions Talk”’, in Encoding
Emotions in African Languages, ed. Gian Claudio Batic (Munich: Lincom Europa,
2011): 1–11; and Kathryn M. de Luna, ‘Affect and Society in Precolonial Africa’,
International Journal of African Historical Studies 46, no. 1 (2013): 123–5. For
work on Islam, see, for example, Margrit Pernau, ‘Male Anger and Female
Malice: Emotions in Indo-Muslim Advice Literature’, History Compass 10, no. 2
(2012): 119–28.
16 For example: Paolo Santangelo, ‘Evaluation of Emotions in European and Chi-
nese Traditions: Differences and Analogies’, Monumenta Serica 53 (2005): 401–27;
and Joseph Ben Prestel, Emotional Cities: Debates on Urban Change in Berlin and
Cairo, 1860–1910 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017)
17 This work is emerging. See, for example: Thomas C. Buchanan, ‘Class Sentiments:
Putting the Emotion Back in Working-Class History’, Journal of Social History
48, no. 1 (2014): 72–87. See also the ‘Intersectional Identities’ chapter in this
volume.
14 Katie Barclay, Sharon Crozier-De Rosa and Peter N. Stearns
18 See, for example, emerging research into emotions and farming and drought in
rural Australia: Rebecca Jones, ‘Uncertainty and the Emotional Landscape of
Drought’, International Review of Environmental History 4, no. 2 (2018): 13–26.
19 Many of the contributors to this volume work explicitly on the relationship
between gender and emotion. For example, see Katie Barclay, Men on Trial: Per-
forming Emotion, Embodiment and Identity in Ireland, 1800–1845 (Manchester:
Manchester University Press, 2019) and Crozier-De Rosa, Shame and the Anti-
Feminist Backlash.
20 For ‘emotional communities’, see Rosenwein, Emotional Communities in the Early
Middle Ages (2006). For ‘emotional regimes’, see William M. Reddy, The Naviga-
tion of Feeling: A Framework for the History of Emotions (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2001). To understand emotions as a ‘practice’, see Monique
Scheer, ‘Are Emotions a Kind of Practice (and is That What Makes Them Have a
History)? A Bourdieuian Approach to Understanding Emotion’, History & Theory
51, no. 2 (2012): 193–220.
21 For a longer discussion of these theories see: Katie Barclay, The History of Emo-
tions: A Student Guide to Methods and Sources (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan,
2020).
22 Darrin McMahon, ‘Finding Joy in the History of Emotions’, in Doing Emotions
History, ed. Susan J. Matt and Peter N. Stearns (Urbana: University of Illinois
Press, 2014), 103–19.
23 Fay Bound Alberti, ‘This “Modern Epidemic”: Loneliness as an Emotion Cluster
and a Neglected Subject in the History of Emotions’, Emotions Review 10, no. 3
(2018): 242–54.
24 For example, work has been carried out on the history of gratitude within religious
cultures: Stephen C. Berkwitz, ‘History and Gratitude in Therava-da Buddhism’,
Journal of the American Academy of Religion 71, no. 3 (2003): 579–604.
25 Some groundbreaking work on the history of fear includes: Joanna Bourke, Fear:
A Cultural History (Berkeley: Shoemaker & Hoard, 2006); and Peter N. Stearns,
American Fear: The Causes and Consequences of High Anxiety (New York: Rou-
tledge, 2006).
26 For an example of how popular novels can be used to access the emotions of the
past, see Sharon Crozier‐De Rosa, ‘Popular Fiction and the “Emotional Turn”:
The Case of Women in Late Victorian Britain’, History Compass 8, no. 12 (2010):
1340–51.
27 Another useful volume that provides insights into sources is Susan Broomhall, ed.,
Early Modern Emotions: An Introduction (London: Routledge, 2016).
2 Theories and methods in the history of
emotions
Thomas Dodman1

Like other emergent fields of scholarship, the history of emotions has its heroic
tale of becoming and cast of leading characters. The story typically goes some-
thing like this. In the beginning, there were solitary pioneers who, ahead of their
time, laid the field’s foundations. Among these were the Dutch cultural historian
Johan Huizinga, for his classic portrait of the ‘violent tenor of medieval life’; the
German sociologist Norbert Elias, whose monumental study The Civilizing Pro-
cess (first published in 1939 but only rediscovered in the 1970s) provided a grand
narrative for the regulation of emotions in the modern era; and the French his-
torian Lucien Febvre, founder of the Annales, who in 1941 famously wrote: ‘Sen-
sibility and history – a new subject: I know of no book that deals with it.’2 Febvre’s
call for a historical psychology made few converts at the time but fed into histoire
des mentalités, or the attempt to grasp the ‘mental equipment’ (‘outillage mental’)
and collective psychology of a given epoch. As the great medievalist Jacques Le
Goff candidly confessed, mentalités was an ambiguous concept that seduced first
and foremost because of its lack of precision.3 For a while, the study of affective
life strictly speaking remained the work of mavericks such as Alain Corbin, whose
history of the senses blossomed into its own at the margins of the Annales school.4
Like all coming-of-age stories, that of the history of emotions has its structural
impediments (a discipline by and large allergic to the topic) and false dawns (like
psychohistory, briefly in vogue in the 1970s but since become bogeyman to warn
historians against dabbling with psychoanalysis).5 Maturation only arrived at the
turn of the twenty-first century and is generally associated with the efforts of three
American scholars – Peter Stearns, William Reddy, Barbara Rosenwein – and the
key concepts they forged: ‘emotionology’, ‘emotives’ and ‘emotional commu-
nities’. By the early 2000s, publications, conferences, research centres, book series
and journals dedicated to the history of emotions were mushrooming across the
globe. A decade later, with the field institutionalised and begrudgingly accepted by
a growing number of historians, it was already time to take stock and think about
what lay ahead.6
This narrative of sorts can be retold as an account of the conditions of
possibility (or of ‘emergence’) for a new field of scholarship, and of the
interdisciplinary crossover that enabled it. Huizinga, Elias and Febvre wrote
in the midst of the two world wars and the rise of Nazism, a dark backdrop
16 Thomas Dodman
that helps explain their interest in ‘contagious’ emotions such as fear, anger and
hate. To understand these, Febvre pleaded with his colleagues to familiarise
themselves with the work of psychologists and anthropologists on ‘collective’
and ‘primitive’ emotions. To those who dismissed this as ‘empty talk’, he retor-
ted that ‘such empty talk […] will tomorrow have finally made our universe into
a stinking pit of corpses’.7 Febvre’s sense of urgency echoes in contemporary
portrayals of our (renewed) ‘age of anger’ and populist politics of resentment
and nostalgia. Arguably, it was a widespread sense of anxiety – in the wake of the
11 September 2001 attacks among other things – that acted as catalyst to what
has been dubbed the ‘affective turn’ of the 2000s across the humanities and social
sciences.8 As Jan Plamper has argued, this turn was driven by the bio-revolution
that elevated the life sciences on a pedestal (and the neoliberal capitalism that
financed it).9 These developments may well have contributed to a crisis in the
humanities, but talk of the body and the brain was music to the ears of many
cultural historians tired of postmodern uncertainties and linguistic reduction-
isms. The history of emotions came of age in this neo-empiricist moment. Few
sought (or at least claimed) to write history ‘as it really felt’, but they insisted on
viewing emotions as historical objects that left identifiable traces and clues. Of
course, emotions were not historical sources just like any other: by their very
nature they were evanescent and posed a set of epistemological (and, indeed,
ontological) questions requiring theoretical work. The conceptual and metho-
dological scaffoldings for the field would come from interdisciplinary poaching
among disciplines with more long-standing investments in the topic.

Defining the field

Historians of emotions rarely have the ambition to define what emotions
are – a task that has mobilised and befuddled philosophers, psychologists and
anthropologists for millennia. The psychological study of emotions has for a
long time been wedded to the idea of their biological, evolutionary, and thus
universal nature. This tradition typically points back to Charles Darwin’s
research in the mid-nineteenth century and attempts to capture the expression
of emotions on photographs and drawings.10 Although Darwin’s findings were
ambiguous (and lent themselves to quite different readings), the research
protocol was appropriated in the 1960s by Paul Ekman, who used facial
recognition experiments to ‘prove’ the existence of ‘basic emotions’ across all
cultures (how many there are has varied over the years, ranging between six
and a dozen). Ekman’s model suffered from glaring problems in both its
methods and extrapolations, but nonetheless reached paradigmatic status
among psychologists, policy makers and the wider public.11
Behind the idea of ‘basic emotions’ lay the notion of ‘affect’, first defined
by another psychologist, Silvan S. Tomkins, as an evolutionary motivation
mechanism that pre-existed emotions and that operated beneath the threshold
of consciousness (it reacted autonomically to stimuli).12 Affect theory was, in
some ways, a reworking of another classic late nineteenth-century theory of
 Theories and methods in the history of emotions 17
emotions – the so-called James–Lang theory, initially formulated by William
James – which postulated the primacy of bodily physiological arousal over
cognitive processes (in short: we do not cry because we feel sad, but feel sad
because made to cry).13 Tomkins and his followers also reacted against the
ideas of cognitive psychologists, who rejected ‘stimulus-response’ models in
favour of ‘appraisal’ ones. Emotions, cognitivists contended, were the result of
perception and appraisal, and thus most often (though not necessarily) of a
cognitive operation. The evaluative element of appraisal models harked back
to Aristotelian thinking about emotions as deliberative rhetorical categories;
it also pointed forward to attempts to overcome the well-entrenched reason/
emotion divide with notions of ‘cogmotion’ or ‘affective intelligence’.14 By the
1990s, the emergence of neuroscience promised to swipe the slate clean as
functional magnetic resonance imaging provided a window of sorts into the
brain (or at least onto neuronal activity as measured by oxygen content in
blood vessels within the brain). Affective neuroscientists accorded prime
importance to emotions, understood as bodily reactions to stimuli that play
into our decision-making processes. To prove this, they zeroed in on the
workings of the amygdala, somatic markers in the prefrontal cortex, or mirror
neurons in the premotor cortex, prompting a ‘neural’ frenzy across and
beyond academia.15
For obvious reasons, historians have by and large kept their distance from
these psychological efforts to portray universal human responses. To put it
simply, unchanging, basic emotions hard-wired by evolutionary processes go
against the very idea of a history of emotions. Unlike literary scholars, his-
torians have also resisted the sirens of affect theory, whether because of its
anti-intentionalism or propensity to theoretical jargon.16 The turn to biology
and neuroscience, on the other hand, has elicited more excitement, opening
for some the prospect of a ‘neurohistory’ (or the factoring of neurochemical
processes into our accounts of historical experience).17 It has also provoked
much pushback, as most historians stick to tried and tested social con-
structivist positions. Drawing from ethnographic research in non-Western
cultures, cultural anthropologists have long argued that facial expressions are
not universal but culturally specific. At the height of the linguistic turn, they
went so far as to claim that raw feelings themselves were socially constructed.
As Catherine Lutz famously put it, ‘emotional experience is not precultural
but pre-eminently cultural’.18 Sociologists, for their part, have worked on the
many ways in which emotions mediate power relations in society: in the
‘emotional labour’ required of flight attendants and other service sector
employees to bring their feelings in line with professional expectations; the
regulation of emotions under capitalism; or the power of affect to mobilise
collective action behind social causes.19 For all these social scientists, it goes
without saying that emotions are not simply organic processes contained
within the envelope of an individual body; they are both products and con-
stituents of social relations within a determinate historical context.
18 Thomas Dodman
The gap between universalist and social constructivist understandings of
emotions frames the first of several theoretical tensions confronting any his-
tory of emotions: that between emotion and reason (or nature and nurture).
Since long before C.P. Snow lamented the separation of ‘two cultures’ (sciences
and humanities), ‘Western’ societies have tended to oppose emotions and reason,
relegating the former to the innate and the primitive, that is beyond (or rather,
beneath) the scope of the study of culture and society.20 For a long time, histor-
ians happily followed suit, implicitly endorsing the view of human beings as
rational choice actors. Tellingly, even Huizinga and Febvre understood emotions
to be irrational, childish expressions of uncivilised behaviour. It took another
kind of maverick in Raymond Williams to propose, in the mid-1970s, the notion
of ‘structures of feeling’ as a way of grasping ‘not feeling against thought, but
thought as felt and feeling as thought’.21 A decade later, an aging Norbert Elias
placed emotions at the heart of a unitary and resolutely processual science of
Man in permanent becoming. He hypothesised that the human species con-
stituted an evolutionary breakthrough insofar as it was biologically predisposed
to (and dependent for its survival on) socialised learning. Adapting Aristotle,
Elias provocatively suggested that it was emotions (rather than speech) that
showed how ‘human being are by nature constituted for … life in society’.22 The
reason/emotion rift has also come under attack in rhetoric and philosophy, most
eloquently in Martha Nussbaum’s neo-stoic argument for viewing emotions
as cognitive operations central to personal flourishing and ethical
judgement.23 It is increasingly questioned in the life sciences as well, whether
among psychologists interested in the social construction of ‘situated’ emo-
tions, social neuroscientists working on brain plasticity, or epigenesists intent
on showing how changing environmental factors can determine gene expres-
sion, without actually altering the DNA sequence itself (for example with the
intergenerational transmission of trauma).24
There are two other tensions, related and derived from this basic issue, that
agitate the sleep of historians of emotions: the relationship between the inner
experience and outer expression of emotion, and that between the individual
and the collective. Unlike ethnographers or neuroscientists, historians cannot
embed themselves in a community or scan the brain of a patient to get at
some sort of raw emotional data. They rely on semiotic mediations of various
kinds, but primarily the language used to express feelings. Hence the impor-
tance of close reading, interpreting silences, and translation from one context
to another (a particularly thorny problem when it comes to exploring emo-
tions before they even ‘existed’ as such, or were thought of as ‘emotions’).25
From these traces historians can try to work their way back to an actual
subjective experience of emotion or forward to what these expressions reveal
(for example about reigning codes of conduct in a given time and place).
These metaphors of movement are a useful heuristic, but they are equally
deceptive, insofar as one of the key challenges of the field has been to over-
come the problematic distinction between a (natural) bodily emotion and its (cul-
tural) manifestation and reception. As we will now see, historians of emotions
 Theories and methods in the history of emotions 19
have used theories of practice and performativity to overcome this divide, thinking
the individual as socialised and the experience/expression of emotion as insepar-
able facets of an ongoing process of making meaning.

New concepts
In 1985, Peter N. Stearns and Carol Zisowitz Stearns provided the history of
emotions with a new analytical category – ‘emotionology’ – and its first pro-
grammatic statement since Febvre’s call to arms half a century earlier.26
Bracketing the subjective experience of emotions, emotionology focused on
grasping the rules and standards that governed emotional life at a given time
and in a given society or social group. It fitted squarely within the Elias
paradigm of encroaching emotional restraint in modernity, and drew from
Arlie Hochschild’s concept of ‘emotion work’ to understand how institutions
such as schools or the family both reflected and reinforced emotional
norms.27 Stearns and Stearns viewed mapping out the ‘emotionological
context’ and its gradual variations as a prerequisite to understanding how
people could make sense of their emotional lives and what motivated them to
act in a certain way. They deployed this programme of research in a series of
influential studies on anger, jealousy and ‘being cool’ (dubbed an emotional
‘style’) among others, typically amassing voluminous evidence from advice
literature among other sources and then measuring its impact in ego
documents.28 Slightly ahead of its time and at odds with the recentring of the
profession on the self, emotionology failed to anchor the field as such but left
a durable imprint on the way in which historians have come to appreciate the
social and political ‘managing’ of emotions.
Viewing emotions through a social lens was also central to the study of
‘emotional communities’, the programme of study launched by Barbara
Rosenwein in an equally influential article published in 2002.29 A medievalist,
Rosenwein rejected two central planks to the modernist ‘grand narrative’ of
emotions as it had developed over the course of the twentieth century: the
image of the Middle Ages as a kind of childish or primitive society, serving as
a foil to the modern civilising process; and a hydraulic model of emotions as
irrational outbursts distinct from reason that underpinned this narrative.
Taking her distances from emotionology and what she perceived as overly
political analyses of emotional norms, she instead sought to capture the
nuances and sophistication of medieval emotional life, paying attention to
complex emotional vocabularies used by historical actors to express shared
feelings. These forged ‘emotional communities’, loosely defined as ‘groups in
which people adhere to the same norms of emotional expression and value – or
devalue – the same or related emotions’.30 Crucially, multiple emotional com-
munities coexisted and overlapped at any given moment, allowing people to
move between them, forge news ties, re-purpose emotions in new environments
and, ultimately, precipitate historical change.31
20 Thomas Dodman
Rosenwein emphasised the fluidity of ‘emotional communities’ in part to
distinguish the notion from that of ‘emotional regimes’ advanced a few years
earlier by William Reddy as part of his attempt to provide the history of
emotions with a comprehensive conceptual and methodological framework.
Reddy sought to move beyond the limitations of both social constructivism
and psychological universalism, and bridge the divide between inner feelings
and outer expression. To do so, he turned to speech act theory and adapted
the distinction drawn by John L. Austin between constative and performative
utterances.32 Emotional gestures (for example crying) or statements such as ‘I
love you’, Reddy argued, are not merely descriptive; they are also performa-
tive and self-reflexive, in that they affect both the interlocutor and the speaker,
intensifying, moderating or displacing their feelings as the case may be (they
have, in other words, ‘self-exploratory’ and ‘self-altering’ effects). Reddy
called these emotional statements ‘emotives’. He further defined ‘emotional
regimes’ as the set of emotional norms that emotives and other inculcated
practices prescribed in a given political regime. It could be relatively loose,
allowing for more ‘emotional freedom’, or strict, causing much ‘emotional
suffering’ to those unable to align their emotions with expected standards. In
such cases, people might seek ‘emotional refuge’ in spaces that escaped the
reigning emotional prescriptions.33
Reddy’s conceptual scaffold for the history of emotions is the most sophis-
ticated proposed to date and comes, tellingly, from a historian equally at ease
in a department of anthropology and discussing cognitive psychology or
neuroscientific research. It bridges the nature/nurture and individual/social
divides, placing emotions firmly within a relational network. In doing so, it
upends the distinction between ‘authentic’ inner experience and ‘staged’ outer
expression, dissolving the two into an ongoing and unstable process of emo-
tional navigation. In The Navigation of Feeling, Reddy sought to apply this
groundwork to offer a novel understanding of the French Revolution and its
aftermath. Throughout this period, people learnt how to ‘navigate’ changing
emotional regimes and challenge those that caused them too much suffering.
Without convincing in all its claims, this book can be said to have shown how
the history of emotions could both identify a new object of study and exploit
it to account for historical change.

New directions
Reddy’s seminal work has acted as a catalyst for further theorisation in the
field, in particular with regard to emotional ‘practices’, ‘translations’ and
‘encounters’ in a decentred, global context. In an important article from 2012,
Monique Scheer brings into dialogue Extended Mind Theory (EMT) and
Pierre Bourdieu’s theory of practice to define ‘emotional practices’ that are
both of the mind and of the body.34 They are embodied not merely because of
physiological processes, but because of the inculcation of durable dispositions
that are then reproduced as a form of habit. The body is kneaded with multiple,
 Theories and methods in the history of emotions 21
at times contradictory social structures and emotions arise from this incorpo-
rated bodily knowledge.35 Scheer distinguishes among four kinds of emotional
practices: ones that mobilise or generate feeling; that name or re-purpose
emotions; that communicate feelings to others; and that regulate emotions
(where norms are not just limits to emotional expression, but the social condi-
tions of subjectivity itself). Compared to Reddy, Scheer places emphasis on
physical gestures and the physicality that transpires from discourse. The study
of emotional practices offers interesting perspectives to historians working with
limited written sources (such as pre-modern topics) and on the reproduction of
emotional dispositions (such as violent habits acquired in a colonial context
and reproduced elsewhere).36 By looking to material culture, it opens up possible
dialogues with New Materialists who insist on taking seriously the materiality of
objects – for example how these become ‘sticky’ and implicate people in relations
of affect and power.37 Arguably, emotional practices also point to renewed
engagement with psychoanalysis – not with the reductionist explanations offered
by psychobiography, but rather with psychoanalysis’s attentiveness to the multi-
ple temporalities of our affective life and how it exceeds the conscious self (for
instance in fantasies or automatic gestures).38
The notion of ‘emotional practices’ has recently been expanded by Mar-
grit Pernau to account for ‘emotional translations’ – that is for the affective
dimension to the constant operations of translation that we engage in in our
daily interaction with the world. Like Scheer, Pernau is interested not only
in language, but also in translations mediated by the body, the senses and
multimedia experiences.39 She takes cue from recent developments in trans-
lation studies towards an understanding of translation as an unstable act
that creates equivalents between languages (rather than ‘find’ pre-existing
equivalents). She also pays renewed attention to anthropological studies of
cultural and emotional difference to promote the study of ‘emotional
encounters’, or the attempt to expand the study of emotional concepts and
practices to a transnational framework better attuned to the current global
orientations of the profession.
The history of emotions has thus far been a largely European and North
Atlantic affair (duly reflected in this article), but its (de)provincialising
moment beckons on the horizon. Reddy has recently adapted his theoretical
framework to develop a comparative analysis of love and sexuality in Europe
and Asia in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.40 Pernau and others have
started exploring the specificities of ‘feeling communities’ in South Asian
history and reassessing moments of ‘emotional encounter’ both within
imperial networks and between non-Western regions.41 The extent to which
emotions can be factored into ‘connected histories’ and in ‘equal parts’ – that
is, with symmetric documentative ‘dignity’ – is an open question that forces
historians not only to expand their linguistic and interdisciplinary compe-
tence, but revisit assumptions about what sources are at their disposal.42 Ego
documents such as letters and diaries may well do for Europeans in the
modern era; they will not necessarily in a time and place where emotions are
22 Thomas Dodman
viewed as fundamentally social rather than individual acts. As the field moves
away from Western norms and logocentrism, non-Western perspectives on
emotion are likely to alter its methodological protocols as well.

Notes
1 I wish to thank the volume editors and members of the Weill Cornell psycho-
analysis working group, particularly Dagmar Herzog and Jonas Knatz, for helpful
feedback on an earlier draft.
2 Johan Huizinga, The Autumn of the Middle Ages (Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, [1921] 1997); Norbert Elias, The Civilizing Process: Sociogenetic and Psy-
chogenetic Investigations (Oxford: Blackwell, [1939] 2010); and Lucien Febvre,
‘Sensibility and History: How to Reconstitute the Emotional Life of the Past’, in A
New Kind of History: From the Writings of Lucien Febvre, ed. Peter Burke (New
York: Harper & Row, [1941] 1973), quote at 12.
3 Jacques Le Goff, ‘Les mentalités. Une histoire ambiguë’, in Faire de l’histoire, vol 3:
Nouveaux objets, ed. Jacques Le Goff and Pierre Nora (Paris: Gallimard, 1974), 79.
4 For an overview of Corbin’s oeuvre, see Sima Godfrey, ‘Alain Corbin: Making
Sense of French History’, French Historical Studies 25, no. 2 (Spring 2002): 381–
98. See also Alain Corbin, Jean-Jacques Courtine and Georges Vigarello, Histoire
des émotions, 3 vols (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 2016–17).
5 Psychohistory’s principal figures were Peter Gay, Lloyd de Mause and Peter Loe-
wenberg. The (partly) stereotypical image of psychohistory is that it sought to
reduce all historical actors’ motivations to unresolved childhood psychological
conflicts.
6 For some introductions to the field that grapple extensively with its theoretical and
methodological challenges, see Jan Plamper, The History of Emotions: An Intro-
duction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012); Susan Matt and Peter N. Stearns,
eds, Doing Emotions History (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2013); Barbara
Rosenwein and Riccardo Cristiani, What Is the History of Emotions? (Cambridge:
Polity, 2018); and Rob Boddice, The History of Emotions (Manchester: Manchester
University Press, 2018).
7 Febvre, ‘Sensibility’, 26.
8 Patricia T. Clough and Jean Hally, eds, The Affective Turn: Theorizing the Social
(Durham: Duke University Press, 2007). The first signs of an ‘emotional turn’
could already be detected in the 1980s, particularly in the work of cultural
anthropologists. See Catherine Lutz and Geoffrey M. White, ‘The Anthropology of
Emotions’, Annual Review of Anthropology 15 (1986): 405–36.
9 Plamper, History of Emotions, 59–63, 240, and passim.
10 Charles Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, 3rd edn, ed.
by Paul Ekman (Oxford: Oxford University Press, [1872] 1998).
11 For the original formulation see Paul Ekman and Wallace V. Friesen, ‘Constants
across Cultures in the Face and Emotion’, Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology 17, no. 2 (1971): 124–29; and for a list of further readings and suc-
cessful derivative products, <www.paulekman.com>. For one of several devastat-
ing critiques of Ekman’s methodology and extrapolations, see James A. Russell, ‘Is
there Universal Recognition of Emotion from Facial Expression? A Review of the
Cross-Cultural Studies’, Psychological Bulletin 115, no. 1 (1994): 102–41. Daniel
M. Gross argues for a different take on Darwin’s pioneering work in Uncomfor-
table Situations: Emotion between Science and the Humanities (Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, 2017), 28–51.
 Theories and methods in the history of emotions 23
12 Silvan S. Tomkins, ‘Affect Theory’, in Approaches to Emotion, ed. by Klaus R.
Scherer and Paul Ekman (Hillsdale, NJ: L. Eribaum Associates, 1984), 163–95.
13 William James, ‘What is an Emotion?’ Mind 9 (1884): 188–205.
14 For initial statements and recent surveys of appraisal theory, see Magda B. Arnold,
Emotion and Personality, vol. 1: Psychological Aspects (New York: Columbia
University Press, 1960); and Agnes Moors, Phoebe C. Ellsworth, Klaus R. Scherer
and Nico H. Frijda, ‘Appraisal Theories of Emotion: State of the Art and Future
Development’, Emotion Review 5, no. 2 (2013): 119–24. ‘Cogmotion’ comes from
Douglas Barnett and Hilary H. Ratner, ‘The Organization and Integration of
Cognition and Emotion in Development’, Journal of Experimental Child Psychol-
ogy 67, no. 3 (1997): 303–16.
15 Keeping abreast of research in affective neuroscience is difficult such is its sheer
output. For two recent syntheses, see Tim Dalgleish, Barnaby D. Dunn and Dean
Mobbs, ‘Affective Neuroscience: Past, Present, and Future’, Emotion Review 1, no.
4 (2009): 355–68; and Ralph Adolphs and David J. Anderson, The Neuroscience of
Emotion: A New Synthesis (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2019). Some
influential popularisations are: Antonio Damasio, Descartes’ Error: Emotion,
Reason, and the Human Brain (New York: Putnam, 1994); Joseph E. LeDoux, The
Emotional Brain: The Mysterious Underpinnings of Emotional Life (New York:
Simon & Schuster, 1996); Jaak Panskepp, Affective Neuroscience: The Foundations
of Human and Animal Emotions (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998); and
Marco Iacoboni, Mirroring People: The New Science of How Connect with Others
(New York: Farrar, Strauss, and Giroux, 2008). For a sweeping critical assessment
of neuroscience and of the ‘neural-turn’, see Fernando Vidal and Francisco
Ortega, Being Brains: Making the Cerebral Subject (New York: Fordham Uni-
versity Press, 2017).
16 A useful introduction to affect theory is Melissa Gregg and Gregory J. Seigworth,
eds, The Affect Theory Reader (Durham: Duke University Press, 2010). For a
trenchant critique of affect theory, affective neuroscience and basic emotions, see
Ruth Leys, The Ascent of Affect: Genealogy and Critique (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 2017).
17 Daniel Lord Smail, On Deep History and the Brain (Berkeley: University of Cali-
fornia Press, 2008); Lynn Hunt, Inventing Human Rights (New York: Norton, 2008);
and Rob Boddice, ‘Neurohistory’, in Debating New Approaches to History, ed. by
Marek Tamm and Peter Burke (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2019), 301–12. See
also the roundtable ‘History meets Biology’ in The American Historical Review 115,
no. 5 (2014); and critical assessments by William Reddy, ‘Neuroscience and the Fal-
lacies of Functionalism’, History and Theory 49, no. 3 (2010): 412–25; and Ethan
Kleinberg, ‘Just the Facts: The Fantasy of a Historical Science’, History of the Present
6, no. 1 (2016): 87–103.
18 Catherine A. Lutz, Unnatural Emotions: Everyday Sentiments on a Micronesian
Atoll and their Challenge to Western Theory (Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1988), 5. See also Lila Abu-Lughod, Veiled Sentiments: Honor and Poetry in
a Bedouin Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986).
19 Arlie Russell Hochschild, The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983); Eva Illouz, Cold Intimacies: The
Making of Emotional Capitalism (Cambridge: Polity, 2007); Jeff Goodwin, James M;
Jasper and Francesca Polletta, eds, Passionate Politics: Emotions and Social
Movements (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001); Deborah Gould, Moving
Politics: Emotion and ACT UP’s Fight against AIDS (Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 2009)
20 C. P. Snow, The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution (New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1961).
24 Thomas Dodman
21 Raymond Williams, Marxism and Literature (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1977), 132.
22 Norbert Elias, ‘On Human Beings and their Emotions: A Process-Sociological
Essay’, Theory, Culture and Society 4 (1987), quote at 361.
23 Martha C. Nussbaum, Upheavals of Thought: The Intelligence of Emotions (Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001); and Daniel M. Gross, The Secret History
of Emotion: From Aristotle’s ‘Rhetoric’ to Modern Brain Science (Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, 2006).
24 On psychological constructionism, see Lisa Feldman Barrett and James A. Russell,
eds, The Psychological Construction of Emotion (New York: Guilford, 2015); and
Maria Gendron and Lisa Feldman Barrett, ‘Emotion Perception as Conceptual Syn-
chrony’, Emotion Review 10, no. 2 (2018): 101–10. Epigenesists explore chemical
processes that alter gene expression (such as DNA methylation) both in laboratory
experiments and try to extrapolate from real-life case studies as well, for example in
the intergenerational effects of malnutrition of trauma on given populations. For a
useful introduction to current research, see Margaret Lock and Gisli Palsson, Can
Science Resolve the Nature/Nurture Debate? (Cambridge: Polity, 2016).
25 For works that tackle the historicity of emotion categories head on, see Thomas
Dixon, From Passions to Emotions: The Creation of a Secular Psychological
Category (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003); Ute Frevert, Emotions
in History: Lost and Found (Budapest: Central European University Press, 2011);
and Thomas Dodman, What Nostalgia War: War, Empire, and the Time of a
Deadly Emotion (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2018).
26 Peter N. Stearns and Carol Z. Stearns, ‘Emotionology: Clarifying the History of
Emotions and Emotional Standards’, The American Historical Review 90, no. 4
(1985): 813–36.
27 Arlie Hochschild, Managed Heart; and ‘Emotion Work, Feeling Rules, and Social
Structure’, American Journal of Sociology 85, no. 3 (1979): 551–75.
28 Carol Z. Stearns and Peter N. Stearns, Anger: The Struggle for Emotional Control
in America’s History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986); Peter N.
Stearns, Jealousy: The Evolution of an Emotion in American History (New York:
New York University Press, 1989); and American Cool: Constructing a Twentieth-
Century Emotional Style (New York: New York University Press, 1994).
29 Barbara H. Rosenwein, ‘Worrying about Emotions in History’, The American
Historical Review 107, no. 2 (2002): 821–45. See also her ‘Problems and Methods
in the History of Emotions’, Passions in Context: Journal of the History and Phi-
losophy of the Emotions 1, no. 1 (2010), https://www.passionsincontext.de/index.
php/?id=557.
30 Barbara H. Rosenwein, Emotional Communities in the Early Middle Ages (Ithaca:
Cornell University Press, 2006), 2. The concept owes to Benedict Anderson’ notion
of national ‘imagined communities’. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities:
Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983).
31 Barbara H. Rosenwein, Generations of Feeling: A History of Emotions (600–1700)
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015).
32 J. L. Austin, How to do Things with Words, 2nd edn (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 1975).
33 Reddy first articulated his theory in ‘Against Constructivism: The Historical Eth-
nography of Emotions’, Current Anthropology 38, no. 3 (1997): 327–51; developed
it fully in his landmark study The Navigation of Feeling: A Framework for the
History of Emotions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), esp. 96–137;
and has offered partial revisions since, for instance in The Making of Romantic
Love: Longing and Sexuality in Europe, South Asia & Japan, 900–1200 BC (Chi-
cago: University of Chicago Press, 2012).
 Theories and methods in the history of emotions 25
34 Monique Scheer, ‘Are Emotions a Kind of Practice (And Is that What Makes
Them Have a History)? A Bourdieuian Approach to Understanding Emotions’,
History and Theory 51, no. 2 (2012): 193–220.
35 In his later works Bourdieu increasingly came to acknowledge the importance of
psychology and emotions in understanding people’s ‘cleft’ (or ‘divided’) habitus. See
Pierre Bourdieu, Pascalian Meditations (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 2000).
36 On Ancient emotions, see Angelos Chaniotis, ed., Unveiling Emotions: Sources and
Methods for the Study of Emotions in the Greek World (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner
Verlag, 2012). On intimacy in colonial power relations, see Anne Laura Stoler,
Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Race and the Intimate in Colonial Rule
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002). The relation between colonial and
domestic violence in German history has been explored, among others, by Isabel
V. Hull, Absolute Destruction: Military Culture and the Practices of War in
Imperial Germany (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2005); and Geoff Eley and
Bradley Naranch, eds, German Colonialism in a Global Age (Durham: Duke Uni-
versity Press, 2014).
37 See, for example, Sarah Ahmed, The Cultural Politics of Emotion (Edinburgh:
Edinburgh University Press, 2004) and, for a useful guide, Katie Barclay, ‘New
Materialism and the New History of Emotions’, Emotions: History, Culture,
Society 1, no. 1 (2017): 161–83.
38 For more open-ended attempts to incorporate psychoanalysis into historical
research attentive to emotional life, see Lyndal Roper, Oedipus and the Devil:
Witchcraft, Religion and Sexuality in Early Modern Europe (London: Routledge,
1994); Michael Roper, The Secret Battle: Emotional Survival in the Great War
(Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2009); and Joan W. Scott, ‘The
Incommensurability of History and Psychoanalysis’, History and Theory 51, no. 1
(2012): 63–83.
39 Margrit Pernau and Imke Rajamani, ‘Emotional Translations: Conceptual History
Beyond Language’, History and Theory 55, no. 1 (2016): 46–65. For a different
take on emotion translation that recognises the existence of a culturally universal
metalanguage, see Anna Wierzbicka, ‘Language and Metalanguage: Key Issues in
Emotion Research’, Emotion Review 1, no. 3 (2009): 3–14.
40 Reddy, Romantic Love.
41 Margrit Pernau, guest editor, Special Issue on Feeling Communities in The Indian
Economic & Social History Review 54, no. 1 (2017); and Benno Gammerl, Philippe
Nielsen and Margrit Pernau, eds, Encounters with Emotions: Negotiating Cultural
Differences since Early Modernity (New York: Berghahn, 2019). A classic and
hotly debated instance of such emotional encounter would be that between
Hawaiians and Captain Cook in the late eighteenth century. See Gananath
Obeyesekere, The Apotheosis of Captain Cook: European Mythmaking in the
Pacific (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992); and Marshall Sahlins, How
‘Natives’ Think: About Captain Cook, for Example (Chicago: University of Chi-
cago Press, 1995).
42 On connected histories and history ‘in equal parts’, see in particular Sanjay Sub-
rahmanyam, Explorations in Connected History, vol. 1: From the Tagus to the
Ganges, and vol. 2: Mughals and Franks (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012);
and Romain Bertrand, L’Histoire à parts égales: Récits d’une rencontre Orient-
Occident (XVIe–XVIIe siècle) (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 2011).
3 The practice and ethics of the history of
emotions
Katie Barclay

The history of emotions explores how people expressed, experienced (felt) and
practised emotions in their daily lives. To access this, historians draw on a wide
range of source material, explored in this volume, and historical methodologies,
approaches designed to help interpret source material with greater sophistication
and nuance (see especially Chapter 2). Like all forms of knowledge-making,
writing a history of emotions raises a range of ethical dilemmas, practical
problems and implications for the present. Producing rigorous and ethical his-
tories requires historians to reflect on these issues when producing research. This
chapter offers an introduction to some of the key questions that arise for
emotions historians as we conduct research. This chapter particularly explores
problems that arise for historians working in an interdisciplinary field and one
which focuses on the body; it then highlights some ethical considerations of a
topic that at least in the twentieth century was imagined as ‘private’; and finally
it explores the emotions of the historian, suggesting that our feelings too might
matter for the histories that we write.
From at least the eighteenth century, historians in the West have argued about
the practice of history, and particularly the role of emotion within it. Whilst
some of the more famous forefathers of the discipline argued for the importance
of analysing the past with rationality and objectivity, others sought to make the
case for empathetic engagements with historical subjects, as critical to nuanced
readings and interpretation.1 For most of the nineteenth and much of the twen-
tieth century, that history should be an objective profession was the dominant
approach in the discipline, yet one that was often used to exclude certain types of
scholar – objectivity was not thought to be possible for women, the working
class, people of colour or other minorities, either due to ideas about their innate
‘emotionality’ or as they were thought to have vested interests that middle-class,
largely white, men did not.2
More recently, particularly following the post-structuralist turn in the
1990s, whether ‘objective’ history either is possible or desirable has increas-
ingly been questioned. This is not to reject disciplinary norms around rigour,
analysis or the nature of evidence, but to ask whether a rejection of emotion
is possible for analysis and also how we might harness alternative approaches
to source material in interpretation. Moving forward from strict objectivity,
 The practice and ethics of the history of emotions 27
historians have sought to reflect on the multiple and diverse subjectivities
involved in the production of historical sources and contemporary histories, and
to incorporate such perspectives in their analytical approach. To do this, we have
looked beyond the traditional tools of the field to anthropology, sociology and
other disciplines where the researcher–subject relationship has been more often
foregrounded. If early work in this area sought to find space for the ‘subject’ –
the person and how they shaped sources and scholarship – the ‘emotional
subject’ is now of increased interest, as we seek to recognise how emotion shapes
our engagements with the past.
Critiques of objectivity have been critical in shaping our relationship with
source material. One of the important benefits has been to open up the range of
sources available to historians for analysis. Historically, records produced by
institutions and bureaucracies, or as part of administrative processes, were
viewed as less ‘biased’ than others. Those produced by individuals for their own
purposes – letters, diaries, autobiographies – and later oral histories caused
anxieties for scholars seeking to remove emotion from the profession. Histor-
ians had to develop mechanisms for extracting ‘truth’ from the personal, from
the subjective perspective of the person who made the source. More recently,
the concept of ‘bias’ has both reduced in use – we no longer use the term – and
expanded in its analytical purchase. Historians now recognise that almost all
sources are produced by humans, or at least made relevant to history through
human attention, and so understanding who made them, who kept them and
why is critical to understanding how to interpret them. This is also true of
institutional records, which are not ‘neutral’ but reflect the concerns and
interests of organisations and the people who work for them. Indeed, as an
increasing scholarship on institutional, legal and similar organisational records
now shows, emotions and personal interests are found in all types of material.
We might need a variety of methods for interpreting different types of sources,
but the underlying principle that all sources reflect various forms of subjectivity
is now a central principle of historical research. This chapter places the
subjectivities of the historian as central to the practice of the history of emo-
tion, looking at our relationships with other disciplines as the first line where
they are made and shaped, before exploring how our relationality – with other
scholars and with the past – thus requires us to engage in ethical practices.
Finally, this chapter looks at our own subjectivities, and how the emotions of
the historian can be used in historical research.

Interdisciplinary bodies
If historians are emotional subjects, then some of our most important rela-
tionships are with other scholars in the field and in the academy more widely.
The history of emotions is an interdisciplinary project that both brings together
scholars who study the past from a range of disciplines, where historians
borrow from an array of fields to answer questions we consider important, and
where non-historians borrow from us to help them interpret their material.
28 Katie Barclay
Interdisciplinarity is the combining of two or more academic disciplines into one
activity. It sounds straightforward, perhaps especially for historians who think of
boundaries less in terms of methodology than chronology.3 A historical boundary
is between the medieval and the early modern or nineteenth and twentieth cen-
turies, not something that places a barrier between a sociologist and psychologist.
This might seem a strange thing to say – how can an academic discipline not know
its own edge? But historians have long been magpies in exploring the broad
diversity of the past. Methodologies and approaches from other fields are selected
as they seem relevant to research and enable answers to questions. This process of
methodological selection creates its own boundaries within the field, so that his-
tory now includes economic, social, political, gender historians and so forth with
their own rules.4 Yet if methodological choices allow historians to fight freely and
at length, few methods are excluded from the field as inappropriate if a historian
can make them work for their questions.
The ‘discipline’ of history – the thing that unites the field – is a commit-
ment to viewing events, phenomena, people in context. ‘Context’ is a word
that does a lot of work in history; it is not just to acknowledge that somebody
living in the nineteenth century might live within different material, cultural,
ideological conditions from one today. Rather, it places that context as critical
to analysis – approaches that distract from embeddedness in time and place
are not history (or, at least, makes many historians quite uncomfortable).5
Increasingly an emphasis on context extends to even relatively stable struc-
tures like the body, where emphasis is now placed on the plasticity of the
human form and its production through environment.6 If some of the early
‘historians’ – David Hume, Karl Marx, Norbert Elias – offered large-scale
theories of human development, of progress, that were remarkably influential
in the sciences, their evidentiary basis was weak, even non-existent, and later
historians rejected such ‘meta-narratives’ in favour of phenomenological
approaches, where the different parts of a system cannot be understood
outside of that system.7 To understand emotion, we need to understand not
only the class, gender and race of the individual experiencing it, but where
they were (at work or home?), what they were doing, who with and how their
understanding of the world was shaped by ideas, values, culture, technology
and so forth. Indeed, some historians now go further, rejecting scientific
methodologies that break systems down into parts in the first place.8 They
highlight ‘intersectionalities’ where different components of a system take on
entirely new features and functions in combination; it might be important to
some that a cake was once flour, egg and sugar, but the value of this informa-
tion for understanding the phenomenon of cake only goes so far. This has also
led some groups of historians towards the ‘micro’, to stories of individuals,
events and moments, as narratives of larger groups are found to be unsatisfac-
tory for both explaining change and continuity, and in their potential for
inclusion and democratic history-making.9 ‘Big data’ approaches can in some
senses also be included within this framework in their rejection of representing
groups, in favour of universal capture of information.
 The practice and ethics of the history of emotions 29
The ‘new’ history of emotion, as I am styling the field in the last twenty years,
is framed through this context. On the one hand, scholars of emotion are com-
fortable with using methodologies and ideas from other fields if it helps further
the analysis of emotion in particular times and places; on the other, context is
ever more critical to analysis. The methodologies historians of emotion have
been turning to in the search for new approaches to past materials have been
increasingly diverse. Attending to bodies and science and increasingly also
materialities, like landscape or physical environments, historians of emotion are
more engaged with the biological and psychological sciences than many other
branches of history.10 William Reddy, for example, uses findings from psychol-
ogy and especially neuroscience to enable a re-reading of descriptions of love as
‘speech acts’ that shape embodied feeling. This allows him to move beyond
claims that sources ‘represent’ emotion to insights about what long-dead people
might actually have felt.11 This can place historians of emotion at odds with
historical disciplinary norms for rigour. A particular site of tension here is
around ‘universal’ explanations. With some notable exceptions, historians shy
away from ‘universal’ answers – those that sit above different times and places
and offer solutions than can be applied to a wide array of contexts. In contrast,
psychology and biology tend to focus on the body and the mind as having
essential structures that remain stable across very large swathes of time (thou-
sands of years); to access those structures they often wish to strip away the
dimensions that change with culture and context. Reddy’s claims to under-
standing historic feeling rely on the belief that historic bodies are not dissimilar
to our own. How, then, do historians use and apply such findings?
One of the obvious challenges is that the lab-based approaches used by many
psychologists and biological scientists are often quite distant from the contexts
that we place so much emphasis on. Historians of emotion cannot replicate the
method – dead people cannot be placed in an MRI or subjected to an inter-
view – and historians worry about how data produced in scientific settings can be
translated into ‘real world’ contexts. Historians are also not scientists, so not
always trained to assess ‘good’ science from ‘bad’, and we are aware that ideas
change rapidly in these disciplines, making it challenging to ‘keep up’ with their
findings. As a result, historian’s relationship with the science can be somewhat
half-hearted; how do we know whose findings to use in our work?
One of the results of this is that the application of new methods from these fields
in history can be on different terms that those anticipated by the originating field.
Many historians tend to use methods from other fields analogically – these are
good ideas to think with – not strict rules for conducting research. They apply
them by using them as a lens for teasing out different types of information from
source material, to enable new types of questions to be asked. We are also often
happy to deploy and combine multiple methods or theories in our work, some-
thing that some other disciplines discourage. Only a few, like Reddy, have whole-
heartedly embraced particular scientific ideas or theories as compelling
explanatory models, sometimes acknowledging their work as a product of its own
historical moment.12
30 Katie Barclay
More important for historians are the rules that attend to source production –
how was a source made, by who, and what difference does that make to how it
should be interpreted? Increasingly, historians also emphasis sources as ‘objects’,
so that a letter, for example, is not just read for what it contains but analysed for
how its production, circulation and use informs how it should be understood. One
of the impacts of this methodology for historians of emotion is that emotion is no
longer just contained within the body, but analysed as a product of interactions
between humans, the material world and language. As Diana Barnes notes for the
early modern letter, exploring its materiality – the type of paper, inkblots and
marks of produced by a reader – should be used alongside the content to
understand how they made, or were meant to make, the recipient feel.13 Approa-
ches drawn from psychological and biological sciences that give insight into how
bodies work are then relegated to only one strand of a more complex conversation
that seeks to integrate the different components that contribute to emotional
experience and its impacts.
The history of emotions is a discipline whose methods and approach are con-
tinually evolving, a conversation happening between historians but also with
many others beyond the field. It is an approach that adds value to other dis-
ciplines in denaturalising the body and emotion – highlighting how things we
assume are universal are actually different across time and place – and, like other
humanities subjects, in evidencing the important role of culture and language to
shaping ideas, values, priorities and meaning. History offers insights into how
bodies and emotions have changed and how we might in turn change things in
the future. If historians do not always agree on the best approach to excavating
historic emotions, our diversity and the intellectual generosity that the field has
built upon has made it a rich environment for research. As a quickly evolving
field, there is plenty of room for new approaches and methods as we develop.
Critical to any approach is a consideration of ethical practice.

Private feelings
As a historian of the love letter, one of the most frequent questions that I am
asked is whether it is ethical to invade the private communications of the
dead. For a historian of the eighteenth century, there is an irony to this
question. The eighteenth-century love letter was rarely private, often mediated
through a third party (a sister or mother) or designed to be read aloud to a
family group. This was not because eighteenth-century letters were ‘dry’ or
lacked passion. Quite the contrary, the European culture of sensibility
ensured that flowery prose and dramatic declamations of love were often the
order of the day – at least for men.14 In contrast, many of the people I have
studied were concerned to keep their finances private. As members of a social
elite, during an age of booming consumerism, many felt pressured to spend,
dress and display goods that reflected their social status, but not always their
bank balances. By the end of the century, many were bankrupt.15 Con-
spicuous consumption relied on keeping their incomes confidential, partly to
 The practice and ethics of the history of emotions 31
ensure their credit did not reduce but also as status and wealth were expected
to co-exist.16 Despite this, I have never been asked whether making the
accounts of those I study public is a breach of ethics; it is not a question that
appears to be routinely asked of economic historians.
Emotions, particularly those related to family and love relations, are parti-
cularly associated with the ‘private’ sphere in the contemporary West.17 This
produces certain ethical considerations when working with material that pro-
vides access into such relationships, whether that is the archival materials –
letters, diaries, account books – that survive or oral histories and interviews
with people involved. Writing histories that include the living or their near
relatives, those that might have known them personally, is always fraught.
The historian has to particularly consider the implications of what they
research and write not only in terms of its contribution to historical debates,
but the impacts on those who survive. Will making this information public
cause embarrassment, physical or emotional harm, damage character or
reputation, or lead to legal liability, for those under discussion or, occasion-
ally, the historian? These considerations are not particularly distinct to the
history of emotions. Until recently for many born in the twentieth century,
and for many even now, certain types of personal information have been
considered not suitable for public consumption; discussion of family life,
emotions, and relationships outside of a close circle of family and friends was
considered embarrassing and inappropriate.18 Attitudes to this are rapidly
changing, but such considerations cannot be ignored by contemporary scho-
lars who wish to write ethical histories.
As both the eighteenth-century culture of sensibility and the twentieth cen-
tury’s stoic reserve might suggest, whether emotion was considered to be ‘pri-
vate’ or ‘public’ or something else entirely ranges enormously across time
periods and geographic space. Historical contexts – including the one we live
in – inform how we approach such information and the ethical implications
that arise. Whose ethics apply to the histories that we write? Should we use our
own sense of what is private and public and apply them to eras for whom such
ideas had little relevance? Should we seek to behave ethically in the terms of
those we study, using their values to determine how we engage with the mate-
rials that survive for the historian? The latter raises some particular problems,
firstly because we do not always know what our subjects might have thought
about their information. Even if our subjects may have preferred that some of
their less flattering behaviours went unknown to their contemporaries, the
possibility of historical fame or a commitment to historical scholarship may
have made them less worried about their reputation several hundred years later.
Indeed, as the owners of their life stories, many may have enjoyed being
remembered and having their voices contribute to posterity. Today, many
groups that have experienced critical wrongs (like racism or genocide) value
having their stories made public, recognising that having one’s story in the
public sphere is the first step in redress and reconciliation.19
32 Katie Barclay
Secondly, and perhaps more importantly, historical knowledge has its own
ethical commitments. Many historians are motivated by providing histories for
groups that do not have them, recognising that a past is significant in the for-
mation of identity and the capacity to act in the public sphere. LGBT histories,
histories of domestic violence, of rape, not only provide important information
about what happened in the past, but allow people today to make sense of their
experiences, to shape identities and to make political claims to human rights or
legislative change.20 For women’s historians, histories of the home, the ‘private’
sphere, have been vital in ensuring that women’s experiences form part of public
record, that women have a past, and that interventions in the ‘private’ to enable
greater equality and to reduce harm have been possible. Histories of emotion
have similar ethical functions, in enabling people to better understand how
experiences that feel deeply personal and individual can be implicated in larger
systems of power.21 Through denaturalising emotion, people are enabled to
rethink the role of emotion in personal, social, economic and political life, and to
enable change for the better.
Like any history-making, then, historians of emotions do need to attend to
the ethics of their practices, but in doing so, rather than attending to ‘taboos’
that change over time and place, it is perhaps more useful to ask about harms
and impacts. History is written for the present. While it is respectful and
helpful to approach our subjects with empathy and a willingness to engage
with them on their own terms, the knowledges we produce should give greater
consideration to the impacts on people now. Will our histories harm
individuals or groups? What is the nature of that harm, and is it outweighed
by the benefits it might bring to others? What are the ‘pay-offs’ of the research
for social inclusion, justice, rights, health or wellbeing? Are there ways to miti-
gate harms, such as anonymising material, and how should we balance these
against both individual rights to own their stories and the rights of communities
to know their past?
Ethics in research is never straightforward. If scholars provide useful
guidelines based on best practice principles and in response to historic harms
or problems, the best approach is to use such guidelines alongside sincere and
meaningful reflections on the material being used and the impacts of the his-
tories to be produced.22 Ethics are ever-evolving to respond to historical
conditions and the good historian is responsive to the world they live in and
the impacts of their work on others. They also attend to their own feelings as
part of historical practice.

Felt judgements
Historians of emotion are increasingly concerned with our own emotional
encounters with the dead, the historical sources that convey them through
time and the material conditions in which they lived. If historians of emotions
argue, as we do, that emotions are not just reactions and responses to histor-
ical events, but things that act on the world, shaping historical conditions and
 The practice and ethics of the history of emotions 33
processes of change, then the emotions of the historian must do something
too. But what? And if they do, does it really matter? How should we approach
our relationships with the dead?
An older commitment to objectivity looked in askance at such feeling, both
an irrational but also modern imposition on a past that we should come to
without agenda (as if emotions have agendas that rationality does not). More
recently, a focus on multiple subjectivities has sought to locate the historian in
the making of their histories – to recognise history as a human process shaped
by its author in a relation with their subject – but even here emotions have
been underplayed, perhaps present and to be controlled, but not necessarily
an emotional tool, something that matters. Emotions seem to have troubled
historians more than other fields. Anthropologists, having early on written
themselves into their ethnographies, have spent more time on the relation
between observer and observed, and with less existential angst.23 Perhaps that
is because they are less likely to be separated by time and distance, more
aware that their observation is actually a relationship with living humans that
respond to them and their interventions in place.
The line between ‘them’ and ‘us’ is perhaps more necessary for a discipline
whose value has often been located in the disjuncture between past and pre-
sent, where what history has to offer has more often been located in change –
the past as a foreign country – than continuity.24 Thus, historians have been
sensitive to teleological thinking, to imposing current values on past societies,
to applying lessons from history to the present. This is an anxiety, along with
our emotional attachments to historical sources, that has underpinned the
continuing commitment to empiricism in history and occasionally a lacklustre
embrace of theory. Applying ‘modern’ methodologies to historic sources has
often been associated with favouring contemporary interpretations over his-
toric people’s own beliefs and attitudes. Yet, not only are many methodologies
produced because of our study of historical people – William Reddy’s concept
of the ‘emotional regime’ was developed through his study of the French
Revolution – but imagining that there is a ‘pure’ encounter between the his-
torian and source material is naïve.25 Rather, we all bring something of our-
selves and society to our interpretation of the past. New methodologies are
designed to enable more sophisticated readings of historic material and to
help clarify the boundaries between ‘them’ and ‘us’.
Given this, and that the impact of emotions on the world is our concern,
how our own emotions shape our encounters with source material is now of
increasing interest. In a recent article about my relationship with an unlike-
able Scottish banker Gilbert Innes of Stowe, I suggest one of the utilities of
attending to the emotion of the historian was its capacity to allow us to tease
out the various subjectivities of historical subjects in relation to each other,
and also to ourselves, an approach that centred the relationality of past and
present but also the boundaries between.26 Empathy is often considered
critical to historical research, as explaining the behaviour of our research
subjects requires understanding their motivations, concerns and cares. Yet,
34 Katie Barclay
not only can empathy sometimes be hard, but it risks centring the experience of
one historical subject over that of others and of our commitment to writing ethical
histories for the present. I really disliked Gilbert Innes, because his sexual exploi-
tation of a large number of women left them socially disadvantaged and often
excluded from society, while his own reputation – and economic success – went
largely untouched. One of the reasons for this dislike, however, was not just my
own ‘modern’ feminist response to a man in a patriarchal society, but that my
source materials were the writings of distressed women who had been wronged by
Innes. My dislike was a response to their distress. Learning to use my emotional
response to help me interpret my source material was useful in providing a deeper
understanding of the behaviour and emotional dynamics of a man that I wished to
understand. But it also enabled me to do this without losing sight of those he hurt.
As a historian writing history for the present, it thus allowed greater analytical
purchase of this story for a history that should contribute to greater gender equity
and social justice today. Like the ‘felt judgements’ discussed by philosophers of
emotion, historians can use their feeling for its evaluative and interpretive
capacities, and to unpack the various subjectivities deployed in the production
of history.27
Conversely, an exploration of our own emotion can be used to trouble such
claims. Lines designed to articulate boundaries between ‘us’ and ‘them’ are
challenged by emotions scholarship that deploys methods that focus attention
on our embodiment, whether the tactility of emotional objects held in the
hand, in encounters with landscape that highlight the affective dimensions of
space, or in our relationships with subjects both living and dead. A desire for
firm boundaries between humans reinforces a particular model of selfhood
that imagines that it is separate from ‘the other’. Some philosophers instead
suggest we should be open to how we impact on each other, how relationality
and engagement shapes who and what we are. This is not the least the case
for historical subjects who shape us through the traces they have left of
themselves.28 As history practices move from a simple engagement with text
to affective responses to objects, landscapes and people – things that deploy
bodies and emotion in the process of interpretation – boundaries become
increasingly amorphous. This is not to collapse past people into present feeling
but it is to recognise that a focus on emotion – both of what we study and
ourselves – refuses certain types of separation that the discipline has tended to
hold dear. To explore the past through the body, and not just the word, requires
an attendance to knowledge-making as an embodied process, suggestive of
porousness and openness, as much as edges and separation.
If this is a challenge to the historian, it is one that the field is increasingly
situated to respond to. From a scholarship of affect, which explores feeling
before it is given shape by language, to new materialism and object ontologies
that seek to recognise the agency of the material world, to explorations of
emotions as social and cultural practices that move and circulate, emotions
scholarship offers an analytical lens for the intangible processes, the inti-
macies, that bind people together.29 The challenge for the historian is to apply
 The practice and ethics of the history of emotions 35
these analyses to our own practices and relationships with those we study. It is to
reflect on the historical source as an emotional object, where its affective mean-
ings form part of the explanation for its survival and its capacity to produce
history; to acknowledge emotion as a social and cultural practice of historians
and thus to consider how the circulation of historian’s emotions enable certain
types of historical economies – of what becomes important, what is taboo, who
matters, what methodologies are robust, and so forth. It is to ask how a refigur-
ing of objectivity and subjectivity through an emotional lens might offer an
opportunity for a more democratic history, where the histories produced by
other types of historical knowledge-makers, from those we interview to the
general public, are not discounted because of their attachments, their naïve
nostalgias, but recognised as part of the emotional web that is history making.30
It is to recognise that if nostalgia shapes how some parts of the public interpret
the past our feeling too does similar work.

Conclusion
Making history is an ethical practice that involves a variety of relationships.
The relationships formed by historians of emotions are perhaps especially
broad due to our willingness to engage with scholars in an especially wide
array of disciplines, including in the sciences whose universalism has often
been challenging to those who emphasise the significance of time and place.
Interdisciplinarity is central to the field, requiring not only knowledge and
understanding of our own approaches but those outside. This necessitates a
form of intellectual generosity, a willingness to open ourselves to other ideas
and approaches. Like any practice that involves relationships with others, the
writing of the history of emotions thus requires attending to ethics. What
harm might our histories cause and what benefits does it bring? Thinking
about our relationships to our historical subjects can form an important
dimension of our ethical reflections, but should not overlay commitments to
those in contemporary society, who may be harmed or helped by our
research. This is not to ignore our emotional attachments to those we study,
recognising that the practice of history is emotional and that emotions play
an important dynamic in human activities. Rather, the historian needs to
attend to how our emotional relationships with the dead, with the living and
with historical sources might shape the histories produced, and explore what
emotion is doing for emotions history.

Notes
1 Mary Spongberg, Women Writers and the Nation’s Past, 1790–1860: Empathetic
Histories (London: Bloomsbury, 2018).
2 Keith Jenkins, On ‘What is History’? From Carr and Elton to Rorty and White
(London: Routledge, 1995); Georg G. Iggers, Historiography in the Twentieth
Century: From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge (Middletown:
Wesleyan University Press, 2005).
36 Katie Barclay
3 Allen F. Repko, Interdisciplinary Research: Process and Theory (Los Angeles:
Sage, 2008); Lisa R. Lattuca, Creating Interdisciplinarity: Interdisciplinary
Research and Teaching among College and University Faculty (Nashville: Vander-
bilt University Press, 2001).
4 Anna Green and Kathleen Troup, eds, The Houses of History: A Critical Reader in
Twentieth-Century History and Theory (Manchester: Manchester University Press,
1999).
5 Andrew Shryock and Daniel Lord Smail, Deep History: the Architecture of Past
and Present (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011).
6 Kathleen Canning, ‘The Body as Method? Reflections on the Place of the Body in
Gender History’, Gender & History 11 (1999): 499–513.
7 Douglas Low, In Defense of Phenomenology: Merleau-Ponty’s Philosophy (New
Brunswick: Transaction, 2016).
8 Katie Barclay, ‘New Materialism and the New History of the Emotions’, Emo-
tions: History, Culture, Society 1, no. 1 (2017): 161–83.
9 Brodie Waddell, ‘What is Microhistory Now?’, Many Headed Monster, https://ma
nyheadedmonster.wordpress.com/2017/06/20/what-is-microhistory-now/#m
ore-5403, accessed 3 August 2019.
10 William Reddy, The Making of Romantic Love: Longing and Sexuality in Europe,
South Asia & Japan, 900–1200 (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2012); Barbara
H. Rosenwein, Generations of Feeling: A History of Emotions, 600–1700 (Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016); Jan Plamper, The History of Emotions:
an Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012).
11 Reddy, The Making of Romantic Love.
12 Reddy, The Making of Romantic Love; Rosenwein, Generations of Feeling.
13 Diana G. Barnes, ‘Emotional Debris in Early Modern Letters’, in Feeling Things:
Objects and Emotions through History, ed. Stephenie Downes, Sally Holloway and
Sarah Randles (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), 114–32.
14 Katie Barclay, Love, Intimacy and Power: Marriage and Patriarchy in Scotland,
1650–1850 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2011); Nicole Eustace,
‘“The Cornerstone of a Copious Work”: Love and Power in Eighteenth-Century
Courtship’, Journal of Social History 34 (2001): 518–45.
15 Stana Nenadic, Lairds and Luxury: the Highland Gentry in Eighteenth-Century
Scotland (East Linton: John Donald, 2007).
16 Margot Finn, The Character of Credit: Personal Debt in English Culture, 1740–
1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).
17 Sylvia Walby, ‘From Public to Private Patriarchy: the Periodisation of British
History’, Women’s Studies International Forum 13, no. 1/2 (1990): 91–104.
18 Deborah Cohen, Family Secrets: Shame and Privacy in Modern Britain (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2013).
19 Anna Haebich, ‘Forgetting Indigenous Histories: Cases from the History of Aus-
tralia’s Stolen Generations’, Journal of Social History 44, no. 4 (2011): 1033–46;
Shurlee Swain and Nell Musgrove, ‘We are the Stories We Tell About Ourselves:
Child Welfare Records and the Construction of Identity among Australians who,
as Children, Experienced Out-of-Home “Care”’, Archives and Manuscripts 40, no.
1 (2012): 4–14.
20 Stefan Berger, Heiko Feldner and Kevin Passmore, eds, Writing History: Theory &
Practice (London: Arnold, 2003).
21 William Reddy, The Navigation of Feeling: a Framework for the History of Emo-
tions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
22 David Carr, Thomas Robert Flynn and Rudolf A. Makkreel, eds, The Ethics of
History (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 2004); Martin Hammersley
and Anna Traianou, Ethics in Qualitative Research: Controversies and Contexts
(Los Angeles: Sage, 2012).
 The practice and ethics of the history of emotions 37
23 See, for example, Ruth Behar, The Vulnerable Observer: Anthropology That Breaks
Your Heart (Boston: Beacon Press, 1996).
24 David Lowenthal, The Past Is a Foreign Country (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 1985).
25 Reddy, The Navigation of Feeling.
26 Barclay, ‘Falling in Love’.
27 John Jervis, Sympathetic Sentiments: Affect, Emotion and Spectacle in the Modern
World (London: Bloomsbury, 2015).
28 Downes, Holloway and Randles, Feeling Things; Katie Barclay, ‘Falling in Love
with the Dead’, Rethinking History 22, no. 4 (2019): 459–73.
29 Ruth Leys, ‘The Turn to Affect: a Critique’, Critical Inquiry 37, no. 3 (2011): 434–
72; Barclay, ‘New Materialism’; Sara Ahmed, ‘Affective Economies’, Social Text
22, no. 2 (2004): 117–39.
30 Julia Bennett, ‘Narrating Family Histories: Negotiating Identity and Belonging
through Tropes of Nostalgia and Authenticity’, Current Sociology 66, no. 3 (2018):
449–65.
Part II
Sources for the history of
emotions
4 Rituals, relics and religious rhetoric
Piroska Nagy, Xavier Biron-Ouellet and
Anne-Gaëlle Weber1

Among the sources available to students of emotions, religious sources are of

particular interest since they allow us to grasp how culture shapes the intimate
feelings of individuals’ connection with supernatural forces. In most religions,
spiritual relationships, linking together the visible and invisible, the profane and
the sacred, involve emotions like awe, love, fear or fascination, expressed both
individually and collectively. In order to fully comprehend the emotional aspect
of religious sources, historians need a diversified methodological toolbox. Above
all, they must adopt an anthropological approach, and consider the vision of
man alongside society’s structures and main cultural practices. Being medieval-
ists, our ‘anthropological field’ is Latin Christendom. We will thus refer to Wes-
tern Christian religion and culture throughout this chapter. As many of our
sources have their equivalent in other religions, the historical method advocated
here can also be applied in other cultural contexts.
Affectivity and emotions are central to Christian anthropology. As we read in
the New Testament, God is love; Christ sacrificed himself and suffered his passion
out of love for humankind. Christianity is therefore a highly affective religion, in
which the faithful draw closer to the divine by experiencing certain feelings
inspired by the Holy Scriptures and other sacred texts.2 Leaving aside the moral
and theological discussion of how humans must behave in community, an
anthropological approach to religious discourse expressed by textual, iconographic
or monumental sources, reveals the role played by emotions in a Christian culture
and society. Forming a common thread that wove together the different cultures
present in medieval Europe, Christianity and the Church defined the shape of
Western civilisation. Mindful that a longue durée perspective is required to under-
stand the global dynamics of history, historical anthropologist and medievalist
Jacques Le Goff argues for a long Middle Ages (300–1800), with the purpose of
shedding light on the deep cultural structures of Western history.3 This extension
of the medieval era, which traditionally ranges from 500 to 1500, reflects the fact
that Christian religious thought determined the organisational and mental struc-
tures of Western societies from Late Antiquity to the Industrial Revolution. For
this reason, in order to understand and interpret religious sources, as well as to
make sense of their affective content in the longue durée, the student of emotions
needs a global understanding of Western Christian culture.
42 Piroska Nagy, Xavier Biron-Ouellet and Anne-Gaëlle Weber
Paradoxically, language acts both as a gateway and a barrier to the use of
Christian religious sources and to the study of emotions of the past in general. A
term similar to the one we use today does not necessarily have the same mean-
ing: false cognates are numerous. For instance, ‘esmotion’ in late medieval
French designates social unrest – something very different from our under-
standing of emotion as an individual and psychological phenomenon.4 Another
example is the English word ‘passion’: although passion might be a translation
of the Latin term passio, its meaning is closer to the Greek pathos. For Christian
authors, the Latin term passio derives from the verb patior, which means ‘to
suffer’, so that a passio refers either to the sufferings endured by Christ and the
martyrs – or to sinful carnal impulse that Christians ‘suffer’ as a consequence of
the Fall. The modern idea of passion as an uncontrolled emotion combines this
Christian idea of passio as a carnal impulse with the Greek idea of pathos as a
spiritual ‘accident of the soul’. We could also mention medieval caritas, the most
virtuous form of Christian love, far from today’s ‘charity’ events and shops! A
critical approach to Christian texts of all kinds therefore involves a con-
textualised semantic analysis to make sure that our understanding of the words is
not distorted by their contemporary meaning.
This chapter is divided into two main sections, dealing with two different
means of accessing historical Christianity. The first part is methodological,
and discusses the ways and means by which religious authors and texts use
emotion words and the emotionality of their readers in order to shape the
faithful’s moral and emotional behaviour. The second part is dedicated to
lived religion, focusing on the sources that may help us to grasp the affective
behaviour of people during rituals and the devotion to relics.

Spiritual text as an affective path

The first step towards a general comprehension of a religious anthropology,
which determines the place and role of emotions within a society, can be
made by reading the religion’s foundational texts and major authors.5 In the
case of Western Christian religion, Augustine of Hippo (d. 430) provides a
good entry point for understanding how emotions were understood within
Western Christian culture. He is considered a major author not only because
of the breadth of his thoughts on Christianity, but also because his texts were
read and reflected upon throughout the Middle Ages, making his theology an
authoritative reference in any kind of intellectual discussion during this
period. In his main work The City of God, Augustine set out the anthro-
pological foundation of the Christian man.6 According to him, Adam and
Eve’s fault caused the fall of humankind, who were henceforth subjected to
passions. In order to hope for salvation, the faithful has to gain control over
these uncontrolled movements of the soul, and direct them towards God, who
is love. For Augustine, every emotion is also a movement of the will: it is the
wilful intention and orientation of such movements that makes them either
virtuous, leading to salvation, or vicious, leading to damnation. Moral vices
 Rituals, relics and religious rhetoric 43
and virtues are therefore strongly linked with emotions, as they are at the root
of the intention and orientation of feelings. The faithful have to scrutinise the
direction of their emotions through discretio (discernment), a moral faculty
that distinguishes what is good from what is bad in order to inform the ratio
(reason) of the moral quality of a thought, before the will makes a decision.
Discretio can be trained with spiritual exercises that generally rely on texts.
Different versions of these ideas are also present in the classics of monastic
literature; they were repeated and rethought from century to century. This
was for instance the case of Gregory the Great (d. 604) and Bernard of
Clairvaux (d. 1153), two eminent figures of Western monasticism and among
the most read authors for generations of medieval as well as early modern
monks and nuns, shaping their gestures and morals.7
As the Scriptures transmit the only traces of Christ’s revelation, the main
Christian spiritual exercise is meditative reading, that is reflecting on the moral
meaning of events in relation to the evangelical teaching of Christ. Medieval
societies had only limited literacy; the ability to read was a privilege, even a
monopoly of elites, mostly of monks and clerics. However, the moral and affective
content of sacred and spiritual texts was transmitted through diverse channels,
from public sermons to the churches’ iconographic programmes, as well as by
spiritual mentoring and correspondence.
The way emotions were expressed by oral, textual or visual means is guided
by rhetoric, as an art seeking to instruct, to please and to move the soul;
rhetorical composition guides the mind during the ‘reading’ of a text, a speech
or an image.8 In this perspective, Augustine writes that the way of Christ (via
Christi) is a pathway not made of physical places, but of affects.9 The path to
salvation is an affective process, and the ‘straight path’ is found by doing a
meditative reading of the Holy Scriptures, or through pastoral care. Since the
moral value of an emotion is given by its moral orientation – towards virtue or
vice – attention must be paid to the narrative context in which an emotion
word is employed. When reading sermons, narrative sources like chronicles and
hagiography, or even literary works, the historian of emotions has to observe
the intentions and sequences of emotions in order to understand the moral
meaning given to specific emotion words. For instance, anger is one of the
Christian vices; yet, when felt towards one’s sin, for virtuous reasons, and first
of all by love of God, it will be considered good and will cause joy, whereas
anger elicited by jealousy or hate is considered bad, ‘mundane’, and will cause
pain and perdition. In a Christian context where the salvation of the soul is a
priority, the moral value of an emotion is all that matters, and this value is
given by the orientation of the emotional movement. Exemplary and enter-
taining stories called exempla, widely used in Christian preaching and literary
texts, were considered more efficient than theoretical explanations because they
gave vivid examples of good and bad moral behaviour.10 These kinds of stories
are also present in other traditions, for instance Muslim or Buddhist spiritual
literature. Reflecting on models of correct and incorrect emotional conduct,
whether they were sacred or profane, was the very activity through which
44 Piroska Nagy, Xavier Biron-Ouellet and Anne-Gaëlle Weber
medieval people readied themselves psychologically to feel morally good emo-
tions: love of God and compassion, fear of God, shame of sins, contrition and
humility. Experiencing these kinds of emotions was part of their moral educa-
tion, helping the soul reach salvation.
Sacred and spiritual texts also played a crucial role by giving reading and
memory a pre-eminent function in the shaping of the Christian self. As studied
by Brian Stock, Augustine operated a shift between the classical and Christian
application of rhetoric.11 While classical ethical debates were typically held in
public, Christians instead interiorised these discussions by focusing on a text,
transforming it into an interior and silent debate – a soliloquium, an inner
dialogue with oneself.12 This spiritual exercise based on texts was crucial to the
shaping of Christian emotional self. Based on reading or the listening of spiritual
teachings, and even on the visual contemplation of religious iconography that
evoke events, figures and stories of the Bible, this kind of spiritual practice
involves both body and soul, forming a total experiential immersion within the
biblical narrative. As John Cassian (d. 435), a father of Western monasticism and
one of the most-read authors of monks and nuns through the Middle Ages
instructs, one has to experience the Scriptures in order to feel the same affect of
the heart (affectus cordis) as [the one described or suggested by] the text, thus
becoming like its author or participant and anticipating its very meaning rather
than following it.13
A common image to express the mnemonic effect of this participative and con-
templative approach is the imprint of a moral message on the subject’s soul, like a
seal in wax. The more often this spiritual exercise is repeated, the better virtues are
memorised and inscribed in the heart. This exercise creates and implements a
moral, spiritual and affective movement and path to follow. Let us take the exam-
ple of the most common devotional figure, Jesus Christ on the cross. When looking
at an iconographic or textual representation of this figure, the spiritually advanced
member of the faithful holds an interior discourse about Christ’s passion. In the
early Middle Ages, one would evoke the exemplarity of His path; in the second half
of the medieval millennium, one would seek to identify oneself with the Saviour.
Guided by authoritative texts, images and sermons, one relives the whole sequence
as one’s own affective and spiritual progression: from the pain of Christ when he is
nailed on the cross, through the sadness of Mary at his feet, to the joy of redemp-
tion and the love manifested by Christ’s sacrifice. By mentally engaging the faithful
in the experience of sequenced emotions associated with Christ’s passion, this
spiritual exercise aims at strengthening the salvific virtues and emotions repre-
sented by the sacred figure: the humility of crucifixion, the faith of Mary, the love
(caritas) of sacrifice and the hope of redemption. This meditative tradition, elabo-
rated in the Middle Ages, has been kept alive into our own time, as is shown for
instance by the success of Ignatius of Loyola’s Spiritual Exercises, and by the fre-
quent re-editions of a corpus made of meditative texts attributed to Augustine,
Anselm of Canterbury, and Bernard of Clairvaux in the sixteenth to eighteenth
centuries.14 Apart from contextual evolutions, this type of emotional work was also
cultivated in the Protestant world in a very similar way.15 Other religions have their
 Rituals, relics and religious rhetoric 45
own approach to accomplishing this kind of emotional work. In Buddhism, one
particular way of generating religious emotions such as devotion or compassion is
by means of mantra recitation, that is, the concentrated repetition of a short for-
mula imbued not only with a philosophical but also with an emotional meaning.16
Most medieval texts, from exegetical sermons to meditative prayers, from
historical and hagiographical narratives to spiritual treatises, have a moral and
affective educational meaning that needs to be assimilated through a slow,
patient and contemplative process of reading or listening. This spiritual
education gives a moral orientation to the soul’s emotional movement toward
salvation. All this applies specifically to Christian culture, from 300 to 1800, but
the same anthropological pattern can be found in other religious traditions too;
therefore, the same method can be used to analyse other religions or cultures.
Reading the sacred texts and the major authors provides an understanding of
how they conceived emotional life in relation to their vision of humankind.
Paying close attention to semantics helps to avoid anachronistic interpretations,
and linking the sources to their context of production, consumption and circu-
lation allows us to understand the transmission and transformations of the
meanings attributed to the emotions they express. Reconstructing the historical
anthropology of a given culture is thus a fruitful way to appreciate the role
attributed to emotions and affective processes in religious practices.

Emotional practices of lived religion

Combined with the rhetorical and textual understanding of the Biblical tradition,
the lived, experiential dimension of religion is essential when studying emotions in
religious sources.17 Although they are shaped by textual culture, religious
emotions can also be considered in their relationship with material supports, like
charms, epitaphs, iconography, manuscripts18 and, above all, relics.19 In a work
concerned with contemporary devotion, sociologists Ole Riis and Linda
Woodhead emphasise the triangular relationship between the individual, the
community, and the objects that mediate devotion and generate both individual
and collective emotions.20 There are several types of sources which allow to work
on the emotions associated with lived religion: iconographic, 21 architectural22
and, of course, textual.23 After a period of strong historiographical interest in
ritual and the performative dimension of religious acts, recent scholarship has paid
much attention to the materiality of medieval sources, delivering important infor-
mation about their circulation and effective uses. In the case of relics, it informs us
about the emotions sought for or felt during the material contact linking the
faithful to the saint. For instance, parts of holy statues became shiny by being
frequently touched. The study of relics as affective objects includes various aspects
such as their material production, practical use, and the sharing of and control
over the emotions elicited in their presence, located at the heart of a sacred and
ritualised space.24 While some relics’ inventories date back to the medieval period,
recent catalogues prepared by archaeologists and historians, sometimes for exhi-
bitions, are of great value.25
46 Piroska Nagy, Xavier Biron-Ouellet and Anne-Gaëlle Weber
Relics
The word ‘relic’ comes from the Latin word relinquare (to leave behind, to
abandon). Relics therefore represent what a holy man or woman has left
behind: their terrestrial remains, bodily parts or objects that were in contact
with the saint (e.g. the cape, capa of Saint Martin whose veneration in a
consecrated place is at the semantic root of the word ‘chapel’).26 Perceived as
tangible traces of divine presence on earth, relics are used, even today, as
means of communication with the sacred, a communication that can be
performative and public, or intimate. Deeply ingrained within Christian
culture since the fourth and fifth centuries, the cult of relics raises the question
of the emotions embedded within religious practices: holy remains play a
number of important roles in the process of spiritual and affective conversion
to God.27 Though it could be assimilated to idolatry, the worship of relics was
considered in the Middle Ages as the most widespread way to engage with the
divine.28 Present under the altar of every Christian church, relics are instru-
mental in the success of prayer and liturgy. They could also serve political
aims, since medieval oaths were sworn upon them, thereby taking the saint
and God as witnesses, and linking the legitimacy of a dynasty to the patron-
age of a specific saint. This patronage could also be publicly challenged or put
on trial.29 On an individual level, they maintained the emotional economy of
the special relationship between the saint and the faithful, whether the faithful
prayed on a regular basis or for a specific reason.
From the eleventh century onwards, the cult of relics enjoyed a growing suc-
cess, strongly related to a shift in the representation of Christ from the image of a
divine and majestic judge to the humble figure of the God-man incarnate.30 This
major change, making clear what Jacques Le Goff calls the ‘descent of values
from heaven to earth’, explains why the embodied imitation of the earthly path
of Christ underwent a spectacular increase in popularity during the second half
of the medieval millennium. In this perspective, sensory contact with relics –
visual and tactile above all – came to the forefront of devotional practices.31
Miracles, the ultimate expression of its effectiveness, were understood as proof of
the saint’s actual ability to intervene in the name of God. They attested in a
tangible way the contact between nature and the supernatural, generating chan-
ges to the real world and strong emotions of devotion and exaltation. Even in
today's Catholic and orthodox cultures, people make their requests directly to
the saint represented by the relics. Thus, the faithful engage their body in the
process of veneration when moving through a pilgrimage or a procession, or
when prostrating in front of the relic.
Pilgrimage is a very important performative phenomenon since its aim is to
experience a direct, physical contact with the relic that can be touched or
kissed, creating a sensorial link, and involving an important affective com-
mitment. Leaving their ordinary lives, the faithful often travel long distances
to reach shrines; today, people walk to Compostela from France or Italy,
travel to Lourdes and to Jerusalem. A careful staging, including architecture
 Rituals, relics and religious rhetoric 47
32
and iconography, supports the path to the relics. At the end of the pere-
grination, the sacred space where the encounter usually happens (monumental
basilicas, simple churches or chapels, the tomb or statue of a saint) is a site of
intense physical interaction with the supernatural. At the shrine, the faithful
experience a strong relationship with the saint through the sensorial and
spiritual experience of this mystical encounter.33 Sacred architecture – from a
monumental sanctuary to the modest family altar – is designed to generate
religious emotions, either by an intimate staging, or by evoking the majesty of
God. For instance, the interactions of light need to be considered in the sta-
ging of the sacred as symbolising the divine virtue that the believer must
internalise.34 The emotional effect depends on the intensity of the light, from
exaltation when it is bright, to appeasement when it is dark; or on the awe
inspired by the miraculous beauty of light shining through the stained glass
windows of Gothic churches. Iconographic and stage elements of shrines thus
serve as spiritual guides for the moving soul, orienting devotion towards God
and virtue. As we have seen, these staged emotional responses are formed by
the Scriptures and other major Christian texts including hagiography,35 which
instruct the faithful on the ways to live a good life, and to accomplish devo-
tional practices through the example of saints.36

Rituals
A great variety of experiences related to the sacred take place during pro-
cesses or events qualified as rituals by social scientists. Relics and all the
material present at the holy place are central in these moments, which have to
produce specific feelings, both individual and communal. The term ‘ritual’,
widely used and discussed since the 1980s, at least in social sciences and his-
tory, has been at the heart of a polemic between those who deem it useful as
an analytical tool, and those who doubt its utility and rather see the biases
and dangers of the notion.37 The main difficulty, for any historian interested
in emotions and gestures during religious rituals, is our access to them, which
is always mediated by texts. They are either normative texts describing how a
given ritual should take place and what kind of emotion it should produce; or
narrative ones, offering particular interpretations of the ritual as well as of the
gestures and feelings performed in it. These interpretations, always linked to
singular circumstances, might greatly differ from what the actors involved
actually felt.38
Indeed, clerics performing religious rituals at shrines could usually rely
upon written guidelines like liturgical texts, transmitted from one generation
to the next, which codified the whole process: the right order of words, ges-
tures and feelings. Liturgical texts determine how a mass, a baptism, a wed-
ding or a church consecration should be held at a given place and time, in
order to produce the expected effect. This effect involves a transformation
that relates to the spiritual and affective world, but also to the ‘real’ world.
We observe this interference between the spiritual and the material world in
48 Piroska Nagy, Xavier Biron-Ouellet and Anne-Gaëlle Weber
an array of rituals; it is necessary so that transubstantiation takes place; so
that one gets baptised and enters the Christian community; so that two people
get married and may live together publicly; so that a community may start
celebrating in its newly built church.
In the twelfth century, when the theology of sacraments – i.e. the major rituals
of the Catholic Church establishing contact between the natural and
supernatural worlds – was codified, the role of emotions during the ritual of
penance was explicitly evoked and discussed. While his thought was much con-
tested, the argument presented by Peter Abelard (d. 1142) won this debate.39
Abelard considered that repentance, meaning the real regret of sins called
contrition, plays an instrumental role in making the penitential process efficient.
Following Abelard, Peter Lombard, whose Book of Sentences (c. 1150–8)
became the standard textbook of theology of the West in the coming centuries,
defined penance as a virtue including both weeping and hatred towards one’s
sins.40 Does this mean that every penitent actually felt sad while doing penance?
It means at least that the Church promoted this feeling, and its expression
through tears was required before receiving the absolution from the priest.
Frequently undertaken as a penitential act, pilgrimage was probably the
model for the description of ‘liminal state’ by Arnold van Gennep in his
famous study Rites of Passage: penitential pilgrimage entailed sadness of
separation from one’s familiar world, fear of dangers and insecurity on the path
that could enhance the feelings expected from a true penitent.41 In the same
way, from the twelfth century onwards, the Church promoted the affectus con-
iugalis, conjugal love, in the framework of the new sacrament of marriage. This
was a new kind of heterosexual love, which was neither chaste nor impos-
sible.42 In a much less explicit fashion, the liturgy of the Mass provides joy and
love, especially around the key gestures of consecration and communion, which
represent and include Jesus in the ecclesial community and in the heart of every
participant, both being re-vivified. A thorough study of liturgical texts, of their
changes and interpretations through different centuries and geographic areas,
may yield interesting conclusions about the ways emotions were elaborated and
taught to the faithful by the practice of sacraments and other frequent liturgi-
cal ceremonies. Many other, less consensual rituals have been identified and
analysed by historians, like the humiliation of saints, the thefts of relics and
Benedictine maledictions; the list is not exhaustive.43
Clear codification of emotions in the framework of Christian rituals deter-
mined education of feelings for centuries. Yet, the actual meaning of a ritual,
performed for specific and contextual reasons, can be strongly defined by the
social, religious and political conditions that brought the actors to act as they
did. Historians of emotions must be aware that most frequently con-
temporaries produced detailed descriptions of rituals when something gave
the ritual a specific meaning or when something went wrong, thus perverting
the well-known and expected meaning or effect of the ritual act. Such occa-
sions have a high degree of performativity. While the expected religious effect
may or may not occur in these cases, specific social and political effects are
 Rituals, relics and religious rhetoric 49
nonetheless produced: they determine, and are determined by, the feelings of
participants. This was the case, for instance, with the celebration of Christmas
by Francis of Assisi in the little town of Greccio in 1223.44 According to his
first biographer, Thomas of Celano, in order to celebrate the Nativity of Jesus
in Greccio with great solemnity and fidelity, Francis, a simple deacon, decided
to reconstruct the scene of Bethlehem, using a real crib and real animals.45
The mass was then celebrated over the crib, used for the occasion as an
altar – all this may have taken place outdoors, in a natural cave.46 In this
staging, Francis simultaneously drew on a lively tradition and transgressed
elements of that same tradition: by constructing the first ‘living’ representa-
tion of Nativity of Christian history;47 by abandoning the great urban
churches for a place that symbolised, in his words, the richness of poverty;
and by precisely staging a series of material details that recalled the biblical
scene so that during the celebration, a miracle occurred and an extraordinary
collective joy was experienced by all those who were present.

Conclusion
Pilgrimages, ordinary liturgy and extraordinary rituals all have a strong perfor-
mative dimension, making the participants enter direct, sensorial and collective
contact with the sacred, through the ordered experience of an emotional and
spiritual process that enhances the effects of such contacts. Once the methodo-
logical difficulties pertaining to the study of lived religion are acknowledged, one
can focus on the ways in which emotions are evoked in a given source concerning
rituals. Is the text written to prescribe or codify a ritual and its ideal execution –
or is it written to record and commemorate an event during which the ritual
took place? In the latter case, there are good reasons to investigate the context
that produced both the ritual and the written record. Why, in fact, did this spe-
cific pilgrimage or ritual take place and why was it described? Why and how do
emotions play a role in the ritual or its narration? As discussed at the beginning
of this chapter, one has to work with textuality, and the rhetoric process imple-
mented by the texts, to answer these questions. The rhetoric of a text which, most
of the time, evokes or describes feelings – good or bad, salvific or leading to
damnation – obeys the intentions of the author, and fulfils educative aims. The
anthropological approach helps us understand the medieval visions and prac-
tices of emotion; reading historical sources from the perspective of their past
users is the first condition for acquiring such an understanding.

Notes
1 Our gratitude goes to colleagues and friends whose remarks helped us improve or
refine our work: Katie Barclay, Lochin Brouillard, Daniel Ross, Julia Steinzel,
Peter Stearns.
2 Damien Boquet and Piroska Nagy, Medieval Sensibilities: a History of Emotions in
the Middle Ages, trans. Robert Shaw (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2018).
50 Piroska Nagy, Xavier Biron-Ouellet and Anne-Gaëlle Weber
3 Jacques Le Goff, Must We Divide History Into Periods?, trans. Malcolm DeBe-
voise (New York: Columbia University Press, 2017).
4 Nicole Hochner, ‘Le corps social à l’origine de l’invention du mot “émotion”’,
L’Atelier du Centre de recherches historiques 16 (2016), http://journals.openedition.
org/acrh/7357; Thomas Dixon, From Passions to Emotions: The Creation of a
Secular Psychological Category (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).
5 For a general survey, see Simo Knuuttila, Emotions in Ancient and Medieval Phi-
losophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004).
6 See the books 9 and 14 of Augustinus, De civitate Dei, ed. Bernhard Dombard and
Alfons Kalb (Turnhout: Brepols, 1955). On Augustine, see Carla Casagrande and
Silvana Vecchio, Passioni dell’anima. Teorie e usi degli affetti nella cultura medie-
vale (Florence: SISMEL Edizioni del Galluzzo, 2015).
7 On Gregory, see Carole Straw, Gregory the Great: The Perfection in Imperfection
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988); and on Bernard, see M.B. Pranger,
Bernard of Clairvaux and the Shape of Monastic Thought: Broken Dreams (Leiden:
Brill, 1994).
8 Mary Carruthers, The Craft of Thought: Meditation, Rhetoric, and the Making of
Images 400–1200 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 72–82.
9 Augustinus, De doctrina chistiana, 1.17.16, ed. Josef Martin and Klaus Daur
(Turnhout: Brepols, 1962).
10 Jacques Berlioz et Marie-Anne Polo de Beaulieu (eds), Les exempla médiévaux:
nouvelles perspectives (Paris: Honoré Champion, 1998); Larry Scanlon, Narrative,
Authority, and Power: the Medieval Exemplum and the Chaucerian Tradition
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); John D. Lyons, Exemplum: the
Rhetoric of Example in Early Modern France and Italy (Princeton: Princeton Uni-
versity Press, 1989).
11 Brian Stock, Augustine the Reader: Meditation, Self-Knowledge and the Ethics of
Interpretation (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996); and more recently
Brian Stock, The Integrated Self: Augustine, the Bible, and Ancient Thought (Phi-
ladelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2017).
12 Brian Stock, Augustine’s Inner Dialogue: The Philosophical Soliloquy in Late
Antiquity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
13 Cassianus, Collationes XXIII, X.11, ed. Michael Petschenig (Vienna: CSEL 13,
1886).
14 Cédric Giraud, Spiritualité et histoire des textes entre Moyen Âge et époque mod-
erne. Genèse et fortune d’un corpus pseudépigraphe de méditations (Paris: Institut
d’Études Augustiniennes, 2016).
15 Susan C. Karant-Nunn, The Reformation of Feeling: Shaping the Religious Emo-
tions in Early Modern Germany (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010).
16 Patrul Rinpoche, Heart Treasure of the Enlightened One (Boulder: Shambhala
Publications, 2003, 58); Julia Stenzel, The Buddhist Roots of Secular Compassion
Training (PhD dissertation, McGill University, 2019), 74.
17 Stephen E. Gregg and Lynne Scholefield, Engaging with Living Religion: A Guide
to Fieldwork in the Study of Religion (London: Routledge, 2015); Victor W. Turner
and Edward M. Bruner, eds, The Anthropology of Experience, with an Epilogue by
Clifford Geertz (Urbana-Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1986); David D.
Hall, ed., Lived Religion in America. Toward a History of Practice (New Jersey:
Princeton University Press, 1998).
18 See Transmission des Textes: Catalogues (CATA), Brepols, published by Loes
Diercken, http://www.brepols.net/Pages/BrowseBySeries.aspx?TreeSeries=CATA
19 Mark A. Hall, ‘The Cult of Saints in Medieval Perth: Everyday Ritual and the
Materiality of Belief ’, Journal of Material Culture 16, no. 1 (2011): 80–104; John
Kieschnick, ‘Material Culture’, in The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Emotion,
ed. John Corrigan (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 223–36 (228).
 Rituals, relics and religious rhetoric 51
20 Ole Riis and Linda Woodhead, A Sociology of Religious Emotion (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2010).
21 Jérôme Baschet, L’iconographie médiévale (Paris: Gallimard, 2008); see especially
Chapters 17 and 18 in Colum Hourihane, ed., The Routledge Companion to Med-
ieval Iconography (London: Routledge, 2017).
22 Banister Fletcher, A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method (London:
Batsford, 1905); Yves Christe et al., Art in the Christian World 300–1500: A Hand-
book of Styles and Forms (London: Faber and Faber, 1982); Nicola Coldstream,
Medieval Architecture (Oxford: Oxford Press, 2002); Dominique Iogna-Prat, La
Maison Dieu: Une histoire monumentale de l’Église au Moyen Âge (v. 800–v. 1200)
(Paris: Seuil, 2006).
23 For instance, numerous sources are edited in Monumenta Germaniae Historica,
http://www.mgh.de/bibliothek/bibliothek-allgemeines/ or in the Corpus Christia-
norum (CC), Brepols, published by Tim Denecker, Luc Jocqué, Bart Janssens,
http://www.brepols.net/Pages/BrowseBySeries.aspx?TreeSeries=CC
24 Stephanie Downes, Sally Holloway and Sarah Randles, eds, Feeling Things:
Objects and Emotions Through History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018).
See also Caroline W. Bynum, Christian Materiality: An Essay on Religion in Late
Medieval Europe (New York: Zone Books, 2011); Luigi Canetti, Frammenti
d’eternità: Corpi e reliquie tra Antichità e Medioevo (Rome: Viella, 2002).
25 Timothy Husband and Julien Chapuis, The Treasury of Basel Cathedral (New
York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2001); Henk Van Os, The Way to
Heaven. Relics Veneration in the Middle Ages (Baarn: de Prom, 2000); Hans-Joa-
chim Kracht and Jacob Torsy, Reliquiarium Coloniense (Siegburg: Schmitt, 2003).
26 Arnold Angenendt, Heilige und Reliquien: die Geschichte ihres Kultes vom frühen
Christentum bis zur Gegenwart (München: C. H. Beck, 1994).
27 Peter Brown, Society and the Holy in Late Antiquity (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1989), 222–50.
28 Caroline W. Bynum, The Resurrection of The Body in Western Christianity, 200–1336
(New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), 91.
29 Patrick Geary, ‘L’humiliation des saints’, Annales ESC 34, no. 1 (1979): 27–42;
Lester K. Little, Benedictine Maledictions. Liturgical Cursing in Romanesque
France (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993).
30 Émile Mâle, ‘L’Art français de la fin du Moyen Âge – L’apparition du pathétique’,
Revue des deux mondes 29 (1905): 656–81; Caroline W. Bynum, Jesus as Mother: Stu-
dies in the Spirituality of the High Middle Ages (Berkeley: University of California Press,
1982); Lauren Mancia, Emotional Monasticism: Affective Piety in the Eleventh-Century
Monastery of John of Fécamp (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2019).
31 For an intercultural approach, see To-kyo- Daigaku, Jinbun Shakaikei Kenkyu-ka,
The Interrelationship of Relics and Images in Christian and Buddhist Culture
(Tokyo: Global COE Program DALS, Graduate School of Humanities and
Sociology, University of Tokyo, 2009).
32 Meg Boulton, Jane Hawkes, Heidi Stoner, eds, Place and Space in the Medieval
World (New York: Routledge, 2017).
33 Victor W. Turner and Edith L.B. Turner, Image and Pilgrimage in Christian Cul-
ture (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978); Kathryn Blair Moore, The
Architecture of the Christian Holy Land: Reception from Late Antiquity through
the Renaissance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017).
34 Jean Bachelot et al., Le symbolisme de la lumière au Moyen Âge: de la spéculation
à la réalité: actes du colloque européen des 5 et 6 juillet 2003 (Chartres: AACMEC,
2004).
35 Jan Willem Drijvers, ‘Travel and Pilgrimage Literature’, in A Companion to Late
Antique Literature, ed. Scott C. McGill and Edward Jay Watts (Malden: Black-
well, 2018), 359–72.
52 Piroska Nagy, Xavier Biron-Ouellet and Anne-Gaëlle Weber
36 Guy Philippart and Monique Goullet, eds, International History of the Latin and
Vernacular Hagiographical Literature in the West from its Origins to 1550 [Corpus
christianorum, Hagiographies 1–7] (Turnhout: Brepols, 1994–2017).
37 Two good entries, giving opposite arguments to the debate: Geoffrey Koziol,
‘Review Article: The Dangers of Polemic: Is Ritual Still an Interesting Topic of
Historical Study?’, Early Medieval Europe 11, no. 4 (2002): 367–88, and Christina
Pössel, ‘The Magic of Early Medieval Ritual’, Early Medieval Europe 17, no. 2
(2009): 111–25. Upstream, in a huge bibliography, see Philippe Buc, The Dangers
of Ritual: Between Early Medieval Texts and Social Scientific Theory (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 2002); Catherine Bell, Ritual: Perspectives and Dimen-
sions (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997); Geoffrey Koziol, Begging Pardon
and Favor: Ritual and Political Order in Early Medieval France (Ithaca: Cornell
University Press, 1992), especially Chap. 9, ‘How Does a Ritual Mean?’, 289–34.
Victor W. Turner, The Ritual Process: Structure and AntiStructure (Chicago:
Aldine, 1969); Richard C. Trexler, Public Life in Renaissance Florence (Ithaca:
Cornell University Press, 1980).
38 This problem is tackled in Pössel, ‘The Magic of Early Medieval Ritual’, and is
also discussed in Buc, The Dangers of Ritual.
39 Peter Abelard’s Ethics, ed. and trans. David E. Luscombe (Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1971).
40 Peter Lombard, Sententiae in IV Libris distinctae, ed. PP. Collegii S. Bonaventurae
ad Claras Aquas, [Spicilegium Bonaventurianum IV] (Florence: Collegio San
Bonaventura di Grottaferrata, 1971–81), IV, XIV, 3, vol. II, 318.
41 Arnold van Gennep, Les Rites de passage (Paris: Stock, 1909).
42 On this topic see Boquet and Nagy, Medieval Sensibilities, Chapter 5.
43 Patrick Geary, Thefts of Relics in the Central Middle Ages (Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 1978); Idem, ‘L’humiliation des saints’; Little, Benedictine
Maledictions.
44 For an analysis from the point of view of history of emotions of this scene, see
Piroska Nagy, ‘Making a Collective Emotional Body: Francis of Assisi Celebrating
Christmas in Greccio (1223)’, in Emotional Bodies. The Historical Performativity
of Emotions, ed. Dolorès Martin-Morunho and Beatriz Pichel (Champaign: Uni-
versity of Illinois Press, 2019), 151–74.
45 Thomas of Celano, Vita prima, 30, 84, in Legendae s. Francisci Assisiensis, saeculis
XIII et XIV conscriptae, AFH X, I–IV, Fasciculus I: Thomas of Celano, Vita
prima s. Francisci Assisiensis (Florence: Collegio San Bonaventura di Grotta-
ferrata, 1926–41), 63.
46 Massimo de Angelis, ‘Analisi storico-architettonica dell’eremo di Greccio’, Frate
Francesco 70, no.1 (2004): 149–88.
47 Giulia Puma, ‘La Nativité italienne: Une histoire d’adoration (1250–1450)’ (PhD
diss., Université Paris III, 2012): Chap. 2, 69.
5 Prescriptive literature
Peter N. Stearns

Prescriptive materials constitute one of the easiest entrées into emotions history, at
least for the last two centuries, and they have been widely used in studying a whole
range of emotional standards.1 At the same time, prescriptive literature has some
inherent limitations and may at times tempt researchers into overgeneralisation –
so some warnings must accompany any enthusiasm for this type of source.
Prescriptive literature quite simply involves materials designed to tell people
how to behave, how to react to others, and in some cases what kinds of emotions
are appropriate or inappropriate. While all societies have emotion rules, expli-
citly prescriptive materials became increasingly common from the seventeenth
century onward, with a further surge from about 1800 onward, in part because
of steady improvements in printing and also in literacy.2 They are not entirely
different, however, from religious materials that can be studied in earlier periods
that also sought to set standards for various aspects of emotional behaviour.
And religion has continued to be a source of prescriptive statements in the past
two centuries. Philosophy can also enter in. Thus the Confucian tradition spon-
sored a long series of prescriptive materials, which scholars have widely used to
get at past emotional standards in China; for example, Ban Zhao’s book on
women, written in the Han dynasty and republished frequently into the later
nineteenth century, is full of direct admonitions about how men and women
should comport themselves emotionally. Recent studies of shame and other
emotions topics in Chinese history have relied heavily on Confucian and neo-
Confucian materials. In another important case, philosophers and medical
writers in classical Greece, in their advice on moderation and other subjects,
directly worked to promote certain emotional values.3
But prescriptive literature most commonly refers to the kinds of advice materi-
als that began to appear first with the Protestant Reformation, and then as a result
of industrialisation, urbanisation and modern state activity. With urbanisation, for
example, more people were cut off from advice from traditional community sour-
ces and were thus open to guidance from a growing number of writers who
believed they had special knowledge to impart. The huge spread of literacy in the
modern world, along with the rise of a growing number of popularising authors
eager to offer advice and sell their works, makes recent prescriptive materials a
particularly rich resource.
54 Peter N. Stearns
Prescriptive materials most obviously show up as books or pamphlets about
family relations. In the United States, for example, a series of writers, both male
and female, began to issue this kind of advice literature from the 1820s onward,
including famous offerings like Catharine Sedgwick’s Home. These materials
featured guidance about emotional behaviour in marriage and especially the
kinds of emotional approach and goals that were essential to good parenting
(particularly, mothering). Fairly soon, periodicals began to join the parade –
particularly, magazines aimed at women, like Godey’s Ladies Book or, from the
1870s, the durable Ladies Home Journal. But men’s magazines offered advice as
well – for example, as part of a new genre of men’s periodical in the 1920s,
Esquire pointedly argued against the kind of romantic love goals that had been
popular in the prior century, urging a more controlled emotional approach at
least for ‘Real Men’. Certain kinds of fiction also sought to offer emotional
instruction,4 linking the prescriptive category to literature as a historical source.
Various political groups have offered emotional advice; labour movements
appealed to righteous anger, feminist movements (particularly in ‘second stage’
feminism from the 1950s onward) worked hard to modify domestic emotional
habits to encourage more assertive women.
Self-help books also emerged as a general advice category, becoming
increasingly popular from the 1920s onward but with earlier precedents.
Benjamin Franklin’s Poor Richard’s Almanack, dating back to the later
eighteenth century, often preached emotional habits appropriate to promote
personal success. Most recently positive psychology has generated a range of
prescriptive materials designed to encourage individual happiness or at least
well-being. Interpreting the emotional signals embedded in self-help books is
an interesting opportunity, particularly for the modern period.5
Prescriptive materials also include manners books, a genre that, in the West,
goes back to the Renaissance and in East Asian society has an even longer his-
tory.6 Historians have used manners books widely for information about rituals
designed to control and channel emotion (for example, how to behave in dealing
with the grief of others, or how to moderate anger). Manners books become
somewhat less useful in the twentieth century, as greater informality becomes
popular, but this shift itself allows assessment of new kinds of emotional
guidance.
Governments began to issue prescriptive materials in the modern centuries
as well, and these materials become a crucial way of tracing what kinds of
emotions various political regimes sought to encourage or discourage. Most
modern revolutionary regimes have sought to shape popular emotions in cer-
tain respects; Mao Zedong in China, for example, worked explicitly against
Confucian habits of deference, urging that popular anger was an appropriate
response to injustice as well as a potential support for his revolutionary
effort.7 Governments more generally turned to prescriptive efforts particularly
from the later nineteenth century onward. They often supported a highly
emotional nationalism that they thought would serve to bolster the political
system; in Japan, from the 1880s, this included specific injunctions about
 Prescriptive literature 55
devotedly worshipping the emperor. In a slightly different vein, governments
also began to issue pamphlets to guide families, particularly in raising chil-
dren. Early materials often focused on physical health, but they soon bran-
ched out into emotional categories as well – on the grounds that parents
needed to be guided by expert advice, against traditional habits that might
prove bad for their offspring. The United States publication Infant Care,
issued by the Children Bureau initially in 1914 and frequently republished,
has been the most popular American government publication of all time.
Japanese materials, intended among other things to define the emotional
importance of the ‘wise mother’ in family life, were urged on parents from the
early twentieth century onward.
Shading off from explicit government efforts, modern schools also offered
emotional prescriptions – this is in fact a category that deserves more atten-
tion from emotions historians. Schools preached emotional nationalism. They
sought to define gender standards – a century ago most school systems
offered specific domestic training for girls (called ‘home economics’ in the
United States) that included advice about deference and emotional control
along with cooking tips. In more recent decades, explicit character training
efforts, including programmes designed to improve emotional self-esteem,
have become common.8
The modern workplace has also provided a framework for prescriptive
materials aimed at calibrating emotional behaviour. Work settings have
always had emotional content – as when parents sought to train their
children, or masters sought to maximise obedience from apprentices. But
more formal prescriptive materials became increasingly necessary under
industrialisation, when the size of the enterprise expanded and rules supple-
mented personal guidance. Particularly from the early twentieth century
onward, industrial psychologists and others recommended all sorts of
emotional behaviours. Sales personnel and secretaries were urged to present a
smiling countenance, even in the face of angry customers. Foremen were
hauled in for retraining sessions to teach them how to control their anger and
deflect angry workers. Both customer service and protest avoidance sponsored
a steady stream of prescriptive efforts.9
Initial prescriptive literature in the nineteenth century, at least in the West,
was heavily shaped by a religiously linked kind of moralism – not fiercely
religious, but based on presumed moral standards. In the United States,
mainstream Protestantism inspired the most widely popular efforts. Even at
this point, however, medical practitioners, eager to gain wider popularity and
increasingly claiming a research base, issued materials that had bearing on
emotion – for example, in recommendations about sexuality. In the twentieth
and twenty-first centuries, the prescriptive field has been increasingly – though
not exclusively – dominated by popularisers disseminating or claiming to
disseminate research findings, from medicine but also from psychology and
psychiatry. These kinds of experts played an increasing role in defining gov-
ernment publications and also, as we have seen, workplace prescriptions.
56 Peter N. Stearns
Finding the materials
Relatively few prescriptive works are very famous; they hover well below the levels
of great literature. A few authors gained unusual attention, like the paediatrician
Benjamin Spock whose childrearing book went through multiple editions after
1946.10 But prescriptive authors generally sought a wide audience, so while the
category requires some research it is usually quite accessible.
Furthermore, some prescriptive categories have been studied for other reasons.
Family advice literature, for example, has been probed as part of women’s his-
tory – which makes identifying key works easier.11 Where periodicals enter the
picture, again it is often possible to identify particularly important works, if only
because of their subscription levels and durability; in the childrearing field Par-
ents Magazine (founded 1926) falls in this category. Not surprisingly some topics
invited such a flood of prescriptive enthusiasm that finding materials is far less a
problem than trying to figure out which works are particularly representative or
influential. Happily, while there are of course some disagreements from one
author to the next, a good bit of prescriptive material in a given time period
overlaps and repeats on the issue of emotional goals and standards – and this
consistency in turn reflects the common standards involved.12
In certain categories – nineteenth-century childrearing literature, for instance –
many works are available online, which not only facilitates access but allows
quick sorting for relevant passages through the use of key words. And, for many
languages, Google has developed an Ngram search mechanism that allows
students to chart patterns of word frequency, in some cases from the sixteenth
century to the present day. The books that have been digitised are not just pre-
scriptive materials – they also include literature and scientific research – but the
overall corpus is at least suggestive of prescriptive interests, and again the system
can help guide enquiry.13
Overall, the prescriptive genre is far more accessible than some other
sources for emotions history. There are some challenges depending on cate-
gory, and certainly a need for care in determining representativeness. But in
many cases the issues prove manageable.

Some samples
Prescriptive materials, no matter what their specific form, seek to convey and
generalise emotional standards accepted, or sought, either in society as a whole
or within a major group or organisation. They work, in other words, to trans-
late wider cultural values – group harmony, individual success, the desirability
of happiness – into more explicit emotional formulas, including efforts aimed
at the socialisation of children. As such, prescriptive standards automatically
have real importance in indicating widely shared, or at least widely propagated,
emotional goals. Some more specific examples will convey the potential value
but also the range of prescriptive materials more directly – without claiming
any comprehensive survey.
 Prescriptive literature 57
British or American family manuals written during the first two-thirds of
the nineteenth century convey a pretty clear picture of emotional standards.14
The family is to be filled with love – beginning with a loving wife and mother.
Good women have, by nature, emotional qualities that set the framework for
a successful family, capable of avoiding disruptive emotions like anger.
Parents are urged not only to surround children with affection, but to be sure
not to use anger and also fear in discipline – for these emotions would only
disrupt childish innocence. Emotional goals for boys and girls did differ.
While girls should be trained to keep their tempers in check, boys should be
urged to restrain anger within the family but keep the capacity for the outside
world – as a spur to fighting injustice or sustaining business competition.
‘Channelling’ was the key for boys, and sports (including boxing) were seen as
a great way to help boys keep the emotional spirit alive but move it out of the
family environment. For married couples themselves, the theme of anger
control was maintained by frequent references to the disruption of the ‘first
quarrel’ and the need to handle it carefully, within a loving framework.15
Family and childrearing literature continue to be a vital prescriptive source to
our own day, reflecting crucial changes such as a growing acceptance of envy
and a growing commitment to children’s happiness.16
A second example: by the later nineteenth century, school teachers in the
United States and elsewhere in the Western world were increasingly urged not
to shame students as a means of discipline. Shaming would simply make
children feel bad and resentful, damaging their ‘self-esteem’ (a term first used
as early as the 1850s). Rather, teachers should rely on more positive incen-
tives, like praise, as their primary motivation. And indeed, though gradually,
some traditional shaming practices – like the dunce cap – went out of
fashion.17
And from the workplace, in a final example: spurred by industrial psy-
chologists but also a growing concern about labour protest, corporations and
personnel trainers began to urge greater control over anger on the job by the
1920s. This was the framework in which many foremen were sent for formal
retraining, to teach them to handle emotions more carefully: ‘Control your
emotions, control your remarks.’ For certain kinds of workers – secretaries,
sales personnel – not just anger control but positive efforts to relate to custo-
mers and colleagues became essential. ‘The secretary should never forget that
in order to please people, he needs to exert himself.’ A major effort was
directed at training successful salesmen, under the guidance of Dale Carnegie,
whose prescriptions emphasised the importance of smiling and people-pleas-
ing regardless of the provocation.18

Basic advantages
Using prescriptive materials to get at emotions history offers three funda-
mental strengths. First, and this follows from the fact that the materials
usually reflect wider cultural values, assessing recommendations for spouses,
58 Peter N. Stearns
parents, workers, teachers helps to explore the nature of emotional experience
in past time and to link emotional standards to other topics. Even the indi-
vidual who finds it difficult fully to measure up to recommendations may be
affected, like the women who recorded in their diaries, in the 1870s, how hard
they tried to keep their tempers when dealing with husbands or children given
the prescriptive belief that a ‘lady’ should not get angry. Prescriptions on
emotion relate closely to wider subjects like gender, or consumerism, or
management structure; thus a new kind of advice given to factory foremen
from the 1920s onward, that they become friendlier with their workers, high-
lighted a significant change in beliefs about emotions and job hierarchies.
Prescriptions can even tie into broader topics like war and violence: changes
in prescriptive approaches to the need for courage, for instance, relate closely
to the ways that military organisations seek to handle fear.19
Second, though this needs more attention: prescriptive materials can facil-
itate comparisons between one society and the next. The kinds of recom-
mendations about cheerfulness drummed into American sales personnel in
the early twentieth century were definitely not being given to similar person-
nel in the Soviet Union, who were regarded more as workers, whose grie-
vances deserved attention, than as customer-pleasers.20 Or another example:
in the 1920s, a number of authors called attention to the growing interest in
romantic love among many Japanese couples. Several prominent young
people openly broke with their parents in insisting they had to follow their
hearts in choosing a mate. This occasioned wide debate in the prescriptive
literature about the role of love that can be compared to corresponding
materials in Europe and the United States.21 Again, examples of ambitious
comparisons in emotions history are still rare, but prescriptive materials form
an obvious starting point.
Third and most important: prescriptive materials facilitate the identification of
change in emotions history – which in turn is one of the fundamental contribu-
tions emotions history makes in general. Most of the examples offered above
signal change. Parents had not been urged to avoid fear in discipline until the
1820s – the use of bogeymen to scare children into compliance had a long
tradition.22 Employers had not worried about manipulating worker emotions, at
least to the same degree, before the later nineteenth century. Prescriptions
change – as these examples suggest – and this forms a vital entry into the
exploration of emotional change more generally.
Sometimes, change shows up in new words used in the prescriptive literature,
or a decline of old words; this is a vital contribution of these materials to
emotions history more generally.23 The eighteenth century saw the introduc-
tion of a new word, ‘tantrum’, to describe fits of anger, linking these displays
with childishness. The idea of boredom began to be introduced at the same
time, another emotional state that had not had a word before. Materials in the
nineteenth century referred to ‘sulky’ children – another new word – suggesting
a similarly new need to designate youth who were not disobedient exactly, but
who were not adequately cheerful. Or another new word, ‘soulmate’, introduced
 Prescriptive literature 59
in the early nineteenth century to exemplify new goals in romantic courtship and
love; the term would become even more popular in the later twentieth century,
when it was associated with online dating services.24 Or a final example: the
word ‘shamefast’ was a widely used term in the English language to highlight
people who were appropriately careful to control their behaviours so as not to
risk shaming. But as shame was reconsidered, shamefast dropped out of
common usage altogether during the nineteenth century, as prescriptive writers
began to urge that shaming be avoided.
Often, change can be charted through tracking the frequency of word use
through Google Ngrams or other data bases (such as the New York Times
index). Shame came under attack from the later eighteenth century onward in
the Western world, as a now-undesirable and demeaning emotion: and sure
enough, the frequency of use of the word shame declined fairly steadily until very
recent decades. Gratitude enjoyed great attention in the nineteenth century but
then has declined massively in relative frequency until very recently.
Finally change, as measured in the prescriptive materials, can be dramatic. In
the late nineteenth century, on both sides of the Atlantic, prescriptive literature
played up the importance of grief. Family manuals urged people to realise that
grief was a vital part of loving family life, sad to be sure but, if handled right, a
tribute to beloved relatives. Etiquette books offered elaborate rules on how to
deal with families that were in the mourning process. Fast-forward fifty years, to
the 1920s. Family and personal advice now urged that grief was largely a
nuisance, that children should be kept away from grief situations that were
simply too unpleasant for them, and that individuals who could not shake off
grief quickly needed psychological help. Manners books began to insist that
grieving people risked being annoying to others – they needed to get a grip. The
‘emotion rules’ around grief had changed dramatically.25

Challenges and risks

The advantages of prescriptive materials – relative accessibility, often-explicit
clarity, links to other phenomena, and above all their service as indicators of
change – are very real. But the same type of source has several problems – man-
ageable, but requiring careful attention.

Where further analysis is required

Authors of prescriptive materials may not be entirely aware of how their
emphases relate to past standards. They may be innovating without being
fully conscious of the fact. When family manuals in the 1820s urged parents
not to use fear in disciplining they children, the authors suggested a vague
perception that past approaches were different, but they did not spell out the
change or deal with the reasons they thought a new type of emotional
discipline was vital.
60 Peter N. Stearns
Or take another example: in the 1920s, prescriptive advice for parents
began to emphasise the problem of sibling rivalry. Authors claimed that,
when a new baby was brought home, a toddler-aged sibling would usually be
so jealous that the baby itself might be in danger – and the toddler himself, if
not managed properly, might grow up with an impaired emotional style,
incapable of forming meaningful relationships. This had not been an explicit
topic in the nineteenth century. But the new self-styled experts did not discuss
their concerns as innovations; they were preaching change, but they did not
evaluate or define the process involved.26 This means, obviously, that in many
cases the emotions historian has to make his or her own determination of
change, by looking at roughly comparable prescriptive materials over time
and figuring out at what points, and in what ways, significant innovations are
occurring. The sources do not do the job themselves.
Sometimes, on the other hand, the need for explicit analysis may be turned on
its head. Particularly in the twentieth century, when so much prescriptive litera-
ture issued from psychologists and other experts, specific signals seemed to
change almost every decade or two. One group of authorities would seek to
unseat the previous generation, claiming dramatic new insights. Thus, famously,
childrearing advice in the decades between the world wars, influenced by beha-
viourist psychology, tended to be rather strict, and then it was relaxed a bit by
more permissive experts, including the famous Dr Spock, in the later 1940s.
There were, admittedly, some real changes involved. But a closer look at many of
the emotional implications of the advice patterns over a half century suggests
that some of the shifts were more apparent than real. Again, the emotions
historian has to make, and document, his or her own decision about when
significant change is involved.27
A second analytical challenge slides off from the first: prescriptive materials
rarely directly suggest what causes change. The issues here can be fascinating,
and they are obviously important not only in explaining what was going on but
in linking emotional changes to other developments in society. The extent of the
challenge can vary. The reasons for the new emphasis on controlling anger and
encouraging cheerfulness in the workplace, in the early twentieth century, are not
hard to find. The economy was changing, concerns about labour protest were
mounting, a new type of expert – the industrial psychologist – was now helping
to shape a new approach. Here, explaining the change, while important, is not
rocket science.
Explanations for some other shifts are harder to come by. Figuring out why
prescriptive materials newly filled with warnings about sibling rivalry is actu-
ally not an easy task. It probably relates to changes in the birth rate – fewer
children meant more direct competition for parents’ attention, and other
shifts in the wider family and social structure. But the interpretive challenge is
real and, again, the sources themselves do not do the job. It is important not
only to figure out why prescriptive writers offered new advice, but also why
there was a receptive audience: change involves both groups. The points are
clear, and the challenge is usually really interesting: prescriptive materials help
 Prescriptive literature 61
pinpoint change, but defining the change requires explicit analytical effort
and, then, explaining the causes of change and audience impact necessitate a
further step as well.

What the sources do not do

All this, in turn, leads to the next set of issues, where warning signs are
essential. Prescriptive materials, suggesting what emotional responses should
and should not be, are not, themselves, evidence of emotional experience.
There is a danger that researchers, excited about their discoveries and eager to
identify key changes in emotional patterns in the past, over-claim their results.
Thus, merely because prescriptive materials urged new levels of anger control
in the family, particularly on the part of mothers, does not mean that
domestic anger diminished. All we can know, from the sources themselves, is
that there was a new kind of interest in this type of restraint, by the early
nineteenth century, and we can speculate about why. Without other evidence,
we cannot claim to be sure of the connections between advice and reality.
Sometimes, prescriptive materials themselves can help in resolving this issue.
Warnings about using fear in discipline, for example, emerging in the 1820s in
the United States and parts of Western Europe, continued to be repeated in
parenting advice for a full century – suggesting that experts were concerned that
their audience was not following through. But then the advice dropped off,
which may possibly suggest that enough parents already internalised this
particular warning that experts could turn to other issues.
It is also often possible to evaluate prescriptive materials in terms of probable
audience. Thus a few authors gained real fame, and even others wrote works that
went through multiple editions – a useful though not infallible index of significance.
In the self-help genre, works by Dale Carnegie or Norman Vincent Peale stand out
for their sales records and authorial fame during the middle decades of the twen-
tieth century. Prescriptive periodicals can be directly checked for sales levels: Par-
ents’ Magazine at its peak had over 2 million subscribers.28 Sales records of other
works are often available from the eighteenth century onward. Data of this sort at
least suggest influence and interaction with real emotions, though of course it is
impossible to say exactly why people bought a certain book or magazine or how
much they internalised the emotional advice that was urged on them.
Sometimes, as well, particularly by the twentieth century, additional evidence
links to the prescriptive materials. In the case of advice about sibling rivalry, by the
1930s polls of parents revealed that a large number listed this problem as a real
and pressing concern. Whether they were responding to the advice or for other
reasons, actual reactions were connecting to the new prescriptive emphasis.
Always, however, it is important to be cautious in equating prescriptive state-
ments with emotional reality. This point may be particularly important in dealing
with the attractions of Google Ngrams and similar quantitative techniques.
Ngrams show patterns of relative frequency in word use, nothing more. They do
not prove that, when word use goes down, an emotion is becoming less important.
62 Peter N. Stearns
They merely set up a problem for further enquiry. Thus the Ngrams for the United
States and Britain clearly show that gratitude dropped pretty steadily, in relative
reference frequency, during the later nineteenth and through the twentieth cen-
turies. Was the actual experience of gratitude changing similarly? Only other kinds
of research can allow an answer to that difficult question (and the enquiry is
actually under way). Indeed, the obvious initial next step, when responding to
these very superficial quantitative clues, is to look more deeply into prescriptive
materials directly, to see if what parents, or teachers, were being told about grati-
tude was in fact changing in ways that mesh with the reference patterns.29
And there is a second warning, at least as important. Prescriptive materials,
or at least the most obvious ones, come from dominant sectors of a culture.
In modern Western history, that has usually meant the middle and upper-
middle classes (the decline of the role of aristocrats in setting emotional
standards is an interesting topic in itself). Workers and peasants often had
little access to the materials and even less interest in them.

0.00550%
0.00500%
0.00450%
0.00400%
0.00350%
0.00300%
0.00250%
0.00200%
0.00150%
gratitude
0.00100%
0.00050%
0.00000%
1800 1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000

0.00500%
0.00450%
0.00400%
0.00350%
0.00300%
0.00250%
0.00200%
0.00150%
0.00100% gratitude

0.00050%
0.00000%
1800 1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000

Figure 5.1 The two Google Books Ngram Viewer graphs represent the frequency of
‘gratitude’ in American English (top) and British English (bottom) from
1800 to 2008
 Prescriptive literature 63
The social bias of prescriptive sources is a constant challenge. Of course,
subordinate groups may have issued their own prescriptions. In the United
States it is possible to trace Catholic or evangelical Protestant prescriptions
and compare them with ‘mainstream’ (largely white middle-class Protestant)
advice. But we must never assume that prescriptive advice applies equally,
across the social spectrum.30
Even here, with appropriate caution, there may be connections. Lower
classes may ultimately pick up, or be pressed to pick up, on some middle-class
signals – this is one reason to pay more attention to prescriptive emotional
guidelines in the schools, as mass education gained ground. Some key insti-
tutions, dominated by the middle classes, may respond to prescriptive signals
in ways that affect other groups: thus new jealousy standards, reflected in the
concerns about sibling rivalry, also reached into courts of law, making jea-
lousy excuses for crimes of passion less tenable – for all social groups.
But the main points should be clear. Prescriptive materials offer a real,
often fairly accessible, window into emotional standards in the past, and to
key patterns of change. They invite further analysis that will help pin down
connections to broader social and cultural patterns and to delineate change.
They also require care and discipline, to avoid inaccurate leaps beyond what
the evidence demonstrates. Most obviously, they invite combination with
other types of sources, to help with the challenging problem of linking domi-
nant advice to the actual emotional experience of key social groups. The links
are often quite real, and prescriptive materials often also help make sense of
other kinds of sources, for example in the area of law or personal testimony.
The source is particularly intriguing not only because of its availability but
also because of the additional steps its analysis requires.

Notes
1 Jean Delumeau, Sin and Fear: The Emergence of the Western Guilt Culture, 13th–
18th Centuries (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1990); Susan Matt, Keeping Up with
the Joneses: Envy in American Consumer Society, 1890–1930 (Philadelphia: Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania Press, 2002); Peter N. Stearns, American Cool: Construct-
ing a Twentieth-Century Emotional Style (New York: New York University Press,
1994).
2 Anna Bryson, From Courtesy to Civility: Changing Codes of Conduct in Early
Modern England (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998); Merridee Bailey, ‘In
Service and at Home: Didactic Texts for Children and Young People, c. 1400–
1600’, Parergon 24, no. 2 (2007): 23–46.
3 Norman Kutcher, ‘The Skein of Chinese Emotions History’, in Doing Emotions
History, ed. Susan Matt and Peter N. Stearns (Urbana: University of Illinois Press,
2014), 57–73; David Konstan, The Emotions of the Ancient Greeks: Studies in
Aristotle and Classical Literature (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2007);
Peter N. Stearns, Shame: A Brief History (Urbana: University of Illinois Press,
2017). For example, it has been estimated that well over a third of all Confucian
writings deal fairly directly with emotional standards, most particularly the
importance of shame. See also Ping-chen Hsiung, A Tender Voyage: Children and
Childhood in Late Imperial China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2005).
64 Peter N. Stearns
Promising work on Russia has also widely utilised prescriptive materials: see Mark
Steinberg and Valeria Sobol, eds, Interpreting Emotions in Russia and Eastern
Europe (Dekalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2011).
4 Peter Keating, The Haunted Study: A Social History of the English Novel, 1875–
1914 (London: Secker & Warburg, 1989).
5 Micki McGee, Self-Help, Inc.: Makeover Culture in American Life (New York:
Oxford University Press, 2005); Daniel Horowitz, Happier? The History of a Cul-
tural Movement that Aspired to Transform America (New York: Oxford University
Press, 2018).
6 Norbert Elias, The Civilizing Process: The History of Manners (New York: Wiley,
2000). This study, based on manners books and arguing that Western society
became increasingly capable of self-control from the Renaissance onward, has
occasioned considerable controversy, in part because of the power but also limita-
tions of the prescriptive materials it relies upon. See John F. Kasson, Rudeness and
Civility: Manners in Nineteenth-Century Urban America (New York: Hill & Wang,
1991); Cas Wouters, Informalization: Manners and Emotions Since 1890 (Thousand
Oaks: SAGE Publications, 2007); Cas Wouters, Sex and Manners: Female Eman-
cipation in the West, 1890–2000 (Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, 2004).
7 William M. Reddy, The Navigation of Feeling: A Framework for the History of
Emotions (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001); Peter N. Stearns with
Olivia A. O’Neill and Jack Censer, Cultural Change in Modern World History:
Cases, Causes and Consequences (New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2019), 82–87;
Nicole Eustace, Passion Is the Gale: Emotion, Power, and the Coming of the
American Revolution (Chapel Hill: Omohundro Institute and University of North
Carolina Press, 2011).
8 Ute Frevert, Pascal Eitler, Stephanie Olsen, Uffa Jensen, Margrit Pernau, Daniel
Bruckenhaus, Magdalena Beljan, Benno Gammerl and Anja Laukotter, Learning
How to Feel: Children’s Literature and the History of Emotional Socialization,
1870–1970 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014).
9 Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures: Saleswomen, Mangers, and Customers in
American Department Stores, 1890–1940 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press,
1988); Arlie Russell Hochschild, Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human
Feeling (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983).
10 Michael Zuckerman, ‘Dr. Spock: The Confidence Man’, in The Family in History,
ed. Charles E. Rosenberg (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1975),
179–207.
11 Nancy F. Cott, History of Women in the United States: Historical Articles on
Women’s Lives and Activities (New York: K.G. Saur, 1992).
12 In looking for prescriptive materials one can of course consult some of the avail-
able works in emotions history directly that have used these materials without
exhausting the possible topics. There are other good guides, like Ann Hulbert,
Raising America: Experts, Parents, and a Century of Advice About Children (New
York: Knopf, 2003) or Christina Hardyment, Perfect Parents: Baby-Care Advice
Past and Present (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995) – that help not only
find titles, but decide which were the most representative or influential. Marriage
manuals have also been widely probed for more general purposes, which offers an
entry to materials of interest to the emotions historian: see, for example, Stephanie
Coontz, Marriage, A History: From Obedience to Intimacy or How Love Con-
quered Marriage (New York: Viking, 2005). Prescriptive literature in the workplace
has been less systematically studies, but there were some good guides for certain
periods, like Loren Bartiz, The Servants of Power: A History of the Use of Social
Science in American Industry (Middletown: Wesleyan University Press, 1960). For
government publications, a research can consult relevant agencies, like the famous
Children’s Bureau in the United States. As suggested already, prescriptive literature
 Prescriptive literature 65
in the schools has been less examined from the standpoint of emotions history, but
there are some guides to specific character-building programmes – for example, on
the recent social and emotional learning (SEL) programme, www.Casel.org,www.
responsiveclassroom.org.
13 The Google Books Ngram Viewer is an online search engine that graphs the fre-
quencies of particular words appearing in Google Books. For a critique of the tool,
see Barah Zhang, ‘The Pitfalls of Using Google Ngram to Study Language,’
Wired, 12 October 2015, https://www.wired.com/2015/10/pitfalls-of-studying-la
nguage-with-google-ngram/ (accessed 6 August 2018).
14 Two famous examples are Catharine Sedgwick and Catherine Beecher.
15 Steven Mintz, Huck’s Raft: A History of American Childhood (Cambridge, MA:
Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2004); Stearns, American Cool.
16 Matt, Keeping Up with the Joneses.
17 Peter N. Stearns and Clio Stearns, ‘American Schools and the Uses of Shame: An
Ambiguous History’, History of Education 46, no. 1 (2017): 58–75.
18 Edward Kilduff, The Private Secretary (New York, 1915), 50, 57; see also later editions
to 1935; see also Margery W. Davies, Woman’s Place Is at the Typewriter: Office Work
and Office Workers, 1870–1930 (Philadelphia, 1982), 95. The routinisation of claims of
emotional control as part of professional competence in industrial psychology can be
traced through standard textbooks (Hepner, Human Relations) and journals. Dale Car-
negie, How to Win Friends and Influence People (New York: Pocket Books, 1998).
19 William Ian Miller, The Mystery of Courage (Cambridge: Harvard University
Press, 2000).
20 Marjorie L. Hilton, ‘Retailing the Revolution: The State Department Store (GUM) and
Soviet Society in the 1920s’, Journal of Social History 37, no. 4 (2004): 939–64.
21 Mark Jones, ‘The Year of the Runaway Love: Emotion and Opportunity in 1921
Japan’, conference paper presented at the international conference on emotions
history at George Mason University, 1–2 June 2018.
22 Prescriptive materials are vital, for example, in interpreting what the rise of modest
birthday celebrations meant for the people involved in the nineteenth century.
Peter N. Stearns, Dante Burrichter, and Vyta Baselice, ‘Debating the Birthday:
Innovation and Resistance in Celebrating Children’, Journal of the History of
Childhood and Youth, forthcoming.
23 James M. Wilce, Language and Emotion (New York: Cambridge University Press,
2009).
24 Peter Toohey, Boredom: A Lively History (New Haven: Yale University Press,
2011).
25 Peter N. Stearns, Revolutions in Sorrow: The American Experience of Death in
Global Perspective (New York: Routledge, 2007).
26 Peter N. Stearns, Jealousy: The Evolution of an Emotion in American History (New
York: New York University Press, 1989).
27 Hulbert, Raising America.
28 Thus John Gregory, A Father’s Legacy to His Daughter (1774) was a top eight-
eenth-century seller; when published in the US it was purchased by 20,000 people
(21 per cent of the population), one of the top three sells in the whole period.
29 Peter N. Stearns and Ruthann Clay, ‘Don’t Forget to Say “Thank You”: Toward a
Modern History of Gratitude’, Journal of Social History (March 2019) https://doi.
org/10.1093/jsh/shy120
30 Tim Kelly and Joseph Kelly, ‘American Catholics and the Discourse of Fear’, in
An Emotional History of the United States, eds Peter N. Stearns and Jan Lewis
(New York: New York University Press, 1998), 259–282; Philip J. Greven, Jr.,
Spare the Child: The Religious Roots of Punishment and the Psychological Impact
of Physical Abuse (New York: Kopf Doubleday Publishing, 2010).
6 Medicine, science and psychology
Rob Boddice

Historians of emotion have found scientific, medical and psychological sources

relating to the emotions among the principal avenues of enquiry in exploring and
unpacking knowledge about the affective life of humans and animals in the past,
from ancient times to modernity. This chapter explores the extraordinary
richness of these sources, which provide the most fundamental information
about how passions, affects and emotions have been formally defined, as well as
probing the challenges such sources often present. The further back in time we
go, the more difficult it becomes to access either vernacular epistemologies or
the experience of patients. Nonetheless, scientific and medical knowledge is ‘in
the world’. In analysing the wide variety of sources available, it can be shown
how knowledge claims might be interrogated to find their measurable impact on
lived experience more broadly.
The stakes of uncovering such past knowledge about affective experience
are becoming increasingly high. As social neuroscientists provide substantial
evidence for their claim that the development of emotion concepts directly
colours the experience of emotions in the plastic, developing brain, so it
becomes essential to know the sources of emotion concepts in the first place.1
Since emotion concepts are not ‘natural’ or ‘objective’ (though they may seem
that way), we must explore how they are made, according to dynamics of
power and authority in the process of knowledge production. Communities of
doctors, scientists and those who claimed to know the nature of the soul have
held the principal positions in supplying the concepts that laypeople have
used to conceive of their affective experiences. Those communities can there-
fore be understood to be partly responsible for how past ‘emotions’ felt. The
caveat is that, prior to about 1850, those feelings did not usually concern
‘emotions’ at all, but other conceptual categories entirely. Sources relating to
the production, maintenance and collapse of those categories that defined,
prescribed and delimited affective experience – sources that largely fall within
the compass of Wissenschaftsgeschichte, or the history of knowledge – there-
fore hold one of the keys to unlocking the historicity of what it felt like to be
there, then.
 Medicine, science and psychology 67
Scope
The history of medicine is particularly privileged within the history of emotions
because so much medical knowledge about ‘emotions’ has been preserved from
antiquity onwards. The history of science quickly takes us into natural
philosophy the further back we go, but also presents a wealth of data from
around the world. The history of psychology, properly considered, begins only
in the nineteenth century, at the same moment that the worlds of medicine and
science became specialised and professionalised, with psychology forming one
such branch. Here I take a somewhat broader view, including sources from
different periods that were chiefly concerned with the nature and function of
the soul, with special reference to the passions. Still, modern psychology’s rise
to prominence as the custodian of emotion knowledge in the late twentieth
century marks it out for special interest, especially as it has had the tendency of
throwing a veil over the history of emotions in its claims of universality, auto-
maticity, and non-cognitive bases for human emotions. In the light of recent
disruptions of some of these fundamental orthodoxies, the sources in play here
reveal as much about how the politics of academic primacy effect the erasure of
alternatives as they inform about the construction of new knowledge. The
sources also implicitly document how orthodoxies resist critical inroads. Given
the extraordinary depth and breadth of the available sources in this domain, I
will focus here on representative examples. The notes here provide a rudimen-
tary guide to finding and accessing the rarer of these sources, with links to
digitised originals where available. Readily available modern editions are cited
in the standard format.

Ancient sources
Can Aristotle (384–322 BCE) be described as an emotion scientist? Hardly. But
Aristotle’s ideas about morals and virtues and the passions of the soul cer-
tainly fall within the broader category of the history of knowledge. In this
respect, Aristotle’s contribution to the understanding of ‘emotions’ over two
millennia cannot be overstated. Among today’s positive psychologists and
doyens of ‘happiness studies’, Aristotle is still much in vogue.2
While Aristotle’s ideas about passions are spread throughout his oeuvre, his
principal contributions lie in De anima and the Nicomachean Ethics, for it is
here that we learn about the soul or the animating life force, as well as the
soul’s passionate dispositions, the ways in which passions are practised either
as virtuous or vicious behaviour, the importance of temperance, and the
blueprint for the good, or happy, or, perhaps better yet, the good spirited life
in eudaemonia. The problem for historians who want to use Aristotle lies in
the inadequacy of modern translations, which were not meant to serve histor-
ians of emotion. The same applies to almost all renderings of Greek and Latin
into English, where specific and situated conceptual knowledge about feelings,
construed in its broadest sense, have been reduced and re-cast as ‘emotions’.3
68 Rob Boddice
This is perhaps unsurprising, representing the general reception of a biologi-
cally reductionist notion of human emotion that has been dominant in the
West since the 1960s and 1970s. Yet it is extremely unhelpful for those of us
with a specific interest in how affective life was both understood and practised
in the past. Returning to the Greek sources, one cannot fail to be struck by the
distance between Aristotelian pathe and so-called ‘basic emotions’.
This presents an enormous challenge for many, for whom the sources are
all Greek, but it seems to me an essential component of source criticism to
reject any a priori assumptions that translations of ancient works are faithful
to the original’s contextualised concepts and epistemologies.4 Fortunately,
there is a good secondary corpus to support work on Greek and Latin works
that have been foundational for what we might now think of as ‘emotion
knowledge’.5
If Aristotle dominates Western thought on the passions and their social and
political implications, Galen dominates equally in medical terms. Galen (130–210
CE) in turn was working in the Hippocratic tradition (Hippocrates, 460–370 BCE),
such that both merit serious attention, with the same critical caveats as for work on
Aristotle.6 Galenic medicine endured until well into the nineteenth century, and
one might fruitfully follow the ways in which Galen was translated and applied in
a great variety of historical periods and places. Insofar as the focus here is ‘emo-
tion’, we again must proceed with caution, for there are no emotions in Galen’s
works. But Galen fills in the bodily background to the passions, rooting ‘tem-
perament’ (from the Latin tempere, ‘to mix’) in the specific admixture of bodily
humours. These liquids – blood, yellow bile, phlegm and black bile – were physical
presences that had to be balanced in each individual, affected by climate, diet,
race, sex, activity, and so on. The simple fact that from these physical substances
we have derived affective characteristics – the sanguine, the bilious, the phlegmatic
and the melancholic – ought to impel us to understand what these categories ori-
ginally meant and how they came to change. Most interesting of all, perhaps, is
melancholy, which became a major philosophical, artistic and medical concern,
and which in modernity lost all connection to black bile and became a disposition
of the brain as a forerunner to modern ‘depression’.
The Galenic corpus, written in Greek, was handily translated into Latin
(but preserving the Greek) by Karl Gottlob Kühn in the 1820s, which already
permits study of the slipperiness of concepts when wrought into other lan-
guages.7 The historical value of such a source lies largely in the way it reveals
past sensations and past feelings as embodied experiences with physical
causes. In A History of Feelings, I particularly highlighted the significance of
this as it pertained to bleeding as a cure for affective dysfunctions and dis-
eases. Galen prescribed bloodletting for those who carry on with ‘a sense of
heaviness’ (gravatur tenditurve in Latin translation, something like ‘weighed
down tension’; barunomenois in Greek, something like ‘being weighed down’
or physically, literally ‘depressed’). Here a physical problem with a physical
cause is given a physical solution, but the signs of the problem are sensory
and affective: ‘a sense of heaviness … mental sluggishness and a dulling of
 Medicine, science and psychology 69
8
consciousness’. The sign of the cure is feeling better. This rationale, of the
entanglement of felt experience and bodily dis/order, dominated Western
medical thinking for a millennium and a half.
The need to look beyond the West is becoming critically urgent within the
history of emotions, not least in order to understand how encounters between
competing or incompatible epistemologies and medical practices have played
out. A growing body of work on ancient China, for example, has demonstrated
the fundamental intertwinement of the sensory, the ‘emotional’ and the cogni-
tive, and the distinct historico-cultural development and framing of Chinese
sensory-emotional concepts.9 A key source here is the Huangdi neijing, a canon
of medical treatises. Angelika C. Messner states that ‘the whole canon reflects
the development of concepts which obviously were inseparable from the creation
of authority within the field of medicine and of the field of medicine itself within
society’. Its formulations are traced as far back as 400 BCE, up to the second
century CE. 10

Medieval and early modern sources

Medieval sources of note concern the translation and practical adaptation of
much older texts, which is not to say that these sources were not also con-
ceptually innovative.11 Here I draw in particular on the useful synthesis of Simo
Knuuttila, who highlights the following: the translation into Latin of ‘Alı- ibn al-
‘Abba-s al-Mağu-sı-’s Arabic medical encyclopedia (c. 980), first by Constantine
the African in c. 1080 (the Pantegni) and later by Stephen of Antioch in 1127
(the Regalis dispositio); and Liber de Anima or Sextus de naturalibus, the Latin
translation of Avicenna’s Shifa-’ (Book of Healing) from the twelfth century,
which in turn helped frame the reception of Aristotle’s De anima as it was ren-
dered in Latin between the mid-twelfth and mid-thirteenth centuries.12
The Aristotelian domination of ‘psychology’ was matched only by Galenic
ideas of the physical basis of human sensory and affective experience.
Knuuttila highlights a Galenic medical classificatory system that reckoned
with the speed and directionality of ‘vital spirits’, and which was reproduced
from the eleventh to the seventeenth centuries by the likes of John of la
Rochelle (Summa de anima, 1235), Maino de Maineri (Regimen sanitatis,
c. 1336), and Jacob Wecker (Medicinae utriusque syntaxes, 1576).13
Maintaining a strict demarcation here between ‘scientific’ or medical sources
and theological or philosophical texts is difficult if not impossible, especially
since the central concern here is the production of knowledge. Thomas Aquinas
(1225–1274), for example, cannot be overlooked for his theological
contextualisation and applications of Aristotelian thought (Summa Theolo-
gica, c. 1265–1274).14 Fundamental divergences in the ways in which sensory
and affective life were both conceived and functioned can be read across
competing canonical works, such as Albertus Magnus’ (c. 1193–1280) De
homine and De bono, Bonaventure’s (1221–1274) Commentaria in quatuor
libros Sententiarum and the third book of Duns Scotus’ (1266–1308) Ordinatio
70 Rob Boddice
on the passions of Christ.15 If these might be said to constitute the typical
medieval canon, other figures left voluminous sources that demonstrate both
the intellectual latitude available even within orthodox theological lines and the
vicissitudes of practical medical experience. Most important here are the works
of Hildegard von Bingen (1098–1179), who wrote both visionary treatises with
esoteric conceptualisations of sensory and passionate functions, and practices
and practical medical texts on the causes, treatments and cures of diseases.
These are complemented by an extensive body of extant letters in Latin that
demonstrate the practical negotiation of contemporary ‘emotion’ knowledge in
everyday life.16
The challenge of all these sources is linguistic, for while there are transla-
tions of practically everything, those translations may be antithetical to his-
toricist intentions. The other principal challenge is the distance of most of
these sources from lived experience (Hildegard is the exception). Direct
engagement with the original language is essential. Into the early modern
period, this imperative remains, even where Anglophone scholars are enga-
ging with texts originally written in English. The ‘false friend’ lurks in ‘emo-
tion’ concepts that look or sound familiar to presentist understandings. Key
here is Robert Burton’s (1577–1640) Anatomy of Melancholy (1621, but
revised and expanded five times up to 1651).17 Not only do the many editions
make for fascinating comparative work in their own right, but Burton’s
melancholy is wonderfully situated in many worlds, from medical to artistic.
The book amounts to a whole treatise on early modern emotions. Read in the
context of its reception, it is a good starting point for understanding situated
emotion concepts and the vicissitudes of their experience.18
Descartes is perhaps an obvious figure to mention here, since his work
appeared in both French and Latin (making for interesting comparison) and
has since been frequently translated into English and many other languages.
His work is best known for its denial of an immortal soul to non-human
animals, meaning not only that they did not reason, but also that they did not
feel. The original source, the Discours de la methode, continues to reward
study.19 It is a blueprint for the scientific use of animals in research, pre-
dicated on the absence of feeling. But there is more here besides: Descartes’
famous line cogito ergo sum pertains specifically to soul’s movement with
which it apprehends the world. Here cogito is better understood as a contraction
of con agito – with movement – and is fully explored in Descartes’ L’Homme. 20
Here, the passions of the soul were indicative of humanity’s divine nature.21
Everything depended on movement, for the soul gained an awareness of the body’s
movements, and its own movements were projected outwards to form expressions
of itself. These, literally, were e-motions (e = ‘outward’ and motion = ‘movement’).
Descartes’ fame is often couched in the separation of mind and body, in a dualism
that proved enormously influential in medical and psychological sciences over
more than three centuries. But it is in the fundamental connectivity between the
mechanical movement of the body and physical movement of the soul, the place-
ment of the latter inside the former, secreted in the pineal gland in the brain, that
 Medicine, science and psychology 71
we find the roots of automaticity of expression and human emotional exception-
alism. As ever, it is worth reading sources in context. Often overlooked is Des-
cartes’ contemporary Marin Cureau de la Chambre (1594–1669), whose
innovations in a proto-science of emotions remained couched in Aristotelian
thinking. He has even been claimed as the true pioneer of neuropsychology.22 And
these formal, canonical works are further complemented by evidence of daily
practice in the form of medical case notes, midwifery manuals and an extra-
ordinary range of anatomical models that embodied passionate expressions of
ecstasy and agony at the same moment as they rendered the human frame inert
and unravelled for the medical student’s gaze, culminating in Susini’s Venerina in
1782, currently displayed in the Palazzo Poggi, Bologna.23

Enlightenment and modernity

For all that Descartes’ shadow looms over scientific and psychological notions
of passions and, later, emotions, well into the nineteenth century, it did not go
unchallenged. Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677) provides the essential reading
against Descartes, his Ethics supplying its own chain of thought on the nature
of the self, of passion and affectus, that would influence thinkers in political,
philosophical and scientific spheres down to the present, from Thomas Paine
(1737–1809) to Gilles Deleuze (1925–1995) to Antonio Damasio (1944–).24
Spinoza’s importance lies in the rejection of Cartesian dualism and in the
completely innovative construction of new conceptions of the passions and
their relationship with reason. The Ethics is a biopsychological treatise as
much as a philosophical one, for it attempts to define and explain functions of
the soul in its relation to God/nature.
Despite Spinoza’s influence, the Enlightenment period witnesses a pro-
liferation of new theories and concepts for the passions. Given their later
influence on a science of emotions, it seems reasonable to include the princi-
pal works by Adam Smith (1723–1790), David Hume (1711–1776), Edmund
Burke (1729–1797), Francis Hutcheson (1694–1746) and the third Earl of
Shaftesbury (1671–1713) under the head of Wissenschaftsgeschichte, even
though they have chiefly been explored as part of the histories of philosophy,
morality and society.25 Indeed, Smith in particular might be considered the
father of social psychology, his Theory of Moral Sentiments being essential
background for Alexander Bain (1818–1903), Herbert Spencer (1820–1903)
and Charles Darwin (1809–1882).
The latter thinkers would have to wrestle with Smith’s ambiguous moralism
and somehow also handle the long shadow of Descartes over the science of
emotions, which lasted well into the nineteenth century. Charles Bell, for exam-
ple, combined his skills in anatomy and art to produce a work that illustrated
why the face looked the way it did when undergoing certain passions or pains,
and why it could look no other way, in a treatise ostensibly to help painters
achieve verisimilitude in rendering emotional expressions. Bell, a surgeon and
anatomist, understood the passions of the soul to have been put there by
72 Rob Boddice
intelligent design, but he also firmly believed that the expression of those pas-
sions was divinely delimited, universal and automatic in humans.26 The source is
invaluable as a record of how discrete passions were supposed to look.
Early canonical sources for the history of psychology as a discrete scientific
discipline remain essential reading if we are to understand the scientification
of vernacular emotion categories. Of particular note are works by Bain, Wil-
liam James (1842–1910) and Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920).27 What shines
through the published works is the situation of early psychology within
broader physiological concerns. For comparative psychology, the compen-
dious but often forgotten volumes of George John Romanes (1848–1894)
demonstrate a clear intellectual and personal link between the study of animal
emotions and Charles Darwin’s theories of evolution.28
Darwin’s own work became canonical in the everyday understanding of the
evolution of civilised emotions in late Victorian and Edwardian societies. But
it is his Descent of Man that provides the key reading here, not the red herring
work of The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals, about which more
below.29 Behind the scenes, readily available repositories of correspondence
that cluster around Darwin illuminate not only the epistolary development of
a new science, but also science’s political salience. New emotion concepts not
only justified innovative research on the brain and the body, but also defined
that work as a novel form of affective practice, as well as providing an
effective defence of potentially unpalatable methods (especially concerning
vivisection). Here scientists and medical researchers left traces of their
understanding of science as an emotional practice, fit for men of a certain
emotional bearing, in compendious sources produced by committees of par-
liamentary inquiry (in the United Kingdom), or as extensive remonstrances
against lay oversight of medical research in legislatures (in the United
States).30 They speak to the imprint left by a science of emotions on the
emotions of scientists themselves. In Conwy Lloyd Morgan’s (1852–1936)
Introduction to Comparative Psychology, we find the reason for Romanes’
obscurity.31 Morgan, Romanes’ mentee, promoted a startlingly different
approach to interpreting animal emotions: behaviourism. This cynical view
breathed new life into the animal machine.
In all of these works we find the attempt to pin down working definitions of
the category ‘emotion’ and programmatic strategies for operationalizing fur-
ther research. That they are comparatively incongruous and led to divergent
strands of investigation does not alter the fundamental point that each pro-
vided a set of conceptual orthodoxies for increasingly insulated disciplinary
atmospheres and techniques. The rise in laboratory science and of disciplinary
psychology were both of significant moment for the world of medicine, as
much for research as for clinical practice.
Famously, new conceptions of emotion and emotional dysfunction, repre-
senting a coalescence of Darwinian and proto-psychoanalytical ideas, had a
large impact on the treatment of the insane. From the hysterical men and
women under the care of Charcot (1825–1893) at the Salpêtrière, to the
 Medicine, science and psychology 73
patients under the care of James Crichton-Browne (1840–1938) at the West
Riding Lunatic Asylum, the influence of laboratory science and psychological
ideas was directly applied in the spirit of patient health and scientific curiosity.
Both institutions, and others like them, leave us with extensive archival traces
of clinical insight, patient encounter and medical photography.32 The asylum
represents the arena par excellence where scientific ideas about how emotions
functioned and dysfunctioned, according to novel emotion concepts, were
practically operationalised. What has become clear is the extent to which
patients (especially Charcot’s patients) quickly understood and internalised
what was expected of them from the point of view of physical practices of
emotional dysfunction. Patient and doctor converged according to the idea of
emotional instability, and we might wonder if this had the effect, at least for
some patients, of ameliorating symptoms as a result of the clinical satisfaction
of the doctor. Strategies of emotional coaching, emotional staging (especially
in demonstrative lectures, clinical rounds and photographic endeavours) and
emotional dissonance (the failure of patients to feel or behave according to
new clinical standards) are all fair game for the historian through the sources
left to us, which often include writings by patients themselves.33
A major innovation that impacted on medical-scientific affective practices and
the emotional experiences of human patients and experimental animals was the
advent of anaesthesia (in the form of ether and chloroform, first demonstrated in
1846, but widely employed only later, with the first textbook on the subject being
published in 1914).34 Sources here pertain to distinct ethical and experiential
arguments, sometimes personal, sometimes political. Anaesthesia was central to
medical-scientific arguments – before legislative bodies, in the press, and through
pressure groups established to protect research – about the preservation of tender
emotions, sympathy and compassion among the medical and surgical class, for it
allowed them to operate without causing pain. At the same time, it allowed them
to shift those tender emotions beyond the immediate scene, towards calculations
of diminished suffering at a societal level. In the process, there were countless
discussions of the capacity of animals to suffer in the experimental environment.
Meanwhile anaesthesia, where it was available and applied, transformed the
patient experience of surgery, diminishing pain and its attendant, fear.35 Visual
sources capture the complexity in this shift in the emotional register, or drama,
of the operating theatre, with Thomas Eakins’ Gross Clinic (1875) standing out
in this regard.
If disciplinary preoccupations were the cause of divergence in ideas about
what emotions were and how they went wrong, the First World War marks a
major point of disruption and instability. In a recent exemplary study, Todd
Meyers and Stephanos Geroulanos demonstrate the astonishing breadth of
medical source material available in demonstrating the disintegration of
concepts of experience, sense, emotion, pain and shock wrought by a surfeit
of disintegrating human bodies and minds from the battlefield. Medical trea-
tises, laboratory procedures, field procedures, patient encounters and case
notes are all entangled in a competing mess of theories, with the boundaries of
74 Rob Boddice
‘medicine’ being blurred by inroads from physiology, anthropology and psycho-
analysis. Laying out this array of sources, the authors show that fixed ideas of how
humans worked, emotionally, experientially, sensually, became uncertain, plural,
mysterious.36 At the same time, the catastrophes of the war shattered many of the
conceits that underlay theories of the emotional evolution of civilised society,
making the emotional and moral content of Darwin’s Descent something of a dead
letter. In many ways it had already been replaced, or perhaps usurped is better, by
the new sciences of biometry and eugenics, which housed an acutely racist and
classist scientism within reportedly objective procedures. Here, the collected works
of Francis Galton (1822–1911), compiled by his disciple Karl Pearson (1857–1936)
and published between 1914 and 1930, make for rich reading concerning the
abstraction and intentionalism of social emotions. Pearson’s own attempts, in
popular pamphlets, to popularise his creed of social nationalism through a cor-
ruption of Darwinian sympathy are equally compelling.37 For these reasons, it is
essential to read medical and scientific sources against each other, mapping the
rapidly changing intellectual and conceptual ground regarding emotions.

Post-war physiological and psychological orthodoxies

I referred above to Darwin’s Expression of Emotion as a red herring. In its own
time, this work was overshadowed by Darwin’s more famous tomes. Expression
was about what animal and human faces looked like. It had little to do with
emotion itself. Yet Expression became interesting again as a key intertext in the
history of twentieth-century psychology. Despite its rather loose credentials as a
key work in emotions history, it was given enormous retrospective stature by
latter-day psychologists who craved an authoritative-sounding intellectual gen-
ealogy for their own theories. Ruth Leys’ recent book The Ascent of Affect has
demonstrated clearly the extent to which Sylvan Tomkins, Paul Ekman and
others appropriated Darwin’s Expression – Ekman went so far as to annotate a
new edition, claiming to have inherited this particular Darwinian mantle – in
order to ground affect theory, basic emotions, automaticity, emotional universals
and non-cognitive emotions on seemingly solid foundations. Leys, among others,
has demonstrated the extent to which this strategy was based on assumption,
fallacy, mis-reading and wishful thinking, but the sources produced by affect
theorists and emotion reductionists from the 1960s through the 1980s (and per-
haps even down to the present) – mainly academic articles in psychology jour-
nals – become key texts for reaching a critical understanding of how a new
emotion-science orthodoxy was established and policed.38
Perhaps this perspective is key. Emotion scientists in the present still fre-
quently proceed on the basis that ‘emotion’ exists as a discrete and objective
phenomenon, to be found and explained, through methodologies interwoven
with untroubled notions of objectivity, fact finding and neutral reporting. The
rise of a new wave of emotion-detecting or emotion-defining machines has
reinforced such naivety with mechanical awe. But we have seen all this before,
and historians, anthropologists and sociologists have long since developed a
 Medicine, science and psychology 75
healthy scepticism of scientific neutrality and have developed reliable tools for
exposing and exploring its affective ideological practices.39 Post-war anthro-
pological sources, moreover, based on ethnographic research all over the
world, emphasise the cultural situatedness of ‘emotion’ and sit in stark con-
trast to the universalist tendencies in other scientific disciplines.40 Sources in
contemporary psychology are fair game, especially as psychology itself frag-
ments along its own intellectual and theoretical fault lines.41 Here, the per-
spective and methods that historians bring to bear upon emotion sources
realise their political potential, in turn illuminating the political work of
emotions history on more remote sources. For by challenging how we come to
know what emotions are, how they work and who they serve in our own
societies, we expose their fundamental mutability and the concomitant con-
tingencies of lived experience. Contemporary psychology assumes its place
among other narratives of emotions history and the critical source-criticism
of historical evidence becomes a vital method in the future of emotions
research, within the discipline of history certainly, but also beyond it.

Conclusion
This can only be a sketch: a loose landscape of source material across more than
two thousand years of history. Yet it ought to illuminate the most important
aspect of doing emotions history in the fields of medicine, science and psychology:
power structures behind knowledge production literally make the terms by which
people emote, live by feeling and conceive of their own experiences. The obvious
observation that these terms change over time introduces a further political
dynamic: the how and why of knowledge and experiential transformation. We
must always keep in mind the processes of translation, resistance and contestation
that occur when people practise through or against constructed concepts as they
live their lives. These processes are also constructive, and in turn influence knowl-
edge production, but the precise ways in which this takes place are opaque and
often the weak point of the historical record. Still, ‘emotions’ change over time.
Now, the empirical observations of social neuroscientists echo William James: the
only universal law is the law of variability.42 This variability is recorded in the
canonical medical and scientific sources, across the historical record. The how of
that change is partly embedded in their details, partly recoverable from sources in
other fields (political, cultural, institutional) and partly lost between the lines.

Notes
Funded by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation
programme under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement No. 742470.
1 For a precis of emotional bioconstruction and the role of concepts, see Lisa Feld-
man Barrett, How Emotions Are Made: The Secret Life of the Brain (New York:
Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2017)
76 Rob Boddice
2 For a summary of happiness studies, see Rob Boddice, A History of Feelings
(London: Reaktion, 2019), 169–87.
3 Even an excellent recent guide to the way such theories were applied in medieval
times falls into this mistake. Simo Knuuttila, ‘Medieval Theories of the Emotions’,
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, plato.stanford.edu, accessed 27 June 2019.
4 In my own research I have found the Perseus Digital Library extremely helpful,
allowing for detailed readings of Greek and Latin texts with an excellent ‘word
study tool’, ‘vocabulary tools’ and parallel translations. See Perseus Digital
Library, www.perseus.tufts.edu, accessed 26 July 2019. I use this in tandem with
the Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge: Harvard University Press), which pairs
original Greek or Latin text with English translations on facing pages. For those
dependent on translations, always read more than one.
5 Exemplary starting points are David Konstan, The Emotions of the Ancient
Greeks: Studies in Aristotle and Classical Literature (Toronto: University of Tor-
onto Press, 2006) and Robert A. Kaster, Emotion, Restraint, and Community in
Ancient Rome (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005).
6 Hippocrates’ works can be read in Greek on the Perseus Digital Library.
7 Karl Gottlob Kühn, Claudii Galeni opera omni (Leipzig: Cnoblochii, 1826).
Mostly available digitally via archive.org: https://archive.org/search.php?query=cla
udii%20galeni%20opera%20omnia, accessed 2 July 2019.
8 Boddice, History of Feelings, 57–8.
9 See the impressive corpus of Paolo Santangelo, Sapienza University, Rome.
10 An extensively annotated translation is available in English. Paul U. Unschuld and
Hermann Tessenow, Huang Di Nei Jing Su Wen: An Annotated Translation of
Huang Di’s Inner Classic, 2 volumes (Berkeley: University of California Press);
Angelika C. Messner, ‘Emotions, Body, and Bodily Sensations within an Early
Field of Expertise Knowledge in China’, in From Skin to Heart: Perceptions of
Emotions and Bodily Sensations in Traditional Chinese Culture, ed. Paolo Santan-
gelo (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2006), 41–63 (41).
11 For an extensive summary, Barbara Rosenwein, Generations of Feeling: A History
of Emotions, 600–1700 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015).
12 Knuuttila, ‘Medieval Theories’; the original Arabic text is called Kita-b Ka-mil al-
s.ina-ʻah al-t.ibbı-yah: al-maʻru-f bi-al-Malaki and is known in English as The Com-
plete Art of Medicine. The manuscript is in the Harvey Cushing/John Hay Whitney
Medical Library, Yale University. A high-resolution digital copy of the Pantegni is
available from the National Library of the Netherlands: https://galerij.kb.nl/kb.htm
l#/en/liberpantegni/page/0/zoom/3/lat/75.69393145698817/lng/49.74609374999999,
accessed 1 July 2019; the Regalis Dispositio is digitally available from Harvey
Cushing/John Hay Whitney Medical Library, Yale University, http://findit.library.
yale.edu/catalog/digcoll:189669, accessed 1 July 2019; Avicenna’s Kita-b al-Šifa-ʾ is
available digitally from the University of Toronto via archive.org: https://archive.
org/details/kitabalshifafiki00unse, accessed 1 July 2019.
13 The Summa di Anima is available from the Bodleian Library, Oxford, MS. Canon.
Misc. 338; the Regimen sanitatis was published in printed versions in Paris in various
editions in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, held by the Bibliothèque
nationale de France; the Medicinae utriusque syntaxes is available in high-resolution
digital format via the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek https://reader.digitale-sammlungen.
de/de/fs1/object/display/bsb11200141_00005.html, accessed 1 July 2019.
14 Harvard University Library’s copy of Summa Theologica, 8 volumes (L. Vivès:
Paris, 1856–60), is digitally available at archive.org https://archive.org/details/
summatheologica04nicogoog/page/n9, accessed 1 July 2019.
15 Albertus Magnus, De bono, in Opera omnia: Ad fidem codicum manuscriptorum
edenda apparatu critico notis prolegomenis indicibus instruenda, vol. 28, ed. H.
Kühle et al. (Münster: Aschendorff, 1951); Albertus Magnus, De homine, in Opera
 Medicine, science and psychology 77
omnia, vol. 27, ed. H. Anzulewicz and J.R. Söder; Bonaventure, Commentaria in
quatuor libros Sententiarum, in Opera omnia I–IV (Quaracchi: Collegium S.
Bonaventurae, 1882–1902); John Duns Scotus, Ordinatio. Liber Tertius in Opera
omnia (Vatican City: Polyglottis, 2006, 2007), vols 9 and 10.
16 Hildegard von Bingen, Physica: Liber subtilitatum diversarum naturarum creatur-
arum [1150–58], 2 volumes (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2010); Causae et Curae [before
1179] (Basel: Hildegard-Gesellschaft, 1980). For the letters see L. Van Acker, ed.,
Hildegardis Bingensis Epistolarium, pars prima (Turnhout: Brepols, 1991), pars
secunda (Turnhout: Brepols, 1993), and, with M. Klaes-Hachmoller, pars tertia
(Turnhout: Brepols, 2001).
17 Robert Burton, The Anatomy of Melancholy (Oxford: Henry Cripps, 1638) is avail-
able online at google books: https://books.google.ca/books?id=cPgveWnCdRcC&p
rintsec=frontcover&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false, accessed 1 July 2019.
18 For the contradictory entanglement of medical concepts of passion with the way
those concepts were lived and practiced, with special reference to melancholy, see
Erin Sullivan, Beyond Melancholy: Sadness and Selfhood in Renaissance England
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016).
19 René Descartes, Discours de la methode pour bien conduire sa raison, & chercher la
verité dans les sciences (Leiden: Ian Maire, 1637), digital version available at the
Bibliothèque nationale de France: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b86069594/
f5.image#, accessed 1 July 2019.
20 Boddice, History of Feelings, 88–97; René Descartes, L’homme (2nd edition, Paris:
Theodore Girard, 1677): digital version available at the Bibliothèque nationale de
France: https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k942459?rk=21459;2, accessed 1 July 2019.
21 See also, René Descartes, Les Passions de L’ame (Paris: Henry Le Gras, 1649):
digital version available at the Bibliothèque nationale de France: https://gallica.bnf.
fr/ark:/12148/btv1b8601505n/f3.image, accessed 1 July 2019.
22 Marin Cureau de La Chambre, Les characteres des passions, 4 vols (Paris: Jacques
D’Allin, 1642): digital version available at the Bibliothèque nationale de France:
https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k1510396k.r=marin%20cureau%20de%20la%
20chambre?rk=42918;4, accessed 1 July 2019. O. Walusinski, ‘Marin Cureau de La
Chambre (1594–1669), a 17th-century pioneer in neuropsychology’, Revue Neuro-
logique 174 (2018): 680–88.
23 For the classic use of the former, see Harvey Graham, Eternal Eve: The History of
Gynecology and Obstetrics (New York: Doubleday, 1951); for the usefulness of the
Anatomical Venus see Joanna Ebenstein, The Anatomical Venus: Wax, God, Death
& The Ecstatic (London: Thames & Hudson, 2016).
24 A major source for the study of Spinoza, with parallel English or French transla-
tion, is R.W. Meijer’s website: http://users.telenet.be/rwmeijer/spinoza/works.htm.
Benedict de Spinoza, Ethica, 1677.
25 Adam Smith, Theory of Moral Sentiments (London: Penguin, 2009); Edmund
Burke, A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and
Beautiful, in Pre-Revolutionary Writings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1993); David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature, (Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1975); Francis Hutcheson, Essay on the Nature and Conduct of the Passions with
Illustrations on the Moral Sense (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2002); Anthony
Ashley-Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury, Characteristics of Men, Manners, Opinions,
Times, ed. Lawrence E. Klein (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).
26 Charles Bell, Essays on the Anatomy of Expression in Painting (London: Long-
man, Hurst, Rees and Orme, 1806).
27 Alexander Bain, Emotions and the Will (London: John W. Parker and Son, 1859);
William James, The Principles of Psychology, 2 vols (New York: Henry Holt and
Co, 1890); Wilhelm Wundt, Grundzüge der physiologischen Psychologie (Leipzig:
Engelmann, 1874)
78 Rob Boddice
28 George John Romanes, Animal Intelligence, 3rd ed. (London: Kegan Paul, Trench,
1882); George John Romanes, Mental Evolution in Animals (London: Kegan Paul,
Trench, 1883); George John Romanes, Mental Evolution in Man (London: Kegan
Paul, Trench, 1888).
29 Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex (London:
John Murray, 1871); Charles Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and
Animals (London: John Murray, 1872).
30 The primary sources are too numerous to mention here, but see Rob Boddice, The
Science of Sympathy: Morality, Evolution, and Victorian Civilization (Urbana-
Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2016) and Rob Boddice, Humane Profes-
sions: The Defence of Experimental Medicine, 1876–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, forthcoming) for full details and analysis.
31 C. Lloyd Morgan, An Introduction to Comparative Psychology, 2nd ed. (London:
Walter Scott, 1903).
32 See, for example, J. Crichton Browne, The West Riding Lunatic Asylum Medical
Reports (London: J & A Churchill, 1871); J.-M. Charcot and Paul Richer, Les
démoniaques dans l’art (Paris: Adrien Delahaye and Émile Lecrosnier, 1887).
33 For example, Sander L. Gilman, ‘The Image of the Hysteric’, in Hysteria beyond
Freud, ed. by Sander L. Gilman, Helen King, Roy Porter, G.S. Rousseau, and
Elaine Showalter (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993): 345–452; Mark
Micale, Hysterical Men: The Hidden History of Male Nervous Illness (Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press, 2008).
34 James Tayloe Gwathmey, Anesthesia (New York and London: D. Appleton, 1914).
35 For a precis of primary sources and the accompanying secondary literature, See
Boddice, History of Feelings, 144–63; Boddice, Science of Sympathy, 65–71, 86–92;
Stephanie J. Snow, Blessed Days of Anaesthesia: How Anaesthetics Changed the
World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008).
36 Stefanos Geroulanos and Todd Meyers, The Human Body in the Age of Cata-
strophe: Brittleness, Integration, Science, and the Great War (Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, 2018).
37 Karl Pearson, The Life, Letters and Labours of Francis Galton, 4 volumes (Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1914–30); a representative example of Pear-
son’s own work is his Social Problems: Their Treatment, Past, Present, and Future
(London: Dulau, 1912).
38 Ruth Leys, The Ascent of Affect: Genealogy and Critique (Chicago: Chicago Uni-
versity Press, 2017); Charles Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and
Animals, ed. Paul Ekman (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009). The founda-
tions of the ‘basic emotions’ model are legion, and Leys documents most of them,
but I mention here three of the most important: Sylvan Tomkins, Affect Imagery
Consciousness, 4 vols (New York: Springer, 1962–3, 1991–2); Paul Ekman and
Wallace Friesen, ‘Constants across Cultures in the Face and Emotion’, Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology 17 (1971): 124–9; Paul Ekman and Wallace
Friesen, Pictures of Facial Affect (Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1976).
39 Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, Objectivity (New York: Zone Books, 2007) –
an exemplary history of emotions and science in its own right, but also the blue-
print for disrupting contemporary scientific claims of neutrality.
40 For a thorough review of these sources, see Jan Plamper, The History of Emotions:
An Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 75–146.
41 The schism was opened by Alan Fridlund, Human Facial Expression: An Evolu-
tionary View (San Diego: Academic Press, 1994); the gap was widened by Feldman
Barrett, How Emotions Are Made.
42 This is the nub of Feldman Barrett’s science. James said that ‘emotions of different
individuals may vary indefinitely’, Principles of Psychology, vol. 2, 454.
7 Legal records
Alecia Simmonds

Looking for the passions of the past in the archives of law may seem, at first
blush, counter-intuitive. What could law – that grand monument to uni-
versality and reason – tell us about the minutiae of individual emotions? Why
search for proof of sentiment or feeling in an institution so steadfastly com-
mitted to its expulsion? After all, law in positivist thought is public, dis-
embodied and general with its source of authority in the sovereign, the very
opposite of emotion – as popularly conceived – with its clandestine languages,
exquisitely personal manifestations, ephemeral traces and tendency towards
the rebellious. Where law governs, emotion is ungovernable, disruptive of
bodies and body politics.
Of course, these are crude dichotomies. When we think a little bit deeper
about law, we start to see emotion everywhere, from the collective fears and
anxieties expressed in a criminal code, to the loves and losses debated in
family law, to the rowdy public gallery of a courtroom or the ‘affective aus-
terity’ of a judge.1 And when we turn our minds to emotion, we begin to see
its profoundly juridical character: the reciprocal duties and obligations of
friendship, the punishments dispensed by lovers or the emotional ‘rules’ or
‘regimes’ that historians of the emotions exhort us to study.2 Far from being
the conceptual antipodes imagined in popular discourse, law and emotions
have long been engaged in an intimate frisson, and this makes legal archives a
natural home for historians of emotions.
Historians who have examined legal records have noted their usefulness for
recovering the voices of the poor, the inarticulate and the marginalised, albeit
in a form constrained by legal procedure.3 Legal testimony does not come to
us as an authentic whispering across the centuries, but sounds more like a
jumble of voices, a collaborative, slightly fictive enterprise undertaken by liti-
gants, court clerks, lawyers and scribes.4 For historians of the emotions, this
brings into question the capacity for legal records to give us access to ‘real’
feelings, rather than those scripted by legal actors with an eye to legal suc-
cess.5 These debates over legal and government ‘sources’ as ‘springs’ for the
truth of the past have recently extended, as Ann Laura Stoler has argued, to a
study of state archives as a source in themselves.6 We need to attend not only to
archival content, she argues, but to archival form and process: ‘prose style,
80 Alecia Simmonds
repetitive refrain, the arts of persuasion, affective strains that shape “rational”
response’.7 Thinking about legal archives ethnographically, as material culture, has
also led historians to write about these records as sites of affective encounters
between scholars and the papery relics of the past.8 Legal archives do not simply
tell of past emotions, they generate emotions among those of us privileged enough
to touch them, to hear their pleadings, to examine the blotched, tremulous ink of a
litigant caught in webs of power, unable to hold the pen still. In short, a legal case
file may reveal the emotional norms that the state sought to enforce, the cultural
repertoire of sentimental narratives used by legal actors, the purported emotions
of litigants, and the shifting archival practices that channelled affects and emotions
into bureaucratic forms. Finally, they may make you laugh, sob or shudder, and
this encounter with the past will be generative of historical knowledge.
In this chapter I want to extend upon these historiographical insights in a
number of ways. Firstly, the debate around the possibility of accessing ‘real’
emotions in legal records rather than those simply scripted for court under-
estimates how heterogeneous and messy legal case files can be; it negates the
sheer volume of original materials – from love letters to store receipts to lists of
the items of a trousseau, medical reports, photographs, novels or lockets of hair –
that may spill out of a yellowing folder and that were never intended for the
court, nor for you. Secondly, legal records are not simply the ‘rational’ ordering
of unruly emotions, but are themselves, at different periods and in different
places, saturated in affect. Legal records belie the historiographical cliché of a
prying, rational state subjecting its citizens to affective order and bureaucratic
control. And finally, law can take us beyond the relationship between Western
states and citizens, because there is no reason to confine legal records to Eur-
opean forms. Like emotion, law is a permeable language that can be spoken
across cultures, and legal archives can be found beyond courts.9 Decolonising the
history of the emotions means expanding our definition of law and legal records
to encompass evidence such as bark petitions, gifts between sovereigns as well as
non-European legal categories. As such, this chapter will begin with official legal
archives and end on the beach of a Pacific island, with a treaty forged between
two sovereigns through an exchange of pigs, guns and letters of friendship. Just
as legal archives were crucial for social historians to gain access to the lives of the
inarticulate poor, so too can they be at the forefront of decentred histories of the
emotions written across time, place and cultures.

Civil and criminal sources

Secondary sources
Let us begin by imagining that we are historians interested in the history of love in
an Anglophone country. We have read all the secondary literature on our topic
and marvelled at the growth of romantic love in the Western world from the
seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries, when it became sanctified as the ideal
foundation of marriage.10 We have noted the importance that historians place on
 Legal records 81
leisure, love letters and literature in this process, and have begun to question whe-
ther this history is somewhat biased towards the middle classes. What if a person’s
illiteracy or poor education made them incapable of writing giddy, frolicsome love
letters? What if their work as a domestic servant allowed them no time to take
moody strolls across ocean cliff-tops during a storm with their lover? Could the
poor afford romantic love? It would be no use looking in the family papers of state
archives to answer this question because diaries and letters were usually left by
those with an eye to posterity, people of wealth and status. Similarly, literature,
romance novels or government reports will have been almost exclusively written by
the middle classes. One of the best sources for cross-class analysis, as social and
cultural historians have taught us, will be legal records.
Having identified law as your source-base you will now need to find legal
actions or suits relevant to romantic love. Your secondary reading has
revealed that courting couples could be found in a range of civil and criminal
actions including abduction, seduction, breach of promise of marriage,
maintenance, sodomy and a variety of sexual assault offences. You may
choose to examine all of these actions within a certain time and place, or just
one or two actions over a long sweep of time. Either way, the discrete cate-
gories that the law presents to you will in practice bleed into each other and
you should follow the source into all the domains of law that it may take
you.11 A case of marital cruelty in the divorce courts may appear earlier as
desertion in the civil courts or assault in the criminal courts. Looking at law
as a fabric, rather than just one thread, will reveal how emotions were subject
to different standards of proof depending on the jurisdiction (the criminal law
preferred bodily traces of sexual violence whereas civil actions were possible
without this) and it will reveal the legal avenues available to litigants who
used, and were not just subject to, the law.12

Legal treatises
Once you have settled upon an action you will need to know the legal ele-
ments required to satisfy the claim, the established defences against the claim
and the remedies offered, such as imprisonment in criminal offences or
financial damages in civil actions. This will help you to understand how
emotional content has been fitted to suit legal purposes and why particular
lines of questioning are being pursued or why certain forms of evidence of
emotion were adduced. Legal treatises had their high point in eighteenth- and
nineteenth-century England when jurists such as Matthew Hale and William
Blackstone sought to codify and systematise the very messy body of common
law that had developed over the centuries. To this extent, treatises will be of
less use for early-modern or medieval scholars, although you might find it
useful to consult Littleton’s Tenures, the key (and possibly, only) treatise in
this period.13 If your library subscribes to databases such as The Making of
Modern Law you can access them there or you should be able to get them in
hard copy from your library or a library attached to a Supreme or High
82 Alecia Simmonds
Court. In the example of nineteenth-century breach of promise of marriage, a
legal treatise, such as Blackstone’s Commentaries on the Laws of England or
Chitty on Contract, would be the most obvious place to go for this informa-
tion.14 Here you would read that the plaintiff needed first to prove that there
was a promise of marriage, and that this did not need to be in writing but
could be established through evidence such as the exchange of letters, lockets
of hair or gifts, walking out together, advertising a wedding date, community
gossip or a trousseau. Do not stop your research with the first definition you
find. Legal treatises were updated on average every ten years, which makes
them an invaluable source for tracking how vernacular romantic practices
became enshrined in law and how courtship practices shifted over time. An
engagement ring, for example, has little place as evidence of a promise of
marriage in nineteenth-century treatises but by the early twentieth century it
was the primary form of proof.15 When read alongside legal cases, treatises
thus demonstrate the everyday life of law, its rhetoric of stability and its more
malleable reality. Changes in treatises happened because people thought that
a particular practice should have legal significance and they argued this in
court. Over time, these successful arguments hardened into precedent until
they were codified in legal treatises, reminding us that law developed from the
ground up as much as it was imposed from the top down. Finally, do not
assume that the legal elements outlined in a treatise will be followed in court.
Judicial discretion, the inapplicability of certain metropolitan laws to the
colonies and, in some instances, ignorance of the law on the part of its prac-
titioners allowed for wide variation in practice.

Newspapers
Having now identified your action and its legal elements, your next step is to go
to the newspapers to find the cases. In some countries, many newspapers are
digitised so it may be simply a matter of searching for your action; alternatively
you can search through police gazettes or microfilm of newspapers in state and
national libraries. The first newspapers, or broadsheets as they were once called,
began to appear in Anglophone countries in the 1600s16 and principles of open
justice meant that in most Western countries courts were generally available to
the public. Descriptions of thronging crowds or rowdy public galleries show that
law was a popular form of entertainment from the medieval period through to
the mid-twentieth century. The press exploited this appetite and often provided
verbatim transcripts of proceedings including pleadings by attorneys, oral state-
ments by witnesses and litigants, directions by judges to the jury, questions by
the jury to the judge, attorneys’ reaction to the judge’s or jury’s decision, audi-
ence reactions throughout the trial and opinion commentary. In many Anglo-
phone countries such as Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and
Ireland, press reports were the only official legal records until the late nineteenth
century and therefore tend to be more reliable than archival records or official
law reports for this period.17 And unlike law reports, which were limited to
 Legal records 83
significant cases in which a principle of law was being debated, the press covered
cases from the lowest to the highest courts. Newspapers are thus an essential
source for legal histories of the emotions, both quantitatively, as a corrective to
archival records, and for the kind of qualitative information they offer. Somatic
evidence offered in newspaper records, such as fainting litigants, weeping attor-
neys or austere judges can reveal how emotional norms were given corporeal
expression and how the body was understood to authenticate inner feelings,
including which emotions were crucial to legal success.18 They also raise ques-
tions that can start to undermine the cliché about law’s timeless privileging of
reason and restraint. When did it become important for the judge to perform
objectivity and how did they do this? How did the laughter of the gallery work to
undermine the seriousness of the plaintiff’s harm? In what ways did the plaintiff
make her suffering intelligible to the court? Was the plaintiff or defendant pun-
ished because of their failure to emote or because of over-emoting? And how do
these affective performances translate to social media today, a primarily textual
medium that also functions as a court of public opinion?
There are, however, drawbacks in using newspapers and gazettes. Editors
may have had a preference for high-profile cases, scandalous proceedings, or
famous litigants and attorneys, or they may focus their coverage on the major
cities rather than regional areas.19 You will also notice that there is no one
true record reported in newspapers. Newspaper reports were generally the
work of court reporters who were not legally trained and did not have access
to court documents. As a result, they could get the complaints or facts wrong,
they may spell the names of litigants incorrectly and those with a literary bent
will provide novelistic details with fictional flourishes often contradicting
crucial details found in other press reports. Rather than being frustrated by
these discrepancies, historians of the emotions can use inconsistencies or
possible fabrications to delve deeper into why the author might have done
this, what romantic plot-lines, what telling details were necessary for a parti-
cular sentimental narrative to seem convincing? How were journalists
involved in the creation and circulation of stories through which people made
meaning of, and assessed their emotions as well as those of other people? And
how did these change over time? Rather than imagining journalists as faithful
transmitters of the truth, we would be better seeing them as one of many
collaborators in the affective production of legal narratives.

Civil and criminal court records

Newspaper reports will provide you with the public face of the hearing, whereas
legal archives will give you access to all the behind-the-scenes action including
witness statements, affidavits, writs, summonses, deposition papers and letters of
pardon. Legal archives are usually found at a state or national repository that will
be called something like the State Records Office or the State Archives, or they
might be attached to a court, such as the Supreme Court or the Coroner’s Court.
Archives in Western nations came to be systematised in the nineteenth century
84 Alecia Simmonds
and, for positivist historians, carried with them the promise of objective, empirical
proof. But don’t be fooled. This official, state version of events is not always more
accurate than that of newspapers. Historians of the medieval and early-modern
period who used civil and criminal records to reconstruct the mentalities of non-
elites, such as Carlo Ginzburg, Natalie Zemon Davis and Laura Gowing, inspired
discussion about the peculiar narrative qualities of these records.20 First, there is
the narratological claim that all transcription involves a degree of fiction. Phe-
nomena does not present itself to perception in the form of a narrative with a
beginning, middle and an end, which means that literary traces of past emotion
will always be an imperfect record of actual feeling. People make meaning of
emotions, it is argued, through emplotting them on a story found within the
existing repertoire of culturally acceptable narratives.21 Confessionals, affidavits or
letters of pardon may appear like life stories; in fact we are reading words that
have crafted events or feelings into narrative form in order to be legally and
socially intelligible.22 Secondly, although the evidence may read like it is coming
from the lips of the lower orders, it almost certainly is not. Legal testimony was
written by third-party clerks who may have omitted certain details, altered phras-
ing and determined the kind of story through questions or requests that were not
recorded.23 Then there is the explicit notarial sequences and legal
formulae, which affect what information will be included and how it will
be structured. In criminal cases, there is further distortion engendered by
the fact that we are dealing with litigants’ or witnesses’ ‘enforced narra-
tives’ recounted after exceptional events (such as murder) under threat of
punishment.24 When we open a criminal file what we often find is a record
of a vulnerable person captured mid-fall within the sticky webs of state
power, who offers a fragmentary, mediated account of an extraordinary
episode in their life, which now comes to us through the vocabulary of
elites. Testimony from the criminal courts is, in Muir and Ruggiero’s
words, ‘polluted with authority’.25 It would be difficult to extrapolate from
this proof of real feeling.
Legal records must thus be approached with prudence, yet it is important
not to generalise. These debates mostly emerged out of historians dealing with
medieval or early modern criminal records and are less applicable to civil
court records, which, as William Reddy has argued, are less prone to distor-
tion.26 Cases, like debt or contract, were often part of the weave and weft of
everyday life, and the narratives of plaintiffs (if not defendants) were wilfully
given. In nineteenth- and twentieth-century Anglophone countries, civil and
criminal case files also appear more heterogeneous than medieval records, as
archival practices developed with the growth of the modern state. In a civil
case file, you may find the petition or writ stating the grievance; a summons;
affidavits by the litigants and witnesses; interrogatories (questions and answers
by the plaintiff and defendant); bills of cost; orders by the court directing who
is to pay for the costs; a praecipe, which is an order to the clerks of the court
to produce a writ containing the formal decree made by the justice, including
a summary of the decision; evidence submitted in support of the plaintiff or
 Legal records 85
defendant, including receipts, photographs, love letters, medical statements or
tickets from trains; and correspondence between the judge and the litigants,
particularly in cases involving alimony or negotiations over child custody.
Criminal records, like civil records, also vary greatly depending upon the
seriousness of the crime. But in general you would be likely to find indict-
ments (records outlining formal criminal charges); warrants for arrests;
depositions, which may include testimony from witnesses or litigants; exhibits;
petitions; confessions; correspondence; additional police statements; medical
evaluations; psychiatric case histories; letters of character; affidavits signed by
the client or friends and family; accounts of trial proceedings (transcribed
directly, or you may find them printed in publications such as The Proceed-
ings of the Old Bailey) and court orders. Thus, life stories recounted in affi-
davits or depositions could be contrasted with evidence produced with no
legal audience in mind such as medical records, letters or diaries. Further,
extra-legal forms of evidence are often inscribed with the judge’s underlining
and marginalia which, when read alongside the judge’s notebooks (sometimes
available in archives), will reveal the forms of popular emotional expression
that were intelligible to law and could be converted into legal rights.
Legal records from a coronial court are also likely to be more conceptually
and materially expansive than a criminal or civil trial, by virtue of the different
rules of evidence governing the procedure. Where the purpose of hearings in an
adversarial system is to abolish ambiguity and to decide upon one correct nar-
rative, with one clear victim and perpetrator, a coronial inquest is structured
according to the rules of evidence governing an inquisitorial system where the
primary purpose is not to win the case, but to discover the truth. The rules of
evidence are more relaxed in inquests into deaths and priority is given to allow-
ing witnesses to tell their own stories without interruption, or cross-examination,
as would occur in an adversarial context. Coronial inquests also contain rich
medical files which may reveal how establishing motivation – which typically
involves questions of emotion – were subject to contested knowledges, and how
different forms of expertise competed for jurisdiction over emotion.27 It is thus
important not to catastrophise when discussing the supposedly distorting effects
of legal records. The evidentiary content of a case file as well as the structure of
legal narratives will vary in accordance with archival practices, whether it is a
civil or criminal trial, and whether it is an adversarial or inquisitorial hearing.
When treated with necessary caution, civil and criminal case files can yield
rich material on the inner lives of people in the past as well as evidence of
changes in emotional standards over time. Extra-legal forms of evidence such
as diaries and letters can give you access to moments of spontaneous feeling
unscripted by legal formula while misunderstanding or conflict between liti-
gants, witnesses and jurists can reveal collisions between popular feelings and
social norms. These tensions also often reveal different emotional standards
across class, evident most clearly when litigants fail to understand a barrister’s
line of questioning or jurors ignore the judge’s instructions and find a clearly
guilty party innocent (female unchastity or infanticide are obvious examples
86 Alecia Simmonds
here). Letters submitted into evidence outlining the breakdown of a relationship,
be it commercial or intimate, can also reveal informal community mechanisms
developed to regulate emotional behaviour. By the time a case reaches court, the
parties have usually already been subject to a series of informal trials conducted
at street level or in houses by neighbours and kin along with threats of commu-
nal sanctions.28 Letters and testimony can reveal the emotional norms that
members of the community believe to have been transgressed and the role of
emotions such as shame, humiliation or guilt, in enforcing social norms. In the
space of one case file, we can see litigants move through a range of different
emotional communities each with their own feeling rules and the fact of the liti-
gant’s transgression (presumably the reason why they have ended up in court)
alongside the community’s reaction to them can give us direct access to the social
and affective norms governing these communities.29

Archives

Affective encounters in the archives

So far, we have discussed archival research as an extractive enterprise, one
where we sift through the legal records contained in the papery catacombs of
state records offices for knowledge of emotions and emotional standards in
the past. But what if we were to take these archives as a source for the history
of the emotions? What if we were to treat the archive ethnographically? This
is an approach that has been recently advocated by historians such as Ann
Laura Stoler, Carolyn Steedman and Arlette Farge, inspired partly by Michel
Foucault’s historically minded interventions into epistemology in the 1960s.30
Rather than seeing archives as containing the truth about the past we should
regard them as ‘the system that establishes statements as events and things’,
he argued.31 Archives authenticate historical knowledge, consolidate and
solidify state power and determine, through exclusionary record-keeping
practices, who and what will be remembered or forgotten.
Like law, archives – with their indexes, taxonomies, stylised grammar of cita-
tion and their promise of objective, impartial, empiricist history – seem like state
memorials to the supremacy of reason. Indeed, we might read them as an
example of sociologist Max Weber’s rationally minded, scientific, bureaucratic
state whose success is measured by its excision of all non-calculable emotional
elements from official business.32 In Weber’s words ‘bureaucratic domination’ is
characterised by ‘a spirit of formalistic impersonality “sine ira el studio” without
hatred or passion, and hence without affection or enthusiasm’.33 Yet legal
records reveal the state’s persistent interest in the intimate and emotional lives of
subjects, as well as showing that legal record keeping was not the positivist
dream of impersonality that Weber imagined.34 Observing how the form and
content of the legal case files that we summon changes over time also allows us
to trace the emotional life of bureaucracy, the way in which the emotional stan-
dards of state record keeping changed over time.
 Legal records 87
For example (and continuing with breach of promise of marriage as our case
study), the judgment papers of the first Supreme Court Breach of Promise action in
Australia in 1823 come bound in pink ribbon and are brimful of different-sized
scraps of paper and seemingly proliferating styles of inky cursive announcing
pleadings, summonses, a transcript of the trial, the original love letters from the
litigants and the bill of costs (which fits on one page).35 It is a cacophony of voices,
literary and legal registers and a rag-bag of sepia-toned papers with none of the
numbered formalities we see later in the century and all the suspense of a good
drama. In place of a writ, we have the following statement of claim by the barrister:
‘the said defendant contriving and fraudulently intending craftily and subtly to
deceive and injure the said plaintiff’ did go on to break his promise.36 The affective
registers found within the judgment papers exceed bureaucratic calculability; they
are perhaps best associated with a form of charismatic authority based on, in
Weber’s words, ‘an emotional form of communal relationship’.37 Of interest to the
historian of the emotions is how these archival remains change throughout the
century, as law becomes professionalised and as new forms of bureaucratic gov-
ernance minister to a developing industrial capitalist system. Adjectives are
replaced by imperatives and hand-written scraps of varying sized paper are colo-
nised by official, typed, standardised forms. Bills of cost grow longer and more
ponderous with each decade as lawyers seek to show off their expertise and to make
their labour calculable as law develops into a technocratic machine. ‘Engaged three
hours at night perusing Belgian and Swedish laws of divorce’ explained one bar-
rister in his bill of costs.38 By the early twentieth century, judgment papers are thin
and impersonal, delivered on pale-institutional blue paper creased into a rectangle.
In certain jurisdictions, the materiality of the archive diminishes as forms of proof
such as love letters or receipts for rings are recorded in itemised lists rather than
preserved in the file. Modern bureaucratic record keeping did not need to preserve
things, letters or voices. Its rationality, stability and calculability was founded on
formal impersonal writing. As love and law began to self-circumscribe, to declare a
learned incompetency in the realm of the other, law and its archival remains
became disenchanted; emotion was banished from the record.

Decolonising archives
Thinking about legal records ethnographically, as a form of material culture that
changes over time, is a crucial step towards decolonising archives, denaturalising
their authority and questioning their spatial limits. Why must we only look for
legal records in state archives? Does this methodological presumption mean that
our legal histories must be confined to societies that had a state, whose forms of
judicial power were exercised within courts, or whose practices of governance
were literate, transcribed on paper and authenticated through archival practices?
Must we only look for law in English-language sources? If the answer is yes, then
we are confining our histories of law and emotions to the West.
For many years, colonised peoples have exposed the complicity of European
research in colonial domination by showing how systems of knowing are also
88 Alecia Simmonds
systems of power as Linda Tuhiwai Smith argued most famously in her book
Decolonising Methodologies. 39 Orders of classification and representation in Eur-
opean archives worked to exclude indigenous knowledges, to assert the superiority
of Western forms of knowing and reformulated archival fragments for political and
violent purposes. State archives were also seen as the natural homeland for law
which was a term that was attached to Europeans and their history, unlike the term
‘custom’ that signified a lesser form of law indicative of uncivilised status, and that
was attached to indigenous peoples and anthropology.40 A recent efflorescence of
scholarship devoted to analysing legal relations between people in a colonial and
imperial context has worked to undermine these colonialist dichotomies by
demonstrating how colonised people used legal argument against Europeans and
by exposing pre-existing indigenous understandings of treaty, property, contract
and sovereignty.41 In seeking to incorporate indigenous voices into the legal record,
these histories are also finding new legal archives and methodologies in areas such
as archaeology, oral testimony, ethnography and material culture.
In many of these multi-sided histories, emotion moves to centre stage as the
medium for law’s expression; like law, sentiment is a language spoken on both
sides of the frontier. For instance, Rebecca Shumway has examined how intimate
diplomatic rituals, known as the palaver system operated between Europeans and
Africans on the Gold Coast of Ghana to effect treaties through oaths and visits.
‘Gifts were delivered to satisfy wrongs done, to signify a promise of loyalty and
demonstrate respect for authorities’, she argues.42 I have similarly suggested that
performances of ‘taio’ or friendship between Australian and Tahitian political
elites in the early nineteenth century ‘enabled the negotiation of trade, sentiment
and authority between cultures; it was where European and Pacific traditions of
friendship became entangled’. What at first glance appeared to be an exchange of
hogs and muskets between Australians and Tahitians dressed up in the finery of
friendship, upon closer examination revealed an elaborate system of contract that
was neither entirely Tahitian nor entirely European, it was an example of legal
hybridity effected through sentiment, gifts and epistolary exchange.43 Writing
postcolonial legal histories of the emotions means being attentive to juridical
structures outside of European legal registers and it means expanding our defini-
tion of a legal record beyond its European archival form.

Conclusion
Once imagined as a ‘vast filing cabinet’44 ministered by bloodless bureaucrats,
the archives of law in fact pulse with emotions. They are sites of affective
encounter between vulnerable people, historians and the state. We can dwell
within the folds of a writ and eavesdrop on the panicked pleas of the poor
and the marginalised as they seek to make their feelings legible to courts in a
quest for freedom, reputation, money or their life. We can see how litigants
shape sentiment according to legal formula and we can listen to the jumble of
voices – lawyers, scribes and clerks – that assist in the process of attaching personal
pain to public legal meanings. Through comparing these archival records with
 Legal records 89
extra-legal sources such as newspapers, etiquette manuals, oral histories or diaries,
we can gauge how the law could both shape and respond to shifts in collective
emotional standards over time. Our task as archival historians can also be both
extractive and ethnographic – to examine legal records for their content but also
for their form. Archives can be analysed as a type of material culture created by
Western states to serve empires and nation, and as a site of Western knowledge
production that excluded indigenous legal traditions and ways of knowing the
past. To this extent, while traditional legal archives found in state records offices
are still rich sources for historians of the emotions, future directions point towards
finding new archives of law outside Western states and taking seriously non-Wes-
tern forms of knowing, recording and narrating the past.

Notes
1 Kathryn Abrams, ‘Emotions in the Mobilization of Rights’, Harvard Civil Rights-
Civil Liberties Law Review 46, no.1 (2011): 551–89 (568). For law and emotions
scholarship see: Susan A Bandes, ed., The Passions of Law (New York: NYU
Press, 1999); Terry A. Maroney, ‘Law and Emotion: A Proposed Taxonomy of an
Emerging Field’, Law and Human Behavior 30, no. 2 (2006): 119–42; Renata
Grossi, ‘Understanding Law and Emotion’, Emotion Review 7, no. 1 (2015): 55–60;
Kathryn Abrams and Hila Keren, ‘Who’s Afraid of Law and the Emotions?’,
Minnesota Law Review 94 (2010): 1997–2074.
2 On feeling rules see Peter N. Stearns and Carol Z. Stearns, ‘Emotionology: Clarifying
the History of Emotions and Emotional Standards’, The American Historical Review
90, no. 4 (1985): 813–36; for emotional regimes see William Reddy, The Navigation of
Feeling: A Framework for the History of Emotions (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2001). For a discussion of the history of the emotions more generally
see: Jan Plamper, ‘The History of Emotions: An Interview with William Reddy, Bar-
bara Rosenwein and Peter Stearns’, History and Theory 49 (May 2010): 237–65; see
also Barbara Rosenwein, ‘Worrying about Emotions in History’, American Historical
Review 107, no. 3 (2002): 821–45.
3 Natalie Zemon Davis, Fiction in the Archives: Pardon Tales and their Tellers in
Sixteenth-Century France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); Laura
Gowing, ‘Gender and the Language of Insult in Early Modern London’, History
Workshop Journal 35 (1993): 1–21; Carlo Ginzburg, The Cheese and the Worms:
The Cosmos of a Sixteenth-Century Miller (London: Penguin, 1982); V.A.C.
Gatrell, The Hanging Tree: Execution and the English People, 1770–1868 (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1994).
4 Natalie Zemon Davis developed the methodology of reading legal sources as col-
lectively crafted and deliberately framed narratives. See Natalie Zemon Davis,
Fiction in the Archives.
5 Merridee Bailey and Kimberley Joy-Knight, ‘Writing Histories of Law and Emo-
tion’, The Journal of Legal History 38, no. 2 (2017): 117–29; Joanne McEwan,
‘Judicial Sources’, in Early Modern Emotions: An Introduction, ed. Susan Broom-
hall (London: Routledge, 2016), Section III, Chapter 8.
6 Ann Laura Stoler, ‘Colonial Archives and the Arts of Governance: On the Content
in the Form’, in Archives, Documentation and Institutions of Social Memory:
Essays from the Sawyer Seminar, ed. Francis X Blouin Jr and William. G Rosen-
berg (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2010), 267–80.
7 Ann Laura Stoler, Along the Archival Grain: Epistemic Anxieties and Colonial
Common Sense (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009), 20.
90 Alecia Simmonds
8 Carolyn Steedman, Dust: The Archive and Cultural History (New Brunswick:
Rutgers University Press, 2002); Antoinette Burton, ‘Introduction: Archive Fever,
Archive Stories’, in Archive Stories: Facts, Fictions and the Writing of History, ed.
Antoinette Burton (Ann Arbor: Duke University Press, 2005); Arlette Farge, Le
Gout de l’Archive (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1989).
9 See Ann Curthoys, Jessie Mitchell and Saliha Belmessous, Native Claims: Indi-
genous Law against Empire, 1500–1920 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011);
Alecia Simmonds, ‘Cross-Cultural Friendship and Legal Pluralities in the Early
Pacific Salt-Pork Trade’, Journal of World History 28 no. 2 (2017): 219–48.
10 Lawrence Stone, The Family, Sex and Marriage in England, 1500–1800, abr. ed.
(New York: Harper Perennial, 1983); Ellen Rothman, Hands and Hearts: A His-
tory of Courtship in America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987);
Karen Lystra, Searching the Heart: Women, Men, and Romantic Love in Nine-
teenth-Century America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); John R.
Gillis, For Better, For Worse, British Marriages 1600 to the Present (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1985); Clare Langhamer, The English in Love (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2015).
11 Stephen Robertson also makes this point. See ‘What’s Law Got to Do with It?
Legal Records and Sexual Histories’, Journal of the History of Sexuality 14, no. 1
(2005): 161–85.
12 Ibid.
13 T. Littleton, Tenores Novelli (London, 1489) as cited in A.W.B Simpson, ‘The Rise
and Fall of the Legal Treatise: Legal Principles and the Forms of Legal Literature’,
University of Chicago Law Review 48, no. 3 (1981): 632–79
14 See, for example: Joseph Chitty, A Practical Treatise on the Law of Contracts not
under Seal, and upon the Usual Defences to the Actions Thereon (London: G. and
C. Merriam, 1826); William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England: in
four books (Lipincott: Grambot and Company, 1855).
15 Alecia Simmonds, ‘Possessive Love: The Romantic Life of Legal Objects in Breach
of Promise of Marriage Cases 1880–1940’, chapter to be published in Courting: A
History of Love and Law in Australia (Melbourne: Black Inc., 2021).
16 David Paul Nord, A History of American Newspapers and Their Readers (Urbana:
University of Illinois Press, 2001).
17 Michael Bryan, The Modern History of Law Reporting (Melbourne: University of
Melbourne Collections, 2012), 11.
18 See: David Lemmings, ed., Crime, Courtrooms, and the Public Sphere in Britain,
1700–1850 (Farnham: Ashgate, 2013); Katie Barclay, ‘Singing, Performance and
Lower-Class Masculinity in the Dublin Magistrates’ Court, 1820–1850’, Journal of
Social History 47, no. 3 (2014): 746–68; Alecia Simmonds, ‘“She Felt Strongly the
Injury to her Affections”: Breach of Promise of Marriage and the Medicalisation
of Heartbreak in Early Twentieth-Century Australia’, Journal of Legal History 38,
no. 2 (2017): 179–202.
19 Reddy, The Navigation of Feeling, 260.
20 Ginzburg, The Cheese and the Worms; Zemon Davis, Fiction in the Archives;
Gowing, ‘The Language of Insult’.
21 Narratology theory is most famously advanced in history by Hayden White. See
Hayden White, ‘The Value of Narrativity in the Representation of Reality’, Cri-
tical Inquiry 7, no. 1 (1980): 5–27.
22 See Zemon Davis, Fiction in the Archives.
23 Joanne McEwan, ‘Judicial Records’; Stephen Robertson also discusses distortions
caused by interpreters, Crimes against Children: Sexual Violence and Legal Culture
in New York City, 1880–1960 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press,
2005), Chapters 4 and 6.
24 Farge, Le Gout de l’Archive; Robertson, ‘What’s Law Got to Do With It?’, 161–3.
 Legal records 91
25 Edward Muir and Guido Ruggiero, ‘Introduction: The Crime of History,’ in His-
tory from Crime, ed. Edward Muir and Guido Ruggiero (Baltimore: Johns Hop-
kins University Press, 1994), ix.
26 Reddy, The Navigation of Feeling, 260.
27 For research on coronial courts see: Ian A. Burney, Bodies of Evidence: Medicine
and the Politics of the English Inquest 1830–1926 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity Press, 2000); Catie Gilchrist, Murder, Misadventure and Miserable Ends:
Tales from a Colonial Coroner’s Court (Sydney: HarperCollins, 2019); Alecia
Simmonds, Wild Man: A Police Killing, Mental Illness and the Law (Melbourne:
Affirm Press, 2014), Chapter 2.
28 Alecia Simmonds, ‘Promises and Pie-Crusts were Made to be Broke: Breach of
Promise of Marriage and the Regulation of Courtship in Early Colonial Australia’,
Australian Feminist Law Journal 23, no. 1 (2005): 99–120.
29 Barbara Rosenwein, ‘Worrying about Emotions in History’, American Historical
Review 107, no. 3 (June 2002): 821–45.
30 Stoler, Along the Archival Grain; Steedman, Dust; Farge, Le Gout de l’archive.
31 Michel Foucault, The Archaeology of Knowledge (London: Tavistock Publications,
1972), 128–30.
32 Stoler, Along the Archival Grain, 68–69.
33 Max Weber, Economy and Society (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978),
225.
34 Stoler, Along the Archival Grain.
35 Cox v Payne 1825, NSW State Archives, NRS 13471 [9/5198].
36 Ibid.
37 Weber, Economy and Society, 254.
38 Lundgren v O’Brien (VICSC), (1921) Public Records Office of Victoria VPRS 267,
P0002, unit no 000016, number 70.
39 Linda Tuhiwai Smith, Decolonising Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peo-
ples (Dunedin: University of Otago Press, 1999); Aileen Moreton-Robertson,
‘Whiteness, Epistemology and Indigenous representation’, in Whitening Race:
Essays in Social and Cultural Criticism, ed. Aileen Moreton-Robinson (Canberra:
Australian Studies Press, 2004), 75–88.
40 See Curthoys et al., Native Claims; Saliha Belmessous, ed., Empire by Treaty:
Negotiating European Expansion, 1600–1900 (New York: Oxford University Press,
2015); Alecia Simmonds, ‘Cross-Cultural Friendship’, ed. Lauren A. Benton and
Richard Jeffrey Ross, Legal Pluralism and Empires, 1500–1850 (New York: New
York University Press, 2013), 6.
41 See Belmessous Empire by Treaty. See also: Lauren Benton, Law and Colonial
Cultures: Legal Regimes in World History (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2002); John Griffiths, ‘What Is Legal Pluralism?’ Journal of Legal Pluralism
and Unofficial Law 24, no. 1 (1986): 1–55; Sally Engle Merry, ‘Legal Pluralism’,
Law and Society Review 22, no. 5 (1988): 869–96 (869); Sally Falk Moore, ‘Law
and Social Change: The Semi-Autonomous Social Field as an Appropriate Subject
of Study’, Law and Society Review 7, no. 4 (1973): 719–46.
42 Rebecca Shumway, ‘Palavers and Treaty Making in the British Acquisition of the
Gold Coast Colony (West Africa)’, in Empire by Treaty, ed. Belmessous, 162.
43 Simmonds, ‘Cross-Cultural Friendship’.
44 Moser Benjamin, ‘In the Sontag Archives’ (2014), The New Yorker, blog 30 January
2014, as cited in Trish Luker and Katherine Biber, ‘Evidence and the Archive: Ethics,
Aesthetics, and Emotion,’ Australian Feminist Law Journal 40, no. 1 (2014),
http://classic.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/UTSLRS/2014/3.html, accessed 12 Novem-
ber 2019.
8 Institutional records
A comment
Catharine Coleborne and Peter N. Stearns

Legal records, discussed in the previous chapter, offer a vivid illustration of

how institutional records can be used to further the history of emotion. There
are other opportunities, and this comment suggests some of the possibilities –
but also highlights some real challenges.
For many historians, institutional records and archives are the backbone of
historical research. After all, institutions – government agencies, hospitals,
orphanages, business firms, trade unions – can be fairly clearly identified, and
while many do not have archives, or do not permit access, some are readily
available. Many crucial institutional archives are centred in the seats of govern-
ments, but there are many local opportunities as well. In some cases – most
clearly with government agencies, but in some other instances beyond these –
archives are quite well organised, even offering professional guidance to the
materials available. Many historians also simply find archives enjoyable. They
can be treasure troves of data, inviting discovery, sometimes offering unexpected
materials in what seems to be a routine collection of documents.
For historians of emotion, however, institutional sources did not initially
figure prominently in the research base, simply because institutions often do
not seem deeply involved with emotional experience. Other kinds of mate-
rials, discussed in several of the chapters in this book, seemed more directly
relevant. Institutional records, in contrast, fell more into the province of
political or business historians, or sometimes local history enthusiasts. And
some kinds of institutional records – for example diplomatic archives or
trade union holdings – have only just recently been approached with the
history of emotions in mind, allowing for considerable space for future
developments (for example, in dealing with varied emotional presentations
and expectations during treaty negotiations).1
Yet certain kinds of institutional records turn out to be highly relevant
to work on the history of emotion, though it is fair to say that many
opportunities remain to be explored. They may offer data on four aspects
of emotions history: first, policies that help shape emotional experience, or
at least are intended to do so; second, attitudes of officials towards the
emotions of others (sometimes in the form of marginal notations on some
official report); third, comments directly from affected individuals, clients
 Institutional records 93
or victims of the institution whose emotional experience is otherwise hard
to locate; and fourth, in providing access to the emotional culture or
norms of the institution itself.
On the policy side, many modern institutions deliberately seek to shape emo-
tional presentations to the advantage of the institution. This process has been
traced, for example, in the case of department store assistants and other mainly
white-collar employees from the late nineteenth century onward. Using records
from personnel departments, several historians have explored how stores sought
to train sales personnel, sometimes from working-class backgrounds, in the
emotional expectations of middle-class customers. The premise that ‘the custo-
mer is always right’ often carried emotional components, particularly when the
customers involved were angry and abusive. Presentations of a cheerful persona
were seen as vital components of successful sales strategies, often at real
emotional cost to the employees involved.2
Other modern institutions invite attention in terms of emotion-shaping
policies. The records of schools and educational districts are only beginning
to be examined closely in terms of the emotional intent or impact of policies
that sought to condition children’s emotional experience. Work by historians
such as Kristine Alexander, Karen Vallgårda and Stephanie Olsen, however,
has indicated that schools are key sites of ‘emotional formation’, where chil-
dren are socialised into the emotional norms and standards of their society,
and ‘emotional frontiers’, where students encounter and have to reconcile a
different set of emotional norms to those they were socialised with at home.3
Equally important is the opportunity to use institutional archives to gain
information about emotional judgements by officials of various sorts on
populations they dealt with. Most institutional archives themselves were
assembled and organised by people in power, and reflect strong emotional
biases. Reports, but also side notes, frequently conveyed disdain for the
emotional cultures, or ascribed emotional cultures, of lower-class, or minority
or (in the case of imperial archives) indigenous peoples. Some comments may
be fairly predictable, as officials sought to contrast their ‘rationality’ with the
apparently undisciplined emotional outbursts of others, but they nevertheless
reveal some of the emotional tensions with which various government
agencies grappled in the past. In other cases, however, reactions may be par-
ticularly revealing, occasionally including expressions of emotional sympathy
for groups (like domestic servants) easily victimised by others.4 In a similar
vein, welfare records tell deeply personal stories of interventions into the lives
of others, and also hint at the expectations of emotional behaviours, responses
and protocols, often in the face of traumatic experience, or the mundanity of
poverty and dependency.5
Probably the most exciting opportunities in institutional records, however,
lie in what they can reveal about groups and individuals whose emotional
experience is otherwise almost impossible to recapture. The discussion about
legal records in this volume has already suggested some of these possibilities,
but other kinds of institutions are relevant as well. For example, from the
94 Catharine Coleborne and Peter N. Stearns
mid-nineteenth century onward various government agencies, sometimes sup-
plemented by private research operations, sought to gain a better under-
standing of suicide rates, as suicide began to shift from a religious offence to a
legal and then psychological problem. Institutions began to collect data on
suicides, with some published reports, and sought to correlate their findings
with other kinds of indicators – age groups and gender, economic conditions
and so on. Institutional records also sometime included suicide notes or other
reactions that more explicitly suggest emotional components; commentary on
attempted suicides can also be revealing. Historians including John Weaver
have been using these institutional data, including coroners’ reports, revealing
rich and disturbing evidence about the emotional components of the act,
though he also reminds us that ‘the ambition to probe people’s lives through
the exceptional act of suicide is fraught with epistemological difficulty’.6
Institutional records of suicide and other signs of emotional disturbance
sometimes offer opportunities for quantification. Several suicide studies have
used institutional records, both published and unpublished, to try to analyse
not only changes in incidence but also shifts in causation. To date, however, it
is not clear whether quantitative techniques are entirely compatible with the
exploration of emotional factors as opposed to more easily measurable data
such as economic cycles or participation in war.
The most elaborate use of institutional records for the history of emotion
(outside of the legal domain) involves the archives and published reports of
hospitals, mental institutions and some other social agencies such as orphanages.
In the case of orphanages, for example, materials highlight often shocking
emotional abuse or attempts to shape children’s emotional responses, but also,
occasionally, comments from children themselves or other relatives expressing
deep emotional attachment despite economic constraints that prevented other
forms of care.7 Some recent work has also highlighted positive emotional rela-
tionships developed within such institutions.8
Other psychiatric and welfare institutions offer even greater opportunities.
The case record, a record of a patient’s illness, treatment and recovery, is an
artefact of the nineteenth century that has been especially useful for historians
of emotions. ‘Knowing’ populations, especially those people who came into
contact with the social institutions of the period, including medical, welfare
and correctional institutions, was a fundamental ambition of the age.9 The
invention of the ‘case’ as a technology of seeing and understanding institu-
tional populations gave rise to the rich and detailed archival collections
housed in national, state and local repositories and public records offices.
These collections later proved to be vital to the development of social his-
tories of mental health, state dependence and care, and crime and incarcera-
tion in the twentieth century.10 Following proforma conventions as required
by legislation in the 1860s, case notes in both imperial and colonial worlds
arguably produced forms of narrative. The ‘shifting subjects’ of, for example,
mentally unwell women, present historians with opportunities to write about
their resistance to institutional regimes and the possible meanings of their
 Institutional records 95
11
utterances and beliefs. John Harley Warner’s work on the transformation of
the medical clinical case record over time, and his argument that clinical cases
expressed ‘narrative preferences’, highlight the opportunities for tracking
changing emotional norms and their applications in relation to health and
institutional life.12
In these psychiatric cases, historians have been able to ‘read against the grain’
to hear and listen to the emotions of the past; psychiatry and its institutions
placed great emphasis on emotions, both excesses of emotion and the absence of
emotion. Productive methods include attention to case note language, patient
utterances (the comments of the mad themselves), paying attention to the
observations of others, and to the tiny shards of emotion as recorded in marginal
notations.13 Understanding the communication flows between medical autho-
rities, patients and families reveals depth of emotion – from sorrow, anger and
bewilderment to resignation, love and gratitude. In the same way, interpreting
the material cultures of former psychiatric hospitals can remind us of the objects
of everyday life, personal effects, and the remembrances of those people who
were institutionalised and who lost their things, or left them behind. These are
sometimes stark reminders of emotional cultures in the midst of regimes of care
and control.14 We might go so far as to describe institutional records as an
‘emotional archive’.15
Evidence around emotions also surfaced in projects about families and
their advocacy for inmates, as well as the patterns of emotional detachment
and withdrawal witnessed in the case files of indigenous peoples confined in
asylums. Take, for instance, the case of aboriginal patients in the hospitals for
the insane in Canada or New Zealand, and historians’ insightful readings of
their patient journeys. The stories of people who were confined inside Eur-
opean institutions, out of place and culturally dislocated, provide powerful
reminders of the emotional traces of violent dispossession of land in colonised
places.16 The work to ‘locate’ understandings of ethnicity and disability in
past institutional records also provided methodological insights. Were these
categories and labels even relevant in the nineteenth century? Much like the
question of where we might ‘find’ emotion, historians can see representations
of ethnic difference and bodily difference as evidence of an emerging story of
these categories applying in context to specific people.17 As is explored in the
chapter on intersectional identities, these shifting ideas about bodies and
identities framed how the emotions of the patient and their capacity to exer-
cise agency were interpreted.
One important question about the historical use of case records is the question
of how far these sources could be said to ‘produce’ meanings about their subjects
for contemporaries that were then put into wider circulation; and just how far we
might understand the relevance of the surrounding contexts that also created the
‘material’ for cases. This gets to the heart of the idea of emotional cultures. In
other words, what discursive power do clinical cases hold? When considering
past emotions, how should we understand the intersections between the social
worlds of the past and the emotions we perceive in the case records? Did these
96 Catharine Coleborne and Peter N. Stearns
emotions surface, infiltrate spaces and move between peoples in the past? What
evidence do we have to understand the emotions we find? When placed into
context alongside other records from the period, the circulation of ideas about
emotion, their application to individual bodies and how people experienced
those emotions can become clearer.
If the case notes offer one critical source for understanding emotion, insti-
tutions have produced a further array of records. Even something as see-
mingly dry as the account book are now being put to scrutiny by historians of
emotion. Susan Broomhall has suggested how hospital accounts, with their
meticulous record of individual property, could be read as an act of care;
Katie Barclay has highlighted how keeping accounts structures relationships
between individuals and institutions, acting to produce certain forms of
emotional encounter.18 That numbers, accounting and statistics can make the
people who are measured feel anxious – especially if they might be deemed to
‘underperform’ – highlights their potential as a record of emotion; conversely
numbers can help people feel safe, such as when we are told that the chances
of getting an illness are especially low. Institutional records play important
roles within their institutions that have impact on human bodies and so pro-
vide an opportunity to access the emotional worlds of those who engage with
such organisations. Future research about institutional records looks to be an
especially fruitful area for further research for historians of emotion, and can
be especially important for groups – like the very poor or indigenous – whose
experiences can be challenging to identify outside of these records.
Finally, the researcher’s own emotions provide fertile ground for self-
reflexive examinations of the sober institutional archive. Reflecting again on
institutional records of the former hospitals for the insane, Sally Swartz writes
about the frustrations and ‘inner despair’ of the archival researcher whose
own ‘apathy, protest or depression’ is like that of the confined psychiatric
patient. This frustration, she suggests, springs from the sheer impossibility of
‘matching word to feeling’ in the ‘landscape of narrative’ that is writing his-
tory using case records.19 If the archive is, as scholars have claimed, a ‘contact
zone’, or an ‘emotional arena’ where researcher and source materials collide,
connect and find meaning through a new encounter, there may well be an
intimacy in this encounter, with the researcher bringing her own emotions to
the search for specific sources and trails of knowledge.20

Notes
1 Jack Saunders, ‘Emotions, Social Practices and the Changing Composition of
Class, Race and Gender in the National Health Service, 1970–79: “Lively Discus-
sion Ensued”’, History Workshop Journal 88 (2019): 204–28; On emotional fea-
tures of diplomatic history, see David Taylor, ‘Trauma and Emotion in the
Battlefield Correspondence of Andrew Mitchell’, Emotions: History, Culture,
Society 2, no. 2 (2018): 292–311; Susan Butler, Roosevelt and Stalin: Portrait of a
Partnership (New York: Random House, 2015).
 Institutional records 97
2 Susan Porter Benson, Counter Cultures: Saleswomen, Managers, and Customers in
American Department Stores, 1890–1940 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press,
1988); Arlie Hochschild, The Outsourced Self: Intimate Life in Market Times (New
York: Metropolitan Press, 2012).
3 Stephanie Olsen, ‘The History of Childhood and the Emotional Turn’, History
Compass 15, no. 11 (2017): 1–10; and, Peter N. Stearns and Clio Stearns, ‘Amer-
ican Schools and the Uses of Shame: An Ambiguous History’, History of Educa-
tion 46, no. 1 (2016): 58–75.
4 Theresa McBride, The Domestic Revolution: The Modernisation of Household
Service in England and France (London: Croom, Helm, 1976); Kenneth Wheeler,
‘Infanticide in Nineteenth-Century Ohio’, Journal of Social History 31 (1997):
407–18.
5 Bronwyn Labrum, ‘Negotiating an Increasing Range of Functions: Families and
the Welfare State’, in Past Judgement: Social Policy in New Zealand History, ed.
Bronwyn Dalley and Margaret Tennant (Dunedin: Otago University Press, 2004).
157–74.
6 John C. Weaver, A Sadly Troubled History: The Meanings of Suicide in the Modern
Age (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 2009), 4–5.
7 Timothy Hacsi, A Second Home: Orphan Asylums and Poor Families in America
(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997).
8 Susan Broomhall, ‘Beholding Suffering and Providing Care: Emotional Perfor-
mances on the Death of Poor Children in Sixteenth-Century French Institutions’,
in Death, Emotion and Childhood in Premodern Europe, ed. Katie Barclay, Kim
Reynolds, with Ciara Rawnsley (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2016), 65–86.
9 Catharine Coleborne, Insanity, Identity and Empire: Colonial Institutional Con-
finement in Australia and New Zealand, 1870–1910 (Manchester: Manchester
University Press, 2015).
10 France Iacovetta and Wendy Mitchinson, eds, On the Case: Explorations in Social
History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998).
11 Catharine Coleborne, ‘Institutional Case Files’, in Sources and Methods in His-
tories of Colonialism: Approaching the Imperial Archive, ed. Kirsty Reid and Fiona
Paisley (London: Routledge, 2017), 113–28.
12 John Harley Warner, ‘Narrative at the Bedside: The Transformation of the Patient
Record in the Long Nineteenth Century’, unpublished public lecture, King’s Col-
lege London, 16 January 2013.
13 For examples of these reading techniques, see Catharine Coleborne, ‘Families,
Patients and Emotions: Asylums for the Insane in Colonial Australia and New
Zealand, 1880s-1910’, Social History of Medicine 19, no. 3 (2006): 425–42; and
Stef Eastoe, ‘Excitement, Tears and Sadness: The Meaning, Experience and
Expression of Emotion in the Long-Stay Asylum’, unpublished paper, Society for
the Social History of Medicine Conference, Liverpool, 11–13 July 2018.
14 Linnea Kuglitsch, ‘“Kindly Hearts and Tender Hands”: Exploring the Asylum and
Patient Narratives through the Archaeological Record’, unpublished paper, Society
for the Social History of Medicine Conference, Liverpool, 11–13 July 2018.
15 See Eastoe, ‘Excitement, Tears and Sadness’.
16 Robert Menzies and Ted Palys, ‘Turbulent Spirits: Aboriginal Patients in the Brit-
ish Columbia Psychiatric System, 1879–1950’, in Mental Health and Canadian
Society: Historical Perspectives, ed. James E. Moran and David Wright (Montreal:
McGill-Queens University Press, 2006), 149–75.
17 Catharine Coleborne, ‘Locating Ethnicity in the Hospitals for the Insane: Revisiting
Casebooks as Sites of Knowledge Production about Colonial Identities in Victoria,
Australia, 1873–1910’, in Migration, Ethnicity, and Mental Health: International
Perspectives, 1840–2010, ed. Angela McCarthy and Catharine Coleborne (London:
Routledge, 2012), pp. 73–90; and, Catharine Coleborne, ‘Disability in Colonial
98 Catharine Coleborne and Peter N. Stearns
Institutional Records’, in The Oxford Handbook of Disability History, ed. Michael
A. Rembis, Kim Nielsen and Catherine Kudlick (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2018), 281–92.
18 Broomhall, ‘Beholding Suffering’; Katie Barclay, ‘Illicit Intimacies: the Many
Families of Gilbert Innes of Stow (1751–1832)’, Gender & History 27, no. 3 (2015):
576–90.
19 Sally Swartz, ‘Asylum Case Records: Fact and Fiction’, Rethinking History 22, no.
3 (2018): 289–301 (295, 291).
20 See Antoinette Burton, ed., Archive Stories: Facts, Fictions, and the Writing of
History (Durham: Duke University Press, 2005), 25; Florencia E. Mallon, ‘The
Promise and the Dilemma of Subaltern Studies: Perspectives from Latin American
history’, American Historical Review 99 (1994): 1491–1515; and Adrian R. Bailey,
Catherine Brace and David C. Harvey, ‘Three Geographers in an Archive: Posi-
tions, Predilections and Passing Comment on Transient Lives’, Transactions of the
Institute of British Geographers 34 (2009): 254–69.
9 Narratives of the self
Marcelo J. Borges

First-person accounts, documents of life, life writing, ego-documents: called by

different names according to discipline and approach, narratives of the self have
attracted attention from historians and other scholars in the humanities and
social sciences for over a century.1 By providing a personal perspective into how
individuals named, made sense of and communicated what they felt in connec-
tion to self and others, these narratives provide a window into the emotional
experiences of the past. They also show how feelings and their related emotions
varied according to life and historical circumstances, with shifting conceptions of
self along the narrator’s life cycle, and with the influence of different cultural,
socio-political and spatial contexts. This chapter offers a methodological discus-
sion about the use of personal narratives to explore emotion work in the past,
and points to selected scholarly examples published mostly in English. Narra-
tives of the self take a variety of forms, including letters, dairies, memoirs, auto-
biography and oral history. Each type has a rich scholarly tradition and
methodological trajectory. The discussion that follows focuses on personal let-
ters, with a few references to personal diaries. It considers the methodological
implications of writing practices, form and materiality.

Writing, self-making and emotions

As the main medium of expression, writing is central for most narratives of
the self (except for oral histories and testimonies). Therefore, students inter-
ested in personal narratives need to consider writing practices and conven-
tions. Access to writing has evolved over time. The expansion of literacy
around the world was uneven, with marked national and regional variations,
and clear differences along sex, class and ethno-racial lines.2 But the last two
hundred years witnessed a steady upward expansion that included once mar-
ginal groups resulting in a diversification of voices and perspectives. This is
clear when looking at letter writing, the most common of all personal writing
practices. Originally reserved for lettered men in the upper echelons of society,
in the eighteenth century letter writing began a steady expansion that initially
included elite and middle-class women, and during the nineteenth century it
reached a growing number of individuals from the popular classes.3
100 Marcelo J. Borges
Increasing levels of literacy and schooling were important factors in this evo-
lution, but focusing only on formal education obscures a more complex reality
characterised by a broader exposure to and experience with the written word
among the barely literate and purportedly illiterate. Literacy and illiteracy were
part of a fluid continuum, as were the connections between oral and written
communication. Among peasant cultures in Europe and Latin America, for
example, where levels of formal literacy were lower than among the middling
urban sectors, ‘literacy was not’, in the words of Martyn Lyons, ‘a stable level of
skill but rather a process, which developed independently of formal schooling
and grew or declined within a context of primary oral culture’.4
Writing is also important for personal narratives because its practice con-
tributes to self-making, a process that occurs in relation with others and in
interaction with the writer’s social and cultural world. In her study of female
writing culture in eighteenth-century France, Dena Goodman states, ‘Writing
helps individuals who are socially embedded to reflect on themselves, their
relationships, their society, their world, and to make choices based on their
own standards and values’.5 This is ‘the paradox of correspondence’, Good-
man adds, ‘that one addresses the other to find oneself ’.6 Thus, what a person
discovers as part this reflection, how it is felt and interpreted, and the emo-
tional dispositions and actions that emerge from this process vary in different
contexts and according to different audiences. It is this relational character
that makes personal correspondence a rich source for emotion history.
This may happen in ways that writers themselves are not fully aware. As
Michael Roper observes in his study of letters exchanged by British soldiers
and their families during the First World War, ‘emotional states are incited by
and fostered through communication – conscious or unconscious – with
others’.7 The presence of the other may be more evident in personal letters
because they require a correspondent, but it is equally present in other forms
of personal narratives. This is illustrated by diverse historical examples, such
as diaries written by women who shared them with their husbands, and of
diaries written for specific audiences under the auspices of state organisations
or research initiatives.8 In this way, the line between private and public
became fluid, as it did in the many ways that the emotional conventions and
language of literature and popular culture fashioned the emotion work that
took place in the intimate context of diary writing.9
The insight that narratives of the self are not made in isolation but in the
world make them particularly suitable sources to explore emotional dynamics in
historical contexts. Since its inception as a field of historical enquiry, emotion
history has situated individuals and their feelings in their wider sociocultural
environment.10 ‘There is no practice of the mind that is not in the world’, in the
words of the historian of emotions Rob Boddice.11 As a biocultural phenom-
enon, emotions are intrinsically social and are embedded in a broader historical
and cultural context. ‘For what happens in private’, continues Boddice, ‘is no less
of a social barometer of emotional prescription that what happens in social
interactions.’12 Dominant cultural values and social mores shape private
 Narratives of the self 101
narratives; and even when personal narratives are used to express sentiments that
fall beyond commonly accepted values and social prescriptions, there is an
awareness of this transgressive position, thus reinforcing the interconnectedness
of private and public in narratives of the self. This dynamic interaction has been
observed by scholars in diverse cultural and historical contexts, from colonial
Ghana to Second World War Japan to Stalin’s Russia.13 Writing in society con-
nects with another fundamental principle of emotion history. As an expression of
thoughts and feelings, personal writing not only contributes to self-making but,
through textualisation, it also shapes feelings and creates emotional experiences.
In turn, emotional dispositions created in this interconnected way, condition
choices and effect action.

Accessing sources
Their relational nature and their capacity for self-building and emotion-
building make personal letters promising sources to explore the emotion work
of individuals in historical context. Because epistolary writing was more
widespread than other types of personal documents, letters also have the
potential of illuminating the emotional expressions and experiences of larger
and more diverse populations of the past. In addition to the caveat of unequal
access to literacy, another potential limitation of this source results from the
relative scarcity and fragmentary character of archival sources. Only a small
fraction of the millions of letters exchanged since the upswing in letter writing
in the nineteenth century has survived, and only a small part of that is avail-
able in archives. The serendipity of archival preservation needs to be con-
sidered by researchers.
Letters from prominent people outnumber those from people from the pop-
ular sectors. There has been, however, a growing effort to uncover and preserve
personal writings from common people. Interest in the commemoration of
people’s efforts during times of struggle and sacrifice, such as international
conflicts and prolonged economic downturns, and in transformative historical
phenomenon at a large scale, such as mass migrations, have led the way. In
Great Britain, the National Archives and the Imperial War Museum, for
example, house extensive collections of personal letters exchanged between
soldiers and their families during the two world wars, as does the Australian
War Memorial, the German National Archives and the Museo Storico del
Trentino in Italy.14 Collections are also archived in numerous local, regional
and university repositories.
Only a small portion of this material is available online, but this situation is
changing rapidly with ongoing digitisation initiatives. The Canadian Letters
and Images Project provides an online digital archive with personal writings
and photographs exchanged during several international conflicts from the
nineteenth and twentieth centuries.15 In the case of migrant letters, the Uni-
versity of Minnesota’s Immigration History Research Center has created an
online platform with a selection of correspondence from migrants and their
102 Marcelo J. Borges
families in the United States, Europe, Asia and Latin America.16 These are
only two examples of multiple ongoing digitisation projects. In Italy, Spain
and Scandinavia, interest in the writings of common people have led to out-
reach efforts in local communities to solicit personal documents, including
letters, diaries and photographs, as has an interest in life-writing practices in
Great Britain and France.17 Taking advantage of these undertakings, the
digital platform Europeana Collections is working with national archives and
libraries to provide a mega-portal at the pan-European level for hundreds of
thousands of items, including personal documents.18
In addition to these archival projects, historians have used their skills and
imagination to uncover hidden epistolary treasures in private possession and
in official archives where personal letters sometimes appear together with
records of official business such as criminal proceedings, land tenure disputes,
passport applications, censorship offices and welfare assistance. Finally, since
the early efforts of William Thomas and Florian Znaniecki’s study of first-
person accounts of Polish migration in the United States, scholarly interest in
narratives of the self gave way to published collections of original sources.19
The editorial intervention on these collections, however, has varied widely –
from selections to transcriptions in full. Researchers interested in using these
personal documents need to consider the impact of these interventions on the
sources and its consequences for a study that seeks to uncover emotion work
at the individual level through the perspective of the self.20

Epistolary practices and materiality

Writing is highly dependent on personal circumstances and perceived needs.
People felt the desire or obligation to write for a host of reasons, but the one
circumstance that propelled increasing numbers of individuals to engage in
letter writing was growing geographic mobility. From approximately the mid-
nineteenth to the mid-twentieth century, the twin phenomena of international
wars and migrations put tens of millions of people on the move, at the same
time that a standardised and globally connected postal system made the
exchange of letters more reliable. What followed was a continuous expansion
of personal writing and its diversification, as increasing numbers of common
individuals made writing their own, overcoming limitations of form and
grammar, thus opening new avenues for self-expression. There is a vast his-
torical scholarship that uses letters of migrants, soldiers and their families to
explore the emotional dynamics created by mobility and separation, and their
impact on social relations and identity. This was a worldwide phenomenon,
but the cases used in this chapter come mostly from Europe and the transo-
ceanic spaces connected to it through migration and war. With the socio-
cultural diversification of writing practices, other forms of personal writing,
such as diaries and memoirs, also expanded in this period as ordinary people
acquired more tools to reflect on their experiences in a world rapidly changing
around them.
 Narratives of the self 103
Whether mobilised by war, in the case of soldiers, or by the prospect of better
opportunities, in the case of migrants, letter writers were connected to home and
sought to reassure those left behind and be reassured by them that personal
bonds stayed strong. Letters also provided the vehicle to cope with the emotional
strains and tensions in family relations that came from separation and distance.
The exchange of letters was the main conduit to keep relationships alive and
restore them when they were under stress. Most historians who have analysed
family letters would agree that the main emotional work letters did was to reas-
sure that relationships continue. Reciprocity is a fundamental principle of per-
sonal correspondence. ‘What remains constant is the commitment to remain in
communication’, writes David Gerber, who characterises this principle as an
‘aversion of discontinuity’ that was ‘at the heart of these epistolary ties’.21 Other
scholars use the term ‘epistolary pact’ to refer to the principle of writing reci-
procity.22 As a result, researchers who venture in personal letter collections soon
notice that letters are often about other letters. The flow of letters is a central
emotional component of the epistolary practice. References to the sending and
arrival of letters, promises of writing or recrimination for not keeping a regular
writing schedule were among the most common topics. We must resist the
temptation to dismiss these references as busy talk or formulaic, as they con-
tributed to the emotional experience of letter writers and readers. In the case of
war, the arrival of a letter acquired a vital sense, as it was proof of a loved one’s
survival; but, if less extreme, a similar effect was produced by the arrival of mis-
sives among families separated by migration, for whom the threat of oblivion
and abandonment were constant reminders of the fragility of living apart.
By ‘making the absent correspondent seem almost palpably present’, as
Martha Hanna puts it, the physicality of the letter contributed to the intimate
experience brought about by personal correspondence.23 Writers included reg-
ular references to ways in which the letter became a representation of the far-
away correspondent – the paper that readers were holding in their hands had
been touched by writers; the personal marks of handwriting imprinted the
writer’s identity; holding the letter was like holding the absent person; long-
awaited letters were kept in pockets close to the heart or under pillows. In these
and myriad other ways, the letter itself became the absent other, a quality that
Karen Lystra, in her study of love letters in nineteenth-century United States,
calls anthropomorphising.24 The letter as a stand-in for the absent person was
a habitual sentiment in the correspondence among lovers, married couples and
family members. ‘Is it true or did it just seem to me that when the letter arrived
it was laughing and it had a joyful air about it’ – wrote a Portuguese migrant
from Brazil to his wife – ‘or was it just I who imagined it because I see that I
make you happy when I am in your company?’25 The letter could also become
the materialisation of absence: ‘You know, dear father, whenever I receive a
letter from you, and I open it, I can’t even read it’, wrote a migrant from
Mexico to his father in Galicia, north-western Spain. ‘The other employees
always asked me if there was a disgrace at home and I can’t even answer them,
thinking only in how far from each other we are.’26
104 Marcelo J. Borges
Personal letters also routinely included references to general feeling states
and physical sensations connected with the anticipation and reception of let-
ters, such as hearts full of joy or burdened with despair and concern, tearful
eyes or weakened knees. It could be tempting to discard these regular refer-
ences as tropes or clichés. Writers may have used known formulas, but the
ubiquity of these references in personal correspondence needs to be taken as
an important expression of intimacy. Routine references to the feelings asso-
ciated with writing, sending, receiving and reading letters (observed by scho-
lars of family correspondence in diverse historical and cultural contexts) alert
us to an emotional dimension that was so central to the experience of corre-
spondence that, as David Gerber suggests, appears akin to a ritual.27 As
researchers, we should not discount them as insincere commonplaces but try
to decipher their evocative power. As in other expressions of feelings, the
vocabulary and forms used in these cases tell us about the cultural traditions
and expressive tools at the disposal of writers and recipients of letters, and of
what was expected from them as sons, daughters, parents, siblings, spouses,
lovers or friends living apart.

Language and rhetorical strategies

Since written language was the medium for emotion work in personal letters,
historians have devoted considerable attention to the varied linguistic content
and rhetorical strategies used by letter writers and to analyse the vocabularies
of emotion that sustained epistolary relations. Through letters, people sepa-
rated by migration, war and a variety of other life’s circumstances managed
the feelings created by this separation and the forces that caused it, and their
associated emotions – anxiety, love, grief, joy, envy, honour, jealousy, shame,
homesickness and a variety of others. Many of these emotional dispositions
prompted people to leave behind the familiar world of their villages and
towns to work, fight or make new lives. Historians have explored a wide
variety of historical cases, among them: soldiers and their loved ones as they
kept connections to idea of home; spouses, siblings and parents coping with
the challenges of transnational living as a result of migration; lovers and their
prospects of a future together; and relatives and friends who relied on episto-
lary relationships to assuage feelings of nostalgia and a changing sense of self
shaped by distance and separation.28 Letters and other narratives of the self
were used by them to reflect on their actions and to cope with and adapt to
new circumstances. This emotion work was performed equally by those who
left and those who remained behind. Correspondence is particularly well
suited among personal writings to capture this dynamic, including the often
overlooked emotional labour of waiting. This line of analysis, however, is
often unfeasible as in most cases only one side of the correspondence has
survived. But because of the dialogical nature of epistolarity it is possible to
access this dimension, at least partially, even if just one side of the corre-
spondence is available.
 Narratives of the self 105
Historians have also used personal letters to explore other forms of
affective ties beyond the immediate circle of family and friends, and their
capacity to effect action. Personal narratives offer researchers a window into
the tension between familial and societal claims and obligations and their
associated emotion work. Sometimes emotion dispositions and standards
reinforced each other; sometimes they were at odds. This tension is clear in
times of perceived national emergencies like revolutions or wars. Letters
from soldiers to their families have provided a fertile ground for this ana-
lysis as it is illustrated by a vast scholarship related to the main interna-
tional wars of the twentieth century. Historians have analysed personal
narratives to uncover such tensions as those emerging between love of
family and love of country, and duty to family and calls for allegiance to
patriotic goals. States mobilised an array of emotional discursive strategies
in this effort with mixed results.29 Nationalists’ use of emotions to mobilise
people for larger ends were also present in countries of emigration and
immigration. In times of international turmoil, conflicting national claims
also had generational repercussions, as children of migrants were sometimes
pulled in opposite directions, creating tensions within families and between
countries of ancestral origin and countries of birth.
Nations were not the only sources of alternative senses of belonging or the
only ones claiming allegiance on emotional grounds. There were many others,
such as fraternal societies, labour associations, political groups and religious
organisations. As multi-dimensional individuals, letter writers participated in
multiple emotional communities that sometimes complemented and some-
times challenged one another. Different audiences and writing communities
connected through correspondence shaped emotional expressions and experi-
ences. The language and emotional disposition will likely be different when
addressing family members, friends, lovers, fellow workers or political com-
rades. As students of personal narratives, we need to take the multi-
dimensionality of historical actors into account, even if source limitations do
not allow us to access this dimension of analysis in all its complexity.
The analysis of emotional vocabularies and rhetorical strategies used in
personal narratives achieves its full potential when considered in context.
Sources of the self must be read in light of other expressions of sentiment,
social mores, cultural expectations, and feeling rules and standards; they must
also be mindful of the power dynamics that permeated society at large and
specific groups within it (with attention to gender, class and ethno-racial fac-
tors). Literature, art and popular culture can help in constructing this larger
context, as can media accounts and socio-political and philosophical essays.
Just as, as researchers, we need to be alert to the weight of privilege and
power in most of these accounts that tend to tilt the balance in favour of the
view of the urban middling and upper classes, so also we must be vigilant of
the potential impact of projecting contemporary culture- and class-specific
emotional standards and vocabularies onto past lives. Equally important is to
look deeper into the full manifestation of emotional work at play in personal
106 Marcelo J. Borges
sources even when outwardly unsentimental or mundane issues are discussed,
such as business, economy and a host of other material topics.30 Far from
polar opposites, the emotional and the material were entangled dimensions of
people’s lives, and unlocking these connections and finding the logic, language
and actions that resulted from them can offer a more nuanced understanding
of the emotional experiences of the past.
It is not only what was expressed in writing that has attracted the attention
of historians interested in emotion work in personal narratives, but also how
it was expressed, what was left out, and what traces writers left in these
sources beyond the intentional and volitional. Early historical work with
personal narratives treated these features – which are inherent to narratives of
the self – as a threat to authenticity. Since the 1990s, however, in dialogue
with literary analysis, feminist studies and other disciplines, historians have
increasingly valued these characteristics for what they may illuminate about
the intimate and subjective experiences in the past.31 As David Gerber
explains in his discussion of migrant letters, omissions, exaggerations and
contradictions were part of the emotional negotiation in which letter writers
engaged and, in this sense, authenticity had to do less with truth and open-
ness and more with ‘the faithful execution of an obligation to maintain the
bond’ between them.32 In this context, omissions and misrepresentation can
be considered as a self-making strategy.
There is also the challenge of capturing the emotional labour of the unin-
tentional. Focusing on letters sent from English soldiers to their families
during the First World War, Michael Roper argues that this is an important
dimension of analysis as writers were not always ‘fully aware of the emotional
impulses that animated them’.33 Applying insights from psychology, he pro-
poses to go beyond the narrative content of letters in order to capture more
fully writers’ emotional experiences. Roper offers two possible ways to look
for clues: in the nature of the writing (omissions, sudden changes of topics,
repetitions, contradictory claims of not being able to talk about a topic by
referring to it with insistence) and in the marks left by the writing process
itself (crossed-out words, change of writing style, impact on penmanship) and
on the paper (traces of slip of the pen).34 The possibility of analyses of
material traces of emotional experiences depends on the availability of origi-
nal letters or the quality of reproduction. In many cases, researchers are lim-
ited to working with faded copies, transcripts or published collections.

Form and medium

Together with language, rhetorical structures and intended or unconscious
levels of communication, the form and medium through which feelings were
communicated also moulded emotional experiences. In the case of modern
correspondence, letter-writing practices that consolidated among the bour-
geoisie during the nineteenth century set the rules of suitable epistolary form,
including its material aspects. Increased exposure to writing pedagogy in
 Narratives of the self 107
schools, which included lessons in epistolary practices, and the popularity of
letter-writing manuals or secretaries resulted in an expansion of conventions
and socially prescribed expectations beyond its initial niche audience to the
middle and working classes.35 Letter writers also took clues from letters they
read and, in this way, with increased familiarity and practice, they adapted
form and social conventions to fit their needs.
The distance between social prescription and practice, however, varied widely.
Cécile Dauphin and Danièle Poublan depict family letter-writing practices as a
form characterised by norm-bending and excesses.36 Letter-writing manuals may
have praised the qualities of clarity and simple prose and reproved formulaic
language and repetition. Nonetheless, among the popular classes, formulas
abounded, the most diverse topics appear in successive sentences in hard-to-
identify paragraphs, and important points were often repeated. Likewise, man-
uals and school lessons in epistolarity prescribed clear presentation of writing on
the paper, including judicious use of spaces. Still, cost and availability of mate-
rials often became more important considerations for letter writers. When
weight determined the cost of sending letters, writers often took advantage of all
available spaces on the page, including cross-writing, despite what letter-writing
etiquette indicated.
The same distance between prescription and practice is observable in the
use of writing materials. Bourgeois standards of epistolary taste prescribed
specific type of paper for different occasions and required a quill and later a
steel-point or a fountain pen as preferred writing instrument.37 For non-elite
writers, these conventions could be aspirational but not always practical –
when proper paper was not available, writers used what they had at their
disposal; when ink was inaccessible, pencils were used. But material elements
carried meaning and writers were aware of how transgressions to their epis-
tolary etiquette could be read, often compelling them to explain how situa-
tional constrains limited their choices. For example, a Spanish migrant
residing in the rural interior of Cuba delayed writing home until she could
secure black-edged mourning stationery to honour the death of her grand-
father at home.38 Even in the precarious conditions of the French front during
the First World War, a writer lamented that he had no recourse but to use a
torn notebook page to write a letter, stating that at home he ‘would be sick-
ened to find [him]self in such a situation’.39 Material conventions not only
followed social prescriptions in postal culture, but they also carried emotional
meaning and contributed to the emotional disposition of writers and readers.
Considering the full range of analytical dimensions of letters as narratives
of the self – language, rhetorical strategies, form and convention, and mate-
riality – is important for an analysis that seeks to uncover emotion work
because it calls attention to the multisensoriality of the associated writing and
reading experiences. A final dimension we need to take into account is the
impact of orality. In addition to the many ways in which orality is present in
the narrative of personal letters, the common experience of reading letters
aloud added to its emotional experience. The influence of orality in personal
108 Marcelo J. Borges
letters is twofold. On the one hand, there was a long-established tradition for
personal letters to resemble a conversation.40 On the other hand, among
writers with limited command of grammatical rules, letters were often written
in a style that was closer to oral patterns, and their minimal or complete lack
of punctuation rested on flow and pauses better understood through oral
delivery. Martha Hanna argues that because of the closeness between oral
and written practices ‘semi-literate letters might have carried with them an
element of intimacy not present in more grammatically precise prose’.41
Since it was also common for letters to be dictated to people with a better
command of writing skills or to a variety of scribes (usually within the sen-
der’s social circuits, such as family members, friends or co-workers), this also
led to visible signs of orality in the written text. For example, traces of oral
conversation such as ‘did you hear?’ (ouviste?) appear regularly in letters
written by Portuguese migrants that I have studied. A polysemic word or
phrase that occurs frequently in vernacular oral dialogues, this question was
used to call the interlocutor’s attention, but it also served as a way of exerting
authority (as in, ‘Have I made myself clear?’). When read in context, this
apparently simple utterance can illuminate the emotional consequences of
living apart and the tension it created on socially prescribed gender roles. This
was an important dimension in the letters exchanged by family members
separated by migration – in particular, among couples for whom letters were
vehicles to assert and negotiate ideas of marital duty and affection.42
Expressions such as these, deeply embedded in the oral world of writers, were
common in personal letters from a variety of cultural contexts.43

Diaries
In this methodological discussion of personal letters as sources for the history
of emotions, I have made several references to diaries, another important
form of written personal narrative of the self that has received extensive
scholarly attention. There are, indeed, many parallels between the two types
of sources. Diaries may appear as the most intimate of personal written
sources, but as in the case of letters, studies have shown the blurred lines
between private and public, the influence of cultural conventions, the presence
of an imaginary or future reader (who may be the author at a later time in
life), and the influence of form and materiality on the writing. A hybrid and
fragmentary content also characterises most diaries, which include mundane
observations about daily life, social commentary, and reflection and self-
fashioning. These features apply to the tradition of diary writing that evolved
in the Western world from earlier forms as diverse as account books, travel
journals or notes on religious self-examination, which may differ from diary-
writing practices in other cultural traditions.44
Diverse conceptions of the self and the dynamic interaction between ideas
of individuality and social cohesion across cultures contributed to diverse
experiences of diary writing in different societies, as did the chronology of
 Narratives of the self 109
45
selfhood itself in different parts of the world. Feminist scholars have shown
how diary writing was a conduit for elite and middle-class women to engage
in emotional expression and self-making as they coped with changing ideas of
female sensibility and gender relations in periods of rapidly changing social
and cultural conventions.46 Diary writing was more common among the more
educated, well-to-do sectors of society but, as with letter writing, an expan-
sion in literacy resulted in an extension of this practice into the working
classes – even though not at the same level than letter writing. Life-changing
experiences like migration and war also prompted people from diverse social
backgrounds to make diary writing their own as vehicles of emotion work.47
The methodological considerations presented in this chapter about personal
correspondence – with their attention to language, form, writing conventions,
and their cultural and historical contexts – can be adapted to the analysis of
diaries as narratives of the self.

Conclusion
In recent decades, technological changes have transformed personal commu-
nication in terms of speed and volume, at the same time creating new narra-
tive forms and conventions. This transformation has had different
consequences for different types of narratives of the self. New media and new
forms of information and communication technologies have opened novel
outlets for self-expression that have transformed some narratives of the self,
such as diaries and journals, and created new possibilities for others, such as
oral histories and digital story-telling. For many observers, this technological
transformation has resulted in the demise of the most popular type of narra-
tives of self, namely traditional personal letter writing. In this way, a form
that withstood the threat of earlier technological innovations, like the tele-
phone, could not endure the threat posed by the new forms of electronic and
digital communication. As Liz Stanley argues, however, the end of traditional
letter writing does not necessarily mean the end of epistolarity, as most digital
communication is based on ‘epistolary intent’ and often adopts ‘letter-like’
forms.48 In addition, Stanley observes that even if communication seems
ephemeral, material traces of these new narratives can be recovered and are
often preserved. Nevertheless, the archival challenges created by digital
communication and its future access remain open questions. Similarly, it
remains to be seen how personal writing changes as these emerging ‘letter-
like’ narratives adapt to the form, materiality and expressive possibilities of
new media; the consequences of the interaction between new technologies and
self-making; and the emotional underpinnings of these processes.49 Finally, if
new technologies pose challenges, they also create stimulating opportunities
for the preservation, access and analysis of traditional sources of the self, as
illustrated by the many digital initiatives and research collaborations that
have emerged in recent years.50
110 Marcelo J. Borges
Notes
1 Early work with personal narratives was conducted at the beginning of the twen-
tieth century by scholars interested in contemporary social phenomena like immi-
gration and urbanisation, such as the pioneering analysis of the Polish migration
experience in the United States by William I. Thomas and Florian Znaniecki, The
Polish Peasant in Europe and America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press;
Boston: Badger: 1918, 1919–1920), vols 1–2 and 3–5. For methodological and
historiographical overviews of scholarly uses of personal accounts from different
disciplines, see Ken Plummer, Documents of Life 2: An Invitation to a Critical
Humanism (London: Sage, 2001); Mary Jo Maynes, Jennifer L. Pierce and Barbara
Laslett, Telling Stories: The Use of Personal Narratives in the Social Sciences and
History (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2008); and Penny Summerfield, Histories
of the Self: Personal Narratives and Historical Practice (London: Routledge, 2019).
2 For a historical overview with focus on Europe and North America, see Martyn
Lyons, A History of Reading and Writing in the Western World (Basingstoke: Pal-
grave Macmillan, 2010).
3 Dena Goodman, Becoming a Woman in the Age of Letters (Ithaca: Cornell Uni-
versity Press, 2009); Armando Petrucci, Scrivere lettere: una storia plurimillenaria
(Rome: Laterza, 2008); Martyn Lyons, The Writing Culture of Ordinary People in
Europe, c. 1860–1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013).
4 Lyons, Writing Culture, 248. For Latin America, see Frank Salomon and Mer-
cedes Niño-Murcia, The Lettered Mountain: A Peruvian Village’s Way with Writ-
ing (Durham: Duke University Press, 2011); and William E. French, The Heart in
the Glass Jar: Love Letters, Bodies, and the Law in Mexico (Lincoln: University of
Nebraska Press, 2015).
5 Goodman, Becoming a Woman, 3.
6 Ibid. Goodman takes this phrase from the work of Brigitte Diaz.
7 Michael Roper, The Secret Battle: Emotional Survival in the Great War (Manche-
ster: Manchester University Press, 2009), 24.
8 Summerfield, Histories of the Self, 52, 64–71.
9 See, for example, Martha Tomhave Blauvelt, The Work of the Heart: Young
Women and Emotion, 1780–1830 (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press,
2007).
10 For a recent introduction to the field, see Barbara H. Rosenwein and Riccardo
Cristiani, What is the History of Emotions? (Cambridge: Polity, 2018).
11 Rob Boddice, The History of Emotions (Manchester: Manchester University Press,
2018), 81.
12 Ibid.
13 Audrey Gadzekpo, ‘Public but Private: A Transformational Reading of the Mem-
oirs and Newspaper Writings of Mercy Ffoulkes-Crabbe’, in Africa’s Hidden His-
tories: Everyday Literacy and Making the Self, ed. Karin Barber (Bloomington:
Indiana University Press, 2006), 314–37; Aaron William Moore, ‘The Chimera of
Privacy: Reading Self-Discipline in Japanese Diaries from the Second World War
(1937–1945)’, Journal of Asian Studies 68, no. 1 (2009): 165–98; Jochen Hellbeck,
Revolution on My Mind: Writing a Diary under Stalin (Cambridge: Harvard Uni-
versity Press, 2006).
14 More information about these collections is available in their websites: http://www.
nationalarchives.gov.uk,http://www.iwm.org.uk,http://www.bundesarchiv.de,http://
www.awm.gov.au, and http://900trentino.museostorico.it/Archivio-della-Scrittura
-Popolare.
15 See https://www.canadianletters.ca.
16 The collections of the Digitizing Immigrant Letters project can be explored at http
s://www.lib.umn.edu/ihrca/dil.
 Narratives of the self 111
17 For information on southern European efforts, see Lyons, Writing Culture, Chap-
ter 2. For a Scandinavian example, see the work of the Finnish Literature Society
(https://www.finlit.fi/en). In addition to personal letters, diaries have also been the
object of efforts at archival preservation and digitisation. Examples include The
Great Diary Project (https://www.thegreatdiaryproject.co.uk), in Great Britain, and
the Fondazione Archivio Diaristico Nazionale (http://www.archiviodiari.org), in
Italy. For life writing, see the online resources of the University of Sussex’s Centre
for Life History and Life Writing Research (http://www.sussex.ac.uk/clhlwr) and
the Association pour l’autobiographie et le patrimoine autobiographique (http://a
utobiographie.sitapa.org).
18 See https://www.europeana.eu. Resources are organized thematically. The thematic
portals on World War I (https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/collections/world-wa
r-I) and migration (https://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/collections/migration) con-
tain personal documents such as letters, diaries and photographs.
19 For examples of edited collections of migrant letters translated from their original
language into English, see Witold Kula, Nina Assorodobraj-Kula and Marcin
Kula, Writing Home: Immigrants in Brazil and the United States, 1890–1891, ed.
and trans. Josephine Wtulich (Boulder, Col: East European Monographs, 1986);
Samuel L. Baily and Franco Ramella, ed., One Family, Two Worlds: An Italian
Family’s Correspondence across the Atlantic, 1901–1922, trans. John Lenaghan
(New Brunswick Rutgers University Press, 1988); and José Orozco, Receive Our
Memories: The Letters of Luz Orozco, 1950–1952 (New York: Oxford University
Press, 2017).
20 For contrasting examples about editorial interventions in the case of collections of
migrant letters, readers can compare the heavy editorial approach applied by
Charlotte Erickson, Invisible Immigrants: The Adaptation of English and Scottish
Immigrants in Nineteenth-Century America (Coral Gables: University of Miami
Press, 1972) with later examples such as David Fitzpatrick, Oceans of Consolation:
Personal Accounts of Irish Migration to Australia (Ithaca: Cornell University Press,
1994) and Kerby Miller et al., Irish Immigrants in the Land of Canaan: Letters and
Memoirs from Colonial and Revolutionary America, 1675–1815 (New York: Oxford
University Press, 2003).
21 David A. Gerber, Authors of Their Lives: The Personal Correspondence of British
Immigrants to North America in the Nineteenth Century (New York: New York
University Press, 2006), 96, 139.
22 Janet Gurkin Altman, Epistolarity: Approaches to a Form (Columbus: Ohio State
University Press, 1982).
23 Martha Hanna, ‘A Republic of Letters: The Epistolary Tradition in France during
World War I’, American Historical Review 108, no. 5 (2003): 1338–61 (1348).
24 Karen Lystra, Searching the Heart: Women, Men, and Romantic Love in Nine-
teenth-Century America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 22–24.
25 Letter from José to his wife Maria Rosa, Estação Livramento (Liberdade), Minas
Gerais, Brazil, 11 October 1912, Arquivo Distrital, Viana do Castelo, Portugal,
box 1973, file 64.
26 Letter from Cayetano to his father Francisco, Mexico City, 20 September 1908,
Arquivo da Emigración Galega, Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
27 Gerber, Authors of Their Lives, 117.
28 Here I point the reader to just a few examples of analyses of these emotional
dynamics through correspondence published in English: Martha Hanna, Your
Death Would Be Mine: Paul and Marie Pireaud in the Great War (Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press, 2006); Roper, Secret Battle; Cancian, Families,
Lovers and Their Letters: Italian Postwar Migration to Canada (Winnipeg: Uni-
versity of Manitoba Press, 2010); Lystra, Searching the Heart; Gerber, Authors of
Their Lives; and the articles in Marcelo J. Borges and Sonia Cancian, ed., Migrant
112 Marcelo J. Borges
Letters: Emotional Language, Mobile Identities, and Writing Practices in Historical
Perspective (New York: Routledge, 2018). For examples in other cultural contexts,
see Keith Breckenridge, ‘Reasons for Writing: African Working-Class Letter-Writ-
ing in Early-Twentieth-Century South Africa’, in Barber, Africa’s Hidden Histories,
143–54; Gregor Benton and Hong Liu, Dear China: Emigrant Letters and Remit-
tances, 1820–1980 (Oakland: University of California Press, 2018).
29 Emilio Franzina, ‘Corrispondenze popolari fra le Americhe e l’Italia durante la
prima Guerra mondiale’, Archivio Storico dell’Emigrazione Italiana 11 (2015):
118–43; Linda Reeder, ‘The Emotions of War: Italian Emigrant Soldiers and Love
of Country’, in Emotional Landscapes: Love, Gender, and Migration, ed. Marcelo
J. Borges, Sonia Cancian and Linda Reeder (Urbana: University of Illinois Press,
forthcoming).
30 For an example of the interaction of emotion and interest in context of migration,
see Marcelo J. Borges, ‘What’s Love Got to Do with It? Language of Transna-
tional Affect in the Letters of Portuguese Migrants’, in Borges, Cancian and
Reeder, Emotional Landscapes.
31 For an overview of the epistemological and methodological changes in the analysis
of personal narratives, see Summerfield, Histories of the Self.
32 Gerber, Authors of Their Lives, 91.
33 Roper, Secret Battle, 68.
34 Marks left by writers as readers as forms of ‘emotional residue’, in the words of
Diana Barnes, have also received interest from scholars interested in letters as
artefacts. See Diana G. Barnes, ‘Emotional Debris in Early Modern Letters’, in
Feeling Things: Objects and Emotions Through History, ed. Stephanie Downes,
Sally Holloway and Sarah Randles (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018),
114–32.
35 There is a vast scholarship on correspondence manual. See Roger Chartier, Alain
Boureau and Cécile Dauphin, Correspondence: Models of Letter-Writing from the
Middle Ages to the Nineteenth Century, trans. Christopher Woodall (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1997); Eve Tavor Bannet, Empire of Letters: Letter
Manuals and Transatlantic Correspondence, 1688–1820 (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2005). Medieval and early-modern epistolary practices also fol-
lowed conventions and rules. For a discussion of letter-writing practices in this
period, see Karen Cherewatuk and Ulrike Wiethaus, eds, Dear Sister: Medieval
Women and the Epistolary Genre (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press,
1993); Gary Schneider, The Culture of Epistolarity: Vernacular Letters and Letter
Writing in Early Modern England, 1500–1700 (Newark: University of Delaware
Press, 2005); and Antonio Castillo Gómez and Verónica Serra, eds, Cinco siglos de
cartas: historias y prácticas epistolares en las épocas moderna y contemporánea
(Huelva: Universidad de Huelva, 2014). For examples from the pre-modern period
beyond the Euro-Atlantic world, see Antje Richter, ed., A History of Chine Letters
and Epistolary Culture (Leiden: Brill, 2015).
36 Cécile Dauphin and Danièle Poublan, ‘La correspondencia familiar como objeto
histórico’, in Castillo Gómez and Serra, Cinco siglos de cartas, 211.
37 Nigel Hall, ‘The Materiality of Letter Writing: A Nineteenth Century Perspective’,
in Letter Writing as a Social Practice, ed. David Barton and Nigel Hall (Amster-
dam: John Benjamins, 2000), 91–102; Petrucci, Scrivere lettere.
38 Elvira R. to her brother Avelino, San Lino, Cuba, no date, A11/5–69, Museo del
Pueblo de Asturias, Gijón, Spain.
39 Hanna, Your Death Would Be Mine, 14.
40 Schneider, Culture of Epistolarity; David Fitzpatrick, ‘Irish Emigration and the Art
of Letter-Writing’, in Letters across Borders: The Epistolary Practices of Interna-
tional Migrants, ed. Bruce S. Elliott, David A. Gerber and Suzanne M. Sinke (New
York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 97–106.
 Narratives of the self 113
41 Hanna, ‘Republic of Letters’, 1349.
42 Marcelo J. Borges, ‘For the Good of the Family: Migratory Strategies and Affec-
tive Language in Portuguese Migrant Letters, 1870s-1920s’, The History of the
Family 3 (2016): 368–97.
43 Lyons, Writing Culture, 142–43, 247–48.
44 Robert A. Fothergill, Private Chronicles: A Study of English Diaries (London:
Oxford University Press, 1974); Philippe Lejeune, On Diary, ed. Jeremy D. Popkin
and Julie Rank; trans. Katherine Durnin (Manoa: Biographical Research Center-
University of Hawai’i Press, 2009); Shiba Keiko, Literary Creations on the Road:
Women’s Travel Diaries in Early Modern Japan, trans. Motoko Ezaki (Lanham:
University Press of America, 2012); Summerfield, Histories of the Self.
45 Barber, Africa’s Hidden Histories; Peter Heehs, Writing the Self: Diaries, Memoirs,
and the History of the Self (New York: Bloomsbury, 2013); Marjorie Dryburgh
and Sarah Dauncey, eds, Writing Lives in China, 1600–2010 (Basingstoke: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2013).
46 Blauvelt, Work of the Heart.
47 Lyons, Writing Culture; Aaron William Moore, Writing War: Soldiers Record the
Japanese Empire (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2013).
48 Liz Stanley, ‘The Death of the Letter? Epistolary Intent, Letterness and the Many
Ends of Letter-Writing’, Cultural Sociology 9, no. 2 (2015): 240–55. See also Liz
Stanley and Margaretta Jolly, ‘Epistolarity: Life after Death of the Letter?’, a/b:
Auto/Biography Studies 32, no. 2 (2017): 229–33.
49 See Yasmine Abbas and Fred Dervin, eds., Digital Technologies of the Self (New-
castle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars, 2009) and the online project Ego Media
(http://www.egomedia.org).
50 A few recent examples of international digital collaboration include the projects
Digitising Experiences of Migration (http://lettersofmigration.blogspot.com),
Reassembling the Republic of Letters (http://www.republicofletters.net), and
Whites Writing Whiteness (https://www.whiteswritingwhiteness.ed.ac.uk).
10 Emotions in fiction
Louise D’Arcens

When we think about emotions in fictional texts, it has often been focused on
the ways they use aesthetic and narrative techniques to prompt affective
responses in audiences. In particular, scholars such as Suzanne Keen have
explored the complex ways in which audiences are moved to experience
empathetic states that range from sorrow or anger to amusement or joy.1 But
fictional texts also raise a number of complicated and fascinating questions
for the study of emotions history, the primary one being: how can fictional
texts, and the emotions encountered within them, be understood as resources
contributing to histories of emotion? Another key question is: how do we
identify and analyse ‘historical emotions’ in textual forms that create fictional
worlds? What is the emotional historicity of fictional worlds that allude to
history and fact but do not have primary allegiance to accurate representation
of them? How might we account for the powerful transhistorical emotional-
aesthetic resonances some fictional texts continue to provoke in audiences
decades and centuries after they were written?
I begin my reflection on these questions by considering two images that
appear in the late fourteenth-century English poem Pearl, a dream-vision in
which the grief-stricken narrator is united briefly with his dead infant daugh-
ter. This anonymous poem is renowned for its elegant, densely textured
patterning of both language and imagery. Late in the vision, the central image
of the pearl, which signifies perfection and changelessness, is brought into a
striking visual pairing with a similar but contrasting white sphere: the moon,
which represents imperfection, variance and terrestrial flux.2 I will return to a
fuller discussion of Pearl later; for now I evoke these paired images because
they offer a metaphoric way of understanding the two timescales that must be
negotiated by literary scholars working in the area of emotional history. An
account of emotions in fictional texts, and the link between emotions and
cognitive, biological and existential states, must negotiate two potentially
competing ideas of how emotions have figured throughout time. On the one
hand, it must take into consideration the long human evolutionary timelines
that underpin cognitive emotions theory, in which, to quote Paula Leverage,
‘the time lapse between the Middle Ages and the twenty-first century is
insignificant in terms of the evolution of the human brain … the neural
 Emotions in fiction 115
3
hardware is the same’. On the other hand, it must trace the briefer and more
volatile course of historical change, undertaking a nuanced interpretation of
the specific ways in which the ‘software’ of culture has enabled this apparently
unchanging cognitive-emotional hardware to express itself.
The implications of negotiating these two timelines are considerable, as they
underpin two opposing approaches to how the emotional past relates to the
present. Embracing the longer, evolutionary timeframe underpins a more ‘uni-
versalist’ approach that emphasises continuities in the emotional experiences of
the past and the present. Some, including Aranye Fradenberg, have pointed to
the potential for this approach to move beyond an ‘alterist’ division of the
medieval from the modern, in order to develop an emotional ‘epistemology of
contact’ based on a desire to register a space of shared emotion between the
Middle Ages and the present.4 Others have cautioned against its promotion of a
reductionism that does not sufficiently acknowledge the deeply contextual nature
in which emotions are elicited and understood. This latter ‘lunar’ position, which
favours focusing on the social and temporal contingencies of emotional life, its
historical waxing and waning, is summed up by Barbara Rosenwein’s argument
that ‘to assume that our emotions were also the emotions of the past is to be
utterly unhistorical’.5 The rejection of a neuro-continuist model of emotional
history is put most bluntly by Daniel Gross, who argues ‘we do not just naturally
express emotions converging on our amygdala or whatever, but rather […] are
constituted as expressive agents by what the philosophers of the Scottish
enlightenment called “social passions”’.6 Monique Scheer issues a comparable
rejoinder to those who invoke the physiological dimension of emotions, arguing
that ‘the body is not a static, timeless, universal foundation that produces ahis-
torical emotional arousal, but is itself socially situated, adaptive, trained, plastic,
and thus historical’.7
The investigation of emotions in and through time is even more challenging
methodologically when dealing with fictional texts. This is because we must
also consider the extent to which expressions or depictions of emotion have
been shaped by the text’s often self-conscious use of the aesthetic, technical and
rhetorical resources offered by their creative form, and with a view to creating
emotions that are part of the texts’ fictional world rather than the ‘real world’
in which it is produced. This fictive shaping in turn reflects the centrality of
emotional content to fictional texts’ distinctive appeal to audiences, in whom
corresponding emotions are produced. At the same time, it is vital to recognise
how these ‘fictionally shaped’ emotions intersect with the social and institu-
tional vocabularies of emotion that are particular to the context in which the
fictional text is produced.
These challenges and opportunities apply to all fictional texts and all emotions
represented within them; but this chapter will demonstrate these methodological
challenges by way of two case studies from medieval literature, exploring the
representation of grief in the work of the fifteenth-century Italo-French writer
Christine de Pizan and in Pearl, the text with which I opened this chapter.
Despite having moving depictions of grief in common, these texts will be used to
116 Louise D’Arcens
explore the competing arguments about the history of emotions outlined above. I
will take a literary historicist approach to Christine’s writings to show how
apparently personal depictions of emotion in literary texts can be seen to be
tropes in which multiple elements of their context of production have converged.
Pearl, conversely, will be brought into dialogue with Terrence Malick’s 2011 film
The Tree of Life to explore how one might use hermeneutic approaches to
explore the idea of creative texts as evidence of emotional continuity across his-
tory. The point here is less to arbitrate between these approaches than to prompt
reflection on the range of methodological, epistemological and ethical issues that
are raised by studying fictional texts as indices of emotions history. Medieval
texts’ age makes them particularly serviceable on both positions: on the one
hand, their temporal distance from the present requires us to undertake a careful
contextualisation in order to understand their emotional content, while on the
other hand the evidence of the longevity of their appeal into the present raises
the question of the transhistoricity of emotion.

Christine de Pizan’s idiocultural tears

A medieval author whose work contains powerful emotions of grief is the
Franco-Italian Christine de Pizan (1365–c. 1429), who is often referred to as
Europe’s first professional woman writer. A lifelong widow from the age of
twenty-five who lived through civil conflict and the Hundred Years War, Chris-
tine produced poetic, allegorical, epistolary and historical works, many of them
with strong anti-misogynist content, across a span of four decades. Her expres-
sions of grief begin in her early verse of the 1390s, in which she repeatedly
describes herself as a ‘seulette’ (a solitary little woman), and continue throughout
her oeuvre to her final work, the Song of Joan of Arc (c. 1429), where she refers
to herself as ‘Christine, who have wept for eleven years in a walled abbey’.8
Charity Cannon Willard asserts of Christine that ‘the most original of her
poems are those expressing her own emotions as she continued to mourn the
loss of her husband’.9 Without denying the biographical foundation of
Christine’s literary emotions, and the many tantalising portrayals of her life
throughout her work, her texts demonstrate the extent to which her repre-
sentation of her widowed status is crucial to the development of her dis-
tinctive literary persona. The repeated appearance of tears at the beginning
of her texts constitutes one of Christine’s more important self-authorising
gambits. Barbara Stevenson reminds us that these are public courtly perfor-
mances of private grief in which Christine, as a professional writer, creates
what Daniel Poirion has described as a ‘personnage triste’, a ‘melancholy
character’.10 For this reason, as I will go on to demonstrate, Christine’s
writings exemplify the value of careful historical and discursive con-
textualisation for understanding the complex valencies of the emotions they
contain, and the importance of recognising that what appear to be ‘natural’
or ‘universal’ expressions of emotion in fact reflect quite specific strategies
for establishing and maintaining the author’s enunciative authority. Such an
 Emotions in fiction 117
approach reveals that Christine’s ingenious construction of an emotional
identity is a result of her multifaceted engagement with what, using literary
theorist Derek Attridge’s term, we can call her idioculture. For Attridge the
author’s idioculture is ‘the internal, singular manifestation of the broader
cultural field, registered as a complex of particular preferences, capabilities,
memories, desires, physical habits, and emotional tendencies’, out of which
literary acts of invention emerge, in turn transforming the idioculture.11
Attridge develops this dynamic idea of historical context to counter ideas of
culture as a ‘seamless and monolithic’ environment that determines the
content and form of fictional works.12
Although Christine’s idioculture cannot be rendered fully in a brief essay,
examining some significant facets of it, such as how female tears were under-
stood within late medieval Christian discourse and how she mobilises this to
address her circumstances of turmoil and warfare, allows us to understand
that her tearful literary persona is also a complex political persona. What
becomes apparent from investigating Christine’s religious context is that her
tears are closely modelled on those of the Mater Dolorosa, the widowed
Virgin of the Passion. The theological tradition of the Mater Dolorosa, or
sorrowing Virgin mother, which entered Western Christendom from the East,
had become a commonplace of devotion to the Virgin Mary by the Chris-
tine’s time. Focusing on the Virgin’s tearful grief at the Crucifixion, this tra-
dition interpreted her behaviour as the fulfilment of Simeon’s prophesy in
Luke 2:35 that a sword of sorrow will pass through Mary’s maternal heart.13
While this Marian figure mostly functioned to inspire a tradition of affective
devotion, its significance for Christine lies in the particular possibilities it
offers for the authorising of her widow’s voice. As both widow and mother,
the Mater Dolorosa offers Christine, a fellow widow and mother of three
children, a form of Marian identification which authorises her voice as a
woman writer. A vast array of verbal and visual medieval representations of
the Mater Dolorosa at the foot of the Cross portray her as weeping, wailing
and rending her breast. The significance of this weeping for Christine was that
it focused on a moment in the Virgin’s life that marked a departure from her
silence throughout the Gospels. By imitating the excessive grief of the Virgin
at the Crucifixion, Christine as widow and mother is able to legitimate her
own venture into public affairs. Acknowledging Christine’s preoccupation
with the sorrowing Virgin mother is vital to understanding the way she
claimed tears as a form of political action. By evoking and emulating
the Mater Dolorosa tradition Christine enacts a self-authorisation whereby
she may, as widow and writer, lay claim to a unique form of compassionate
intercession expressed in the Mater’s vocal, sorrowful widowhood.
A broader notion of women’s tears as intercessionary is explicit in the section
of her best-known book today, The Book of the City of Ladies, in which Chris-
tine is counselled by three allegorical ladies, Dames Reason, Rectitude and Jus-
tice, on how to build an alternative textual city to counter the representation of
women in misogynist textual tradition. In this book, Dame Reason argues that it
118 Louise D’Arcens
is through the ‘tears of devotion’ of holy women such as St Monica and Mary
Magdalen that many ‘are saved’.14 In The City of Ladies, moreover, we see
intercessionary tears not just alluded to but actually enacted by Christine. In its
famous opening scene, which is also a consummate portrayal of the textual
dimension of Christine’s idioculture, the Christine persona sits in her study
weeping with self-loathing after consuming a diet of misogynist tracts. Her
plaintive self-accusation acts to summon up the three allegorical ladies who
guide Christine through the process of creating an alternative tradition in which
women are honoured and praised.15 On a more directly political note, we also
see tearful intercession enacted in the epistles Christine writes in response to
France’s political turmoil, especially her Letter to the Queen (1405), in which she
begs the queen to intervene in conflicts within the royal family. In articulating her
own intercessionary authority, Christine deploys the trope of tearfulness, begging
Queen Isabeau, wife of King Charles VI, not to despise ‘this tearful voice of
mine’, thereby representing herself as a tearful supplicant calling upon the higher
intermediary prerogative of the queen, inciting her to act.16 In so doing,
Christine writes the Letter to the Queen not merely as a political epistle, but as a
political prayer to the queen.
The motif of tearfulness as political action is also threaded through The
Epistle of the Prison of Human Life written in response to the French defeat at
Agincourt in 1415, aimed at the wives, mothers and widows of the vanquished.17
Here, furthermore, the trope of tearfulness represents the embattled nation of
France not simply as a feminised state whose men have vanished or perished, but
as one which Christine, as widow, figures in her own image. Her own well-
documented widowhood brings a dramatic immediacy and authenticity to this
depiction of the beleaguered state. This, together with her claim at the outset that
sorrow has delayed the writing of the epistle, enables her to locate herself within
the national community of women afflicted by their losses after Agincourt,
lending her carefully constructed voice the authority of experience.
Two years later, having retired to the Abbey of Poissy, Christine returns for
the last time to the tearful Mater Dolorosa, offering her fullest and lengthiest
account of this figure in her prose meditation Hours of Contemplation on the
Passion of Our Lord. Despite its early appeal to the stoic exemplum offered
by Christ’s suffering, we can trace a gradual but unmistakable shift in focus
from Christ’s Passion to the Virgin’s compassion, so that the text’s final stages
are almost exclusively devoted to meditating on her role in the Passion and
thus in salvation history.18 Like the Prison of Human Life, we again encounter
a portrayal of post-Agincourt France as a community of grieving women
buffeted by hardship and loss and this text is offered as a form of consolation
to them: Christine explicitly proffers her meditation on the Virgin’s hopeful
tears as a response to the recent losses suffered by the women of France. Even
in the depths of her anguish, the Virgin is still able to commend her dead son
to his heavenly Father, thereby affirming the painful process necessary to
human redemption and embodying a commitment to justice and a refusal of
despair that is exemplary to those women whose lives have been devastated by
 Emotions in fiction 119
the misfortunes of France. Change will, the text suggests, be brought about
through tears of hopeful patience, tears that promise not only the salvation of
the soul and the alleviation of personal suffering, but also, importantly, the
deliverance of France.
Through a brief examination of some key aspects of Christine’s historical
context, we see her idiocultural forging of a complex emotional persona that
is distinctively fictive but also heavily mediated by late medieval under-
standings of gender, grief and agency. Together these remind us as modern
readers that it is vital to weigh the seemingly ‘immediate’ and ‘universal’
emotions we encounter in fictional texts against the density of their allusions
to the prevailing discourses and conditions of their time – and, in Christine’s
case, the ingenuity of their responses to these discourses.

Pearl and transhistorical emotion

The forensic historicist-contextualist approach presented above tends to be
the dominant approach to interpreting emotions in fictional texts, especially
those from the past. But this does not mean that debates about emotions
through time are settled; indeed as I will now show, using my second medie-
val case study, responses to fictional texts continue to navigate the poles of the
universal and the particular. Continuist positions in history of emotions
research query what they argue are the limitations of the contextualist posi-
tion. Critics of contextualist approaches argue that although they are valuable
in challenging assumptions about universal and unchanging humanity, they
have replaced these assumptions with an equally problematic culturalist
metaphysics: that is, they espouse an account in which cultural-historical
context operates as an ultimate source of meaning or value lying beyond one’s
own subjective experience but determining of it, with no quarter given to
ideas of human continuity across time.
The potential objections to the culturalist approach are as much practical
as theoretical. One might ask the question whether contextualism can only
lead to an emotional history predicated on historical discontinuity, with no
period being able to speak intelligibly to another. Willemijn Ruberg argues
that contextualist approaches have ‘made a meaningful history of emotions
impossible by […] avoiding any statement of the universality of emotions’.19
Additionally, for those interested in the question of transhistorical emotion,
the question arises as to whether, or how, cross-historical continuity can be
figured in emotional histories that invest so heavily in the moment of a text’s
birth at the expense of the emotional, empathetic connections generated
throughout its long emotional afterlife. This is argued by Rita Felski who, in
her provocative essay ‘Context Stinks!’, says ‘conventional models of historiciz-
ing and contextualizing prove deficient in accounting for the transtemporal
movement and affective resonance of particular texts’.20 The possibility,
however, of a compromise between historicism and a position that seeks to
develop a cross-historical epistemology is flagged in Jane Chance’s envisaging of
120 Louise D’Arcens
an ‘evolutionary literary studies’ which ‘might embrace a necessary […] reduc-
tionism’ that enables modern readers to recognise emotional and cognitive
commonalities with earlier people, but which ‘refus[es] mere reductionism in
empirical approaches’, always reflecting critically on its engagement with the
cognitive sciences.21
Even before considering its emotional afterlife, Pearl is a poem intrinsically
deserving of emotional analysis. Like later famous mourning texts, such as
Alfred Lord Tennyson’s In Memoriam (1849) which Tennyson dedicated to
his late friend Arthur Henry Hallam, the emotional pitch of Pearl’s dreamer-
narrator’s voice is intense throughout the poem. The poem is studded with
dense lexical clusters around grief (‘playne’, ‘wreched’, ‘pensyf ’, ‘pyne’, ‘lan-
gour’, ‘doel’, ‘sorwe’) but also joy, wonder and gladness – though these are
frequently shot through with grief.22 Moreover, the poem reflects explicitly on
the question of grief as a temporal experience, pitting it against the atemporal
‘blisse’ of the resurrected soul. Through the debates between resurrected
daughter and her still-bereft father, the poem dramatises the agonistic rela-
tionship between human grief and theological wisdom, an agonism also
reflected in its straddling of elegy and Christian consolatio genres. Within the
Christian stoic consolatio tradition, consolation is not an emotive state but a
spiritual recognition. The emotional tenor of Pearl’s teaching is often bra-
cingly austere, with the occasional burst of exasperation: the Pearl maiden
chides her grieving father for wilfully dwelling on his insignificant terrestrial
loss (‘dyne of doel of lures lesse’) in the face of her eternal gain, and advises
him to submit to divine will: ‘Thou moste abyde that He schal deme.’23 This
struggle persists beyond the debate and into the poem’s moving and complex
final stanza, when the dreamer finally commends his daughter to God but is
nevertheless still prostrate with grief (‘pyty’); consolation wins a submission of
will but does not ultimately eradicate, or even fully contain, emotion.
The persistence of emotion in Pearl extends to its modern reception. It is
an example of an early fictional text that has elicited strong transtemporal
empathetic responses in its two main domains of reception: academic and
poetic. A particularly pointed academic example is David Aers’s 1993 essay
‘The Self Mourning: Reflections on Pearl’. Amid its careful contextualist
reading, one finds a fascinating excursus worthy of an existential philosopher:

Death is a massive challenge to human identity, the disclosure of an utter

powerlessness framing our will to control others, our environments and
ourselves. Death shatters networks in which human identity is created
and sustained: we mourn, inevitably, for ourselves and the unwelcome
reminder of the contingency of all that gives us a sense of identity, the
reminder of the precariousness of all that we habitually take for granted.
Pearl is a poem that confronts these challenges.24

The poem’s treatment of child death, and parental grief in particular, here
prompts otherwise historicist scholarship to identify transhistorical qualities
 Emotions in fiction 121
in the poem, invoking a universal ‘we’ and tracing what it shares with later
poetic works of parental grieving such as Ben Jonson’s early seventeenth-
century elegy ‘On My First Sonne’.
A similar balancing of approaches is visible in Sarah McNamer’s deft recent
account of Pearl. McNamer’s reading is carefully literary-historicist, pointing to
the ways the poem manifests a ‘distinctive medieval perceptual framework: that
rich conflation of the aesthetic, sensory, affective, and cognitive known as sweet-
ness’, which she argues is captured in its pleasing sonic richness.25 But she also sees
this same literariness as soliciting emotional engagement in a way that challenges a
narrower contextualist interpretation, encouraging a view of literature

not only as documentary witness reflecting or representing what already

exists in a given culture but as ‘source’ in the generative sense—as font,
wellspring. For literary texts have always served—some kinds and genres
more overtly than others, and in some cultures more overtly than in
others—as affective scripts, capable of generating complex emotional
effects in those who engage with them.26

The idea of fictional texts as offering ‘affective scripts’ for ‘those who engage
with them’ emphasises their capacity to take an active role in shaping their
idioculture and to actually produce emotional experiences and expression for
audiences, whether that engagement is contemporary to the text or reaching
back through time.
This idea of parental grief as a transhistorical experience with shared
emotional contours is also present in the poem’s reception beyond academia.
In his introduction to Jane Draycott’s 2011 poetic translation of Pearl, poet
Bernard O’Donoghue, himself a translator of the Pearl-poet’s other triumph
Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, claims that the poem ‘invites comparison
with other bereaved English poetic fathers, Wordsworth and Ben Jonson’.27
Draycott’s own comments about her translation bear out Rebecca McNamara
and Stephanie Downes’s statement that ‘emotions exist outside the text as
well, in the potentialities opened up by reading and performance’.28 Draycott
has said of Pearl ‘what’s most powerful for me […] is the power of the
expression of grief, which connects the modern reader to the poet’s experience
like an electric arc across the centuries’.29 Her Pearl can, then, be described as
an ‘emotional translation’: she is engaged by a powerful identification with its
exploration of parental grief. Her sense of transhistorical affinity with the
Pearl poet leads her to downplay the Christian vision and consolation in
favour of the poem’s elegiac strain, and to simplify the poem’s alliterative
textures to create spare modern cadences, as seen in the penultimate stanza’s
forlorn reflection ‘Always we strive for more good fortune / Than is due to us.
And so / My happiness is torn in two’ (ll.1195–97).
Downes and McNamara state that ‘those describing the effects of affect, in
particular, are attuned to an experience of emotion as elastic, stretching from
text to reader’.30 For this reason scholars should treat transhistorical
122 Louise D’Arcens
emotional responses to earlier texts as sophisticated rather than naive
responses to that emotional elasticity. The Pearl-poet, furthermore, should be
seen to have created an existential-affective text that reaches beyond its time,
creating what Reddy calls an ‘emotional environment’ that accommodates
readers across historical periods. The trans-temporality of the poem’s affec-
tive-visionary structure, despite it being grounded in the practices of its own
time, can be understood via Reddy’s influential concept of ‘emotives’; that is,
emotional expressions that are ‘similar to performatives’ in that they are not
merely influenced by emotional states but also create, change or intensify the
emotions they relate or describe, and in so doing create or alter ‘emotional
environments’, generating empathetic states in readers.31
A scholar who has argued compellingly for the use of transhistorical
empathy in relation to Middle English literature is Nicholas Watson, in his
essay ‘Desiring the Past’. In this essay Watson argues that historical
scholarship has pursued an ethos in which respect for the alterity of his-
torical people engages a sense of professional and intellectual responsi-
bility to depict the people of the past ‘accurately’. While this appeals to a
normative sense of fairness that applies to both people of the past and the
present, Watson nevertheless argues that this is a ‘weakly satisfying’ ethos
that closes off the emotional and imaginative dimensions of empathetic
historical knowledge. He proposes instead a practice of interpretation
which does not ‘rid itself of empathetic entanglements’, but rather bal-
ances a ‘hermeneutic of suspicion’ – that is, an interpretive practice in
which the historical alterity of the early text is acknowledged – against a
‘hermeneutic of intuition’ in which the text becomes familiar. Watson
performs this empathetic work by reading the affective mystical texts of
the medieval women mystics Hadewijch and Julian of Norwich not as
historical ‘objects of study’ but rather ‘as though they were theoretical
essays in affective historicity’ which are simultaneously of their moment
and ‘part of a thinking and feeling life that still goes on’.32 He insists that
this interpretive practice must always retain a reflexive consciousness of
the gap between subject (reader) and object (text) that prevents the treat-
ment of the past from turning into presentist assimilation.
In proposing this hermeneutic of empathy Watson is, perhaps unknowingly,
returning to an idea strikingly close to that developed within German histor-
ical hermeneutics by such thinkers as Friedrich Schleiermacher, Johann
Gottfried Herder, Wilhelm Dilthey and Theodor Lipps, who attempted to
elucidate the non-positivistic means by which modern historians come to
understand and interpret people of the past. The most influential ideas
emerging from this are Einfühlung, which has been translated into English as
‘empathy’ or ‘empathic understanding’, although it literally means ‘feeling
into’, and Nachfühlen, Dilthey’s favoured term, which can be glossed as a
reflective ‘re-feeling’ and ‘re-experiencing’, a reflective experiencing of trans-
historical feeling.33
 Emotions in fiction 123
The Tree of Life and emotions as contingent universals
Having considered the idea of cross-historical emotion in the case of textual
reception, I wish to explore how, or whether, history of emotions scholarship
might use this idea to compare texts from different historical and cultural contexts
that nevertheless bear striking resemblances to one another not just in the
emotions they foreground but in how these are expressed. What are the implica-
tions of comparative analysis in history of emotions research: should it only point
to parallels, or perhaps affective traditions, or can it develop from comparative
analysis a theory of emotional continuity? A text that elicits this question in rela-
tion to Pearl is Terrence Malick’s 2011 film The Tree of Life, which at its heart is
an elegiac dream-vision that is also a response to grief. Like the Pearl poet, Malick
uses highly sophisticated artistry to address the fundamental question of grief. In
this film Jack O’Brien, played by an emotionally numb Sean Penn, finds himself
still unable to reconcile himself to the death of his younger brother, killed at nine-
teen, whose voice he hears early in the film saying ‘find me’. Jack enters into an
extended reverie which encompasses childhood memories but also visions of
creation and of the afterlife, and culminates in a moving reunion with his dead
brother on an otherworldly shoreline. Through its use of ambiguous point-of-view
and free indirect voiceover, the film’s exploration of grief moves beyond Jack’s
mourning subjectivity and includes that of his mother. As a bereaved parent, the
course of her grief traces the same arc as Pearl’s dreamer, as her initial whispered
accusation to God ‘where were you?’ gives way at the end, after the visionary
reunion in the afterlife, to a final moment of release. Her final whisper, ‘I give him
to you; I give you my son’, parallels directly the Pearl-dreamer’s final commenda-
tion of his daughter to God: ‘to God I hit bytaghte’ (l. 1207). The film’s pattern of
grief forms a kind of inverse pairing with Pearl, for rather than having a grieving
father encountering his dead infant daughter in the grown form of the Pearl
maiden, here a mother mourns her dead son, who in the afterlife is transformed
from a teenager back to a child.
Like Pearl, The Tree of Life too has at its core an affectively asymmetrical
exchange in which the griever is enjoined to accept grace and God’s will. This
dialogue, though, differs from Pearl’s in that the complaint of the bereaved does
not receive verbal answers but rather a cosmic response in the form of the spec-
tacular creation sequence, which suggests that death and grief are as much a part
of creation as life and joy. The fact that the film begins by quoting the lines from
Job 38: ‘where were you when I laid the earth’s foundations […] while all the
morning stars sang together, and all the sons of God shouted for joy?’ frames
this lengthy creation sequence as a visual parallel to Job 38–41, in which God
curbs Job’s questioning of divine justice via a thunderous barrage of humbling
rhetorical counter-questions that walk Job step-by-step through creation. While
Malick’s exploration is more obscure than Pearl’s, in both texts loss through
death is ultimately accepted as an unfathomable part of God’s will, though Jack’s
half-smile at the end of the film again expresses the emotional ache that spiritual
consolation cannot fully efface.
124 Louise D’Arcens
Because the direct line of influence between Pearl and Draycott’s poetry is
missing with The Tree of Life, what history of emotions approach best
accounts for understanding their arresting parallels? Are they best understood
as a product of the texts’ participation in shared elegiac and stoic traditions?
Or, returning to my opening discussion of the long timelines demanded of
cognitive and existential accounts, can the emotions represented in these very
different texts be seen as part of a longer transhistorical emotional experi-
ence? A useful term to describe such transhistorical emotions is the notion of
contingent universals; that is, phenomena that are responsive to historical and
contextual circumstance (and hence are contingent rather than necessary), but
also exceed circumstantial particularity, being practices that are common to
many, if not all, cultures. For philosophical anthropologists such as Helmuth
Plessner this concept goes beyond practices and can also refer to existential,
cognitive, affective and phenomenological commonalities among humans
which may nevertheless manifest differently and be given different meanings
across cultures and times.34 Losing a loved one to death, for instance,
generates cross-culturally an existential consciousness of human finitude and
accompanying emotional grief responses, though these will be framed dis-
cursively in any number of different ways. Applying this approach, we see that
the representation of parental grief at the heart of Pearl becomes a contingent
universal that enables the poem, despite its embeddedness in its own society,
to elicit emotional responses in later readers, and to bear valid comparison to
much later, apparently unconnected texts that also deal with the aftermath of
a child’s death.

Conclusion
Fictional texts, then, offer specific opportunities to students of emotions history,
enabling them to explore the rich intersection of the aesthetic and the historical.
Careful analysis of the ways they draw on the many available resources of
fictional form – resources of narrative as well as a huge range of aesthetic
techniques – offers insight into, and appreciation of, the means by which emo-
tion is both represented and expressed in these texts. Recognising this in turn
illuminates the aesthetic-emotional appeal they offer to audiences, whose
engagements with fictional texts lead them to have emotional experiences. A key
challenge that comes with these texts lies in developing an approach that identi-
fies how these aesthetic-emotional features are also shaped by, and in turn shape,
the emotional discourses and practices particular to their own place and time,
yet with an awareness of how they continue to participate in a longer and larger
history of human emotion.
The issues and opportunities involved in using literature as a source for the
history of emotion apply to many periods and regions beyond medieval
Europe. Another later period that draws particular attention, for example,
involves the rise of such popular and conspicuously psychological forms such
as the novel in Western society. Some historians have used novels to help
 Emotions in fiction 125
explain new approaches to emotions like love – literature, in this case, helping
to cause changes in emotional expectations in a wide audience. Others simply
argue that novels reflect a broader cultural shift. But even in this case, where
literary innovations (including a significant rise in literacy) are clearly
involved, the tension between universal emotional experiences – for example,
concerning love – and the particular cultural characteristics of a period in
time continues to apply. When additional media are added to popular exposure
to fictional representations – for example the rise of radio and then television
soap operas – the array of potential sources and the challenges to historical
evaluation expand still further. Connections between literary history and the
broader history of emotions, in many time periods, are complex, but the
resulting analysis can be extremely rewarding.35

Notes
1 Suzanne Keen, Empathy and the Novel (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).
2 Anonymous, Pearl, ed. Sarah Stanbury (Kalamazoo, Mich: Medieval Institute
Publications, 2001), ll. 1069–70.
3 Paula Leverage, Reception and Memory: A Cognitive Approach to the Chansons de
Geste (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2010), 110
4 Aranye Fradenberg, ‘Going Mental’, Postmedieval 3, no. 3 (2012): 361–72 (369).
5 Jan Plamper, ‘The History of Emotions: An Interview with William Reddy, Bar-
bara Rosenwein, and Peter Stearns’, History and Theory 49 (2010): 237–65 (253).
6 Daniel Gross, The Secret History of Emotion: From Aristotle’s Rhetoric to Modern
Brain Science (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2007), 5.
7 Monique Scheer, ‘Are Emotions a Kind of Practice (and is that what makes them
have a history)? A Bourdieuian Approach to Understanding Emotion’, History and
Theory 51 (2012): 193–220 (193).
8 Christine de Pizan, Le Ditié de Jehanne D’Arc, ed. Angus J. Kennedy and Kenneth
Varty, Nottingham Medieval Studies 18 (1974): 29–55 and trans. 19 (1975): 53–76 (66).
9 Charity Cannon Willard, Christine de Pizan: Her Life and Works (New York:
Persea, 1984), 53.
10 Barbara Stevenson, ‘Revisioning the Widow Christine de Pizan’, in Crossing the
Bridge: Comparative Essays on Medieval European and Heian Japanese Women
Writers, ed. Barbara Stevenson and Cynthia Ho (New York: Palgrave, 2000), 29–
44; Daniel Poirion, Le Poète et le Prince: L’évolution du lyrisme courtois de Giul-
laume de Machaut à Charles d’Orléans (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France,
1965), 252.
11 Derek Attridge, ‘Context, Idioculture, Invention’, New Literary History 42, no. 4
(2011): 681–99 (683).
12 Attridge, ‘Context, Idioculture, Invention’, 684.
13 See, for instance, Spurgeon Baldwin and James W. Marchand, ‘The Virgin Mary as
Advocate before the Heavenly Court’, Medievalia et Humanistica 18 (1992): 79–94
(93, no. 2).
14 Christine de Pizan, The Book of the City of Ladies, trans. Earl Jeffrey Richards,
foreword Marina Warner (New York: Persea Books, 1982) §1.10.4, 28.
15 Christine de Pizan, The Book of the City of Ladies, §1.2.1, 6.
16 Christine de Pizan, ‘Epistle to the Queen’, in Lamentacion sur les maux de la
guerre civile, Epistre de la prison de vie humaine, and Epistre a la royne, ed. and
trans. Josette A. Wisman (New York: Garland, 1984), 71.
17 Christine de Pizan, ‘Epistle on the Prison of Human Life’.
126 Louise D’Arcens
18 Christine de Pizan, ‘Hours of Contemplation of the Passion of Our Lord’ / Heures
de contemplacion sur la Passion de Nostre Seigneur Jhesucrist, ed. and trans.
Liliane Dulac and René Stuip, with the collaboration of E. J. Richards (Paris:
Honoré Champion, 2017), ll. 1332–4.
19 Willemijn Ruberg, ‘Interdisciplinarity and the History of Emotions’, Cultural and
Social History 6, no. 4 (2009): 507–16 (509).
20 Rita Felski, ‘Context Stinks!’, New Literary History 42, no. 4 (2011): 573–91 (574).
21 Jane Chance, ‘Cognitive Alterities: from Cultural Studies to Neuroscience and
Back,’ Postmedieval 3, no. 3 (2012): 247–61 (257).
22 Anonymous, Pearl, passim.
23 Anonymous, Pearl, ll. 339 and 348.
24 David Aers, ‘The Self Mourning: Reflections on Pearl’, Speculum 68, no. 1 (1993):
54–73 (56).
25 Sarah McNamer, ‘The Literariness of Literature and the History of Emotion’,
PMLA 130, no. 5 (2015): 1433–42 (1438).
26 McNamer, ‘Literariness’, 1436.
27 Bernard O’Donoghue in Jane Draycott, Pearl (Manchester: Carcanet Press, 2011), 9.
28 Stephanie Downes and Rebecca J. McNamara, ‘The History of Emotions and
Middle English Literature’, Literature Compass 13, no. 6 (2016): 444–56 (452).
29 Jane Draycott, Commentary, http://www.stephen-spender.org/_downloads_general/
Stephen_Spender_Prize_2008.pdf, accessed 5 November 2019.
30 Downes and McNamara, ‘History of Emotions’, 452.
31 William M. Reddy, The Navigation of Feeling: A Framework for the History of
Emotions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 105. For ‘emotional
environments’ see William M. Reddy, ‘Against Constructionism: The Historical
Ethnography of Emotions’, Current Anthropology 38 (1997): 327–51 (331).
32 Nicholas Watson, ‘Desire for the Past’, Studies in the Age of Chaucer, 21 (1999):
59–97.
33 Magdalena Nowak, ‘The Complicated History of Einfühlung’, Argument 1, no. 2
(2011): 301–26.
34 Helmuth Plessner, Laughing and Crying: A Study of the Limits of Human Behavior,
trans. James Spencer Churchill and Marjorie Grene (Evanston: Northwestern
University Press, 1970).
35 For a recent assessment of the important but changing role of English-language
literature in emotional expression from the eighteenth century onward, see Olivier
Morin and Alberto Acerbi, ‘Birth of the Cool: A Two-Centuries Decline in Emo-
tional Expression in Anglophone Fiction’, Cognition and Emotion 31, no. 8 (2017):
1663–75.
11 Performing emotions
Alan Maddox

While almost all human interactions can be read as ‘performative’, the focus of
this chapter is primarily on sources dealing with organised performances of
music, dance and drama in the Western tradition. Particular attention is given to
the early modern period, when the representation of emotion became a primary
goal in the performing arts, with some exploration of sources that show how
understandings of emotions, and how they could be presented in performance,
changed in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. In the first part of the chapter
I discuss the broad categories of sources that can provide insights into the history
of emotions in the performing arts, and what we can (and cannot) learn from
them. The second part examines in more detail the sources for music, dance and
drama in the Western tradition, with brief attention given to more informal
performance genres and non-Western traditions.
It is important at the outset to acknowledge the problems of defining what
emotions are and how we can ‘read’ them in cultural and historical context.
Human responses to the performing arts are inevitably individual and cultu-
rally conditioned, yet at the same time people in different times and cultural
contexts have often felt strong emotional responses to performance and felt
the need to try to account for these in systematic ways. Thus emotions –
however understood – have long been a central concern in the study of per-
formance, with attention typically focused on how creators have attempted to
convey emotions in their compositions, and how these have been expressed by
performers and experienced by audiences.
The boundaries between composition, performance and audience remain
indistinct, however; for instance, improvised performances such as commedia
dell’arte combined composition and performance, while in the well-lit auditoria
of eighteenth-century opera theatres the audience was often there as much to be
seen as to see, and to perform as much as to observe a performance. The trans-
mission of emotions through the stages of creation, performance and reception is
also not necessarily direct or linear: performers might misinterpret or re-interpret
the affective message of a piece, an audience might respond with laughter to
something intended by both creator and performers to be sad, and despite the
emotional entrainment common to the audience experience, individual audience
members or groups may respond quite differently to others.
128 Alan Maddox
The definition of performance itself can also be difficult to pin down: a Bee-
thoven piano sonata might be performed with no one but the pianist present,
while conversely some civic or ecclesiastical rituals such as the annual ceremony
of the marriage of Venice to the sea had a distinctly theatrical flavour. While
Western cultures have generally distinguished clearly between the arts of acting,
dance and music, in practice they often overlap: dance almost always involves
music and often an element of acting, and spoken plays contained many songs
and dances, while opera most thoroughly integrated all three arts (as well as
those of painting, textiles, lighting and so on).
Accounts of the experience of being in various performance venues can also
provide insights into the way these spaces have been constructed as emotional
communities.1 For instance, accounts of boisterous audience behaviour at both
spoken drama and opera until the early nineteenth century suggest a very dif-
ferent kind of emotional community from that of the modern darkened theatre
where ‘audiencing’ is constructed as a much more individual practice, char-
acterised by emotional responses that are largely internalised and private, yet
experienced, paradoxically, in a communal, public space.2 Similarly, visual art-
works and verbal accounts including letters and novels confirm that the emo-
tional experience of both performing and listening was very different in
environments such as the church, tavern, court or private home.

Types of sources
As with most fields of historical study, books, journals, letters, archival docu-
ments and so on provide valuable information about the history of emotions in
the performing arts, but non-verbal texts such as music scores, dance notations
and visual representations of performance can be equally important, supple-
mented over the past century by audio and video recordings. The usefulness of
each type of source varies to some extent for each art form and for each stage of
the creative process, and each has its own particular limitations. The most valu-
able insights often arise when different kinds of sources, providing different per-
spectives, can be combined and analysed together.
Verbal texts provide the most direct evidence of an author’s work in the
case of drama, where the creative ‘product’ is a verbal script; however, in
any of the arts, theoretical treatises and authors’ writings about their
compositional process can provide valuable insights into both the emotions
they intended to convey and the technical means used to achieve this. As
with any source, though, we need to take into account the purpose of
writing and the intended audience. Authors’ accounts of their own moti-
vations and processes may be products of faulty memory or attempts at
self-promotion or image building. The emotions they intended to express
may also not be what performers or audiences at the time experienced in
response, let alone what we would today – indeed the differences between
historical and modern responses to the same composition may be particu-
larly revealing. For example, some of the humour in The Taming of the
 Performing emotions 129
Shrew, which relies for its effect on early modern assumptions about the
subservient social roles of women, makes uncomfortable viewing for many
modern audiences.
Verbal sources from a performer’s point of view often take the form of auto-
biographical accounts and letters. Performance treatises are also particularly
useful, especially for the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries when the expression of
emotion in singing, acting and dance became a central concern in the training and
valuation of performers. While many treatises do not go beyond rudimentary
technical matters such as fingering, bowing, dance steps or posture, others provide
specific guidance on the expression of affections or emotional states, while
acknowledging the limitations of describing in words the ephemeral nuances of
sound or action. Archives also sometimes provide a surprising window into the
emotional world of performers, for instance when administrative records document
conflicts over precedence or payment, or punishments for indecorous behaviour.
After the early eighteenth century, published performance reviews became
increasingly common but accounts of performances and their emotional
impact from an audience point of view can also be found in letters, diaries
and official records of court and ceremonial occasions. Audience accounts are
particularly useful for dance, for which, despite an increasing theoretical
literature after the late seventeenth century, the technicalities of composition
and performance were largely conveyed through verbal instruction and
embodied demonstration rather than in writing.
For music and dance in particular, non-verbal texts such as scores and chor-
eographic notations provide the most concrete evidence we have of what creators
intended to convey. Indeed, that is the specific purpose of making written records
using specialised, fit-for-purpose notation of this kind for each domain. While
the conventions of each idiom are highly culturally dependent, for readers
familiar with them, emotional cues built into such non-verbal sources are often
clear in patterns of dissonant or consonant harmony, vigorous or restrained
movement and so on. As with verbal accounts, however, an unavoidable chal-
lenge in reading these historical sources is that, however well we understand their
idiomatic conventions, we cannot hear, see or feel in embodied action the same
things that people of the past did. A modern listener to Mozart cannot un-hear
all of the familiar music of later times, from Beethoven to jazz, hip-hop and
world music, with all of the emotional associations that each carries. And con-
versely, we cannot share the emotional habitus of his original listeners, including
life-long patterns of religious observance, automatic deference to our betters, or
the daily habitual experience of moving (whether to act, sing, play or dance) in a
hooped skirt or while wearing a sword.
Although visual representations of performance do not directly record the
experience of being in an audience, they can convey details of posture, gesture
and staging which show practices of emotional representation. Portraits of
authors and performers also convey elements of their emotional worlds such
as pride in their social status and professional standing or, especially in the
nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the artist’s projection of the sitter’s
130 Alan Maddox
emotional persona, from Beethoven’s romantic scowl to the studied detach-
ment of photographic portraits of Anna Pavlova.
Despite their technological limitations, early audio recordings and films pro-
vide tangible evidence of expressive performing practices of the late nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries which is not available for earlier eras. While each
reproduces an imperfect representation of a single, curated instance of a parti-
cular piece, collectively they demonstrate expressive vocabularies of gesture,
musical phrasing and tempo modification, dance style and so on which are often
surprisingly different from current practice. The correlations and sometimes
contrasts between the evidence of recordings and other documentary sources can
provide particularly rich resources for problematising assumptions about older
modes of emotional expression. The sometimes unsettling combination of
immediacy and unfamiliarity that early recordings can engender also serves as a
reminder that emotions are culturally contingent. The more closely we examine
historical sources of all kinds, the more apparent it becomes that neither the
terminology for describing emotional experiences nor the experiences themselves
correspond precisely across either languages or historical time periods.

Types of performance

Drama
Evidence for methods of portraying emotion on the ancient stage comes pri-
marily from hundreds of visual images in vase paintings as well as figurines
showing masks, facial expressions (where actors were unmasked) and gesture,
and from verbal descriptions of various emotions and how they could be
aroused by use of the voice and action. The latter come primarily from trea-
tises on oratory, particularly Aristotle’s The Art of Rhetoric, Cicero’s De ora-
tore, Quintilian’s Institutio oratoria and the pseudo‐Cicero Rhetorica ad
Herennium, each of which continued to be influential in early modern Europe.
According to Quintilian, ‘all delivery [actio] … is concerned with two dif-
ferent things, namely, voice and gesture, of which one appeals to the eye and
the other to the ear, the two senses by which all emotion reaches the soul.’3
Some 150 years earlier, Cicero had provided detailed instructions for the vocal
expression of various emotions, for example:

Anger requires the use of one kind of voice, high and sharp, excited,
breaking off repeatedly … Lamentation and grief require another kind of
voice, wavering in pitch, sonorous, halting, and tearful … Happiness
needs another tone, unrestrained and tender, cheerful and relaxed …
Distress needs yet another, earnest but without appeal to pity, muffled,
and in one tone of voice.4

A concern with systematically expressing emotion in drama is particularly

evident from the sixteenth century onwards, nurtured by humanist education
 Performing emotions 131
in which the study of classical rhetoric was an increasingly important part.
Detailed discussions of the means of representing emotion appear in acting
treatises including those of Leone de Sommi (1565), Andrea Perrucci (1699),
Franziscus Lang (1727) and Johannes Jelgerhuis (1827).5 Perrucci’s treatise is
particularly useful in showing the commonality as well as the differences in
expressive styles between composed and improvised theatre. While both
shared the goal of moving the audience, commedia dell’arte was less directly
based on rhetorical principles. It used a largely consistent collection of stock
characters, in turn loosely based on those of ancient Roman comedy, each of
whom had predominant emotional attributes. For instance the lovers were
characterised by joy, devotion and longing, while the braggart Capitano is by
turns angry, proud and fearful, while the servant Brighella’s mask shows his
typical attributes of lust and greed.6
Many treatises also provided descriptions of gestures used to express parti-
cular emotions. For example, according to Lang, fear is shown ‘by holding up
the right hand to the breast with four fingers uppermost and held together and
then the arm is pushed forward and outward’.7 The treatises of John Bulwer
(1644) (see Figure 11.1), Lang and Jelgerhuis also provide visual images of ges-
tures, while Charles Le Brun presented many analytical drawings of facial
expressions.8 Gilbert Austin’s Chironomia (1806) is particularly useful in that, in
addition to copious illustrations, it includes a notation system for gesture with
examples for practice.9 Henry Siddons’s Practical illustrations of rhetorical ges-
ture and action (1807), too, provides illustrations based on Johann Jacob Engel’s
Ideen zu einer Mimik (1785), but his approach reflects the radical changes to
acting introduced in the second half of the eighteenth century by David Garrick
(1717–79), Sarah Siddons (1755–1831) and John Philip Kemble (1757–1823), in
which the portrayal of a continuous emotional trajectory began to supersede the
representation of distinct, individual passions.10
Gestures expressing particular emotions in many of these sources are ana-
lysed and compared in Dene Barnett’s The Art of Gesture (1987),11 while
Joseph Roach’s classic study The Player’s Passion (1985) addresses many of
the same sources, but with a focus specifically on ‘how the inner workings of
the actor’s body have been variously understood by critics and theorists who
knew something about the physiology of emotion’.12 Roach argues that new,
scientifically oriented understandings of emotion were behind Garrick’s
‘revolution in acting’ which in turn provided the resources for the very dif-
ferent, radically emotive style of romanticism epitomised by Edmund Kean
(1787–1833). Evidence for the emotional style of romantic acting comes less
from treatises than from biographies, reviews and commentaries such as G.H.
Lewes’s On Actors and the Art of Acting (1875).13 Much can also be gleaned
from earlier biographical accounts of actors, such as Francesco Bartoli’s
monumental Notizie istoriche de’ comici italiani.14
Play scripts are of course vital sources for dramatic emotions. In the early
modern period, stage directions specifying emotional delivery are rare, but
clues to emotions are often embedded in the spoken text, even where specific
132 Alan Maddox

Figure 11.1 Emotional gestures in John Bulwer’s Chirologia, or the Naturall Language
of the Hand (London: Thomas Harper, 1644)

emotion words are not used. For instance, Hamlet’s or Romeo’s sighing may
be read as an ‘emotional practice’ in the sense proposed by Monique
Scheer.15 Emotions can also be implicit in practical stage directions such as
Shakespeare’s ‘flourish’, which indicates the sound of trumpets, audibly sig-
nalling the pride and majesty of a king and in turn demanding at least the
appearance of deference and humility from his subjects.
While all of these kinds of sources can be useful individually, it is in com-
bination that they often yield richer insights into the embodied experience of
emotion in the theatre at a particular place and time, including different
 Performing emotions 133
understandings of what emotions are, how they work and how they may be
conveyed in acting. Thus, the visual image of Hamlet encountering the Ghost
(I.iv) which forms the frontispiece to Rowe’s 1709 edition of the play (Figure
11.2) may be analysed in relation to the script, but a more nuanced perspec-
tive on eighteenth-century understandings of fear may come when it is also
placed in the context of contemporary acting manuals and of observers’
accounts of leading actor Thomas Betterton’s famous ‘start’ – to which the
image perhaps alludes – which was ‘felt so strongly by the Audience, that …
they in some Measure partook of the Astonishment and Horror … this
excellent Actor affected’.16

Figure 11.2 Hamlet, Act III, Scene 1. Frontispiece to Hamlet in Nicholas Rowe’s 1709
edition (The Picture Art Collection/Alamy Stock Photo)
134 Alan Maddox
Dance
The limitations of notations for recording historical dance mean that the most
useful information about emotional expression in dance often comes from
verbal texts rather than from choreographies and floor patterns, although
these, too, can provide valuable clues, as can evidence about dance music.
The earliest European choreographies are recorded in fifteenth-century
dance treatises in which a concern with the controlled display of emotion is
clear. The physical poise and emotional control produced by dance training
were essential attributes for Italian courtiers and understood as connected
with ethical behaviour. Guglielmo Ebreo da Pesaro considered that dance
reflected ‘interior spiritual movements’ corresponding with a harmony which
travels through hearing to the intellect and the senses, where it generates
‘certain sweet emotions … [which] try as much as possible to escape and
make themselves visible in active movement’.17 Choreographic sequences
included dances such as Gelosia (jealousy), or expressing fickleness or fide-
lity.18 Emotional expression, however, comes as much from the character of a
dance type (bourée, sarabande, waltz) and the expressive manner of perform-
ing it, as from the specific steps and movements. Thoinot Arbeau noted in his
Orchesographie (1588) (Figure 11.3) that ‘the galliard is so called because one
must be gay and nimble to dance it, as, even when performed reasonably
slowly, the movements are light-hearted’.19
In the second half of the seventeenth century, theorists such as Claude Fran-
çois Ménestrier considered that theatrical dance was particularly apt for expres-
sing emotion. According to the English dancer and theorist John Weaver, such

Figure 11.3 Performing the reverence in a basse danse. ‘Turn the body and face
towards the lady and cast a gracious look upon her.’ Thoinot Arbeau,
Orchesographie (1588), 26v, Library of Congress
 Performing emotions 135
dance should be so clearly intelligible as to make a spectator ‘able to distinguish
the several Passions, Manners or Actions; as of Love, Anger, and the like’.20
Although specific steps were not assigned for individual passions, increasingly
complex dance notations, built on that of Beauchamps and Feuillet, did allow
for detailed prescription of dancers’ movement through space and of the precise
connections between choreography and music. The concern with clear expres-
sion of emotions as well as technical virtuosity in turn laid the basis for the ballet
d’action pioneered by Jean-George Noverre and his Italian rival Gasparo
Angiolini in the mid-eighteenth century, establishing ballet as an autonomous
narrative art form.21 Dramatic scenarios for these ballets capture a new kind of
authorial input in which intense emotion was a central element, seen, for exam-
ple, in Jean Favier’s scenario for the ‘tragic pantomime ballet’ L’Ipermestra
(Venice, 1774). In Scene iv, the bloodied Danaïdes appear, trapped by ‘a horrible
group of furies’ who lead figures representing Remorse, Guilt, Betrayal and
Treachery which ‘freeze the souls of the Danaïdes with fear’ before they plum-
met into a ‘horrible Inferno’.22 Many of the dance manuals mentioned above
include images of dancers showing posture, gesture and facial expression. In
many cases these explicitly reproduce the modes of rhetorical gesture given in
contemporary acting treatises, however some, such as that of Noverre, make the
emotional intensity of danced pantomime particularly vivid.
Mid-nineteenth-century ballet manuals such as those of Carlo Blasis provide
insight into both the compositional and performative contributions to emotional
expression in ballet. Blasis made a clear distinction between pure dance elements
and pantomimic action which advanced the plot by using the gestural language
of classicistic acting. The pantomimic aspect he described as ‘no less than a mute
expression of feelings, passions, ideas, intentions, or any other sensations
belonging to a reasonable being’.23 He considered that ‘almost every species of
passion may be produced in a Ballet each in its place’;24 however, the range of
appropriate emotions to be represented was to be limited. ‘When selecting pas-
sages from history for the purpose of adapting them to the Ballet … The com-
poser should reject … shocking and sanguinary events. … We must in short
banish from Ballet the Fausts the Manfreds and the Frankensteins.’25
In the nineteenth century, dance was increasingly a subject of public discourse
which often drew attention to the emotional character of both performances and
audience responses, as when an 1843 review of Fanny Elssler as Giselle observed
that ‘the gaze of the viewer, seized by the deepest pain, rests on [her] pale and
devastated face’.26 The performance reviews of Théophile Gaultier and Jules
Janin were particularly influential in emphasising the sensory and emotional
experience of ballet at the expense of the intellect. Thus, writing about the ballet
La Tentation, Janin opined that ‘the secret of ballet’ was:

to surrender to the impression of the moment, to be nonchalant enough

not to scrutinise your pleasure, to let yourself be guided, without resis-
tance, by the painter, the musician, the danseuse, to whichever place they
lead you, in short, to allow yourself to be happy.27
136 Alan Maddox
While theoretical treatises since the late seventeenth century had focused on pro-
fessional theatrical dance, social dance remained an important vehicle for public
emotions. Many nineteenth-century manuals laid down etiquette for social dan-
cing, helping to define the kind of emotional community that would be created by,
for example, the hierarchical structure of a country dance, or the scandalous inti-
macy of couple dances such as the waltz. These themes are also traceable in novels
and other literature; many relevant sources have been collated and analysed by
authors including Allison Thompson, Cheryl Wilson and Molly Engelhardt.28
The music to which dancers performed is also an integral component of the
emotional effect of dance, and much can be learnt from the musical scores used
for particular dances; however, music notation before the late eighteenth century
includes few explicit directions about emotional expression. Just as important as
individual (often interchangeable) pieces of dance music, therefore, were treatises
explaining how to play them with the appropriate character. For instance, Georg
Muffatt’s Florilegium Secundum (1698) gives a detailed explanation of the intri-
cate rhythmic nuances and melodic ornamentation used in violin playing in the
Lullian style of French court ballet.29 Simply playing the notes on the page
without an understanding of these un-notated musical conventions would distort
the relationship between choreography and music, and with it the affective
character of each dance, whether Courante, Sarabande, Gigue or Canarie.

Music
In Western cultures, music has almost universally been considered to express
emotions, or at least to elicit emotional responses in hearers. Several ancient
writers noted music’s power to induce contrasting emotional states. Plato
proposed to banish the ‘dirge-like’ Mixolydian, ‘intense’ Lydian and ‘soft and
convivial’ Ionian harmoniae from his ideal republic as unfitting for the moral
development of the young,30 while Aristotle noted that:

in the nature of the harmoniai there are differences, so that people when
hearing them are affected differently and … listen to some in a more
mournful and restrained state, for instance the so-called Mixolydian, …
with the greatest composure to another, as the Dorian alone of the har-
moniai seems to act, while the Phyrigian makes men divinely suffused.31

From the fifteenth century onwards, humanist fascination with this fabled affec-
tive power led to increasingly explicit associations being made between musical
features and emotions. For instance, in his Déploration on the death of Jehan
Ockeghem (d. 1497), Josquin de Prez illustrated the mourning words through
dense texture, descending melodic lines, low pitch and extended phrases, punc-
tuated by higher pitches for cries of lamentation. Once audible emblems of
lament like these were established as identifiable musical gestures, they could also
be conveyed in purely instrumental pieces such as J.J. Froberger’s keyboard
Lamentation on the death of the Emperor Ferdinand III (d. 1657).
 Performing emotions 137
The goal of not only portraying affections but arousing them in the listener
was restated throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries as the highest
objective of music. J.J. Quantz considered that ‘the orator and the musician have,
at bottom, the same aim… namely to make themselves masters of the hearts of
their listeners, to arouse or still their passions, and to transport them now to this
sentiment, now to that’,32 while for theorist and composer Johann Mattheson,
‘everything which occurs without praiseworthy affections signifies nothing,
accomplishes noting, and is worth nothing’.33 German theorists following Joa-
chim Burmeister developed a theory of musica poetica, codifying musical figures
through which the affections could be aroused by analogy with those of rheto-
ric,34 and many composers associated particular keys with emotions; for
instance, for Charpentier (c. 1692), C major was ‘gay and militant’, D minor
‘serious and pious’, and E minor ‘effeminate, amorous and plaintive’.35 The
sound qualities of individual instruments such as the warlike trumpet or the
amorous, pastoral recorder and flute, too, evoked particular emotions.
In the second half of the eighteenth century, composers including Joseph Haydn
and W.A. Mozart were noted for their ability to convey humour as well as the
‘sublime’ passions such as fear, rage and wonder. This often depended on holding in
tension the literal representation of emotions and the boundaries of theatrical dec-
orum. In a letter to his father, Mozart wrote that ‘just as a man in such a towering
rage oversteps all the bounds of order, moderation and propriety and completely
forgets himself, so must the music too forget itself. But … passions, whether violent
or not, must never be expressed in such a way as to excite disgust.’36
The Romantic movement brought attempts to induce ever more intense
emotion in both vocal and instrumental music. Composers such as Hector
Berlioz and Ferenc (Franz) Liszt wrote ‘programme music’ in which the score
was often accompanied by a written programme describing a vivid scene. For
instance, the note attached to Berlioz’s Symphonie Fantastique describes a
terrifying opium-induced dream in which the musician sees a Witches’ Sab-
bath accompanied by ‘moaning, bursts of laughter, distant cries’ followed by
a funeral knell and the Dies irae combined with a witches’ dance. These
effects are created in the music by devices such as tense harmonies, rapid
changes of volume, tremolos and ‘special effects’ such as playing with the
wood of the bow, which can be correlated directly with the narrative.
Many accounts in memoirs, letters and reviews attest, too, to the emotional
impact on audiences of virtuoso instrumentalists, particularly Liszt (as pianist)
and the violinist Niccolò Paganini, but also of the intense emotional engagement
with which they played, not only projecting but apparently feeling powerful emo-
tions as they performed. Author Hans Christian Andersen wrote of Liszt that ‘as
he sat there at the piano, pale and with his face full of passion, he seemed to me
like a devil trying to play his soul free!’37 This newly intensely personalised mode
of performance was matched by an correspondingly personalised mode of listen-
ing, characterised on one hand by scenes of wild collective enthusiasm such as that
depicted in Theodor Hosemann’s 1842 cartoon Lizst in Concert (Figure 11.4),
showing the pianist surrounded by swooning female admirers (what Heinrich
138 Alan Maddox
Heine called ‘Lisztomania’), and on the other by the kind of withdrawn, inward
contemplation in Albert Graefle’s painting Ludwig van Beethoven and Intimates,
Listening to him Playing (Figure 11.5). At the same time, debates on the aesthetics
of music challenged the idea that music could express emotion at all. In On the
Musically Beautiful, Eduard Hanslick argued that music does not express any-
thing other than ‘sonically moved forms’.38
An intrinsic limitation of written sources is that they can only indirectly convey
how a past performance would have looked and sounded. Despite their technical
limitations, it is abundantly clear from late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century
recordings that performing styles of the period were different from those con-
sidered standard now and often different from what was prescribed in con-
temporary treatises and teaching manuals. Much of this difference concerns the
representation of emotion through devices which are now often considered to be in
poor taste, such as audible sobs on words like ‘weeping’, gliding between notes
and a willingness to sacrifice beauty of sound in favour of intensity of feeling.
Explicit connections with emotion are most easily identified in vocal music
because of the verbal cues given in the sung text, but these in turn confirm the
expressive intention behind the same devices when used in instrumental music.39

Other modes of performance

Across many cultures, music has often been used in public civic, religious and
diplomatic ceremonies and social rituals to create a suitable emotional tone,

Figure 11.4 Albert Graefle, Die Intimen bei Beethoven. Published by Franz Hanf-
staengl, Munich, ca. 1892 (Lebrecht Music & Arts/ Alamy Stock Photo)
 Performing emotions 139

Figure 11.5 Theodor Hosemann, Liszt and his Admirers (1842) (Granger Historical
Picture Archive/ Alamy Stock Photo)

whether celebratory, penitent or mourning. Such events are often recorded in

verbal accounts and visual images, and in some cases the music performed
survives, allowing a rich analysis of the emotional tenor of the event. The use
of music in inter-cultural ceremonial contexts can be particularly revealing.
For instance, the reciprocal diplomatic visits between France and Siam in the
1680s were documented in chronicles, diaries, journals and visual art, includ-
ing many detailed accounts of musical performances designed to impress,
intimidate, entertain or move the respective ambassadors.40
Such inter-cultural encounters are a reminder that in human cultures
throughout the world, people have expressed emotions which may be difficult
or impossible to express directly in words through song, dance and performa-
tive representations such as ritual weeping.41 Many such performative practices
belong to unwritten traditions, meaning that they survive only in continuing
traditional practices or in the historical accounts or recordings of ethno-
graphers. Ethnographic studies make clear, however, that performed emotions
are culturally encoded and therefore not directly translatable between cultures.
For instance, a healing dance performed by Kalahari Bushmen both generates
and communicates deep emotion which they describe as love, but of a kind that
cannot be directly translated into other languages.42 Such cases are a useful
reminder that, for ‘outsider’ observers, ethnographic recordings that may
appear to record cultural practices ‘as they really are’ need to be treated with
140 Alan Maddox
caution as sources for understanding performed emotions. Similarly, con-
sideration of performance traditions that are generally unfamiliar to Western
audiences, such as Japanese No-h, confirm that performance is strongly cultu-
rally encoded. It may be impossible for someone outside a particular culture to
access emotions which they may not share at all, expressed in a stylised idiom
which they cannot read.
In recent years, ethnographic and social science methods have also revealed
much about emotional engagement with music in Western cultures. For
instance, Tia Denora’s discussion of Jimi Hendrix’s 1969 performance of The
Star-Spangled Banner at Woodstock shows how the emotional meanings
associated with a piece of music may be radically changed by the context and
manner of its performance.43 While many such studies are culturally con-
tingent, it is possible that close reading of historical accounts of performance
in the light of recent studies in music psychology and sociology may lead to
new insights into historical emotions.
Sources for the performing arts are extremely varied and need careful inter-
pretation; however they are also uniquely susceptible to practice-based
research. Doing any kind of history inevitably involves an act of imaginative
reconstruction of the past. In the performing arts this can be put to the test by
using surviving performance materials such as music scores, play scripts and
choreographies for their original purpose and performing them. Despite the
highly contingent nature of any kind of reconstruction, historically informed
performances of Shakespeare at the Globe with men playing the female char-
acters, or of Bach’s cantatas on period instruments in an eighteenth-century
German church may provide insights into emotional practices in ways that are
not accessible by studying the texts alone. In this way, present practice can
generate new data – new sources – for the study of emotions history. Much
remains to be discovered about historical sources but, just as importantly,
about how to apply new theoretical and practical approaches to interpreting
information about emotions that may be found in them.

Notes
1 Barbara H. Rosenwein, ‘Worrying about Emotions in History’, The American
Historical Review 107, no. 3 (2002): 821–45.
2 On this change in audience experience and its cultural context, see Nicholas Cook,
Music: a Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), Chapter 2.
3 Quintilian, Institutio oratoria, XI. III. 14. Translation in The Institutio Oratoria of
Quintilian, trans. H. E. Butler, (London: William Heinemann, 1920–2).
4 De Oratore, III.216–219. Translation in Cicero, On the Ideal Orator, De Oratore,
trans. James M. May and Jakob Wisse (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001),
292–3.
5 Leone de’ Sommi, Quattro dialoghi in materia di rappresentazioni sceniche: a cura
di Ferrucio Marotti (Milano: Il Polifilo, 1968); Andrea Perrucci, A Treatise on
Acting, from Memory and by Improvisation (1699), trans. and ed. Francesco Cot-
ticelli, Anne Goodrich Heck and Thomas F. Heck (Lanham: Scarecrow Press,
2008); Franciscus Lang, Dissertatio de Actione scenica (Munich: Riedlin, 1727);
 Performing emotions 141
Alfred Golding, Classicistic Acting: Two Centuries of a Performance Tradition at
the Amsterdam Schouwburg; to which is appended an annotated translation of the
‘Lessons on the Principles of Gesticulation and Mimic Expression’ of Johannes Jel-
gerhuis (Lanham: University Press of America, 1984).
6 Many relevant sources are collated in Cesare Molinari and Renzo Guardenti, La
commedia dell’arte (Roma: Istituto poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato, 1999).
7 Lang, Dissertatio, 37. Translation in Ronald G. Engle, ‘Lang’s “Discourse on
Stage Movement”’, Educational Theatre Journal 22, no. 2 (1970): 179–87 (185).
8 John Bulwer, Chirologia (London: Thomas Harper, 1644); Charles le Brun, Con-
férence sur l’expression … des passions (Amsterdam: Picart, 1713).
9 Gilbert Austin, Chironomia (London: Cadell and Davies, 1806).
10 Henry Siddons and Johann Jacob Engel, Practical Illustrations of Rhetorical Ges-
ture and Action (London: Richard Phillips, 1807).
11 Dene Barnett, The Art of Gesture (Heidelberg: C. Winter, 1987).
12 Joseph R. Roach, The Player’s Passion (University of Delaware Press, 1985), 12.
13 George Henry Lewes, On Actors and the Art of Acting (London: Smith, Elder, &
Company, 1875).
14 Francesco Bartoli, Notizie istoriche de’ comici italiani, 2 vols (Padova: Conzatti,
1781–2; repr., Bologna: A. Forni, 1978).
15 Monique Scheer, ‘Are Emotions a Kind of Practice (and is that what makes them
have a history)? A Bourdieuian approach to Understanding Emotion’, History and
Theory 51, no. 2 (2012): 193–220; Naya Tsentourou, ‘Hamlet’s “Spendthrift Sigh”:
Emotional Breathing On and Off the Stage’, in Hamlet and Emotions, ed. Paul
Megna, Bríd Phillips, and R.S. White (Cham: Springer, 2019), 161–76.
16 The Laureat (1740), 31; cited in Barbara Hodgdon, ‘The Visual Record: the Case
of Hamlet’, in The Cambridge Companion to Theatre History, ed. Christine Dym-
kowski and David Wiles (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 249.
17 Guglielmo Ebreo da Pesaro, Guilielmi Hebraei pisauriensis de practica seu arte
tripudii vulgare opusculum, incipit, 1463, MS fonds it., 973, f. 5v, Bibliothèque
Nationale, Paris. Translation in Jennifer Nevile, ‘Dance and Society in Quat-
trocento Italy’, in Dance, Spectacle, and the Body Politick, 1250–1750, ed. Jennifer
Nevile (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2008), 87.
18 Jennifer Nevile, ‘The Early Dance Manuals and the Structure of Ballet: a Basis for
Italian, French and English Ballet’, in The Cambridge Companion to Ballet, ed.
Marion Kant (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 10.
19 Thoinot Arbeau, Orchesography, trans. Mary Stewart Evans, American Musico-
logical Society (New York: Dover Publications, 1967), 78.
20 John Weaver, An Essay towards the History of Dancing (London: Jacob Tonson,
1712), 161.
21 Jean-Georges Noverre. Lettres sur la Danse, et sur les Ballets (Stuttgart and Lyons:
Delaroche, 1760)
22 Rita Zambon, ‘Il ‘grido della natura’: il teatro di danza alla fine del Settecenta a
Venezia’, in Naturale e artificiale in scena nel secondo Settecento, ed. Alberto
Beniscelli (Roma: Bulzoni, 1997), 254–5.
23 Blasis, Carlo, Notes upon Dancing, Historical and Practical (London: M. Dela-
porte, 1847), i.
24 Carlo Blasis, The Code of Terpsichore, trans. R. Barton (London: Edward Bull,
1830), 163–4.
25 Blasis, Code of Terpsichore, 165.
26 Anonymous review in Revue et gazette musicale de Paris, 1843. Cited in Lucia
Ruprecht, ‘The Romantic Ballet and its Critics: Dance Goes Public’, in The Cam-
bridge Companion to Ballet, ed. Marion Kant (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2007), 181.
142 Alan Maddox
27 Jules Janin, Review of the ballet La Tentation in Journal des débats. 27 June 1832.
Cited in Ruprecht, ‘The Romantic Vallet’, 181.
28 Molly Engelhardt, Dancing out of Line: Ballrooms, Ballets, and Mobility in Vic-
torian Fiction and Culture (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2009); Cheryl A.
Wilson, Literature and Dance in Nineteenth-Century Britain: Jane Austen to the
New Woman (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009); Allison Thompson,
Dancing Through Time: Western Social Dance in Literature, 1400–1918 (Jefferson:
McFarland, 2012).
29 Georg Muffat, Georg Muffat on Performance Practice, ed. and trans. David Wilson
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000), 31–60.
30 Republic, 3. 398–9. Translation in Leo Treitler, ed., Strunk’s Source Readings in
Music History (New York: Norton, 1998), 10–11.
31 Politics, 8.7–9. Translation by Harris Rackham revised by Thomas J. Mathiesen in
Treitler, Source Readings, 29.
32 Johann Joachim Quantz, On Playing the Flute: A Complete Translation with an
Introduction and Notes by Edward R. Reilly (London: Faber and Faber, 1966), 119.
33 Johann Mattheson, Der vollkommene Capellmeister (Hamburg: Herold, 1739), 146.
Translation in Dietrich Bartel, Musica Poetica: Musical-Rhetorical Figures in German
Baroque Music (Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1997), 138.
34 Bartel, Musica Poetica.
35 Rita Steblin, A History of Key Characteristics in the Eighteenth and Early Nine-
teenth Centuries, 2nd edn (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 1996), 35.
36 Mozart to his father, Vienna, 26 September 1781. Translation in Mozart Speaks:
Views on Music, Musicians, and the World drawn from the Letters of Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart and other Early Accounts. Selected and with Commentary by
Robert L. Marshall (New York; Schirmer Books, 1991), 188.
37 H.C. Andersens Dagbøger, 1825–1875, ed. Kåre Olsen and H. Topsøe-Jensen
(Copenhagen: G.E.C. Gad, 1971–76) II, 46–47. Translation in Anna Harwell Cel-
enza, ‘The Poet, the Pianist, and the Patron: Hans Christian Andersen and Franz
Liszt in Carl Alexander’s Weimar’, 19th-Century Music 26, no. 2 (2002): 130–54 (140).
38 Lee Rothfarb and Christoph Landerer, Eduard Hanslick’s On the Musically Beau-
tiful: A New Translation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), 41.
39 Neal Peres da Costa, Off the Record: Performing Practices in Romantic Piano
Playing (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012).
40 David R.M. Irving, ‘Lully in Siam: Music and Diplomacy in French–Siamese
Cultural Exchanges, 1680–1690’, Early Music 40, no. 3 (2012): 393–420.
41 See, for example, Gary Ebersole, ‘The Function of Ritual Weeping Revisited:
Affective Expression and Moral Discourse’, in Religion and Emotion, ed. John
Corrigan (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 185–222.
42 Kimerer L. LaMothe, ‘Dancing on Earth: The Healing Dance of Kalahari Bush-
men and the Native American Ghost Dance Religion’, in Dance and the Quality of
Life, ed. Karen Bond (Cham: Springer, 2019), 117–33.
43 Tia DeNora, Music in Everyday Life (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2000), 33.
12 Visual sources
Sarah Hand Meacham

Even as historians cast an ever-wider net in their search for primary sources
that explain the lives of non-elite people, they often shy away from using
visual resources. Yet visual resources can be immensely valuable for the study
of emotions history, and they have the added advantage of being relatively
accessible through museums and reproductions. Artists often deliberately
sought to create particular emotional reactions, and their work also might
reflect changes in emotional standards and experiences at particular times.
For instance, nineteenth- and twentieth-century landscape art often docu-
ments artists’ and audiences’ mixed feelings about urbanisation and indus-
trialisation. J.M.W. Turner’s Rain, Steam, and Speed – The Great Western
Railway (1844) portrays both the era’s pride and its anxieties about mechanisa-
tion.1 In contrast, expressionist artists of the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries frequently focused on human suffering, often drawing beggars, the
blind and the physically injured whom the artists believed agrarian households
had cared for and modernity neglected. Edvard Munch’s The Scream (1895), an
early expressionist painting and perhaps the most famous work of expressionism,
depicts a featureless, ungendered everyman with a head in the shape of an
Edison light bulb screaming into a highly coloured sunset with what expressio-
nists considered the inescapable angst of modern times.2 The art-going public
initially disliked The Scream, as well as much other expressionist art, and the
history of the ways in which audiences receive art offers another category for the
analyses of emotions history.
Art has continued to both reflect and shape the zeitgeist. Salvador Dali’s sur-
realist (subconscious art) work titled The Persistence of Memory (1931), with its
melting clocks, summarised the era’s fears about war, economic depression and
moral decay. Other artists have used their art to protest against war.3 The Span-
ish Republican government commissioned Pablo Picasso to make a large mural
for the Spanish Pavilion at the 1937 World’s Fair. His Guernica (1937) is a large
mural painted in grey, black and white – deliberately like a photograph – in the
cubist style. It documents Nazi Germany’s and Fascist Italy’s bombing of the
town of Guernica in Northern Spain. Picasso highlighted a screaming woman
with a dead baby, a dismembered man, a gored horse and a bull, all overseen by
a light bulb exploding like a bomb. Some Spanish officials at the World’s Fair did
144 Sarah Hand Meacham
not find Guernica sufficiently ‘Spanish’ and wanted to replace it. Guernica has
since become an anti-war icon to multiple generations around the world. The
history of works like Guernica underline the usefulness of World’s Fair materials
and art as sources to study emotions such as patriotism and fervour.4
While modern art offers some distinctive opportunities and challenges for the
history of emotion, earlier styles are at least as revealing for the evolution of
emotional cues. The rest of this essay will focus on portraits, which are a parti-
cularly fruitful source for the history of emotions because they display faces and
relationships, between individuals or between people and animals. Portraits can
reveal changing marital and family relations and emotion ideals of motherhood,
fatherhood and childhood. They can help bring to light the emotion experiences
of marginalised people and people who did not leave written records. They can
show how technology has shaped both art and emotions, and they can challenge
viewers to consider the relationships between facial expressions, body language
and ‘real’ feelings. Finally, portraits invite viewers to enter other times and places
in new and powerful ways.5

Portraits are extraordinarily diverse

Portraits can be painted or photographed, or they can be made of clay, wood
or other three-dimensional sculptural materials. They may be painted minia-
tures in lockets, or large collections of life-sized carvings. They can be single
pendants, or paired pendants, which historically have shown a husband and
wife, perhaps one with a child or children, in gendered activities in separate
frames. Or portraits can be what art historians call ‘conversation pieces’, por-
traits of family members or other groups ostensibly engaged in conversation or
another activity, and often out-of-doors. Portraits can be staged formally or
seemingly informally. They can be made by a third party, such as an artist, or
they can be made by the subject, as in self-portraits and photographed selfies.
Almost all forms of portraits that sitters purchase fall into a category that art
scholars call ‘likenesses’. Likenesses are faces and figures that are recognisable
as the subjects of the portraits but are, to the subjects’ minds, improved. Like-
nesses show subjects with the fashionable beauty, emotions, poses and clothes
of their day. They show their subjects’ best selves for their moment in time.6
Portraits in all their forms matter deeply to humans in part because of their
extraordinary symbolism. ‘Some of the most recognisable and popular works of art
in the world are portraits, although these examples have transcended their original
role as likenesses’, art historian Richard Saunders has noted. ‘Whatever we think of
da Vinci’s Mona Lisa, Velasquez’s Las Meninas, Whistler’s Arrangement in Grey
and Black No. 1, or Stuart’s George Washington, they are in fact portraits.’ During
wars, soldiers and civilians have destroyed portraits of the enemy: during the
American Revolution, New Yorkers tore down a statue of King George III and
rendered it into bullets; in 2003, American soldiers invading Baghdad destroyed
portraits and statues of Saddam Hussein.7 Portraits are diverse and intensely
meaningful.
 Visual sources 145
People use portraits to advertise their virtues
The majority of portraits have been of private individuals. Over centuries,
people have commissioned portraits, or painted self-portraits, to provide
likenesses for posterity, to create or expand family histories and genealogies,
to continue friendships, and to remind youth of their family responsibilities.
Despite the apparently private nature of family portraits, they have been dis-
played regularly in public spaces such as artists’ studios, exhibitions, hotels
and, recently, restaurants. Most commonly, sitters have hung portraits in the
public spaces of private homes, such as parlours, drawing rooms, dining
rooms and ballrooms, where guests can see the wealth, lineage and status that
portraits are intended to advertise. This public displays of family portraits,
including on social media, lets adults promote their claims to the virtues
valued by their era such as educational achievement, athletic prowess, wealth,
beauty or admirable parenting. These private virtues that people hang or post
publicly are place- and time-specific. People with similar cultural backgrounds
tend to take photographs of similar events. Their portraits, photo albums and
social media often look alike because families curate their portraits to show
that they are ‘secure, sheltered, respectable and prosperous’.8 Displaying por-
traits of moments of emotionally intense personal or family moments lets
members claim social achievement.

Selfies are not new

Self-portraits and photographic selfies are related subsets of portraits. In some
ways they are different. Artist-rendered self-portraits require expensive mate-
rials, like paints and canvases; require advance planning; and have usually
been limited in number. Diego Velazquez was notorious for depicting himself,
yet only about four of his approximately 120 paintings are self-portraits.
Albrecht Dürer, also known and criticised for painting pictures of himself,
made only three self-portraits. It is true that Vincent van Gogh made 43 or
more self-portraits, and Egon Schiele, Edvard Munch, and Frida Kahlo were
similarly inclined to paint themselves. Nevertheless, they were limited in the
number of self-portraits they could produce by both costs and time. In con-
trast, a photographic selfie is nearly cost-free, can take mere seconds, requires
no forethought, and can be reproduced quickly and endlessly.
Still, makers of both self-portraits and selfies have embraced technological
advances. Painters quickly adopted the tin-mercury amalgam mirror when it
was invented around 1400 because this clearer, brighter mirror distorted faces
less than its predecessors and made creating self-portraits more feasible. It
was the spread of front-view cameras in mobile phones and smartphones in
the 2000s that let selfie culture mushroom. The front-view camera let posers
shape their portraits more than ever before, continuing the tradition begun
with painted self-portraits.9
146 Sarah Hand Meacham
Most importantly both self-portraits and modern photographed selfies are
effective at advertising self-images, and historians can use these images to identify
the values that are important to different times and places. Girls in Japan have
often posted selfies showing themselves as cute and playful, because Japanese
culture values that in girls. Americans have generally posted selfies that present
them as cheerful and financially successful or socially desirable: winning sports
events, being on vacations, buying new houses, having ‘girls’ night outs’, or going
on expensive dates. Humans have used portraits, self-portraits and selfies to dis-
play themselves as having achieved the emotion expectations of their day.

Be cautious: who was the subject? Who was the art for?
Using any sort of portrait to analyse emotions history requires some caution. To
begin with, it is sometimes unclear who the subject was or who the art was for.
Some art has been buried or hidden. For instance, the colossal Olmec heads of
ancient Mesoamerica (see Figure 12.1) were buried in about 900 BCE. They were
uncovered mostly after 1958. They have facial expressions that today read as
ranging from stern to tranquil to joyous. But we do not yet know what the heads
were for, or who they represent. Perhaps they were gods, or they depict indivi-
dual rulers. We do not know why they are so large or why they are severed at
their chins. We do not know why their expressions vary, or how contemporary
viewers interpreted their facial expressions.10

Figure 12.1 Colossal heads of Olmec statue in Museo Nacional de Antropología,

Federal District, Mexico (Pascopi/Alamy Stock Photo)
 Visual sources 147
In a later example, living humans were never intended to see the funerary
terracotta army that was buried with Qin Shi Huang, First Emperor of
China, in 210 BCE. Farmers digging a well in 1974 accidently discovered the
statues. So far, around 8,000 life-sized statues have been discovered, and new
pits with more figures are exposed regularly. Craftsmen made the soldiers
using a set menu of choices of moustaches, hairstyles and eyebrows. These
features appear to give the figures something like facial expressions. However,
as one archaeologist explained, their faces are likenesses, but they are like-
nesses of no one. Their features are interchangeable, and much of their pur-
pose remains a mystery to us.11
Finally, the Royal Necropolis in the Valley of Kings in Egypt was where the
nobility and pharaohs buried their dead from the sixteenth to eleventh centuries
BCE. The 63 known tombs in the Royal Necropolis were decorated with religious
images. The most famous tomb is that of Ramses II, born around 1300 BCE, who
had his tomb and temple, now known as the ‘Ramesseum’, built on the banks of
the Nile. In his public temple, he had battle scenes painted that show himself as a
giant trampling small enemies and winning battles that he had in reality lost.
(Ramses is not the only political leader to have engaged in such self-promotion.)
More perplexing are the images that Ramses had built on the inside of his
temple, a space that most people were not allowed to see. Here, Ramses erected
eight pillars in the form of the god Osiris, each ten metres high and each bearing
the features of Ramses himself. Perhaps Ramses had the statues constructed to
remind himself of his own power, or to remind the small number of priests and
political elites who could enter the temple of that power. We still do not know.
Clearly, one of the first challenges of using visual sources can be figuring out
who saw them and why.12

Be cautious: some artists wanted to shape social mores

Some works of art require careful study because their creators aimed to
preach and change human behaviour with them. For instance, seventeenth-
century Dutch artist Johannes Vermeer converted to Catholicism as an adult
and used his domestic scenes to urge viewers to keep their eyes on eternal
judgment. Vermeer’s characters – the whore in The Procuress (1656), the
maidservant in Officer and Laughing Girl (1660), his pregnant young women
reading and writing letters, his grinning soldiers offering money for sex – are
characters in moral lessons. Woman Holding a Balance (1664), for example,
shows a woman dressed in an expensive blue jacket with fur trim standing
quietly holding a jeweller’s balance in her right hand (Figure 12.2). A large
painting of the Last Judgment (which depicts the common Christian belief
that God will return Jesus Christ to earth someday to judge every human and
reward or penalise him in an afterlife) hangs on the back wall behind her.
Before her lies a blue cloth and an open jewellery box with two strands of
pearls and a gold chain. The woman’s gaze at the balance, when considered in
the context of the Last Judgment on the wall behind her, suggests Saint
148 Sarah Hand Meacham
Ignatius of Loyola’s instruction to the faithful to examine their consciences
and weigh their sins as if facing Judgment Day. The woman not only holds a
jeweller’s balance, she balances herself between the earthly treasures of pearls
and gold before her and the eternal consequences of her actions behind her.13
In contrast with Vermeer’s quiet interior struggles between materialism and
morality, eighteenth-century Englishman William Hogarth loudly satirised
vice. Hogarth invented presenting moral tales through series of affordable
pictures. He staged worst-case scenarios with the goal of improving human
behaviour. Hogarth knew first-hand what it was like to have a father in debt-
ors’ prison. The Rake’s Progress (1735), one of Hogarth’s most popular
works, is a series of eight plates showing Londoner Tom Rakewell inheriting
wealth from his miser father, wasting it on clothes, wine, sex and gambling,
landing first in Fleet Prison, and then in the Bedlam insane asylum. Along
the way he jilts his honest, common-law wife and their child. Like many of
the prints that Hogarth and his admirers created, the series was intended to
change behaviour. It is critical to keep Hogarth’s and Vermeer’s motivations

Figure 12.2 Johannes Vermeer, Woman Holding a Balance, c. 1664, oil on canvas,
Widener Collection, 1942.9.97, National Gallery of Art, Washington
 Visual sources 149
in mind and not take their work as mere mirrors of the past. Still, their art
lets us see the struggles they believed their times and places confronted, who
they thought made the most sympathetic characters, and how they believed
people should act and feel.14

Be cautious: artists needed commissions

Still other artists worked without ever seeing the people or scenes they portrayed.
Currier & Ives was a business that provided cheap prints of ‘pleasant and reas-
suring images’ for middle-class American homes from 1835 to 1907. The Currier
& Ives workshop churned out prints at six for a dollar in a five-storey building in
downtown Manhattan. An artist named Frances ‘Fanny’ Flora Bond Palmer
drew at least 200 of their prints. In the latter nineteenth century, her images
‘decorated the homes of ordinary Americans [more] than those of any other
artist, dead or alive’. Among other images that Palmer was asked to paint were
scenes of the American South. But Palmer never saw the American South. In
fact, she had migrated from England and never saw more of America than New
York City and its nearest suburbs. She took her cues from Currier & Ives’ Dark
Town Series, a collection of 170 racist caricatures that ridiculed the aspirations
of black people between 1884 and 1896, and from popular blackface minstrel
performances. Palmer’ resulting images like Low Water in the Mississippi (1867)
was meant to be interpreted as an enslaved family dancing happily to banjo
music in a sturdy, pastoral cabin (see Figure 12.3). This specific image was rep-
rinted until 1883, and similar ones appeared regularly in educational materials
until at least the 1970s .15
Even when artists saw the people they portrayed, portraits frequently have been
aspirational displays of how sitters think they ought to look. Clients often have
refused to pay for portraits that failed to portray them as they wished. Sitters are
shaped by prescriptive literature and cultural mores of their time and they want
their portraits to reflect those values.16 For instance, most eighteenth-century
Anglo-American portraits display sitters with perfect alabaster skin without marks
or facial hair. Very rarely do sitters have freckles or scars. No cheeks have sunken
from tooth loss, a common problem. Faces are generally symmetrical, with high
foreheads and aquiline noses, as was the aesthetic ideal. Men are frequently clean-
shaven in portraits despite the fact that even elite men shaved only once a month
until the invention and spread of the safety razor in the late nineteenth century. This
clean-shaved look is in contrast to the portraits of European men between 1550 and
1650 that often show pointed beards, then considered signs of virility. Being able to
see men’s facial expressions has gone in and out of style. In the eighteenth century,
the new ‘man of letters’ was clean-shaven, with an ‘open countenance’ better to
showcase an enlightened mind and a thoughtful or kind expression.17
Jonathan Richardson’s Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (c. 1725) offers a stark
example of the role these kind of cultural mores have played in making portraits.
Montagu had already refused to pay for several portraits by a different artist
when she hired Richardson to paint her. At this point, Montagu was around age
150 Sarah Hand Meacham

Figure 12.3 Currier & Ives, Low Water in the Mississippi, ca. 1867. New York: Currier
& Ives, photograph, Library of Congress

36 and unmarried, and a smallpox attack ten years earlier had left her with
severely pitted skin and no eyelashes. Nonetheless, this portrait shows her with
perfect alabaster skin and with eyelashes. The painter went beyond just removing
scars though; he gave her almost iridescent white skin, which he highlighted by
painting her next to an enslaved boy with dark skin. Lady Montagu is painted in
Turkish style against a view of Constantinople, a setting and painting that
transform her from a middle-aged, unmarried, disfigured woman, into an exotic,
shimmering pearl.18
Occasionally customers and painters have changed far more than scars. Some
family portraits include family members who had died. For instance, John Sin-
gleton Copley’s The Pepperrall Family (1778) displays a central mother who has
established a stable, cheerful and elite household, while her husband peers on
admiringly. In reality, the mother pictured died before the painting was made
and the family had recently fled to England from America after losing land and
fortunes during the American Revolution. This family portrait, then, is not a
glimpse of a specific, single afternoon, but rather a dream of how Mr. Pepperrall,
the family’s father, thought their lives could have been had his wife lived.19 Por-
traits are not unthinking reflections; their histories often reveal complex histories
of emotion of the artists, their views on their potential buyers or their sitters.
 Visual sources 151
Be cautious: photographs can also deceive
Like The Pepperrall Family, photographs too can deceive. People being pho-
tographed often make the fashionable facial expressions of their time whether
consciously or unconsciously. For example, the fashion in mid-nineteenth-
century England was for women to have very small, close-lipped smiles. In
early photography studios in the mid-nineteenth century in England and
America women were told to ‘say prunes’ in order to form this smile correctly.
In 1900, Kodak wanted to expand their film sales and film development to
amateur photographers, especially in America. Selling photography was a
challenge because most people found getting their picture taken a serious,
even unpleasant, endeavour. Kodak thus developed the ‘Kodak Girl’, a widely
smiling, fun-loving, pretty young woman to convince the market that taking
pictures was fun. Kodak also ran competitions that favoured photographs
showing people smiling widely. Kodak trained Americans to smile broadly for
the camera. Those big American smiles do not necessarily mean that people
in a photograph are happy; they reflect training, much like covering one’s
mouth when coughing. It is necessary to be as cautious when interpreting
facial expressions and emotions in photographs as it is in other art.20

Be confident: ‘likeness’ limited deception

Despite the cautions it is necessary to take when using portraits, portraits
remain a fruitful source for the history of emotions because they are like-
nesses. Customers’ demands that portraits show their ‘likeness’ have limited
the perfection of the faces, expressions, bodies and relationships in the por-
traits. The vast majority of early modern people’s surviving remarks on their
portraits discuss likeness. One of painter Henry Pelham’s customers was quite
clear: ‘a likeness is what I want, otherwise the picture will be of no value to
me, save as a piece of paint’. Portraits do show imperfections. John Singleton
Copley’s portrait of Henry Pelham, A Boy with a Flying Squirrel (1765), dis-
plays Pelham’s malformed ear; Copley’s portrait of Mrs. Ezekial Goldthwait
(Elizabeth Lewis) (1771) shows her mole on her forehead and her double
chin. Customers have wanted, and obtained, portraits that display their best
selves with still recognisable faces, expressions, postures and context.21

Be confident: portraits reveal changing ideals of emotions in

relationships
Portraits can corroborate suggestions found in other historical sources. For
instance, eighteenth-century Western European prescriptive literature and
novels urged fathers to become more paternal and less patriarchal. Men were
told to lead by gentle example, rather than to demand and punish. It is hard
to know from written sources alone whether families put these recommenda-
tions into practice, or if they did, when. Portraits from Western Europe and
152 Sarah Hand Meacham
America indicate that they at least aspired to the new paternalistic, affec-
tionate families especially in the second half of the eighteenth century. In
portraits fathers stop towering over their families and sit or stand near the
level of their wives. Husbands lean towards wives as well. Fathers touch their
children, even play with them. Contrasting portraits from the early and latter
parts of the eighteenth century make changes in emotion regimes immediately
clear in ways that other historical sources do not.22
John Smibert’s The Bermuda Group (1728, reworked in 1739) commemorates
the intended founding of a college in Bermuda (Figure 12.4). The principal figure
is Irish philosopher Dean George Berkeley, who was to lead the new college. The
artist himself is on the far left, looking at the viewer (or at the mirror as he painted
himself), holding a rolled-up sketch and paintbrush. He was to be a faculty
member, lecturing on painting and architecture. The other men behind the table
are John James and Richard Dalton, wealthy gentlemen involved in the college’s
founding. The man seated in front of the table is John Wainwright, who commis-
sioned the painting. The women are Anne Forster, Berkeley’s new wife who holds
their infant, and her travelling companion, Miss Handcock.
The imposing painting measures nearly 1.77 x 2.36 metres (6 x 8 feet) ren-
dering the eight figures nearly full-sized. The men tower over the women,
doing physically what was required morally in the early eighteenth century.

Figure 12.4 John Smibert, The Bermuda Group (Dean Berkeley and his Entourage),
1728, reworked 1739, oil on canvas, Yale University Art Gallery
 Visual sources 153
The exception is the man who must sit to write. Dean Berkeley heads the
group, dressed in Anglican robes, and shows his learning with his hand on his
book. Unlike the affectionate Pepperrall family painted around forty years
later, this patriarch does not lean towards, touch or look at other members of
his flock. Instead he casts his eyes heavenward. In fact, none of the members
of The Bermuda Group look at or touch another person more than necessary.
Rather, they are upright and distant like the columns behind them. They dis-
play a seventeenth-century etiquette that focused on discretion and deference.
Even the infant stands straight and obedient.
In contrast, in The Pepperrall Family (1778), the mother is the moral head of
the family. The father leans, touches and smiles fondly on her and their children.
The family now has children’s toys and a dog, a symbol of fidelity and a gentle
way to teach children responsibility. A curving curtain softens the lines of the
single column behind the family, just as Mr Pepperrall’s leaning, curving lines
soften his patriarchy. The children eschew obedience; rather, they clamber on their
parents in their play and affection. These changes between The Bermuda Group
and The Pepperrall Family, from discretion to intimacy, patriarchy to paternalism,
and obedience to affection, are not merely the results of different painters or skills;
they reflect new ideals about the desirability of loving relationships.23

Be confident: portraits can disclose emotions of marginalised people

Portraits can also detail areas of human events that other historical sources
are silent on. On a trip to America in 1852 to assist author William Make-
peace Thackeray, who was giving readings across eastern America, artist Eyre
Crowe read a copy of Uncle Tom’s Cabin and found himself ‘properly har-
rowed’. While Thackeray defended slavery, Crowe wanted to see slavery for
himself. His first morning in Richmond, Virginia, Crowe set off to sketch a
slave auction. Few images of auction rooms survive which makes Crowe’s
Slaves Waiting for Sale (1861) immediately useful. But it is Crowe’s images of
enslaved men and women that have been especially valuable. Crowe shows
that enslaved people to be sold were often fed bacon and lard to fatten them,
and dressed in new, or often rented, clothing and earrings. Businesses sprang
up near auction rooms to provide clothing, disguising past histories and
punishments. Crowe’s painting documents the private room behind the auc-
tion block where male purchasers took enslaved men and women they were
interested in buying, stripped them, and inspected them – unobserved.24
The emotions in this painting, and in other anti-slavery art, are striking.
Crowe emphasised that some family members had already been sold apart.
The enslaved man is alone and angry, already sold away from what was per-
haps a family like the one in the centre of the picture. Two women’s eyes are
filled with tears. The middle girl plays with her toddler trying to keep from
bursting into tears, but also perhaps to try and keep her daughter with her. If
she uses a double-consciousness and appears good-humoured, she might be
able to win over a purchaser who will buy them both.25
154 Sarah Hand Meacham
Crowe’s painting, part of a series, has inspired historians to re-examine
American slavery. It stresses that enslaved families were sold apart, tried to
make new families and were sold apart again. It points to the scale and vari-
ety of businesses and families that were involved in the slave trade. Most
controversially, Crowe considers whether enslaved men and women did what
they could to assess and manipulate buyers, to look for purchasers who would
keep their families together. Then they could appear ‘likely’ for a promising
buyer or sullen for an unpromising one.26 Visual sources can offer a broad
array of the emotions of marginalised people that very few written sources
can match.

Be confident: portraits show the emotion standards of the age

As in Waiting for Sale, the powerful emotions in portraits can prompt viewers
to empathise with life in other times and places. Francisco Goya’s The Third
of May 1808 (1814) launches viewers into terror. Goya painted the work one
year after the conclusion of a French occupation of Madrid following an anti-
Napoleon rebellion. As art historian Kelly Grovier has explained, Goya con-
trasts the humanity of those being executed with the faceless military machine
that recedes to the right. Likely because Goya had lost most of his hearing, he
was attuned to hands and sign language. The lamp in the painting shines not
only on the Madrileno’s shirt and face, but also on his hands, revealing that
one hand has a deep dimple – a bloodless stigma, like Christ’s on the cross.
And like Christ’s arms, the Madrileno’s arms are raised and spread. Viewers
cannot escape the Madrileno’s fear. Still he does not cry, or beg, or otherwise
betray the courage expected of him.27
There are quieter, but equally disquieting, portraits of war. James Abbott
McNeill Whistler’s Arrangement in Grey and Black No. 1 (Portrait of the
Artist’s Mother) (1871) is often assumed to be a general homage to mother-
hood. The painting is really about Confederate (pro-slavery) resentment of the
US Civil War, which had ended six years previously. The etching on the wall
above elderly Anna Whistler shows Wapping, England, whose wharves and
warehouses played a critical role in the transatlantic slave trade. Anna Whis-
tler herself was part of a slave-trading, plantation-owning family. Her son
William was a surgeon in the Confederate Army. Anna had sued her uncle’s
widow, an enslaved black woman, to prevent her from receiving an inheri-
tance. James Whistler had assaulted African-Americans in public, used racist
epithets and slapped abolitionists in the face. The grey of the Arrangement in
Grey and Black refers to the grey of Confederate uniforms: the painting is a
homage to racism, bigotry and hate.28
The despair of the barmaid in Edouard Manet’s A Bar at the Folies-Bergère
(1882) beckons viewers to imagine what it was like to work in the Parisian
cabaret in the late nineteenth century. Folies-Bergère was known for having
barmaids who were also prostitutes. While the ladies in the wealthy crowd wear
gloves and use opera glasses to watch the trapeze artist in the upper left corner,
 Visual sources 155
the barmaid is isolated, separated by the bar, and her class is indicated by her
gloveless, hatless state. Moreover, she works for other people’s leisure, selling
drinks and perhaps herself to customers like the one shown on the far right.
She wears the same colours as many of the drinks she sells: the copper of the
champagne tops matches her hair and her gold slave bracelet, the rosé wine
matches the flowers in her bosom. She is in many ways only another item to be
sold and her hopelessness makes clear that she knows this.29
In contrast, Frida Kahlo’s Self-Portrait with Thorn Necklace and Humming-
bird (1940) hums with disdain. Kahlo filled her small portrait with stark symbols
of the indigenous Mexican culture with which she identified. Here, both the
black cat and the spider monkey symbolise death. The monkey was a gift from
Kahlo’s husband, Diego Rivera; considering their notoriously troubled mar-
riage, the image of the monkey pulling the necklace of thorns tighter around
Kahlo’s neck makes this symbol particularly potent. The hummingbird on the
necklace would usually connote good fortune in love, but here it appears cruci-
fied. Kahlo memorialises two of her miscarriages with dragonflies that fall
downward as plucked flowers. She is a woman attacked, but Kahlo fights back.
The background greenery symbolises fecundity and the possibility of other chil-
dren. And woven into her hair is a lemniscate, a symbol of infinity and frequently
of strength. The butterflies on the lemniscate symbolise resurrection. This is a
painting about pain, survival and endurance.30
Sometimes portraits summarise an era. Gerhard Richter’s Betty (1998), a
painting made from a photograph, challenges the concept of portraiture. It
shows the back of Betty’s head; the viewer cannot read her likeness for clues
to her emotions. Her gaze is the same as that of the audience, into the fearful
abyss that she, and we, try to escape. But Betty in her red riding-hood robe
has fallen and she may not – we may not – scramble out of danger in time. It
is a portrait of our own age of anxiety.31

Conclusion
This essay has demonstrated that historians need not be so wary of using
portraits and other visual sources. True, students of visual work are obliged to
consider why someone commissioned a portrait and how the cultural mores
of the time might have shaped the final product. It is necessary to ask whether
the artist, like Vermeer, Hogarth or Crowe, had a message beyond the like-
ness. Was the image meant to change behaviour? Was it aspirational? Was it
constructed to sell popularly, like Low Water in the Mississippi, or was it
intended to rehabilitate someone’s reputation, like Lady Mary Wortley Mon-
tagu? But historians ask questions about the creation and purpose of other
sorts of primary sources regularly, and such a requirement to discern the
author’s intent has not hampered research in other sources.
Meanwhile there is much to be gained from embracing visual sources for
the study of emotions history. This essay has only hinted at a few possible
topics, such as changes in the emotion regimes expected in marital and family
156 Sarah Hand Meacham
relations; the emotion experiences of marginalised people; evidence of how
people thought they should behave or feel in different times and places; and
the embrace of portraiture, to begin to get a sense of the emotion regimes
during notable moments in the past. Visual sources offer the opportunity to
research the emotion effect that the artist sought to generate, or the emotions
of the artist himself. Scholars can ask if the art reflects or challenges the
emotion regime of the time. Researchers can explore how technology shaped
both the way that the artist depicted emotion in art and the content of the
emotions themselves. Studying relationships between facial expressions, body
language and ‘real’ feelings is also productive. Scholars of emotions history
are only beginning to employ visual sources, and the field can look forward to
an informative – and revelatory – future.

Notes
1 Links to images of the works of art discussed in this essay can be found in the
endnotes. For Turner see: https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/joseph-ma
llord-william-turner-rain-steam-and-speed-the-great-western-railway, accessed 26
November 2019.
2 See: http://www.nasjonalmuseet.no/en/collections_and_research/our_collections/edva
rd_munch_in_the_national_museum/, accessed 26 November 2019.
3 See https://www.moma.org/collection/works/79018, accessed 26 November 2019.
4 See https://www.museoreinasofia.es/en/collection/artwork/guernica, accessed 26
November 2019.
5 Attacks on Philippe Aries’s Centuries of Childhood (New York: Alfred A. Knopf,
1962), Lawrence Stone’s The Family, Sex and Marriage in England, 1500–1800
(London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1977), which used portraits badly, made histor-
ians fearful of using art as a historical source. See Kate Retford, The Art of
Domestic Life: Family Portraiture in Eighteenth-Century England (New Haven:
Yale University Press, 2006), 4.
6 On using portraits to study human–animal relations see Sarah Hand Meacham
‘Pets, Status, and Slavery in the Late-Eighteenth-Century Chesapeake’, The Jour-
nal of Southern History 77, no. 3 (2011): 521–54; on similarities between self-por-
traits and selfies see Claus-Christian Carbon, ‘Universal Principles of Depicting
Oneself across the Centuries: From Renaissance Self-Portraits to Selfie-Photo-
graphs’, Frontiers in Psychology 8, no. 245 (2017): 2–9; on conversation pieces see
Kate Retford, The Conversation Piece: Making Art in Eighteenth-Century Britain
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 2017).
7 Richard H. Saunders, American Faces: A Cultural History of Portraiture and Identity
(Hanover: University Press of New England, 2016), xiii. For artwork see: https://
www.louvre.fr/en/oeuvre-notices/mona-lisa-portrait-lisa-gherardini-wife-francesco-
del-giocondo, accessed 26 November 2019; https://www.museodelprado.es/en/the-
collection/art-work/las-meninas/9fdc7800-9ade-48b0-ab8b-edee94ea877f, accessed 26
November 2019; https://www.musee-orsay.fr/en/collections/works-in-focus/search/
commentaire/commentaire_id/portrait-of-the-artists-mother-2976.html, accessed 26
November 2019; https://npg.si.edu/blog/gilbert-stuart-paints-george-washington,
accessed 26 November 2019.
8 On why people commissioned portraits and exhibitions see Retford, Conversation
Piece, 14, 321; on portraits displayed in hotels see Susan Rather, The American
School: Artists and Status in the Late Colonial and Early National Era (New
Haven: Yale University Press, 2016), 147, Marcia Pointon, Hanging the Head:
 Visual sources 157
Portraiture and Social Formation in Eighteenth-Century England (New Haven: Yale
University Press, 1993), 41, and Jennifer Van Horn, The Power of Objects in
Eighteenth-Century British America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina
Press, 2019), 127; on where in homes portraits have hung see Retford, Conversation
Piece, 322, 17, Zara Anishanslin, Portrait of a Woman in Silk: Hidden Histories of
the British Atlantic World (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2016), 238, and
Margaretta M. Lovell, Art in a Season of Revolution: Painters, Artisans, and
Patrons in Early America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005),
11; on displaying portraits for status affirmation see Saunders, American Faces, 8;
for the public display of private virtues, see Retford, Conversation Piece, 11; on
culture and similarity of photos see Saunders, American Faces, 49.
9 Sabine Melchoir-Bonnet, The Mirror: A History (New York: Routledge, 2000) and
Carbon, ‘Universal Principles’.
10 Christopher Pool, Olmec Archaeology and Early Mesoamerica (Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 2007), 106; Mary Beard, How Do We Look: The Body, The
Divine, and the Question of Civilization (New York: Liveright, 2008), 53–60. For
examples see: http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/xalapa-museum-5.htm, accessed
26 November 2019.
11 Ladislav Kesner, ‘Likeness of No One: (Re)Presenting the First Emperor’s Army’,
Art Bulletin 77 (1995): 115–32; see also, Jane Portal, Terracotta Warriors: Guar-
dians of China’s First Emperor (Washington, DC: National Geographic Museum,
2008), 27. For images see: http://www.bmy.com.cn/2015new/bmyweb/index.html,
accessed 26 November 2019.
12 For more on Ramesses generally see Joyce Tyldesley, Ramesses: Egypt’s Greatest
Pharaoh (London: Penguin, 2000); on images, see Campbell Price, ‘Ramesses,
“King of Kings”: on the Context and Interpretation of Royal Colossi’, in Rames-
side Studies in Honour of K.A. Kitchen, ed. M. Collier and S. Snape (Boston:
Rutherford Press, 2011), 403–11. For images see: https://www.alamy.com/stock-p
hoto-giant-limestone-statues-of-ramses-ii-rameses-1304-1237-bc-holding-57304164.
html, accessed 26 November 2019.
13 Madlyn Millner Kahr, Dutch Painting in the Seventeenth Century (New York:
Harper & Row, 1978), Chapters 5 and 12, 67–88 and 258–98; Lisa Vergara, ‘Per-
spectives on Women in the Art of Vermeer’, in The Cambridge Companion to the
History of Art, ed. Wayne E. Franits (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2001), 54–72. See: https://skd-online-collection.skd.museum/Details/Index/415421,
accessed 26 November 2019; https://collections.frick.org/objects/275/officer-and-la
ughing-girl, accessed 26 November 2019.
14 See: http://collections.soane.org/object-p40, accessed 26 November 2019.
15 On popularity of Fanny Palmer prints see Ewell L. Newman, Currier & Ives:
Nineteenth-Century Printmakers to the American People (Sandwich: Heritage
Plantation of Sandwich, 1973), 10; John Michael Vlach, The Planter’s Prospect:
Privilege and Slavery in Plantation Paintings, (Chapel Hill: University of North
Carolina Press, 2002), 111–31; on similar images in textbooks see Adam W. Dean,
‘“Who Controls the Past Controls the Future”: Southern Textbooks in an Era of
Civil Rights’, Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 117 (2009): 315–55.
See: https://www.loc.gov/photos/?q=currier+ives+darktown+series, accessed 26
November 2019.
16 For refusing portraits see Saunders, American Faces, 6 and Pointon, Killing Pic-
tures, 49.
17 Pointon, Killing Pictures, 131, on tooth loss; David M. Turner, ‘The Body Beauti-
ful’, in A Cultural History of the Human Body in the Age of Enlightenment, ed.
Carole Reeves (London: Bloomsbury, 2010), 119; On shaving see Alun Withey,
Technology, Self-Fashioning, and Politeness in Eighteenth-Century Britain
(Basingstoke: Palgrave Pivot, 2015), 225, Will Fisher, ‘The Renaissance Beard:
158 Sarah Hand Meacham
Masculinity in Early Modern England,’ Renaissance Quarterly 54, no. 1 (2001):
155–87, John Brewer, The Pleasures of the Imagination: English Culture in the
Eighteenth Century (London: Routledge, 2013), and Philip Carter, Men and the
Emergence of Polite Society, 1660–1800 (London: Routledge, 2000).
18 Pointon, Killing Pictures, 49, 39–40. See: http://jenniferleecarrell.com/lady-ma
ry-by-richardson/, accessed 26 November 2019.
19 Lovell, Art in a Season, 172. See: https://learn.ncartmuseum.org/artwork/sir-wil
liam-pepperrell-1746-1816-and-his-family/, accessed 26 November 2019.
20 Christina Kotchemidova, ‘Why We Say “Cheese”: Producing the Smile in Snap-
shot Photography’, Critical Studies in Media Communication 22 (2005): 2–25,
especially
2, 4, 10, 17. See: https://library.ryerson.ca/asc/2013/10/the-kodak-girl-women-in-
kodak-advertising/, accessed 26 November 2019.
21 Mrs. Margaret Mascarene to Henry Pelham, Salem, 14 September 1772, Letters
and Papers of John Singleton Copley and Henry Pelham, ed. Charles Adams (New
York: AMS Press, 1972), 189. See: https://collections.mfa.org/objects/34280; http
s://collections.mfa.org/objects/32756, accessed 26 November 2019.
22 On affection in portraits see Retford, Domestic, 8; on levels see Lovell, Art in a
Season, 148–9; on family dogs see Meacham, ‘Pets, Status’.
23 Lovell, Art in a Season, 156.
24 Maurie D. McInnis, Slaves Waiting for Sale: Abolitionist Art and the American
Slave Trade (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011), 19, 22–3, 76, 136. See:
https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/media_player?mets_filename=evr7164mets.
xml, accessed 26 November 2019.
25 McInnis, Slaves Waiting for Sale, 86.
26 Walter Johnson, Soul by Soul: Life Inside the Antebellum Slave Market (Cam-
bridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 162–67.
27 Kelly Grovier, A New Way of Seeing: The History of Art in 57 Works (London:
Thames & Hudson, 2019), 146–7. See: https://www.museodelprado.es/en/the-
collection/art-work/the-3rd-of-may-1808-in-madrid-or-the-executions/
5e177409-2993-4240-97fb-847a02c6496c, accessed 26 November 2019.
28 Grovier, A New Way of Seeing, 158. See: https://www.musee-orsay.fr/en/collections/
works-in-focus/search/commentaire/commentaire_id/portrait-of-the-artists-m
other-2976.html, accessed 26 November 2019.
29 See: https://courtauld.ac.uk/gallery/collection/impressionism-post-impressionism/edoua
rd-manet-a-bar-at-the-folies-bergere, accessed 26 November 2019.
30 Lis Pankl and Kevin Blake, ‘Made in Her Image: Frida Kahlo as Material Culture’,
Material Culture 44, no. 2 (2012): 1–20; Oriana Baddeley, ‘Her Dress Hangs Here:
De-Frocking the Kahlo Cult’, Oxford Art Journal 14, no. 1 (1991): 10–17. See: https://
www.fridakahlo.org/self-portrait-with-thorn-necklace-and-hummingbird.jsp, accessed
26 November 2019.
31 See: https://www.slam.org/collection/objects/23250/, accessed 26 November 2019.
13 The material world
Sarah Randles

The study of how human emotions interact with materiality is a relatively new
field, despite growing out of well-established bodies of research both in material
culture and the history of emotions.1 This work attempts to carve a theoretical
space at the intersection of historical emotions and materiality, in which to con-
sider how emotions affect the material world, and how materiality defines and
changes human emotions. Using material culture as a source and focus for the
history of emotions, based on an understanding that both emotions and materi-
ality are historically and culturally constituted, provides a way of looking beyond
the textual sources which have previously dominated the field.
The term ‘material culture’ is usually taken to mean the physical items that a
society produces and uses for itself, including built environments and the adapta-
tion of naturally occurring objects and places. ‘Materiality’ is a broader term,
which includes aspects of the material world which are experienced and adapted,
but not necessarily created by people. Humans also interact emotionally with
phenomena that have materiality but which are neither objects nor places. Fire, for
example, is material, but becomes part of material culture only as it is used delib-
erately, or when it impinges on the built environment or other objects. Light,
similarly, is produced both artificially and naturally, and can be manipulated
through building orientation and glass windows. Humans also have emotional
relationships with the natural environment, ascribing it meaning within
cultural and religious frameworks and reacting to it aesthetically. The study of the
material world through the history of emotions is, therefore, inherently inter-
disciplinary, drawing on anthropology, archaeology, art history, religious studies,
philosophy, museum studies and literary studies among other disciplines.

Interacting emotionally with the material world

Humans respond directly to the material world in emotional ways. They may
be filled with delight or awe when standing in a Gothic cathedral, be over-
come with terror at the edge of a precipice, or disgust when confronted with
the physical manifestations of illness. They also modify and manipulate
materiality, creating objects and environments in order to express, produce
and regulate emotion. They exchange love tokens as both private and public
160 Sarah Randles
testaments of affection; build churches, mosques and temples to express religious
devotion; landscape wilderness into pleasure gardens, and give flowers in celebra-
tion or leave them on graves. Some objects are not specifically created for emotional
purposes but acquire emotional meaning as they are used: a child’s shoe becomes a
sentimental treasure, or an apotropaic talisman; the site of a massacre becomes a
shrine; a brick becomes a symbol of political anger when hurled through a window
in protest. Just as humans respond to materiality with emotions, so too are those
emotions manifested materially. Sara Ahmed labelled this the reciprocity of objects
and emotions, maintaining that emotions are ‘about objects, which they hence
shape, and [which] are also shaped by contact with emotions’.2 Oliver Harris and
Tim Flohr Sørensen described emotions and materiality as existing ‘in a con-
tinuous, recursive and co-constitutive relationship’.3
As objects and places are invested with emotional significance, they reflect the
social, cultural and historical frameworks in which they are encountered, created or
adapted, and these in turn influence the ways that such things function in the world.
These ‘emotional’ objects and places provide sources which allow historians to
understand not only how people in the past felt about their material world, but also
how they felt about each other, and the events and culture that they experienced.4

Embodied emotions
Human emotions may be intangible and sometimes elusive, but they exist
within a material world which includes the human body. Monique Scheer,
drawing on Pierre Bourdieu’s concept of ‘habitus’ as a system of embodied
mental and physical dispositions, posited that emotions can be understood as
an embodied practice. In Scheer’s theory:

practices not only generate emotions, but … emotions themselves can be

viewed as a practical engagement with the world. Conceiving of emotions as
practices means understanding them as emerging from bodily dispositions
conditioned by a social context, which always has cultural and historical
specificity. Emotion-as-practice is bound up with and dependent on ‘emo-
tional practices,’ defined here as practices involving the self (as body and
mind), language, material artifacts, the environment, and other people.5

Margrit Pernau developed Scheer’s ideas in the context of architectural space,

and argued that emotions are ‘not only expressed but learned through the
body’, linking the human body to cultural performance, and understanding it
as a ‘site where culture is played out’. She argued that ‘bodies are necessarily
situated in space, and they bear the imprint of the spaces they are moving
through and have moved through’.6 This echoes Sara Ahmed, who wrote
about emotions in terms of ‘impressions’: ‘We need to remember the “press”
in an impression. It allows us to associate the experience of having an emotion
with the very affect of one surface with another, an affect that leaves its mark
or trace.’7
 The material world 161
If emotions are something that we do, as Scheer claimed, then materiality is
frequently the means by which we enact them – what we do them with. 8 We
do emotions in cultural, historical, and material-cultural ways. We might
show our love with red roses, our political dissent by burning a flag. These are
conventions which are well understood within particular cultures. But emo-
tional objects, places and spaces need to be considered as more than just
props. We need to focus on how they are made, how they are used, what
kinds of afterlives they have, how their meanings and matter change over
time, and what they do, materially and emotionally, to the people who inter-
act with them.

Objects with agency

The anthropologist Alfred Gell referred to a particular category of things as
‘art objects’, which he understood as things defined, not by their forms, but
by their effects. Such things could elicit responses, which he described in
emotional terms: ‘terror, desire, awe, fascination’.9 He did not limit the cate-
gory of art objects to things valued for their aesthetic properties, but stated
that they could be, potentially, ‘anything whatsoever’.10 Gell considered art
objects as being those that had what he called ‘agency’ – the ability to do
things and effect changes.11 Jane Bennett argued for a similar agency in
matter, which she described as ‘the curious ability of inanimate things to ani-
mate, to act, to produce effects dramatic and subtle’.12
Gell also described an art object as an ‘index’, something which represents
or stands for one or more ‘prototypes’, and which can produce effects in its
‘recipients’ – those who are in a social relationship with the index – a role not
limited to that of audience, but one which could include agents such as
makers or patrons.13 Indices, therefore, could ‘do duty as persons’.14 An
example of objects operating as indices and doing duty for persons are the
objects known as ‘convict love tokens’ or ‘leaden hearts’ at the Australian
National Museum.15 These were created by or for convicts who were to be
transported from Britain to Australia in the eighteenth and nineteenth cen-
turies, as a way of managing the near certainty that they would never see their
loved ones again. The tokens were created by erasing the images of the king
and Britannia from copper coins (an emotional act in itself) and replacing
them with incised or punched text and images, often exhorting the recipient
to remember the departed convict. In this way the tokens could act as sub-
stitutes for absent physical bodies, transcending distance and providing emo-
tional comfort to both parties.16

Places and atmosphere

Harris and Sørensen drew upon Gell’s theory of agency to develop a theory of
materiality and emotion in the context of pre-historical archaeology. They pro-
posed, amongst other concepts, the term ‘atmosphere’, an aspect of emotionality
162 Sarah Randles
which occurs ‘at the intersection of people, places and things, typically in archi-
tectonic settings’, produced by the relationship between people’s mood and the
physical spaces they experience. It takes into account not just the materiality of
the space and the things in it, but the nature of particular events and other
people within it. Harris and Sørensen made the point that ‘very dissimilar
atmospheres can arise in the same environment, as is evident, for example, in the
case of a church, where an atmosphere at a wedding can be significantly different
from that of a funeral’.17 Similarly, people from different cultural backgrounds
or at different points in history may experience very different atmospheres in
same place.18

Cultural and historical contexts

Even when objects or places are naturally occurring, the emotional response
to them is framed by the cultures in which they are encountered and under-
stood, and the qualities that people attribute to them. Kenneth McNamara
has shown how naturally occurring fossil echinoids have been used for ritual
and apotropaic purposes from the paleolithic to modern times. Their deliber-
ate placement in homes, churches and burials shows that they were used to
regulate fear, or bring good luck in ways that could be reframed in response
to changing belief systems.19 Although, as Bennett has demonstrated, there
are objects and substances, such as germs or pollution, which can directly
affect human emotions irrespective of any human cognition or awareness, the
emotional responses to these effects are still culturally and historically inflec-
ted.20 An individual’s reaction to disease, for example, will depend on whether
they understand it as the result of personal sin or of bacteria.
Similarly, the emotional responses to larger-scale natural phenomena are
also culturally and contextually determined. Grace Moore has explored the
nuances of reactions to fire amongst nineteenth-century European settlers in
Australia, from positive associations with the warmth and cosiness of the
domestic fire to the terror induced by out-of-control bushfires.21 Mikkel Bille
and Tim Flohr Sørensen demonstrated that light can be understood as
‘something that materialises as an aesthetic effect and an emotional impres-
sion’ and that it ‘belongs more closely to an affective and subjective field than
to conventional archaeological facts and artefacts’. They showed how this
understanding and its role in spiritual traditions have underpinned the use of
light as an emotional phenomenon in Christian church architecture.22

Aesthetics
Part of the emotional response to materiality is based on the perception of
beauty, with people reacting to things or places as ‘objects of desire’ based on
their perceived aesthetic qualities. While these perceptions are historically and
culturally mediated, artists, architects and landscapers have exploited this
emotional attraction to beauty to create object and places which draw people
 The material world 163
to them, sometimes in order to inculcate emotions such as religious devotion.
The makers of medieval reliquaries, for example, used precious materials to
enhance the power of the saints’ relics they contained, by producing an
intentional slippage between the materiality of the reliquary and the body of
the saint which they contained.23 However, even unadorned human remains
were also valued as objects of desire, with both individuals and religious
institutions wanting to see, touch and possess relics as well as collect them in
ever increasing quantities.24
Alain de Botton in his book The Architecture of Happiness, discussed the
ability of buildings to have an effect on human emotions:

Taking architecture seriously … makes some singular and strenuous

demands upon us. It requires that we open ourselves to the idea that we
are affected by our surroundings … It means considering that we are
inconveniently vulnerable to the colour of our wallpaper and that our
sense of purpose may be derailed by an unfortunate bedspread.25

Pernau argued that the senses, along with individual and collective memories,
are the media through which spaces affect the emotions.26 The deliberate pro-
duction of emotions through aesthetic materiality often relies particularly on
sight to inculcate certain emotional states. However, Sally Holloway has shown
how the highly ritualised exchange of love tokens between men and women in
Georgian England also exploited smell and touch to reflect and produce
romantic love, through gifts such as perfume bottles, nosegays and rings.27

Emotional value and affective economies

By being used and contemplated in particular, ritualised ways, objects and
places could become more than their constituent materiality, acquiring a
metaphysical currency within the belief systems and cultural practices of the
people who used them. Ahmed’s concept of ‘affective economies’ provides a
useful explanation of this. She asserts that emotions ‘do things’, and considers
them as analogous to the Marxian idea of capital, so that ‘affect does not
reside positively in the sign or commodity, but is produced only as an effect of
its circulation’.28 Ahmed sees emotions as located not within, but rather
between bodies and objects, allowing them to ‘align individuals with
communities, or bodily space with social space – through the very intensity of
their attachments’, working by ‘sticking figures together (adherence), a stick-
ing that creates the very effect of a collective (coherence)’.29
In this system, ‘some signs … increase in affective value as an effect of the
movement between signs: the more they circulate, the more affective they
become, and the more they appear to “contain” affect’.30 This circulation is
what Ahmed called the ‘affective economy’. Some objects can become what
she calls ‘sticky signs’ – things to which emotions become ‘stuck’.31 One such
sticky object is the Stone of Scone, on which the medieval kings of Scotland
164 Sarah Randles
were crowned. Alicia Marchant has detailed its long and varied affective his-
tory, including its removal from Scotland and subsequent installation in the
Coronation Chair in Westminster Abbey by Edward I of England, as a potent
symbol of conquest, and its ongoing association with ideas of Scottish
national identity.32
The mechanism by which some items become emotionally sticky and others
do not finds some explanation in the work of philosopher Guy Fletcher, who
considered the way that some objects can acquire ‘sentimental value’,

if and only if the thing is valuable for its own sake in virtue of a subset of
its relational properties, where the properties include any or all of having
belonged to, or been given to or by, or having been used by, people or
animals, within a relationship of family, friendship or romantic love, or
having been used or acquired during a significant experience.33

Fletcher’s definition implies that such value relies on the act of memory,
whether of a relationship or event, of a pre-existing emotional attachment.
While the term ‘sentimental value’ applies only to a narrow range of objects
and emotional responses, the concepts of memory and relationship are central
to the ways that objects and emotions interact.
This is particularly true for objects that are given as gifts, including reli-
gious donations.34 Objects may be given as demonstrations of affection, as a
way of producing or cementing friendship, familial or political relationships.
Gifts can keep the giver present in the memory of the recipient, even when
they are bodily absent, including, in the case of material legacies, after death.
Jo Turney showed how knitted items, made by a woman as gifts for her
grandchildren, became repositories of memory:

it wasn’t just the knitting itself, it was the creation of that artefact that I
thought was really important. It held lots of importance for [the grandma]
and the family in general … lots of memories would come out of it … she’d
tell me lots of stories about her mother and all her memories of her mother
creating things and there’d be memories of her making things for her own
children, and that’s now been passed on to my children. So I really, really
cherish all the little knitted garments she made.35

Like Ahmed, Gell also emphasised the way that objects can lead what he calls
‘very transactional lives’, as they move between their recipients, indexing
different things for different audiences and under different circumstances.36
This concept of changing emotional meaning underpins the concept of
‘emotional value’ proposed by Stephanie Downes, Sally Holloway and
myself.37 Emotional value expands the idea of sentimental value to include
both negative and positive emotional relationships with objects, and critically
allows for changes in those relationships over time and across cultures. It
recognises that even if an object or space does not materially change, its
 The material world 165
emotional value may alter significantly. As emotional objects function mne-
monically and associatively, the emotional value of objects and places reflect
changes in the recipients’ relationship with the person or place they recall. As
with Ahmed’s ‘affective value’, emotional value might increase as a result of
continued positive emotional interaction, but objects and places might
equally lose emotional value, gradually or abruptly, as their cultural, geo-
graphical or temporal circumstances change. In contemporary and earlier
‘consumer societies’, attachment to objects and places is more frequently
aesthetic and driven by a desire to fashion identities or achieve status within
emotional communities than reliant on memory or an association of mate-
riality with relationships. The emotional value of consumer items often
depends on both novelty and display, meaning that pleasure derived from
them is transient and that such things can swiftly lose both economic and
emotional value.38

Emotional communities and materiality

Objects and places may have significantly different emotional values for dif-
ferent groups of people who interact with them, and Barbara Rosenwein used
documentary sources to demonstrate that different ‘emotional communities’
have their own ‘emotional valuation and expression’.39 Alexandra Walsham
detailed the sharp change in the emotional value of relics during the emo-
tional regime change of the Reformation, when, for Protestants, the bodies of
saints, which had been revered and appealed to by Catholics as a source of
hope and comfort, were emotionally devalued and derided.40 The precious
metal reliquaries, however, continued to be desired for their economic value,
although this often led to their destruction.
The agency of particular material items and places can cause emotional
communities and rituals to form around them. Indeed such things are often
constructed with the purpose of creating or unifying such communities. Helen
Hill examined the production of devotional space as an architectural response
to relics and miracles at San Gennaro in Naples, arguing that this space can
be seen as ‘an effect of the working of materiality in imbricated economies’.41
However, objects and spaces can also work to delineate different emotional
communities from one another, excluding one group in order to produce
cohesion within another. While war memorials work as a focus for commu-
nity mourning, they exclude those whose war-related deaths did not fit within
the strict limitations of the memorial, for reasons such as timing, nationality
or gender.42 Places of worship stand as visible and tangible ways of defining
particular religious and emotional communities within broader social struc-
tures. Items of dress, particularly uniforms and badges, and objects such as
banners denote belonging to particular ideological groups and therefore
emotional communities. Badges or specific clothing can also be imposed upon
excluded groups, to not only show difference, but to inculcate hatred or dis-
dain, and shame in the person so marked. The emotional effects of such
166 Sarah Randles
objects differ markedly depending on whether the recipient is within or out-
side the emotional communities they define. Similarly, the emotional value of
such a marker will be vastly different depending on whether it is voluntarily
chosen or imposed. While the Nazi swastika and the imposition of badges on
Jews and other groups during the Third Reich are amongst the most obvious
examples, the use of similar objects as marks of inclusion and exclusion has a
long history.

Powerful objects
Gell’s idea of agency does not equate to a belief that objects, places or
phenomena have intent or sentience, or that they possess supernatural power.
Nonetheless, from within the cosmologies of the people who experienced
them, supernatural belief frequently underpinned the emotional relationships
that people had with the material world. In the context of medieval Chris-
tianity, for example, the orthodox belief was that objects could be conduits for
the power of God, through which he might allow them to work miracles, but
in practice such objects, including relics, statues or pilgrimage were often used
talismanically, as though they had inherent power.43 Such powerful objects
also functioned as indices, doing duty as persons, albeit personages, such as
saints, who were themselves powerful. Religious rituals involving such things
could serve the purpose of achieving emotional self-regulation. Durkheim
observed that ‘the feeling of comfort which the worshipper draws from the
rite performed’ allowed them to ‘enter into the profane life with increased
courage and ardour’.44 Even when belief systems change, powerful objects
can retain emotional value, demonstrated by the continuation of ritual prac-
tices around them, albeit reframed to fit within new belief structures. The still
common practice of throwing coins in fountains or wishing wells for ‘good luck’
can be traced to votive offerings to Roman gods, reframed to fit Christian and
subsequently secular belief systems, and reflecting the coins’ emotional rather
than monetary value.45

Importance of matter
Central to the understanding of emotions in a material world is the idea that,
as Elina Gertsman put it, ‘matter matters’.46 The specific physical nature of
objects, places and phenomena affects and effects the responses of people who
encounter it emotionally and sensorially.47 Tim Ingold has made a distinction
between matter and materiality, noting that ‘the ever-growing literature in
anthropology and archaeology that deals explicitly with the subjects of
materiality and material culture seems to have hardly anything to say about
materials’. By materials, Ingold means ‘the stuff things are made of ’.48 Such
stuff necessarily affects the emotional uses to which they can be put – whether
an object can be kissed, held in the hand, carried in procession, whether it has
a fragrance or a sound, and how it might respond to such actions, perhaps by
 The material world 167
being able to be moved, wearing away or warming to the touch. In some
cases the ‘stuff’ of matter allows it to record and embody its own emotional
history: the big toe on St Peter’s statue in the Vatican has been worn away by
the touch of thousands of pilgrims venerating it; the positioning of flowers,
candles, stuffed toys and written messages in makeshift memorials on the sites
of deaths are testament to public rituals of grief.49
The mutability of matter is also crucial to an understanding of its emo-
tional value. Even without direct human interaction, metals tarnish, wood
and wool are eaten by insects, the acidity of nineteenth-century paper causes
it to become brittle and eventually disintegrate. Weeds and trees grow up
through buildings, rivers change course, sometimes even the earth itself shifts.
The emotional relationships that people have with the material world can be
sharply affected by such changes, as was evidenced by the public emotional
responses to the near destruction of the cathedral of Notre-Dame of Paris by
fire in April 2019.50

Objects through time – cultural, temporal, geographic and

historical change
But materiality is only part of the story. The emotional value of an object or
place may actually increase as it loses aesthetic and economic value. Stuart
Brand observed that the most significant factor in determining how buildings
are valued is their age.51 Pernau argued for ‘temporalization as the central
category to link materiality with knowledge and practices’, stating that
‘spaces can be endowed with an emotional valence through practices and
experiences over time’.52 Chris Gosden and Yvonne Marshall recognised that
objects have cultural biographies, that ‘as people and objects gather time,
movement and change, they are constantly transformed, and these transfor-
mations of person and object are tied up with each other’.53 Such differences
in cultural history mean that identical objects can vary enormously in their
emotional value to particular individuals or communities. Since the Industrial
Revolution, hundreds of thousands of ordinary items have been mass pro-
duced. The surfaces of some of these have been marked by their experiences
over time. But of the ostensibly identical objects, the teacup that belonged to
a prime minister or to one’s grandmother is the one which holds emotional
value, even though knowledge of such value might need to be gained from
documentary, visual, oral or archaeological evidence.
Emotional value rarely translates well from one cultural context to another.
Susan Broomhall detailed the failure of the objects offered as gifts by Dutch
explorers to indigenous peoples in Australasia to produce either emotional
value or the expected reciprocal friendship.54 Museums around the world
collected cultural objects in past centuries which were once and, in many
cases, still are of enormous emotional value to their original owners, but
which held and may still hold entirely different historical or aesthetic values
for their curators and audiences.55
168 Sarah Randles
Conclusion: challenges and potential
Since emotional objects can be ‘anything whatsoever’ they may also be found
anywhere, including in museums, archives and private collections or being used
in their original contexts, as in institutions or in families. It is often possible to
visit churches or temples, or environments with emotional resonance, such as
graveyards or the sites of battle. Yet not all objects or places function emotion-
ally, and many may have emotional value at some point in their existence and
not at others. Since emotional value is always relative to particular viewpoints, it
is necessary to know the history of an object or place and the way it has been
used and understood to be able to assess its emotional value over time. Such
history may be found in documentary or visual sources, or it may be inscribed
into the physical matter of the object or place itself.
It is not always easy to find evidence of the emotional value of places and
things in historical contexts. Objects frequently become unmoored from their
original settings. Quotidian items, or those with little economic value, may
never be documented or depicted visually. Objects used for religious or
supernatural purposes may be deliberately kept secret. Communities move
away, change or suffer erasure; information about the places and spaces they
valued is lost.
Conversely, historians of emotions may be faced with materiality that has
not survived but which is known only from the traces it has left in the doc-
umentary and visual record, or even with objects and places which exist only
in literary or artistic depiction, but which nonetheless possess imagined
materiality with emotional resonance. In contrast to Ahmed’s concept of
emotions sticking to objects, the historian can find both emotions and mate-
riality to be slippery concepts, difficult to keep both in mind at once. He or
she must resist the temptation to prioritise one at the expense of the other.
However, by adopting an object-centred approach, using interdisciplinary
tools, and paying attention to physical evidence such as marks of wear, pla-
cement, patterns of use, alongside documentary and visual sources, in order
to interrogate materiality, it is possible to uncover past emotions, including
those of people who are absent or under-represented in the documentary
archive.56 Such methods have the potential to provide an understanding of
historical emotions as something that people did in a material world.

Notes
1 For an extended overview of the development of the field of materiality and emo-
tions, see Stephanie Downes, Sally Holloway and Sarah Randles, ‘A Feeling for
Things, Past and Present’, in Feeling Things: Objects and Emotions through His-
tory, ed. Stephanie Downes, Sally Holloway and Sarah Randles (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2018), 8–23.
2 Sara Ahmed, The Cultural Politics of Emotion (New York: Routledge, 2004), 6.
3 Oliver J.T. Harris and Tim Flohr Sørensen, ‘Rethinking Emotion and Material
Culture’, Archaeological Dialogues 17, no. 2 (2010): 145–63 (149).
 The material world 169
4 I use the term ‘emotional object’ here as shorthand to mean an object (or thing or
phenomenon) with emotional value. Sally Holloway and Alice Dolan used ‘emo-
tional objects’ in this way as the title for their 2013 conference ‘Emotional Objects:
Touching Emotions in Europe 1600–1900’, Institute of Historical Research,
London, 11–12 October 2013, and their introduction to their 2016 special issue of
Textile (Alice and Sally Holloway Dolan, ‘Emotional Textiles: An Introduction’,
Textile 14, no. 2 (2016): 152–9 (155–6). Downes, Holloway and I also used it in
our introduction and first chapter of Feeling Things, 12–13, 16, 18. However, while
convenient, it is also somewhat problematic, and it is necessary to point out that it
does not imply a belief that inanimate objects are themselves capable of experiencing
emotion. The alternative term ‘emotive objects’ has also been used in a similar way
by Sekai Maswoswe (http://www.columbia.edu/~sf2220/Thing/web-content/Pages/
sekai2.html, accessed 25 August 2019). However, this too is problematic because the
use of the term ‘emotives’ is primarily associated in the field of the history of emo-
tions with William Reddy’s use of it to mean speech acts, and in the field of con-
temporary art emotive objects are considered as art objects which directly express or
represent the maker’s emotions.
5 Monique Scheer, ‘Are Emotions a Kind of Practice (and Is That What Makes
Them Have a History)? A Bourdieuian Approach to Understanding Emotion’,
History and Theory 51 (2012): 193–220 (193).
6 Margit Pernau, ‘Space and Emotion: Building to Feel’, History Compass 12, no. 7
(2014): 541–9 (541).
7 Sara Ahmed, The Cultural Politics of Emotion (New York: Routledge, 2004), 6.
8 Scheer, ‘Are Emotions a Kind of Practice?’
9 Alfred Gell, Art and Agency: An Anthropological Theory (Oxford: Clarenden
Press, 1998), 6.
10 Ibid., 6–7.
11 Ibid.
12 Jane Bennett, Vibrant Matter: A Political Ecology of Things (Durham: Duke
University Press, 2010), 6.
13 Ibid., 24.
14 Ibid., 9.
15 ‘Convict Love Tokens’, National Museum of Australia, http://love-tokens.nma.gov.
au/, accessed 20 August 2019.
16 Toby R. Bennis, Romantic Diasporas: French Émigrés, British Convicts and Jews
(Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), 89.
17 Harris and Sørensen, ‘Rethinking Emotion’, 152.
18 See, for example, Sarah Randles, ‘Carved in Stone: Engaging with the Past in
Medieval Orkney’, in Historicising Heritage and Emotions: The Affective Histories
of Blood, Stone and Land, ed. Alicia Marchant (Abingdon: Routledge, 2019), 71–
102, discussing the twelfth-century Norse experience of Neolithic burial mounds.
19 Kenneth J. McNamara, ‘Shepherds’ Crowns, Fairy Loaves and Thunderstones:
The Mythology of Fossil Echinoids in England’, in Myth and Geology, ed. L. Pic-
cardi and W.B. Masse (London: Geological Society of London, 2007), 279–94.
20 Bennett, Vibrant Matter.
21 Grace Moore, ‘“Raising High its Thousand Forked Tongues”: Campfires, Bush-
fires, and Portable Domesticity in Nineteenth-Century Australia’, 19: Inter-
disciplinary Studies in the Long Nineteenth Century 26 (2018), http://doi.org/10.
16995/ntn.807.
22 Mikkel Bille and Tim Flohr Sørensen, ‘In Visible Presence: The Role of Light in
Shaping Religious Atmospheres’, in The Oxford Handbook of Light in Archae-
ology, online September 2017, 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198788218.013.13.
23 Cynthia Hahn, ‘What Do Reliquaries Do for Relics?’, Numen 57 (2010): 284–316
(310).
170 Sarah Randles
24 See, for example, the vast relic collections of Louis IX of France, and the Holy
Roman Emperor Charles IV, as well as those of other wealthy medieval relic col-
lectors. Holger A. Klein, ‘Sacred Things and Holy Bodies: Collecting Relics from
Late Antiquity to the Early Renaissance’, in Treasures of Heaven: Saints, Relics,
and Devotions in Medieval Europe, ed. Holger A. Klein Martina Bagnoli, C.
Griffith Mann and James Robinson (London: British Museum Press, 2011), 55–67.
25 Alain de Botton, The Architecture of Happiness (Harmondsworth: Penguin,
2010), 9.
26 Pernau, ‘Space and Emotion’, 542.
27 Sally Holloway, The Game of Love in Georgian England: Courtship, Emotions and
Material Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019), 86–91.
28 Sara Ahmed, ‘Affective Economies’, Social Text 70, 22, no. 2 (2004): 117–139
(119–20).
29 Ibid., 119.
30 Ibid., 120.
31 Ibid., 129. Ahmed gives as an example the emotional resonance of the American
flag in the time following the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001.
32 Alicia Marchant, ‘Romancing the Stone: (E)motion and the Affective History of
the Stone of Scone’, in Feeling Things, ed. Downes et al., 192–208.
33 Guy Fletcher, ‘Sentimental Value’, The Journal of Value Inquiry 43, no. 1 (2009):
55–65 (56).
34 Natalie Zemon Davies, The Gift in Sixteenth-Century France (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2000), 12.
35 Jo Turney, ‘(S)mother’s Love, or Baby Knitting’, in Love Objects: Emotion, Design
and Material Culture, ed. Anna Moran and Sorcha O’Brien (London: Bloomsbury,
2014), 23.
36 Gell, Art and Agency, 24.
37 Downes et al., ‘A Feeling for Things’, 13.
38 For a history of consumerism and some of its emotional context, see Frank
Trentman, Empire of Things: How We Became a World of Consumers, from the
Fifteenth Century to the Twenty-first (London: Allen Lane, 2016).
39 Barbara Rosenwein, Emotional Communities in the Early Middle Ages (Ithaca:
Cornell University Press, 2006), 2.
40 Alexandra Walsham, ‘Skeletons in the Cupboard: Relics after the English Refor-
mation’, Past & Present 206, no. 5 (2010): 121–43.
41 Helen Hill, ‘Miraculous Effects and Anagogical Materialities: Rethinking the
Relation between Architecture and Effect in Baroque Italy’, in Emotion, Ritual and
Power in Europe, 1200–1920: Family, State and Church, ed. Merridee L. Bailey
and Katie Barclay (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), 193–220 (195).
42 Catherine Speck, ‘Women’s War Memorials and Citizenship’, Australian Feminist
Studies 11, no. 23 (1996): 129–45; Steven R. Welch, ‘Commemorating ‘Heroes of a
Special Kind’: Deserter Monuments in Germany’, Journal of Contemporary His-
tory 47, no. 2 (2012): 370–401.
43 See Sarah Randles, ‘Signs of Emotion: Pilgrimage Tokens from the Cathedral of
Notre-Dame of Chartres’, in Feeling Things, ed. Downes et al., 43–57.
44 Émile Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, trans. Joseph Swain
(London: George, Allen and Unwin, 1912). 382.
45 Mark A. Hall, ‘Money Isn’t Everything: The Cultural Life of Coins in the Med-
ieval Burgh of Perth, Scotland’, Journal of Social Archaeology 12, no. 1 (2012):
72–91 (73).
46 Elina Gertsman, ‘Matter Matters’, in Feeling Things, ed. Downes et al., 27–42.
47 Bernard L. Herman, The Stolen House (Charlottesville: University Press of Virgi-
nia, 1992).
 The material world 171
48 Tim Ingold, ‘Materials against Materiality’, Archaeological Dialogues 14, no. 1
(2007): 1–16 (1).
49 See Jeffrey L. Durbin, ‘The Material Culture of Makeshift Memorials’, Material
Culture 35, no. 2 (2003): 22–47.
50 ‘Our Lady of Paris’, The Public Medievalist, https://www.publicmedievalist.com/
our-lady-of-paris/, accessed 25 August 2019.
51 Stuart Brand, How Buildings Learn: What Happens after They’re Built (New York:
Viking, 1994), 10–11.
52 Pernau, ‘Space and Emotion’, 541–2.
53 Chris Gosden and Yvonne Marshall, ‘The Cultural Biography of Objects’, World
Archaeology 31, no. 2 (1999): 169–78 (169).
54 Susan Broomhall, ‘“Quite Indifferent to These Things”: The Role of Emotions and
Conversion in the Dutch East India Company’s Interactions with the South
Lands’, Journal of Religious History 39, no. 4 (2015): 524–44.
55 See, for example, the contrasting experiences of the museum presented by Chris-
tian E. Feest, ‘The Collecting of American Indian Artifacts in Europe, 1493–1750’,
in America in European Consciousness, 1493–1750, ed. Karen Kupperman, (Wil-
liamsburg: University of North Carolina Press, 1995), 324–60; Divya P. Tolia-
Kelly, ‘Race and Affect at the Museum: The Museum as a Theatre of Pain’, in
Heritage, Affect and Emotion: Politics, Practices and Infrastructures, ed. Divya P.
Tolia-Kelly, Emma Waterton and Steve Watson (London: Routledge, 2016), 33–46;
Sandra H. Dudley, ‘Encountering a Chinese Horse: Engaging with the Thingness
of Things’, in Museum Objects: Experiencing the Properties of Things, ed. Sandra
H. Dudley (Abingdon: Routledge, 2012), 1–16 (1–3).
56 See Hilary Davidson, ‘Holding the Sole: Shoes, Emotions, and the Supernatural’,
in Feeling Things, ed. Downes et al., 72–93; Sarah Randles, ‘Material Magic: The
Deliberate Concealment of Footwear and Clothing’, Parergon 30, no. 2 (2013):
109–29.
Part III
Emerging themes in the history
of emotions
14 Comparative emotions
Joseph Ben Prestel

How do historians dare to compare emotions? Are they not highly individual
phenomena that are hardly comparable even between two different human
beings? And even if we consider emotions to be more social than individual,
doesn’t a comparison flatten all historical, cultural and social differences
between emotions in different settings? What kinds of sources would historians
even use for such a comparison? Scholars in the social sciences and humanities
have indeed been ambivalent about the possibility of comparing emotions. For a
long time, two separate camps existed. There were those who prescribed to a
universalist notion of ‘basic emotions’, which existed in every human being, a
position often associated with the work of the psychologist Paul Ekman, and
others who argued that the very concept of emotions is rooted in an epistemol-
ogy that is specific to the West and should not easily be exported to other places
where such a concept might not even exist, a position often associated with the
work of anthropologists like Catherine Lutz and Lila Abu-Lughod.1
In this chapter, I will argue that the approach of emotional practices that
scholars like Monique Scheer and Daniela Saxer have proposed not only
avoids such hard positions, but also enables historians of emotions to com-
pare sources from different historical contexts with each other.2 To illustrate
this argument, I will offer an example for such a comparison. The following
pages will present sources from two different nineteenth-century cities: an
article on personal advertisements (ads) seeking marriages that appeared in
the Cairo-based periodical al-Hilal in 1892 and a text about these ads that
was published in the year book of the Statistical Bureau of Berlin in 1874.
This choice of sources is based on my research about debates on urban
change in the German and the Egyptian capitals during the second half of the
nineteenth century. The specificities of these two contexts matter and I will
explore them in detail on the following pages. At the same time, the analysis
of both texts also offers the opportunity to highlight similarities and to reflect
on more general observations that can guide a comparative approach to
sources in the history of emotions. Therefore, this chapter will begin with the
question of how to find sources for a comparison before delving into an
analysis of the two texts from Berlin and Cairo.
176 Joseph Ben Prestel
Finding sources: on the search for corresponding traces
Historians of emotions have drawn on a variety of sources for their studies.
From diaries and self-help literature to architecture and music, there are vir-
tually no boundaries to the creativity in finding sources that tell us something
about how emotions changed over time and how they affected the course of
history. The aim of comparing emotions in history comes, however, with its
own challenges and demands for sources. In discussions about historical
comparisons, the issue of commensurability is a common theme.3 Do not
compare apples to oranges, a common advice about comparisons goes. In this
context, historians of emotion have to answer the question whether emotions
are commensurable or, put differently: how do they find objects of study that
can be compared?
Some established approaches of thinking about emotions can complicate
comparisons. If we consider emotions as objectifiable, universal human traits,
it becomes hard to explain why we should compare them at all. From this
perspective, emotions would appear more like automatic reactions that are
not themselves shaped by social context. Historians could only compare the
‘expression’ of emotions, but would have to assume that ‘underneath’ them lie
the same emotions. Variations between different geographical or historical
settings would appear as a kind of surface phenomenon. Numerous authors
have criticised this universalistic emotions paradigm. While anthropologists
like Lila Abu-Lughod and Catherine Lutz have argued that such an under-
standing of emotions reflects contemporary Western norms rather than a
universal truth, historians like Ruth Leys have highlighted that the definition
of emotions as universal traits is not even shared among researchers working
in experimental psychology or the neurosciences.4
A second approach considers emotions as subjective experiences. To study
emotions, then, would mean for historians to only analyse the way con-
temporaries wrote or talked about them. This too, however, creates a number
of problems for historical comparisons. If emotions are purely subjective, how
can we compare them between two human beings, let alone two different
social contexts? Moreover, comparisons necessitate an analytical language
that is separate from the language of the sources or at least a tertium com-
parationis that defines what the objects being compared have in common. But
if we are bound to what historical actors said or wrote about emotions in
different languages, how can we know that they talked about comparable
things? How can historians of the nineteenth century assume, for instance,
that the English word emotion, the German word Gefühl and the Arabic word
ihsas all shared similar qualities?5
The concept of emotional practices offers a way out of this problem and an
entry point into comparisons in the history of emotions. According to Monique
Scheer, who has detailed this approach in most detail, to think about emotions
as a kind of practice means that we consider them as things that people ‘do’ in a
concrete social context.6 They are not simply ‘there’ in human beings, but are
 Comparative emotions 177
shaped by social preconditions. Aspects like language, social hierarchies, or
gender can all matter for emotions as practice. At the same time, thinking about
emotions as practice also means to consider them as bodily activities, as reflected
in phenomena like blushing, crying or shivering. While considering the materi-
ality of the body is thus part of thinking about emotions as practice, this mate-
riality can also, within limits, differ between different epochs, classes or
geographical settings.7 How do emotional practices differ from other kinds of
practices? Building on Scheer, we can define them as activities that, in the eyes of
contemporaries, connected the mind, the body and the social.8
Equipped with this understanding, historians can compare emotional
practices in different settings. An approach that focuses on emotional prac-
tices provides them with both, a definition of their object of study as well as
an understanding of potential differences between contexts that go beyond
questions of emotional expressions in different cultures. This approach also
serves to address the issue of comparing emotions in different languages.
Considering emotions as a kind of practice provides historians with an ana-
lytical language outside of the language of their sources. It enables them to
think about the commensurability of activities that contemporaries framed in
terms of Gefühl or ihsas without simply assuming that these concepts are
identical with the English concept of emotion today.
Looking for emotional practices in sources can often necessitate some
detours. There is no single institution or archive that collects documents on
activities that contemporaries saw a bridging mind, body and the social.
Scholarly texts from the period under consideration can help in this regard. In
late nineteenth-century Cairo and Berlin, for instance, advice literature, pop-
ular philosophical treatises and medical publications contained discussions of
activities that fit the definition of emotional practices. In particular, changes
in activities that contemporaries associated with love, such as nightlife,
matchmaking services or courting ads in newspapers, were depicted as having
an effect on and a connection to all three – mind, body and the social.9
Still, there is a variety of potential sources. Historians can analyse court
records on nightlife, they can consider autobiographical writings and seek traces
of practices that authors associated with love, or they can dig up literary por-
trayals of matchmaking. What is important for a comparison in this context is,
once more, the commensurability of different sources. It is difficult, for instance,
to compare an autobiographical text in one setting to a court record in another.
These two types of sources will vary in their purpose, their intended audiences
and the circumstances of their production, as well as the rules of their genre.
In Berlin and Cairo, we find love as a topic in published media that were a
central component of urban change in both cities. These texts shared struc-
tural similarities, including the fact that they were penned for a literate,
mostly middle-class audience. Ultimately, it is such similarities that pave the
way for a comparison. The importance of structural similarities highlights a
final, central element for choosing sources: time and synchronous historical
change. Newspaper articles offer a corresponding set of sources for Berlin and
178 Joseph Ben Prestel
Cairo in the late nineteenth century because newspapers spread in both cities
at this time. For earlier periods, other sources like court records or philoso-
phical treatises might provide more promising paths to a comparison.

Sources: two texts on seeking marriage through personal ads

In October 1892, a reader from the city of Tanta, located in the Nile Delta, sent
a letter to the Cairo-based periodical al-Hilal (The Crescent). In his letter, the
reader enquired about a recent ad in the newspaper al-Ahram (The Pyramids)
that advertised ‘requests for marriage’. As the editors of al-Hilal were ‘famous
men of knowledge’, the reader sought their opinion on this issue from a ‘moral’
and a ‘civil’ standpoint. The editors began their response by pointing out that the
ways of attaining marriage would be different in all nations due to the differences
in ‘their customs, morals, and times’. In Egypt and Syria, they added, it used to
be the custom that parents and relatives chose the bride. The only way for young
men to have knowledge of their brides before the wedding would have been
through stories that their mothers or one of her friends shared with them about
‘the darkness of [her] eyes’ or other characteristics of her beauty. Yet, according
to the editors, this custom was vanishing and a different, preferable practice was
spreading that was common in Europe. Young men would increasingly go to the
young woman’s house themselves to inspect her conduct and morals. The editors
returned to the reader’s question by explaining that the search for a spouse
through the exchange of letters and newspaper ads was a new custom in ‘Europe
and America’. ‘In our countries’, they continued, ‘we have only heard about this
once and we thought afterwards that it was merely done as a matter of buf-
foonery and joking around.’10
In their response, the editors left little doubt about their opinion on the matter.
Seeking marriage through correspondence or personal ads in newspapers, they
argued, turned marriage ultimately into a commercial contract, in which both
parties just seek ‘material gain’. Men, for instance, would only look at ‘her finances,
her outer appearance, her age, and her health’. In this, however, they ignored the
most important aspect of the search for a bride, morals (akhlaq), which were pre-
sented as central to the happiness (sa‘ada) of the married couple. The editors of al-
Hilal expanded on this argument by painting a sombre picture of the emotional
distress that a marriage through correspondence or newspaper ads would bring:

And the misery of the couple if their characters differ and their morals
clash! This is especially the case if their marriage was [arranged] by cor-
respondence without arousing the attraction of love in them, when the
lover disregards the errors of his beloved and the content eye ignores
every little sin.11

Moreover, the editors stressed that such a way of finding a spouse was detri-
mental to women who were presented in these ads as if ‘for sale in a bargain’,
a practice that did not protect the ‘dignity of the families’ and the ‘honour of
 Comparative emotions 179
the girls’ (karamat al-banat). The text concluded that no scholar or philoso-
pher would have ever argued in favour of this way of meeting a spouse. For all
these reasons, al-Hilal responded to the reader in Tanta, seeking marriage
through correspondence or newspaper ads was not desirable.12
Eighteen years earlier, a text that was published in the German capital was
equally dedicated to the topic of people trying to find a spouse through news-
paper ads. In 1874, Friedrich Bartholomäi, a clerk in the Statistical Bureau of
the City of Berlin, wrote an article that zooms in on these ads for the Bureau’s
yearbook.13 Unlike the article in Cairo, the impetus behind this text was not a
letter from a reader, but rather the concept of a ‘Folk Psychology’ (Völk-
erpsychochlogie) of Berlin that the Statistical Bureau of the City at the time
subscribed to.14 According to this concept, which had been developed by the
Bureau’s director Hermann Schwabe, statisticians had to study phenomena that
promised to provide insight into the ‘inner life’ of Berliners. Bartholomäi fol-
lowed through on this proposition and studied 1,200 ads in Berlin newspapers, in
which inhabitants of the city sought marriages. For him, these ads served as ‘a
rich material, which offers a deep insight into the ethical life, the customs, habits,
and characteristics of Berlin’s population’.15
In the spirit of the scientific approach of Folk Psychology, Bartholomäi was
not quick to judge these ads in newspapers, which he saw as a result of the
growing city of Berlin in which older ways of finding a spouse became
increasingly difficult as people had to overcome longer distances and less
interactions between the sexes.16 Despite such a functional explanation for the
fact that people sought marriages through newspaper ads, Bartholomäi also
stated that ‘we would say that this approach (Weg) is businesslike and not
consistent with good manners and customs’.17
Bartholomäi was especially interested in the qualities that contemporaries
sought in their desired spouse or that they used to describe themselves. Accord-
ing to his analysis, men touted their ‘cheerfulness and sociability’ or a ‘chivalric
heart’ in these ads. Women advertised qualities like ‘wealth of love and temper’
or ‘cheerfulness and love of life’.18 Bartholomäi noted that next to those ads
seeking marriage, there would also be ‘courting ads’, a genre that he vehemently
condemned, explaining: ‘If you read ads like the following: “Did Otto Schulz
completely forget his Lene? She sends a friendly reminder about her … [”] an
uncomfortable feeling (Mißbehagen) creeps over you because they bear witness
to a deficient education of the heart’.19 Bartholomäi saw this ‘deficient educa-
tion’ also reflected in the fact that many self-descriptions built on adjectives that
related to honour, while clearly for him the people who had submitted these ads
were not honourable. In his eyes, even worse was the idea that the presence of
such texts in newspapers caused a decay in the feeling of morality (Sitte) among
Berlin’s younger population.20 The ads would ‘poison the hearts’ of ‘thousands
of immature children’.21 Bartholomäi closed his text by emphasising that it had
been important for him to shed light on this phenomenon, ‘even with the risk
that certain critics in the city parliament will consider [me] a useless preacher of
morals and a missionary’.22
180 Joseph Ben Prestel
Analysis: the curious case of personal ads
Let us first consider critical differences between the two sources. Where did
the two texts appear? The source from Cairo was penned as a newspaper
article in a flagship publication of the Nahda, a movement of cultural revival
that Arabic intellectuals subscribed to at the end of the nineteenth century.23
Al-Hilal was edited by the famous intellectual Jurji Zaydan as a profit-orien-
ted periodical that aimed at an educated Arabic readership across the world.24
Bartholomäi’s study, in contrast, appeared in the yearbook of the Statistical
Bureau of the City of Berlin. Under the leadership of the Bureau’s director
Hermann Schwabe, this publication clearly sought to move beyond simply
showcasing quantitative data.25 Its readership could likely be found in the city
government and a scholarly community.
While the audience of the two texts was therefore far from identical, the
content of the two sources also differs in some respects. The article in al-Hilal
discussed an activity that was barely practised in Cairo at the time. In their
response, the editors of al-Hilal mentioned that they were only aware of one
incident of a newspaper ad with the aim of finding a spouse and historical
scholarship does not suggest otherwise. Friedrich Bartholomäi depicts an
entirely different situation in Berlin, where he studied hundreds of these ads
during the early 1870s. Not least, the two sources show a difference in the
acceptance of these ads. In Berlin, we find more lenience towards them,
whereas the source about Cairo reflects a pronounced rejection.
Despite these differences, however, the two sources speak to each other as
documents for a history of emotions, more specifically a history of emotional
practices. The texts from Cairo and Berlin reveal contentious debates about
courting practices and discussions about the meaning of love during the
second half of the nineteenth century. First, we can glimpse from both sources
that courting ads in newspapers were a phenomenon that contemporaries in
both cities regarded as a new practice that necessitated reflection. While Bar-
tholomäi embarked on their investigation as part of his work for the Statis-
tical Bureau, the editors of al-Hilal considered them in response to the query
of a reader. Second, both sources reflect recent changes in the way
contemporaries sought a spouse. In Berlin, Bartholomäi related the presence
of newspaper ads to a reduced interaction between the sexes that urban
dwellers faced in the growing city. In Cairo, the editors of al-Hilal pointed to
a recent shift in finding a spouse, as men would increasingly go to the house
of the bride themselves rather than having their parents or relatives chose a
match for them. Third, and most importantly, discussions about how to find a
spouse were embedded in debates about emotions.
In the two sources, we find that contemporaries addressed love as an element of
finding a spouse. Whether it was the attraction of love that could lead the married
couple to disregard the flaws of their partner that al-Hilal highlighted or the
characteristics such as having a ‘wealth of love’ that Bartholomäi found in court-
ing ads, the issue of love shines through in both texts. Yet, it is precisely the content
 Comparative emotions 181
of this concept that was contested. Both sources warned against courting ads as a
practice that turned marriage into a mere businesslike relationship. These ads
would not only go against customs, but they could hardly instil happiness in the
married couple, as al-Hilal put it, or even risked poisoning the hearts of young
Berliners, as Bartholomäi warned. Not least, the role of other emotions emerges in
both texts. The sources from Berlin and Cairo share a concern for questions of
dignity, honour and shame. Historians have often pointed to these emotions as
important elements of social control and the cases of Berlin and Cairo in the late
nineteenth century speak to this observation.26 The question that lurked behind
both texts was therefore what kind of practices of love should be deemed accep-
table. Rather than a conflict between emotion versus reason or emotional expres-
sion versus repression, both texts reflected a concern for an education of emotion,
an ‘education of the heart’ as Bartholomäi put it.

Contextualisation: comparable debates on urban change

We can substantiate these observations by consulting additional sources and
research literature. Just a look at other articles in al-Hilal demonstrates that
love was a contentious topic in late nineteenth-century Cairo. Readers asked
in a letter, for instance, about the meaning of love or the editors stressed in
another article that love formed a ‘basis for civilization’.27 We can also find
contemporary books like Muhamad ‘Umar’s The Present State of the Egyp-
tians, or the Causes of their Retrogression that discussed different aspects of
love in detail.28 The historian Hanan Kholoussy has depicted these debates in
conjunction with the contemporary perception that fewer Egyptian men were
getting married.29 Adjacent to this marriage crisis, we can also glimpse a
concern for changing emotions in the city. As the article from al-Hilal
underscores, contemporaries debated the effects of new activities in the urban
realm, such as transformed ways of courting.
In Berlin, too, arguments about love and particularly about courting ads
can be found in a number of other sources. Police and court records show, for
instance, that the city’s authorities sought to curb a burgeoning market of
courting ads in newspapers until the middle of the nineteenth century. By the
1870s, however, these ads were already a common and legally accepted phe-
nomenon. They even provided the plot for a popular novel that traced a
man’s romantic adventures with courting ads under the title A Victim of
Modern Love or the Biggest Hero of Rendezvous in Berlin. 30 Moreover, the
historians Karen Hausen and Tyler Carrington have explored this history of
courting ads through some of the legal debates around them as well as
microhistories of love in Berlin.31
Additional sources and research literature do, however, only widen the
scope of observations for a single setting. We now know that the sources on
love in Berlin and Cairo were far from isolated in their respective location. It
is through a comparison that we can relate findings from the two cities to
each other. Considering the similarities between the sources together with the
182 Joseph Ben Prestel
wider context of their respective cities, a story emerges that shows parallels
between debates on emotional practices in Berlin and Cairo. This story cen-
tres on three elements: historical change, control of emotions, and gender and
class. The import of historical change for these debates comes clearly through
in the fact that both sources address what they perceive as transformed
activities. Newspaper ads serve these authors to highlight that courting prac-
tices have changed. At the same time, there is a wider dynamic of change in
the two cities that underpinned this dynamic. Newspapers as a popular
medium spread and multiplied their readership in both locales during the
second half of the nineteenth century, while migration and new professions
transformed the social composition of the two cities’ populations.32 Con-
temporaries in Berlin and Cairo argued about the effects of these changes on
urban dwellers.
The two sources highlight that authors in the German and the Egyptian
capitals shared a concern for the control of emotions in this context. Not only
do they underscore that courting practices were a contentious topic in both
cities, but these texts show that contemporaries like the editors of al-Hilal and
Friedrich Bartholomäi feared a dynamic in which unprecedented practices led
to unwanted transformations with new forms of love running counter to an
older understanding of honour and shame. Moreover, these emotions were
clearly embedded in a hierarchy of class and gender. Other sources and sec-
ondary literature illustrate that what male observers envisioned as an accep-
table form of love was deeply entrenched in middle-class practices, in which a
gendered form of honour served as a pivotal means of distinction from the
lower and upper classes. Thus, the love life of female city dwellers represented
a particular focus of men’s concern about honour. The two sources, therefore,
open a window on similarities in debates about urban change and emotions in
the German and the Egyptian capitals. In both cities, these debates were part
of a context of urban change, a concern for the control of emotions, and the
reiteration of hierarchies of class and gender.

Conclusion: why should we compare?

In this chapter, I suggested four steps for a comparison in the history of emo-
tions: finding sources that can be compared (for example, newspapers, advice
literature, popular philosophical treatises, medical publications or court records),
a close reading of these sources, an analysis that pays attention to differences and
similarities, and a contextualisation that draws on additional sources and
research literature. While these steps are hardly innovative in historical research
at large or comparative studies in particular, the history of emotions comes with
its own challenges for comparisons. I have argued that considering emotions as
practices offers a way out of some of these challenges.
We have, however, not looked at the most important question, yet: why
should historians of emotion compare at all? There are manifold reasons why
historians are interested in comparisons. Often, comparative studies serve to
 Comparative emotions 183
test older hypotheses and to stimulate new questions for research. In the history
of emotions too, comparisons can help to think about the units of analysis that
scholars use. The cases of Berlin and Cairo illustrate this point. Historians fre-
quently analyse the histories of Europe and the Middle East or Egypt and Ger-
many in the nineteenth century as part of two separate stories. In histories of
emotions, there are also a number of studies that zoom in on regional or national
specificities. A comparative approach can put claims about such specificities to
the test. By looking at the sources about love from Berlin and Cairo, we can
appreciate similarities in emotional practices that would remain hidden if we
stayed within the compartments of a German and an Egyptian history.
From here, new questions beckon: Why did these similarities emerge in the
first place? When did they come about and what was their trajectory over the
course of the nineteenth century? Can we observe similar emotional practices
in other cities, such as Istanbul, Vienna or Calcutta? These are just some of
the leads that the two sources discussed in this chapter offer. It is up to his-
torians of emotions interested in comparisons to follow them.

Notes
1 On these two positions and their import for a history of emotions, see Jan Plamper,
The History of Emotions: An Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015),
109–62.
2 Monique Scheer, ‘Are Emotions a Kind of Practice (And is That What Makes Them
Have a History)? A Bourdieuian Approach to Understanding Emotion’, History &
Theory 51 (2012): 193–220; Daniela Saxer, ‘Mit Gefühl Handeln: Ansätze der Emo-
tionsgeschichte’, Traverse: Zeitschrift für Geschichte 2 (2007): 15–29.
3 For a foundational text of comparative history, see Marc Bloch, ‘Toward a Com-
parative History of European Societies’, in Enterprise and Secular Change: Readings
in Economic History, ed. Frederic C. Lane and Jelle C. Riemersma (Homewood: R.D.
Irwin), 494–521.
4 See, for instance, Lila Abu-Lughod and Catherine Lutz, ‘Introduction: Emotion,
Discourse, and the Politics of Everyday Life’, in Language and the Politics of Emo-
tion, ed. Lila Abu-Lughod and Catherine Lutz (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1990), 1–23; Ruth Leys, ‘The Turn to Affect: A Critique’, Critical Inquiry 37
(2011): 434–72.
5 The English word emotion alone went through a remarkable trajectory of histor-
ical change, as Thomas Dixon has shown: Thomas Dixon, From Passions to
Emotions: The Creation of a Secular Psychological Category (Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 2006).
6 Scheer, ‘Are Emotions a Kind of Practice’.
7 Authors as diverse as Charles Tilly and Judith Butler have highlighted this point:
Charles Tilly, Durable Inequality (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998);
Judith Butler, Bodies that Matter: On the Discursive Limits of ‘Sex’ (London:
Routledge, 1993).
8 Scheer, ‘Are Emotions a Kind of Practice’.
9 On debates about love in late nineteenth-century Berlin and Cairo, see also: Hanan
Kholoussy, For Better, for Worse: The Marriage Crisis That Made Modern Egypt
(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2010); Tyler Carrington, Love at Last Sight:
Dating, Intimacy, and Risk in Turn-Of-The-Century Berlin (New York: Oxford
University Press, 2019).
184 Joseph Ben Prestel
10 ‘Al-Zawaj bi-l-Murasala’, al-Hilal 1 (1892): 125–8.
11 Ibid., 127.
12 Ibid., 128.
13 Friedrich Bartholomäi, ‘Volkspsychologische Spiegelbilder aus Berliner Annon-
cen’, in Berlin und seine Entwickelung, ed. Hermann Schwabe (Berlin: Guttentag,
1874), 37–53.
14 On the history of Folk Psychology, see: Egbert Klautke, The Mind of the Nation:
Völkerpsychologie in Germany, 1851–1955 (New York: Berghahn, 2013).
15 Bartholomäi, ‘Volkspsychologische Spiegelbilder aus Berliner Annoncen’, 37.
16 In his text, Bartholomäi referred to a text by Hermann Schwabe that detailed these
effects of the growing city on social interaction: Bartholomäi, ‘Volkspsychologische
Spiegelbilder aus Berliner Annoncen’, 37; Hermann Schwabe, ‘Betrachtungen über
die Volksseele von Berlin’, in Berlin und seine Entwickelung (Berlin: Guttentag,
1870), 126–51.
17 Bartholomäi, ‘Volkspsychologische Spiegelbilder aus Berliner Annoncen’, 37.
18 Ibid., 40.
19 Ibid., 44.
20 I have discussed the role of the concept of Sitte for a history of emotions else-
where: Joseph Ben Prestel, Emotional Cities: Debates on Urban Change in Berlin
and Cairo, 1860–1910 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017), 21–48.
21 Bartholomäi, ‘Volkspsychologische Spiegelbilder aus Berliner Annoncen’, 52.
22 Ibid.
23 On the Nahda, see, for instance, Max Weiss and Jens Hanssen, ‘Language, Mind,
Freedom, and Time: The Modern Arab Intellectual Tradition in Four Words’, in
Arabic Thought Beyond the Liberal Age: Towards an Intellectual History of the
Nahda, ed. Jens Hanssen and Max Weiss (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2017), 1–38.
24 On the profit-oriented character of a publication like al-Hilal, see: Elizabeth M.
Holt, Fictitious Capital: Silk, Cotton, and the Rise of the Arabic Novel (New York:
Fordham University Press, 2017), 105–18; Ami Ayalon, The Arabic Print Revolu-
tion: Cultural Production and Mass Readership (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2016), 123–53; on the complex question of circulation and readership, see
Hoda Yousef, Composing Egypt: Reading, Writing, and the Emergence of the
Modern Nation (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2016).
25 Anabella Weismann, ‘Modell Metropolis: Über den ‘soziologischen Blick’ des
Kommunalstatstikers Hermann Schwabe (1830–1874) auf die moderne Gesell-
schaft’, in Der soziologische Blick: Vergangene Positionen und gegenwärtige Per-
spektiven (Leverkusen: Leske and Budrich, 2002), 63–85.
26 See, for instance: Ute Frevert, Die Politik der Demütigung: Schauplätze von Macht
und Ohmacht (Frankfurt: S. Fischer, 2017); Liat Kozma, Policing Egyptian
Women: Sex, Law, and Medicine in Khedival Egypt (Syracuse: Syracuse University
Press, 2011), 79–116.
27 ‘Ma Huwa al-Hubb’, al-Hilal 11 (1903): 347–8; ‘Al-Hubb’, al-Hilal 4 (1896): 258–60.
28 Muhammad ʻUmar, Hadir al-Misriyyin aw Sirr Ta’khkhurihim (Cairo: Matbaʻat
al-Muqtataf, 1902), 15–19, 42–4, 231–33.
29 Kholoussy, For Better, for Worse.
30 Prestel, Emotional Cities, 34–46.
31 Karin Hausen, ‘Die Ehe in Angebot und Nachfrage: Heiratsanzeigen historisch
durchmustert’, in Liebe und Widerstand: Ambivalenzen historischer Ges-
chlechterbeziehungen, ed. Ingrid Bauer, Christa Hämmerle and Gabriella Hauch
(Cologne: Böhlau, 2005), 428–48; Carrington, Love at Last Sight, 126–43.
32 On Berlin, see, for instance, Peter Fritzsche, Reading Berlin 1900 (Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 1996); on Cairo, see, for instance, Ayalon, The Arabic
Print Revolution.
15 Intersectional identities
Katie Barclay and Sharon Crozier-De Rosa

The recent phenomenon of the Women’s Marches – those mobilised to protest

against US President Donald Trump’s inauguration – has brought the issue of
‘intersectionality’ to global attention.1 Heated public debates have ensued
about who has been included in and excluded from these extensively pub-
licised, wide-reaching demonstrations. For example, organisers of the US
marches responded to strident accusations that their protests were of rele-
vance only to white middle-class women by stressing the importance of min-
ority women and their different priorities. In doing so, they demonstrated the
continuity of historic feminist debates about intersecting inequalities on the
basis of gender, racialised positioning, religion and region. Those witnessing
these highly emotional debates were reminded of earlier forms of protest:
from African-American abolitionist and women’s rights activist Sojourner
Truth’s 1851 speech ‘Ain’t I a Woman?’, where the emancipated slave articu-
lated her intersecting gendered and racialised oppressions, to early twentieth-
century African-American suffragists’ angry objections to being relegated to
the back of the white-led suffrage processions. Intersectional oppressions
produced emotionally volatile contexts, reminding us that intersectional
identities combined to produce complex selves and emotions. This chapter
explores how ideas about identity intersected with emotion, highlighting a
range of ideas, beliefs and social practices across time and place, and how the
historian might seek to explore such questions in their source material.

Intersectionality and emotions

In the late 1980s, African-American legal scholar Kimberlé Crenshaw coined
the term ‘intersectionality’.2 She was compelled to do so, she said, because
she had observed that feminist and anti-racist advocacy had failed to recog-
nise that racialised and gendered discrimination were in dynamic interaction.
Certain strands of feminist and racial liberation movements had embraced
identity-based politics, where aspects of the self were considered important
explanatory markers of the human condition. They had taken the view that
delineating difference did not need to become implicated in the politics of
domination, where one person was better than another based on their
186 Katie Barclay and Sharon Crozier-De Rosa
difference; identity could instead be ‘the source of social empowerment and
reconstruction’.3 Identity-based politics were important sources of ‘strength,
community, and intellectual development’ for members of marginalised
groups. However, Crenshaw also noted that within identity politics ‘difference’
was a contentious and sometimes ambiguous concern. Far from failing to
transcend difference, as some critics had accused, identity politics performed
the opposite: it frequently conflated or ignored intragroup differences.4
Through eliding difference, it minimised the dynamic interaction between
multiple categories – dimensions of difference and their associated power dif-
ferentials – including: gender identity, sexual orientation, ethnicity, racialised
positioning, indigeneity, descent from colonisers or colonised, class, region,
religion, linguistic background, ability and disability, age and so forth. Iden-
tity politics often failed to account for how different parts of identity ‘inter-
sected’ to produce the self and personal experience.
Intersectionality is more than an intellectual theory; it is and was a ‘reality’.
As Crenshaw later explained it: for many people, ‘[i]ntersectionality was a
lived experience before it was a term’.5 For example, an individual did not
simply exist as a ‘woman’ or a ‘man’, or other gendered identity. Rather,
identities were positioned in the intersections of different categories, and these
intersectional dynamics were subject to change, according to situation and
across time. A person might be a black man, or a gay woman. They may also
have a disability or be working class. All these components of identity worked
together to produce unique personal experiences and to shape how people
were treated. Ignoring their combination could cause problems. For example,
in the 1970s, people in the USA could sue for discrimination on the grounds
of race or gender, but not both together.6 This caused issues for black women
workers who found they were paid less than black men and white women.
They wished to demonstrate that they were disadvantaged by the combina-
tion of race and gender, not one alone, but the law did not recognise a claim
on this basis. An intersectional framework – one that has especially been
emerging from feminist and critical race studies – has helped to bring pre-
viously invisible bodies and elided complex identities into view.
Scholarship on intersectional identities was initially underpinned by the-
ories from Marxism and feminism, which looked to explain how political
structures placed different groups into particular categories and with different
degrees of power. However, as analysis of identity became more sophisti-
cated – recognising that a person might be white and male but also working
class, or black and female but middle class – models were needed that could
help account for the significant diversity of experience produced when we
acknowledge intersectionality. Here ‘performance’ theory has been quite
influential, drawing on the work of sociologists like Ervin Goffman and
gender theorist Judith Butler.7 Performance theorists suggest that we consider
humans as having a set of ‘resources’, from wealth and education to gender
and class, which they combined to produce the self. People could use these
sets of resources as forms of agency or to produce power. In different
 Intersectional identities 187
contexts, some resources would be more influential than others and so the
capacity of people to shape power relationships might vary depending on the
situation. This was not to deny that some ‘resources’ held more influence than
others in a wider range of situations – for example being white generally
makes it easier in most contexts – but it enabled researchers to explain why
people might have success in some situations but not others. An example
might be where a minority’s opinion holds more weight amongst his or her
group than that of an outsider, or where enormous wealth compensated for a
lack of education. For performance theorists, emotion can be another
‘resource’ that people use to more or less successfully shape identity or power
relationships. The distressed middle-class woman in a nineteenth-century
courtroom might gain greater sympathy from the jury or gallery than one
who showed little emotion.8
While gender is only one intersectional lens, it is an important one,
particularly in the realm of emotions scholarship. As the example of the
Women’s Marches demonstrates, differences between women have forced
women – sometimes reluctantly and uncomfortably – to reflect critically on
operations of power among women, the politics of identity and representa-
tions, and the dangers of eliding difference; to reflect on the operations of
intersectional identity and oppression.9 Yet, gender as a frame of analysis is
also important because of the traditionally constructed dichotomy between
masculinity and femininity, with masculinised qualities being valued above
those deemed feminine. Feminist research has exposed a heteronormative
power mechanism that reproduces a hierarchical binary gender order which
devalues and delegitimises emotions as well as those who are often char-
acterised as emotional. Recent feminist, queer and postcolonial scholarship
has demonstrated how such devaluations and delegitimisations are tied to
modern capitalist politics and to a hierarchical order based on race, gender and
class.10 Therefore, and as some of the chapters in this volume have elaborated,
concepts such as reason, agency, control and objectivity have been
characterised and privileged as masculine in the West, whereas those such as
emotion, passivity, uncertainty and subjectivity have been stigmatised as
feminine.11 Subordinated subjects – women, yes, but also those who are sexu-
ally, racially, ethnically, culturally and economically marginalised – have often
been attributed these feminised and denigrated qualities. Calling someone
‘emotional’ was an insult, and as such an insult that could be used to stigmatise
and dominate particular groups.
This has major implications for the emotional standards to which these
marginalised people are held. A crying woman might be viewed more sym-
pathetically than a man as her emotion was viewed as ‘natural’; a crying man
might be condemned for his unmanly behaviour. Yet, acceptance of the idea
that women were more naturally ‘emotional’ has produced negative con-
sequences for women. It has been used to justify their exclusion from political
and public realms. It is important to note that these standards – and reactions
to them – do not remain static. Whether it is acceptable for men and women
188 Katie Barclay and Sharon Crozier-De Rosa
to cry, and in what contexts, has varied enormously over time and place.
Eighteenth-century European men were praised for their emotional sensitiv-
ity; tears a marker of manliness.12 On the other hand, the working classes
were castigated as ‘hard’, lacking in the appropriate emotion that could be
used to reinforce ‘civilised’ judgement. Within this context, women from the
working class could be seen as particularly ‘unnatural’ as their ‘hardness’ was
contrasted with a middle-class ideal of the ‘emotional woman’.13
Emotional standards change over time, in response to not only changing
political, social and economic conditions, but also to challenges from
those marginalised groups. African-American slaves, for example, used
claims to their emotional sophistication – to their capacity to feel pain
and suffering – as the basis of their demands to abolish slavery and to be
recognised as fully human.14 Nineteenth-century European women argued
firstly that their emotions led to better judgements in some areas of social
life, such as around families and households, and later rejected such claims
of emotionality altogether to argue that they were similarly reasonable and
rational as men.15 Women fighting in different arenas today – for example,
those advocating to be allowed to participate in frontline combat alongside
men – still resort to arguing that ‘feminine emotionalism’ is not relevant
and does not preclude them from assuming roles deemed more ‘manly’.16
Despite examples like the previous one, today emotions scholars tend to
downplay gender differences, arguing that both reason and emotion
combine when making decisions and that men and women do this
similarly. If ideas about emotions and gender are not the same as personal
experiences of emotion, that people believed such things shaped both per-
sonal behaviour and how they treated other people.
Applying ideas of intersectionality to understandings of emotion
requires the historian to reflect on how ideas and experiences of emotion
were shaped by different categories of identity and to be sensitive to how
intersecting categories (say of race and gender) might shape both under-
standings and experiences of emotion in different ways. This can mean
moving beyond just theories of emotion, say those written by philosophers
or medical scientists, to examining how people’s lived experiences shaped
their personal experiences. An example here might be to recognise that the
social conditions of slavery, where slaves were expected to present cheerful
faces or suffer violent repercussions, might have shaped how they were
allowed to express emotion, and that these constraints on emotional
behaviour may leave a mark on the historical record.17 The historian
therefore may wish to read accounts of cheerful slaves written by their
owners with a critical eye. Recently, ongoing representations of the
cheerful slave have been challenged. For example, in 2016, a children’s
book (A Birthday Cake for George Washington) was taken out of circula-
tion because of public outcry over its depiction of President George
Washington’s slaves as jovial workers.18
 Intersectional identities 189
Intersectional emotions and historical source material

Identifying categories of identity

The first step in exploring intersectional emotions in source material is to
recognise that the experience of emotion has rarely been considered identical
across various identities. It may be that in some historical periods or places
that some aspects of identity – gender, race, disability – were considered more
important than others, and so were given more consideration when shaping
power relationships between people. But it is rare for societies to genuinely
hold all categories of people as equal. Therefore, one of the first jobs of the
historian is to reflect on what aspects of identity were important in that par-
ticular society. If there is not an obvious starting point – perhaps because
nothing has been written on this society by historians before – then starting
with categories from our own society can be useful. Worst case, we might
learn that ideas of gender or race or class held little purchase within the
society we are studying – and that’s quite interesting by itself.
Categories of identity intersect with emotion, because emotion plays a central
role in producing power relationships. It does this in two ways. First, ideas about
emotions can be used to reinforce hierarchies of power. That women were
thought to be emotional was used by many classical thinkers to justify their
subordination by men. Second, the experience of inequality produces certain
forms of ‘suffering’, where people recognise their disadvantage through their
embodied feelings. This can be manifested in multiple ways, from physical dis-
advantage that leads to pain, suffering or anxiety, to emotions associated with
injustice, like anger or frustration, or to a sense that one cannot express one’s
desired emotions due to the emotional rules of society. In the latter case, a person
might find an ‘emotional refuge’ to use William Reddy’s term, where like-
minded people could find a space to express their emotions freely with each
other.19 For example, slaves might have claimed evangelical Christianity as a
space in which to express emotions not otherwise permitted, such as hope man-
ifested through song and hand clapping.20 Within hierarchical societies, some
people might experience more ‘emotional liberty’, the freedom to express their
emotion as desired, than others. Thus while expressing anger was considered
unmanly in nineteenth-century Ireland, elite men who displayed anger were
often give greater latitude than other social groups.21 Identifying moments of
emotional conflicts or sites of emotional refuge can offer an access point to the
emotional power dynamics of a given society.

Setting emotional standards

Having identified the category or categories of identity under study – say gender
or class or even gender and class – then the historian sets out to read their his-
torical source with attention to what they might tell us about this group. We may
wish to begin with sources – like philosophical works or medical treatises – that
190 Katie Barclay and Sharon Crozier-De Rosa
lay out emotional standards for a particular society. The chapter in this volume
on prescriptive literature is a good starting point for identifying such sources.
How do these texts apply their rules to different groups? Are men and women
expected to perform emotion in the same way? Are there further differentiations,
perhaps by class or race or some other category? If so, who is included in such
discussions and who is ignored? What might we learn, for example, if a record
makes no mention of black people or the disabled? We might attend to the
audience for such material, exploring how the target reader might have shaped
the material which was included.
Popular culture materials – novels, plays, television – can also be useful for
depicting emotional norms for different identity groups. We can observe the
range of emotions expressed by individuals, how they were depicted in
emotional terms (did their face go red, or did they cry?), and how other
characters responded to them. Responses can be important as they help us
understand whether a character’s emotional range was considered socially
acceptable or deviant, giving access to the emotional standards of a society.
As for all sources, understanding who produced such works and why can also
help us understand how we should interpret the emotions produced in a text.
Many nineteenth-century texts could be racist and these attitudes informed
how black people were represented. One example we could offer of this is
Charlotte Bronte’s Jane Eyre. In this 1847 novel, Bronte ‘others’ the character
of Bertha Mason, Mr Rochester’s violently insane Creole wife. Dehumanised
(described in animalistic terms) and presented as both childlike and
emotionally unhinged, Bertha is an object of sympathy and fear. As the ‘mad-
woman in the attic’ descended from racially dubious lineage, her emotional and
psychological instability is gendered and racialised. Nineteenth-century audiences
would have recognised in Bertha a level of decadence and untrustworthiness that
they would not have expected from the more ‘civilised’ English characters, like
Jane and Rochester. Illustrating that emotional norms and expectations change, it
was not until nearly 200 years after her creation, with Jean Rhys’s Wide Sargasso
Sea novel (1966), that Bertha – renamed Antoinette Cosway – was granted the
agency to represent herself as a victim of oppression, thereby contextualising her
emotional ‘instability’.22

Using emotional representations to elicit emotional responses

Identifying the targeted audience of texts is pivotal for understanding how
emotions and identity are intended to work in those texts – whether they are
successful or not in this enterprise. This is true of works that have been pro-
duced in order to enlist public sympathy for or investment in a range of
causes, from imperialism to abolitionism to religious missions. Therefore,
while poems like Rudyard Kipling’s ‘The White Man’s Burden’ (1899) depic-
ted the ‘uncivilised’ emotionally and morally incompetent colonised other to
communicate a sense of pride in the imperial project while also eliciting
sympathy for the white male imperialist from a general public that was well
 Intersectional identities 191
23
disposed to Western imperialism, other texts, like Harriet Beecher Stowe’s
1852 novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin, worked to induce feelings of sympathy for the
humanised chattel slave, while still relying on seemingly benign stereotypes of
the slave (including that of the long-suffering dutiful servant).24 Under-
standing the motivations of the writer can also help us to discern anticipated
emotional attitudes to the subject. Stowe, for example, said that she was
compelled to write in the way she did because of a sense of Christian and
maternal love, sorrow and compassion. This white female writer’s emotional
subjectivities inform her representation of the enslaved other.
Other works have represented others – colonised others, for instance – with
the explicit intention of getting the public onside so that they will be inspired
to not only emotionally, but also financially, support a cause. Mission work is
one good example of this. Jane Haggis and Margaret Allen have used British
Protestant missionary publications to examine how emotions were used to
construct ‘good’ colonial subjects and imagined emotional communities of
British and Indian women to appeal to the interested public ‘at home’, those
most likely to offer practical, spiritual and financial support. Given their
pervasiveness – for example, they were distributed widely by missionary
societies at churches and Sunday Schools – these texts were regarded as
effective vehicles for disseminating information about the good work being
carried out by Christian missionaries. Often, as Haggis and Allen argue, these
publications were predicated on juxtaposing the combination of cold loveless
Indian family and ruthless unfeeling Indian men with ‘the sweetness and light
of an English home’ to position the innocent and fearful Indian woman and
child as in dire need of the missionary woman’s civilised attentiveness to love,
care and salvation. In this way, these sources can be used to furnish a con-
version narrative that ‘discursively construct(s) “emotional communities” of
religion that work to imbricate Indian and British women into imperial
structures of feeling that are raced, classed and gendered’.25
Similarly, historian Jane Lydon uses mission texts – in this case slides from
magic lantern (image projector) shows – to lay bare the construction of the
emotional relationship between the missionary or coloniser and the colonised
other. Missionaries worked to create representations of colonised subjects – in
Lydon’s case, Australian Aboriginal people – to convince audiences – Aus-
tralian colonists who were being appealed to contribute to the welfare and
well-being of the country’s indigenous population – that this group was
worthy of their pity and compassion. Unfavourable public reactions to these
shows – attacking and lampooning responses on the part of Australian set-
tlers who were keen to protect their own interests in the face of threatening or
unsettling settler–indigenous interactions as new frontiers were formed – can
be looked at to reveal how emotional narratives worked to construct imperial
relations and constitute colonial cultures.26 Sources like these presentation
slides can also be used to highlight the limitations of mission texts. We can
use them to cast light on the emotional intentions of the author, but not
necessarily the emotional reaction of the audience. Nor can they be used to
192 Katie Barclay and Sharon Crozier-De Rosa
directly reveal the emotions of their subjects, although projects are under way
that work to read sources like these against the grain to tentatively recon-
struct a picture of what they reveal about indigenous people’s feelings, about,
for instance, kin, country and the arrival of strangers.27

Emotions and self-representation

If representational sources offer access to emotional standards and the atti-
tudes of different groups to others within a society, other types of sources
might better offer insight into personal or individual experience. As noted in
previous chapters, no source offers free access to the soul, but those produced
by a particular group, rather than about them, offered the authors greater
opportunity to exercise some agency in how they were represented. They
might use such opportunities to challenge preconceptions about their emo-
tional expression or repertoire, undermining stereotypes or making claims to
power that are intertwined with ideas about emotion. This can open up
opportunities to explore how different groups sought to express themselves in
emotional terms. Audience here is again important. A group of slaves writing
for a white audience to demand freedom might deploy emotional motifs
familiar to their audience to persuade them to change their behaviour. As
outlined in the chapter on protest emotions, former slaves’ narratives expres-
sed anger and rage, working to elicit a similar sense of outrage from a
sympathetic abolitionist audience, in a way that was denied to them while in
bondage where, for example, slave letters which were often read by owners
could only accommodate muted emotions.28 If this might not reflect how an
individual African American expressed themselves in daily life (and it might!),
such representations suggest their familiarity with such emotional norms and
their ability to deploy them strategically.
One source that unambiguously declares that it represents the feelings of its
author is Sojourner Truth’s previously mentioned speech, ‘Ain’t I a Woman?’,
delivered at the Women’s Rights Convention, Akron, Ohio, in 1851. In this
much-cited text, Truth reveals her gendered and racialised positioning
through pleas that have since elicited profuse emotional responses:

That man over there says that women need to be helped into carriages,
and lifted over ditches, and to have the best place everywhere. Nobody
ever helps me into carriages, or over mud-puddles, or gives me any best
place! And ain’t I a woman? Look at me! Look at my arm! I have
ploughed and planted, and gathered into barns, and no man could head
me! And ain’t I a woman? I could work as much and eat as much as a
man – when I could get it – and bear the lash as well! And ain’t I a
woman? I have borne thirteen children, and seen most all sold off to
slavery, and when I cried out with my mother’s grief, none but Jesus
heard me! And ain’t I a woman?29
 Intersectional identities 193
Truth’s astute analysis of the inequitable treatment of black women, when
placed alongside their white counterparts, was both a strategic challenge to a
racist society and moving articulation of her suffering.
Sources that are targeted at members of the same group – such as love
letters between a same-sex couple – might provide insight into how a group
expresses themselves when they are alone and together. Gay subcultures in
twentieth-century Britain provided men not only with an opportunity to meet
other gay men, but a distinctive rhetoric that allowed them to express their
feelings and to demonstrate their inclusion within the community.30 Their
love letters were turned against them during criminal prosecutions where their
emotions were subject to scrutiny and ridicule. The emotions expressed within
such subcultures were not necessarily more ‘natural’ for the individual than
those they used in everyday life; indeed, opportunities to express such
emotion might be relatively rare. However, they highlight how emotion was
deployed and shaped personal experience in particular contexts and where
opportunities for emotional liberty might be realised.

Denying the imposition of emotional standards

In many of the sources that we have mentioned, readers can detect how
dominant classes have prescribed emotional norms or standards for subjected
peoples. We can also find texts where those subjected peoples have denied the
relevancy of these emotional codes. For example, Irish nationalist feminist
publications from the early twentieth century can be very usefully employed
to trace how Irish women – who considered themselves doubly ‘enslaved’
through their gender and colonised status – rejected what they said were
British imposed emotional norms.31 These norms, which were disseminated
around the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, directed that those
on the Celtic peripheries were childlike, emotional and irrational, in contrast
to the reasonable, disciplined Anglo-Saxon core. They also dictated that men
and women belonged in separate spheres with different prescribed emotional
norms: men in the public world of business, politics and war which necessi-
tated courage, decisiveness and resilience; and women in the private world of
intimacy, passivity and loving care. Irish women used the issue of political
violence to argue that the emotional standards imposed on them by the
British coloniser were inappropriately gendered and ethnicised; they were
dismissive of an ethnic Celtic heritage of gender equality which declared that
men and women could equally participate in the public sphere, even in
theatres of war (whereas British standards declared the violent woman to be
shameful).32 Through examining these anti-colonial texts, we can see how
women activists used awareness of their intersecting gendered, ethnicised and
colonised positioning to rationalise their recourse to militancy, thereby deny-
ing British-centred understandings of the shame of the violent woman while
also rebutting Anglo-Saxon tropes of the irrational Celt.
194 Katie Barclay and Sharon Crozier-De Rosa
Claiming emotional styles
Recognising that particular groups use emotion in specific ways can be inter-
esting for what it tells us about group identity. Rather than seeking to con-
form to emotional standards produced by a dominant regime, many people
have sought to use emotion and emotional expression as part of their iden-
tities. A number of twentieth-century feminists embraced their apparent
‘emotionality’ to argue that it offered a more ethical way to live. The capacity
to feel empathy for the other, and the ‘emotional intelligence’ to read the
needs of the other, could be both strategically useful and lead to a better,
more peaceful society. Conversely, men, especially elite white men, were often
criticised for their failures to exercise empathy, their social position coming to
be marked by a deficiency of an ethical emotional range or nuance. Sub-
cultures have often deployed particular emotional repertoires as part of their
‘style’, whether that is the distinctive way that twentieth-century African
Americans deployed the idea of ‘American cool’ in their art and culture or the
‘gloomy’ presentation of goths in the 1990s.33 Emotion here became a tool for
expressing and honing identity, one that could reflect larger social trends or
positioning but that was also shaped by the individual in the production of a
particular type of self.

Emotions, judgement and power

Once we have identified how different emotion rules apply to particular groups,
and also how those groups deploy emotion themselves, the next step is to con-
sider how these various expressions of emotion are valued and the implications
for power relationships within a given society. Are certain forms of emotional
expression considered good or worthy, indicative of virtue, while others are sinful
or anti-social? Do they overlap with access to political power, such as when
women were excluded from the vote due to their expected emotion? If so, what
does that tell us about how power flows and operates in that society? Building on
this, can we then look at how individuals or groups resisted such models of
power, either by conforming their emotions to idealised norms despite their
gender or race, or by producing new emotional communities in order to express
themselves and to build resistance to the norm? To do this, we may wish to look
at the circumstances in which our source material were produced. Mainstream
advice texts that were widely circulated are indicative of larger or dominant
norms, whereas letters or diaries captured by the police as part of criminal
investigations might suggest to us that the emotion expressed was not acceptable.
Many love letters between gay men that survive today do so as they became part
of police evidence files during criminal prosecutions. Knowing that they were
used as part of a criminal prosecution can help us interpret how that society
valued such emotional expression and so the consequences for such feeling.
Exploring how our sources were made and used helps us to build a picture of the
positioning of the people who made them and used them.
 Intersectional identities 195
Silences and omissions
One important practice when exploring intersectional identities is to look for
gaps and silences. All-male parliamentary committees in the nineteenth cen-
tury may tell us much about norms amongst elite men, but little about how
women or minorities might experience emotion. Yet, if we are to write his-
tories of people other than elite parliamentarians, we may have to approach
our sources imaginatively and ask what is missing from such discussions, and
how such silences shape the narrative being told. Histories of the ‘self-made’
man in the nineteenth-century Anglophone world, for example, often briefly
acknowledge a wife or family ‘behind the scenes’ but place emphasis on the
acts of the individual man.34 We might want to ask how such achievements
were made possible without the domestic and reproductive labour that
enabled success. In an emotions context, we may consider how refusals to
acknowledge certain forms of emotion – anger or pain – might be used to
legitimise a parliamentary decision, or to dismiss the concerns of a particular
social group. Denying that slaves were unhappy with the condition of
slavery – and so the emphasis of ‘cheerful slaves’ in much nineteenth-century
literature – could be used to justify continuing the practice. Reading between
the lines is often a skilful task, requiring a good knowledge of the surround-
ing historical context, but can open up insight into social groups who are
hidden behind those in power.

Conclusion
A study of emotions requires historians to pay attention to whose emotions
we are studying. Attending to large social groups has its uses in such studies,
but can miss how emotional norms or standards are applied differently to
different people, and that individual experiences shape our emotions and how,
when and where we express them. The concept of ‘intersectionality’ draws
attention to the ways that different aspects of identity frame our experience,
providing historians with an analytical lens to apply to our source material.
Exploring how gender, race, class, other dimensions of identity and their
intersections interact with the experience, expression and valuation of emo-
tion provides a more nuanced understanding of emotions’ role for the indivi-
dual and within society. It also allows us to explore how emotion could be
deployed by individuals to shape wider power relationships. Attending to the
relationship between intersectional identities and emotion in source material
requires the historian to attend more carefully to whom emotional norms and
standards are written for, who is excluded and how the excluded reshape or
reframe emotions for their own purposes. This is typically done by a close
reading of a wide range of source material, including acknowledging the gaps
and silences than can appear in the record. If this can be a challenging exer-
cise, its reward is a richer understanding of emotion as it was played out in
everyday life. If the meanings attached to race, gender and other dimensions
196 Katie Barclay and Sharon Crozier-De Rosa
of identity are culturally specific, this is a methodological approach that has
relevance in a wide variety of global contexts. Imperial engagements in
Africa, Asia and beyond have led to diverse communities with complex his-
tories and power relationships; alternatives to the two-sex model for gender
can be found in some Indian communities, as well as in the contemporary
West. Class has less purchase in non-Western contexts, and yet social stratifi-
cation remains marked across the world. Teasing out how emotions are
experienced by individuals across the world’s diverse cultures remains an
exciting opportunity for historians of emotions.

Notes
1 Discussed in greater detail in Chapter 16 ‘Emotions of Protest’ by Sharon Crozier-
De-Rosa in this volume. See also Sharon Crozier-De Rosa and Vera Mackie,
Remembering Women’s Activism (Oxford: Routledge, 2019).
2 Kimberlé Crenshaw, ‘Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black
Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist
Politics’, The University of Chicago Legal Forum, 140 (1989): 139–67; Kimberlé
Crenshaw, ‘Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence
Against Women of Color’, Stanford Law Review 43 (1991): 1241–99.
3 Crenshaw, ‘Mapping the Margins’, 1242.
4 Ibid.
5 Kimberlé Crenshaw, ‘Why Intersectionality Can’t Wait’, The Washington Post, 24
September 2015, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/in-theory/wp/2015/09/24/
why-intersectionality-cant-wait/?utm_term=.2e52de6ca07d, accessed 21 October 2019.
6 Crenshaw, ‘Demarginalizing.’
7 For a discussion of this methodology as applied to emotions scholarship see the
introduction to Katie Barclay, Men on Trial: Performing Emotion, Embodiment and
Identity in Ireland, 1800–1845 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2019).
8 Ibid.
9 Spike Peterson, ‘Thinking Through Intersectionality and War’, Race, Gender &
Class 14, no. 3–4 (2007): 10–27.
10 Brigitte Bargetz, ‘The Distribution of Emotions: Affective Politics of Emancipa-
tion’, Hypatia 30, no. 3 (2015): 580–96.
11 Peterson, ‘Thinking Through Intersectionality and War’, 3.
12 Thomas Dixon, Weeping Britannia: A Portrait of a Nation in Tears (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2015).
13 Katie Barclay, ‘Love and Friendship between Lower Order Scottish Men: Or What
the History of Emotions Has Brought to Early Modern Gender History’, in Revi-
siting Gender in European History, 1400–1800, ed. Elise Dermineur, Virginia
Langum, and Åsa Karlsson Sjögren (London: Routledge, 2018), 121–44.
14 Lynn Festa, Sentimental Figures of Empire in Eighteenth-Century Britain and
France (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006).
15 Barclay, ‘Love and Friendship’.
16 Leanne K. Simpson, ‘Eight Myths about Women on the Military Frontline – and
Why We Shouldn’t Believe Them’, The Conversation, 1 April 2016.
17 Saidiya Hartman, Scenes of Subjection: Terror, Slavery, and Self-Making in Nine-
teenth-Century America (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997).
18 Shamar Walters and Elisha Fieldstadt, ‘Scholastic Pulls Children’s Book Criticized for
Depiction of Happy Slaves’, NBC News, 19 January 2016, https://www.nbcnews.com/
 Intersectional identities 197
news/us-news/scholastic-pulls-children-s-book-criticized-depiction-happy-sla
ves-n498986, accessed 3 November 2019.
19 William M. Reddy, The Navigation of Feeling: A Framework for the History of
Emotions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
20 Albert J. Raboteau, Slave Religion: The ‘Invisible Institution’ in the Antebellum
South (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004).
21 Barclay, Men on Trial.
22 Carol Atherton, ‘The Figure of Bertha Mason’, Discovering Literature: Romantics
and Victorians, British Library, https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/arti
cles/the-figure-of-bertha-mason, accessed 2 November 2019.
23 Patrick Brantlinger, ‘Kipling’s “The White Man’s Burden” and Its Afterlives’,
English Literature in Transition 50, no. 2 (2007): 172–91.
24 Kevin Pelletier, ‘Uncle Tom’s Cabin and Apocalyptic Sentimentalism’, Literature
Interpretation Theory 20 (2009): 266–87.
25 This article uses texts like those of the London Missionary Society, Church of Eng-
land Zenana Missionary Society, the Mission Settlement for University Women and
the Poona and India Village Mission, all of which were produced between the 1880s
and 1900s. See Jane Haggis and Margaret Allen, ‘Imperial Emotions: Affective
Communities of Mission in British Protestant Women’s Missionary Publications
c1880–1920’, Journal of Social History 41, no. 3 (2008): 691–716.
26 Jane Lydon, ‘Charity Begins at Home? Philanthropy, Compassion, and Magic
Lantern Slide Performances in Australasia, 1891–1892’, Early Popular Visual
Culture 15, no. 4 (2017): 479–99.
27 One example is Shino Konishi’s project, ‘Reconstructing Aboriginal Emotional
Worlds’, http://www.historyofemotions.org.au/about-the-centre/researchers/shino-
konishi/, accessed 3 November 2019. On ‘reading against the grain’, see Nupur
Chaudhuri, Sherry J. Katz and Mary Elizabeth Perry, ‘Introduction’, in Contesting
Archives: Finding Women in the Sources, ed. Nupur Chaudhuri, Sherry J. Katz and
Mary Elizabeth Perry (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2010), xv.
28 Thomas C. Buchanan, ‘Class Sentiments: Putting the Emotion Back in Working-
Class History’, Journal of Social History 48, no. 1 (2014): 72–87.
29 Sojourner Truth, ‘Ain’t I a Woman?’ Women’s Rights National Historical Park,
https://www.nps.gov/articles/sojourner-truth.htm, accessed 2 November 2019.
30 Jeffrey Meek, ‘Risk! Pleasure! Affirmation! Navigating Queer Urban Spaces in Twen-
tieth-Century Scotland’, in The Routledge Handbook of the History of Gender and
Urban Experience, ed. Deborah Simonton et al (London: Routledge, 2017), 385–96.
31 Crozier-De Rosa uses feminist periodicals like Bean na hEireann, translating as
Woman of Ireland, (1908 to 1911) and the Irish Citizen (1912–20) to access Irish
women’s responses to British imposed emotional norms. See Sharon Crozier-De
Rosa, Shame and the Anti-Feminist Backlash: Britain, Ireland and Australia, 1890–
1920 (New York: Routledge, 2018).
32 Crozier-De Rosa, Shame and the Anti-Feminist Backlash, chapter ‘Shame of the
Violent Woman’; Sharon Crozier-De Rosa, “Divided Sisterhood? Nationalist
Feminism and Militancy in England and Ireland’, Contemporary British History
32, no. 4 (2018): 448–69.
33 Peter Stearns, American Cool: Constructing a Twentieth-Century Emotional Style
(New York: New York University Press, 1994); Christina Simmons, ‘”He Isn’t Affec-
tionate at All”: African-American Wives in the 1940s and the Problem of “Cool”’, in
Courtship, Marriage and Marriage Breakdown: Approaches from the History of
Emotion, ed. Katie Barclay, Jeffrey Meek and Andrea Thomson (London: Routledge,
2020), 144–59; Katie Barclay, The History of Emotions: A Student Guide to Methods
and Sources (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2020).
34 Julie-Marie Strange, Fatherhood and the British Working Class, 1865–1914 (Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015).
16 Emotions of protest
Sharon Crozier-De Rosa

In 2016, when Hillary Clinton was running against Donald Trump in the US
presidential race, the US media – indeed, the global media – was saturated
with the emotions of politics and political protest. Trump’s rhetorical attacks
on women and minorities and his ‘Make America Great Again’ slogan were
aimed at restoring white working-class men’s pride; negating their shame and
relegitimising their place in American society.1 Trump’s deployment of emo-
tive strategies sparked a passionate backlash headed by feminists, including
Clinton, which sought to call him out for, among other things, his offensive
and crude misogyny.2
Clinton herself did not escape being tainted by the emotions of political pro-
test, even those of feminist protest. Rather, she was shamed in the media as every
form of ‘bad’ feminist.3 Commentators, from actors to activists, labelled her a
bad pacifist feminist, bad intersectional feminist and a bad ‘blame-the-woman’
feminist.4 In turn, these accusations spurred yet further emotional outbursts. An
older generation of feminists smeared younger women who favoured more left-
leaning Democrat Bernie Sanders over Clinton – the woman who could poten-
tially be the first of her sex to occupy the highest position in US politics. For
instance, 1970s feminist icon Gloria Steinem labelled them frivolous, boy-chas-
ing girls. Former secretary of state Madeleine Albright also weighed in, telling
Sanders-favouring women that they had ‘a special place in hell’ because they did
not champion gender solidarity.5
Trump’s eventual success spurred arguably the largest single-day protest in
US history: an orchestrated set of Women’s Marches that unified protesters
from diverse political camps (including LGBTQ rights, environmental poli-
tics, immigration reform and other human rights branches). These marches
were replicated globally (approximately five million people in 673 marches
across 81 countries).6 The emotional pitch was feverish, and this intense feel-
ing was strategically deployed by intersecting political organisations.
What that 2016 political process – and many more before and after it – has
demonstrated is that emotions are inescapably implicated in the realm of
politics. The feminist in-fighting, the intra- and inter-party rivalries, the fem-
inist/anti-feminist collisions and the mass coordinated protests – all revealing
uncomfortably high levels of emotional investment in the 2016 presidential
 Emotions of protest 199
outcome – demonstrate the multifarious uses and abuses of emotions in
national and international politics. The tactics deployed by those on all sides
of the political divide – the hurt that stemmed from the strategic use of
vitriolic forms of shaming, as well as the sense of solidarity that derived from
being a member of a group that rallied against such negative impositions – all
of this confirmed that virtually no cause, no campaign and no campaigner
was free of emotions, spontaneous or planned.
Yet, academics have been slow to centre their investigations on the often
leading or at least highly influential role that emotions play in political
machinations. Over the past two decades, sociologists have turned their
attention to this phenomenon. Historians, however, have been hesitant to
enter the fray. While sociologists can interview their subjects to determine
their emotional motivations and strategies, historians recognise that their
access to the emotions of protest tend to lie elsewhere than in the minds of
live subjects. They must be creative in seeking out alternative sources. Some
historians have addressed these challenges to produce a small, but growing,
body of research.
This chapter will outline possible approaches for scholars wishing to enter
this realm of historical enquiry. It will trace the place of emotions in the his-
tory of politics while also detailing the work undertaken by sociologists on the
relationship between politics and emotions. What implications might this
research have for the historiography of protest emotions? The essay will then
offer examples of histories of the emotions of protest and explore some of the
opportunities and challenges faced by researchers working in the area,
including: the emotions of workers and workers’ movements; campaigns that
harness fear and those that centre on dignified or joyous defiance; feminist
protest as a means of accessing the interface between protestors and oppo-
nents; and transient emotional sources and the growing volume of digitised
sources.

Writing emotions into histories of politics

German emotions historian, Ute Frevert points out that the relationship
between politics and emotions is not a new subject. As far back as classical
Athens, practitioners and theoreticians of politics have clearly understood
that the two are deeply connected. Aristotle, she said, gave advice about how
good orators could use rhetorical strategies to move their listeners – to make
them feel certain emotions which would help speakers to achieve their poli-
tical ends. This advice, Frevert states, was taken up by a number of influential
leaders, from Pericles in ancient Greece to Abraham Lincoln during the
American Civil War.7
However, despite the obvious presence of emotions in politics, sociologists
Jeff Goodwin, James M. Jasper and Francesca Polletta argue that there has
been some hesitation on the part of academic observers to admit to this pre-
sence. Instead, they have managed to ‘ignore the swirl of passions all around
200 Sharon Crozier-De Rosa
them in political life’.8 In accounting for this relative absence, political scien-
tist Carol Johnson cites the perceived gendered nature of emotions generally.
Traditionally, emotion was associated with the feminised private sphere of
home and family, while emotion’s supposed antithesis, reason, was associated
with the masculinised public world of business and politics.9
James Jasper agrees. He argues that this dualism – reason versus emotion – has
two thousand years of Western philosophy behind it. As he explains it, politically,
a traditional dualism existed between ‘incompetent (emotional) masses and mas-
terful (rational, calculating) elites’. In Plato’s day, it was slaves who were deemed
incapable of reason, driven only by ‘appetites’. In the nineteenth century, Jasper
traces this maligning of groups of people as irrational to the emerging working
class. For centuries, he adds, women were considered far too emotional to make
decisions, hence their exclusion from democratic processes, including voting. In
the twentieth century, he concludes, the study of protest and that of voting went
separate but parallel ways. Sociology absorbed the former and social sciences the
latter. But the central debate in both fields was whether rationality or irrationality
characterised ‘normal’ people’s engagements with politics.10
Sociology may have absorbed the study of protest more generally, but by
the mid-twentieth century history had turned to the study of the crowd. In
1985, in their ground-breaking text on ‘emotionology’, Carol Stearns and
Peter Stearns noted that historians who had begun writing crowd history in
the 1960s, like George Rudé and Charles Tilly, took the approach that rioters
tended to carefully and logically formulate their goals and choose their tar-
gets.11 Twenty years later and the historical study of protest remained domi-
nated ‘by the claim to rationality, to the extent that some authorities argue
that emotions enters their subjects not at all’.12 Doubtless, these proponents
of the logical and rational crowd were retaliating against the pioneering study
of crowd psychology – The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind written by
Gustave Le Bon in 1895 – which characterised crowd motivations and actions
as impulsive, unreasoning and primitive. Stearns’ and Stearns’ article exten-
ded this explanation. It was not simply that twentieth-century crowd histor-
ians were directing their energies towards refuting Le Bon’s characterisations,
but rather that they did not consider the emotional dynamics of protest
movements as being relevant. Instead, ‘Emotionology’ argued, they deemed
emotions to be ‘an irrelevant by-product of protest, whose contours are firmly
determined by organizational potential and rational crowd goals’.13
Whether new histories of protest from the 1960s onwards denied the
relevance of emotions due to a deliberate strategy of combating earlier char-
acterisations of the impulsive crowd that worked to delegitimise its grievances
and goals or whether they simply overlooked the significant role played by
emotions in political machinations, it remains that until very recently histor-
ians have omitted consideration of emotions from their protest histories. As I
have said, the most detailed and extensive work carried out on the relation-
ship between emotions, affect and protest has been in the field of sociology.14
In the next section of this essay, I will explore what sociologists have
 Emotions of protest 201
discovered about the role of emotions in politics and how this can be used by
historians to deepen our understanding of the politics of emotions and the
emotions of politics.
However, what must be kept in mind, and as emerging histories of emotional
politics demonstrate, historians ask different questions of their sources, thereby
producing studies not only of the emotional dimensions of past social move-
ments but, more crucially for the discipline, of the changing dynamics of emo-
tional politics over time. So, whereas a sociologist might analyse the role played
by anger in the Women’s Liberation Movement of the 1970s, a historian will
work to contextualise the relationship between anger and gender over a longer
run. By way of an example, a historian might ask if a 1910s suffragette’s hammer
is more evocative of unruly protest emotions than a 1970s feminist’s militant
actions because female anger was much more heavily frowned upon at the
beginning of the century than at the end. What can consideration of this ques-
tion tell us about the place of anger and the acceptability or otherwise of
women’s emotional outbursts over the twentieth century?

Sociology and protest emotions

In attempting to establish an agenda for future enquiry into the relationship
between protest and emotions, Jasper advised scholars to ‘move beyond ancient
but sterile debates over the rationality of voters and protesters (and politicians,
although their rationality is rarely challenged in scholarly research)’.15 Fellow
sociologists Helena Flam and Debra King encouraged those interested in the
study of political emotions to expand their emotional repertoire; to move beyond
what they identified as ‘the standard set’ of protest emotions, shame, pride, anger
and solidarity, and to instead embrace ‘loyalty, joy, hope, fear, contempt, sad-
ness, distrust, empathy, compassion, altruism, courage, gratitude and happi-
ness’.16 Through acknowledging the sheer range and diversity of the emotions
implicated in protest politics, scholars could embark on a more complex journey
towards understanding how proponents of social and political movements
selected specific emotional formulae in order to cultivate their desired emotional
milieus. They could examine individual groups’ rationale for deploying love,
loyalty and solidarity or anger, indignation and rage to achieve their political
goals. Chief among these aims might be: using love and loyalty to motivate and
sustain group membership; and/or, deploying anger and indignation to direct a
movement’s interface with its opponents or inculcate sympathy when engaging
with the general public.17
Yet another sociologist, Deborah Gould, continues to argue that emotions
scholars can go further than simply analysing protesters as ‘rational actors’ who
seize political opportunities. They can instead see how activists – sometimes
consciously but often less purposely – ‘nourish and extend’ a common sense of
feeling that works to build a sense of the collective and that sustains social
movements. The strong emotions that activists feel towards each other help sus-
tain their relevant movements.18 Jasper follows this approach up by questioning
202 Sharon Crozier-De Rosa
the degree to which calculating and unthinking or spontaneous emotions can be
separated anyway.19 Surely, he argues, individual protesters’ feelings and the
emotions on display in protest movements – through, for example, campaign
posters, banners, slogans and ephemera – are intertwined.
Whether approaching protest emotions as strategically deployed or as
experienced and embodied feelings, historians can capitalise on two decades of
sociological questions about and findings on the role of emotions in motivat-
ing, sustaining and even bringing about the decline of political movements. As
stated, however, historians face a particular challenge when undertaking this
task. They cannot be guaranteed a ready access to interviews with protesters on
the subject of emotions and politics. Therefore, they have to seek and locate
alternative sources that will allow access to those emotions – individual or
collective – as they were historically felt or displayed.

Histories and historical sources

When we think about the emotions of protest movements, strong images
come to mind. Often these are of emotionally charged and confrontational or
even violent episodes: protesters and police meeting head-on or furious
crowds angrily demanding change. Yet, political protest showcases more than
simply anger and rage, although these are often prominently on display.20
Other images that may come to mind evoke more positive emotions: cheering
crowds atop the crumbling Berlin Wall in November 1989; 1960s hippies
adorned with signs promoting peace and love, not war and hate; or the
hopeful sit-down protests of the mid-twentieth-century American Civil Rights
Movement. In the remainder of the chapter, I will introduce a range of his-
torical protest movements and explore some of the sources that will enable
historians to access the diverse emotional dimensions of those campaigns.
Throughout modernity, people have protested over a multitude of issues. As
nation-states have proliferated and democratic systems developed, they have
demanded the right to be granted access to the privileges and responsibilities
of citizenship, including voting. They have participated in movements that
have brought about revolutionary overthrow. They have staged militant
demonstrations in the name of civil liberties, labour protection, gender
equality and redress for wartime sexual abuse and the disappearings of poli-
tical regimes. In doing so, protesters have harnessed the power of negative
emotions like anger and indignation, while others have performed silent vigils
whose dignified and patient defiance aimed at eliciting a range of emotional
responses from sympathy, even empathy, to anxiety and shame or perhaps
anger and outrage.
Across all these movements, the vehicles for carrying and displaying emotions
intersect. When attempting to reconstruct a history of political emotions, his-
torians are faced with an ever-growing and diverse body of sources including:
political periodicals, the popular press, songs, slogans, murals, placards and
banners, campaign merchandise, as well as the bodies of protesters picketing,
 Emotions of protest 203
barricading and marching, and, more recently, social media sites. Whereas
access to some of these sources is restricted – for instance microfilms of protest
literature in libraries or archives, campaign ephemera on display in exhibitions
and museums, and murals on the walls of global cities – others are increasingly
being digitised – newspapers available online (e.g. the National Library of Aus-
tralia’s ‘TROVE’ database, the US Library of Congress’s digital directory
‘Chronicling America’ and the National Library of New Zealand’s ‘Papers
Past’),21 images, films, testimonies and reports from violent campaigns (e.g.
CAIN: Conflict Archive on the Internet for the Northern Irish Troubles),22 and
photographs and ephemera from feminist movements (e.g. the University of
Florida’s Women’s March on Washington Archive and Northeastern
University’s Art of the March repository – discussed further at the end of the
chapter).23

The emotions of working-class protest

Histories of the lower orders – the workers and the ‘crowds’ – offer us access
to the emotions of the past. For example, labour and working-class move-
ments harnessed a swathe of emotions to achieve their political ends; anger
often being chief among these. Yet, as historian Thomas C. Buchanan points
out, there is currently ‘little in labor historiography that presents emotions as
an important topic of study’.24 This is changing. While historians like Peter
Stearns analyse the reception of discrete emotions – for instance anger, which
Stearns argues grew less acceptable in the face of a more lauded ‘cool’
emotional style which filtered down to affect all classes in a modernising
USA25 – others like Buchanan are now examining the emotional lives of
workers, including workers’ resistance, individual and organised.26
Accessing sources that display a group’s collective emotions (for example
members’ frustration and indignation as written on banners or comedic and
satirical representations of shame and shaming or the public sympathy
embedded in newspaper accounts or eyewitness statements) is often straight-
forward. For example, researchers can readily retrieve 2010s Irish pro-abor-
tion placards reading ‘I am NOT a walking womb!’ or 1910s anti-suffragist
postcards depicting offensively ugly feminist women or newspaper articles
(like the Pittsburgh Post Dispatch) that allow us to trace the waxing and
waning of public sympathy and support for striking Carnegie Steel Company
workers in the face of crowd violence and angry savagery during the Home-
stead Strike of July 1892 in Pennsylvania.27
Getting at source material that depicts the intimate emotions of individual
workers and their resistance is a little more problematic, but not impossible. As
Buchanan shows in his article on restoring emotions to working-class histories and
Phillip Troutman demonstrates in his work on slave letters, in their correspondence
American slaves voiced the grief and sorrow, as well as familial love, of those used
to a life of separation and loss.28 On the other hand, slave narratives – the testi-
monies of those who had managed to escape – more clearly expressed rage.
204 Sharon Crozier-De Rosa
Therefore, whereas runaway narratives utilised anger ‘to highlight the injustice of
slavery to an audience supportive of domestic tranquillity’, this was ‘an emotion
that had to be cloaked and muted in letters’; letters that were censored by slave
owners.29 Indeed, this mediation acts as a reminder to those using sources such as
personal correspondence that they need to be keenly attuned to the fact that often
the sentiments expressed in these texts were mediated through the middle classes.
As such, these sources need to be read against the grain, as it were, if we are to get
evidence of workers’ actual emotional states.30 This is a methodological challenge
emotions historians – and others – face.

From fear and shock to dignified or joyous defiance

A wide range of emotional states are present in protest movements. For example,
fear plays a complex role in protest. Fear can paralyse. It can also be developed
into outrage. Outrage can be harnessed to motivate protest. As Jasper argues,
fear’s complexity within the sphere of protest is due to the fact that it falls in
between affective and reactive emotions. People can harbour an abstract fear, for
example, a fear of war or of radiation. An unexpected event or reception of a
new piece of information – for instance the beginning of a violent conflict or the
building of a new nuclear reactor – can then trigger a moral shock. Shock, fear
and anger can then be channelled into righteous indignation and political activ-
ity. Activists work hard to transform these sometimes ‘inchoate anxieties and
fears’ into feelings of indignation and rage that are directed towards specific
policies and decision makers.31 This can be seen through, for example, the
Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament or the Ban the Bomb protest movement
from the 1950s to the 1980s. Fear that does not immobilise can be used by
knowing activists in the attempt to produce change.
The role of fear does not stop here. The response of authorities – govern-
ments and police – to protest can elicit further emotional responses, including
more fear or anger or outrage. Repressive and violent responses may effec-
tively curtail protest. However, it may also radicalise it, sparking renewed
protest. As Hélène Combes and Olivier Fillieule have argued, even within
modern democracies where the tendency is towards pacific reactions to pop-
ular protest, marginalised groups – like ethnic, religious or low socio-eco-
nomic groups – are particularly targeted by repressive measures and
responses. This repressive approach can either be short term or longer term
and can produce responses that are likewise short or long term. For example,
police forces reacted forcefully, sometimes violently, to anti-globalisation
demonstrations across the world from the late twentieth century into the early
twenty-first century, further radicalising demonstrators. This link between
repression and radicalisation has also taken on a more long-term relationship.
For instance, during the Northern Irish Troubles, the fact that the police force
was mostly made up of members of the dominant Protestant community
fuelled not only fear but also further radicalising of the Catholic community –
over a very long period of time.32
 Emotions of protest 205
Fear and anger prevented, motivated and, in many cases, sustained poli-
tical protest. Historians attempting to disentangle the multifarious roles
played by fear in specific protest movements need to consider a range of
sources. Broken windows and damaged property, demonstrators’ angry slo-
gans, placards and banners, images of riot police bearing down on crowds –
all of these bear witness to the range of negative emotions fuelling and sus-
taining protest and conflict; as does graffiti and murals marking the walls of
conflict zones – residential or commercial – a manifestation of political pro-
test that will be mentioned again later in the chapter when discussing the
digitisation of transient emotional sources.
Whereas many protest movements harness the power of negative or
aggressive emotions, others have strategically deployed more positive emo-
tions, including a patient display of dignified protest; those aimed at eliciting
a complex assemblage of emotional responses from targets and spectators or
onlookers alike, whether that response consist of more active affective reac-
tions like outrage or more muted emotions like anxiety or frustration. Often,
but not always, these protests have taken on a gendered dimension. For
example, silent vigils staged by female bodies – protesting militarism, sexual
violence and death – have attracted worldwide publicity.
The specifically gendered protests that I am referring to here include: the
Women in Black (initially silent vigils protesting the continued occupation of
territories by Israel and expanded to demonstrate against incidences of interna-
tional militarism); the Plaza de Mayo demonstrations of the mothers and
grandmothers of the ‘disappeared’ in Argentina (women carrying photographs
of their missing children and grandchildren, drawing global attention to the
more than 30,000 people who were kidnapped, tortured and executed by the
military junta between 1977 and 1983); and the Wednesday demonstrations of
the ‘grandmothers’ (since 1992, survivors of wartime sexual abuse at the hands
of the Japanese military during the Second World War and their supporters hold
placards in Japanese, Korean or English across from the Japanese Embassy in
Seoul, Korea, demanding an apology from the Japanese government).33
As Vera Mackie and I argue in our book Remembering Women’s Activism,
the tactics and tools of the Seoul grandmothers’ Wednesday protests are
strategically employed in the attempt to elicit feelings of shame on the part of
those who continue to deny redress to the elderly survivors. The use of elderly
women’s bodies patiently occupying stools across from the embassy – and the
placement of the Peace Monument, a commemorative statue in the form of a
young woman seated on a chair, facing the embassy, with an empty chair
beside her – are also intended to generate public sympathy. The statue of the
seated young woman represents the young Korean woman before her ordeal,
while the shadow cast of an older woman – rendered via a mosaic ‘shadow’
on the ground behind the statue – depicts the old survivor who refuses to
forget. The empty seat signifies those who are missing while also providing a
place for visitors to sit, contemplate and have their photographs taken. By
performing a dignified form of protest, the elderly survivors and their younger
206 Sharon Crozier-De Rosa
supporters stage a demonstration that is worthy of the respectful position that
these ‘grandmothers’ (halmoni) have attained in life. Models of this Peace
Monument have been replicated internationally (for example, life size in a
Glendale Park in California, as well as sold in miniature in museums like Seoul’s
War and Women’s Human Rights Museum) indicating not only the global
influence but also the emotional salience of the protest.34 Taken together, the
evocative immobile statue and the weekly ritualistic performance of protest by
elderly survivors and their younger supporters cultivate an emotional milieu that
draws on a range of anticipated responses: sympathy from a receptive global
audience; and anger from those who deny the shame of this past.
Countless other political movements harnessed the affective potential of less
unruly emotions. As mentioned, much-publicised branches of the global mid-
twentieth-century anti-war campaign cultivated a peace-loving, conflict-averse
strain of protest that emphasised love, compassion and understanding displayed
through marches and sit-ins, as well as via songs, poetry, art and street theatre.
Sources characterising some of these movements have since been collated and
curated for museum-goers. For instance, the Wende Museum in California
recently devoted an exhibition to the little-known Soviet hippie movement. Pro-
minent Soviet hippies donated photographs, clothing and memorabilia that have
worked to belie common perceptions about the emotionally restricted or stark
experiences of life under the Soviet regime.35
More recent protests in places like Hong Kong have also placed trust in the
sustaining power of positive emotional tactics. In recent years, the radical
group People Power abandoned their previous disruptive approach to instead
embrace a more festive form of joyous resistance. In their 2017 article,
Vitrierat Ng and Kin-man Chan outline the details and successes, as well as
the limitations, of this strategy.36 In 2019, however, the limitations of this
approach became increasingly apparent as demonstrations in Hong Kong
erupted into violence. Still, commentators across the world continue to
monitor protesters’ stoic determination to show the ‘spirit of struggle’ in the
face of China’s coercive and authoritarian measures.37 Television screens
continue to relay images of the spirit of protest to audiences worldwide, con-
veying a clash of emotional cultures that reverberates globally.

Feminism and interfacing with opponents

Modern feminist campaigns have also cultivated a range of emotions to bind
members of their movement together and to confirm the exclusion of those
who refuse to affirm group actions and goals, including those vehemently
opposed to those goals, namely anti-feminists.
As I have written elsewhere, specific emotions characterise feminist/anti-
feminist interactions.38 As a highly gendered and social emotion, for example,
shame performed this role in the early twentieth century. Feminists – those
fighting for the vote – attempted to shame apathetic or resistant women into
honouring their connection with their protesting sisters through joining the
 Emotions of protest 207
campaign for the franchise. In turn, anti-feminists – those who cherished an
ideal of a feminine community of womanhood untainted by association with
the masculine world of politics – tried to shame their transgressive sisters into
abandoning their ill-conceived quest which was jeopardising the cohesion of
the community of womanhood, and to instead realign themselves with those
advocating righteous models of femininity. Shame and its attendant virtues
and values – disgrace, embarrassment, indignation, honour, courage and
chivalry – were invoked, expressed, ridiculed and lauded as feminists and
anti-feminists engaged in an emotional battle, with feminists emerging trium-
phant (in the battle, if not the war).
The early twentieth-century feminist and anti-feminist press proved invalu-
able for accessing this emotional interface. For instance, across the British
Empire, feminist periodicals, like the Irish Citizen and the British Votes for
Women, and conservative women’s papers, including the British Anti-Suffrage
Review and the Australian journal Woman, played host to a whole range of
emotional expressions and tactics as editors and writers sought to convince
readers to stay loyal to their cause. As a result of an intensive campaign to
archive women’s records – much of this happening in anticipation of the
recent centenary commemorations of the granting of the female franchise –
many of these periodicals have been digitised which now allows the feminist
scholar ease of access.39
Feminist movements are also valuable for those wishing to trace change or
continuity in emotional strategies and tactics over time because there is strong
evidence that feminist practices connect era to era, as successive generations
of women chase the seemingly elusive goal of gender equality. One very
familiar and certainly topical example of this is the longevity of the Women’s
Marches. While their appearance in the 2010s mobilised feminist feeling
globally, many commentators failed to recognise that this was more a reap-
pearance than appearance. The suffragists of the early twentieth century – in
Britain, America and beyond – had successfully harnessed the spectacle and
political passion of the public parade. Historians have the opportunity of
tracing the feminist emotional toolkit over the course of a century – as it was
manifested through public pageantry, for example – to ascertain to what
degree it reflects continuity or change.

Transient emotional sources and digitisation

Technology now plays a significant role in writing histories of protest emo-
tions, particularly feminist emotions. The digitisation of feminist sources
offers emotions historians both unprecedented opportunities and challenges.
Much of the passion and excitement of the 1910s American and British suf-
frage parades, as well as the anger and violence of onlookers, police and
prison guards, has been captured by photographs and by ephemera on display
(like the ladylike hammer that was used to destroy artworks and commercial
properties and the force-feeding tubes that were forced on hunger-striking
208 Sharon Crozier-De Rosa
suffrage prisoners and the notes of solidarity written on pieces of prison-
issued toilet paper, all on display in places like the Museum of London and
the Occoquan Workhouse complex in Virginia, USA). While visitors cannot
touch these items, they can see them in their original state, if out of their
original environment.
With the use of digital technology, however, much of what characterised
the passion and excitement of the recent Women’s Marches has been trans-
formed – morphed from tangible ‘things’40 (knitted ‘pussy’ hats and home-
made paper banners) into digitised images: either represented somewhat
chaotically on individual campaigners’ social media pages or collected, col-
lated, photographed, and then neatly categorised and presented on online
databases.41 This latter example of digital transformation enhances global
access, levelling the playing field as it were for historians who have not been
able to travel to faraway locations. However, what remains to be seen is the
degree to which the rendering of the material three-dimensional object as a
non-tactile representation of the sentiments of protest communicates or
impedes the communication of those protest emotions.
Of course, as germane as digitisation is to preserving and transforming fem-
inist emotions, it is not only gendered protest movements that are affected by
technology. A pertinent issue for historians of protest emotions more generally is
the transient nature of so many of the sources which can be used to capture what
are often impermanent emotions. Many of these form part of a particular cam-
paign’s emotional toolkit on a given day or over a given period. Projects such as
the CAIN website (Conflict Archive on the Internet for the Northern Irish
Troubles), for example, help to capture the transience of public expressions of
protest. Political murals painted on the walls of private homes and commercial
properties in Belfast and Derry turn public spaces into politicised places, serving
as potent vehicles for ideals, ideologies, symbolism and propaganda (for example
of the previously mentioned disenfranchised and radicalised Catholic commu-
nity).42 However, these murals are susceptible to change – they are amended,
removed, replaced. They are impermanent reminders of the anger, outrage or
hope that they initially embodied. By digitising them – archiving photographs of
them in both their original and amended states – sites like CAIN can help his-
torians to trace the contours of the shifting emotional politics of both the artists
and their community. Digitising projects, then, play a crucial role in preserving
more momentary evidence of political passions, at least those that do not vanish
instantly, while documenting changing emotional contours – the stuff of histories
of protest emotions.

Conclusion
A wide array of often conflicting causes harnessed the power of discrete emo-
tions, or sets of emotions, to bind groups, sustain movements, and interface
with the public and opponents alike. Artefacts left by these movements allow
us access to the emotions on display – and sometimes the emotions felt and
 Emotions of protest 209
embodied – by protesters, from anger to joy, sadness to elation. Digitisation
allows greater access to these artefacts – and therefore to protest emotions –
which is particularly significant when so many of these sources are transient
(for example murals on walls). But such a process of transformation also car-
ries certain limitations. Whatever the limitations or the challenges, the politics
of protest is a rich area of historical enquiry that warrants more attention.

Notes
1 Chris Wallace, ‘Shame as a Political Weapon: Donald Trump and the US Pre-
sidential Election’, The Conversation, 1 December 2016, https://theconversation.
com/shame-as-a-political-weapon-donald-trump-and-the-us-presidential-elec
tion-69029, accessed 9 September 2019.
2 Danielle Paquette, ‘Public Slut-Shaming and Donald Trump’s Attack on a Former
Miss Universe’s Alleged Sex History’, The Washington Post, 30 September 2016,
https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2016/09/30/public-slut-shaming-a
nd-donald-trumps-attack-on-a-former-miss-universitys-alleged-sex-history/?noredir
ect=on, accessed 9 September 2019.
3 Sharon Crozier-De Rosa, ‘What’s Gender Solidarity Got to Do with It? Woman
Shaming and Hillary Clinton’, The Conversation, 8 November 2016, https://the
conversation.com/whats-gender-solidarity-got-to-do-with-it-woman-shaming-a
nd-hillary-clinton-68325, accessed 9 September 2019.
4 Douglas Ernst, ‘Susan Sarandon: Hillary Clinton “more dangerous” than Trump’,
The Washington Times, 3 June 2016, https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2016/
jun/3/susan-sarandon-says-hillary-clinton-more-dangerous/, accessed 9 September
2019; and, Amanda Erickson, ‘The Flawed Feminist Case against Hillary Clinton’,
The Washington Post, 28 July 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/
book-party/wp/2016/07/28/the-flawed-feminist-case-against-hillary-clinton/, acces-
sed 9 September 2019.
5 Kathleen Parker, ‘What Steinem, Albright, and Clinton don’t get about Millennial
Women’, The Washington Post, 9 February 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.
com/opinions/what-steinem-albright-and-clinton-dont-get-about-millennial-wom
en/2016/02/09/7d156d80-cf73-11e5-abc9-ea152f0b9561_story.html, accessed 9 Sep-
tember 2019.
6 Matt Broomfield, ‘Women’s March against Donald Trump is the Largest Day of
Protests in US History, say Political Scientists’, The Independent, 25 January 2017,
https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/womens-march-anti-dona
ld-trump-womens-rights-largest-protest-demonstration-us-history-political-a
7541081.html, accessed 9 September 2019; and Sharon Crozier-De Rosa and Vera
Mackie, Remembering Women’s Activism (Oxford: Routledge, 2019), 7.
7 Ute Frevert, ‘Emotional Politics’, The Netherlands Scientific Council for Govern-
ment Policy Annual Lecture presented in The Hague on 24 January 2019, file:///C:/
Users/sharo/Downloads/ute-frevert-emotional-politics-wrr-lecture-2019%20(1).pdf,
accessed 9 September 2019.
8 Jeff Goodwin, James M. Jasper and Francesca Polletta, ‘Introduction: Why Emo-
tions Matter’, in Passionate Politics: Emotions and Social Movements, ed. Jeff
Goodwin, James M. Jasper and Francesca Polletta (Chicago: University of Chi-
cago Press, 2001), 1–24 (1–2).
9 Carol Johnson, ‘From Obama to Abbott: Gender Identity and the Politics of
Emotion’, Australian Feminist Studies 28, no. 75 (2013): 14–29 (15).
10 James Jasper, The Emotions of Protest (University of Chicago Press: Chicago,
2018), 7.
210 Sharon Crozier-De Rosa
11 George F.E. Rudé, The Crowd in History: A Study of Popular Disturbances in
France and England, 1730–1848 (New York: Wiley & Sons, 1964); and Charles
Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution (Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley,
1978).
12 Peter Stearns and Carol Stearns, ‘Clarifying the History of Emotions and Emo-
tional Standards’, American Historical Review 90, no. 4 (1985): 813–36 (816).
13 Stearns and Stearns, ‘Clarifying the History of Emotions’, 816–17.
14 See also Joachim C. Häberlen and Russell A. Spinney, ‘Introduction’ (Emotions in
Protest Movements in Europe Since 1917), Contemporary European History 23,
no. 4 (2014): 489–503 (490).
15 Jasper, The Emotions of Protest, 2.
16 Helena Flam and Debra King, ‘Introduction’, in Emotions and Social Movements,
ed. Helena Flam and Debra King (London: Routledge, 2005), 1–18 (2–3).
17 Flam and King, ‘Introduction’, 3.
18 Deborah B. Gould, ‘Life During Wartime: Emotions and The Development of Act
Up’, Mobilization: An International Quarterly 7, no. 2 (2002): 177–200 (177). See
also Deborah B. Gould, ‘Concluding Thoughts’ (Emotions in Protest Movements
in Europe Since 1917), Contemporary European History 23, no. 4 (2014): 639–44.
19 Jasper, The Emotions of Protest, 2.
20 Häberlen and Spinney, ‘Introduction’.
21 TROVE, National Library of Australia, https://trove.nla.gov.au/; Chronicling
America, Library of Congress, https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/; and Papers
Past, National Library of New Zealand, https://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/newspap
ers, all accessed 14 September 2019.
22 CAIN: Conflict Archive on the Internet, https://cain.ulster.ac.uk/victims/about/
index.html, accessed 14 September 2019.
23 Women’s March on Washington Archive, University of Florida, https://ufdc.ufl.
edu/womensmarch; and Art of the March, Northeastern University, http://artofth
emarch.boston/page/about, both accessed 14 September 2019.
24 Thomas C. Buchanan, ‘Class Sentiments: Putting the Emotion Back in Working-
Class History’, Journal of Social History 48, no. 1 (2014): 72–87 (73).
25 Peter Stearns, American Cool: Constructing a Twentieth Century Emotional Style
(New York: NYU Press, 1994) and Carol Stearns and Peter Stearns, Anger: The
Struggle for Emotional Control in America’s History (Chicago: University of Chi-
cago Press, 1986).
26 A good deal of this research is being carried out on workers’ conditions and pro-
test in Eastern Europe; for example: David Ost, The Defeat of Solidarity: Anger
and Politics in Post-Communist Europe (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2005);
and Laura A. Bray, Thomas E. Shriver and Alison E. Adams, ‘Mobilizing Grie-
vances in an Authoritarian Setting: Threat and Emotion in the 1953 Plzeň Upris-
ing’, Sociological Perspectives 62, no. 1 (2019): 77–95.
27 Pittsburgh Post Dispatch cited in Buchanan, ‘Class Sentiments’.
28 Buchanan, ‘Class Sentiments’, 77; and Phillip Troutman, ‘Correspondences in
Black and White: Sentiment and the Slave Market Revolution,’ in New Studies in
the History of American Slavery, ed. Edward E. Baptist, and Stephanie M.H.
Camp (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2006), 211–42.
29 Buchanan cites John P. Parker, His Promised Land: The Autobiography of John P.
Parker, Former Slave and Conductor on the Underground Railroad, ed. Stuart Seely
Sprague (New York: Norton, 1996).
30 On ‘reading against the grain’, see Nupur Chaudhuri, Sherry J. Katz and Mary
Elizabeth Perry, ‘Introduction’, in Contesting Archives: Finding Women in the
Sources, ed. Nupur Chaudhuri, Sherry J. Katz and Mary Elizabeth Perry (Urbana:
University of Illinois Press, 2010), xv.
 Emotions of protest 211
31 James Jasper, ‘The Emotions of Protest: Affective and Reactive Emotions in and
around Movements’, Sociological Forum 13, no. 3 (1998): 397–424.
32 Hélène Combes and Olivier Fillieule, ‘Repression and Protest: Structural Models
and Strategic Interactions’, Revue Française de Science Politique 61, no. 2 (2011):
1–24.
33 All of these protests are discussed in Chapter ‘Grandmothers’ in Crozier-De Rosa
and Mackie, Remembering Women’s Activism, 161–199. For further reading, see
Tova Benski, ‘Breaching Events and the Emotional reactions of the Public:
Women in Black in Israel’, in Emotions and Social Movements, ed. Helena Flam
and Debra King (London: Routledge, 2005), 57–78.
34 Crozier-De Rosa and Mackie, Remembering Women’s Activism, 161–99.
35 For a survey of the anti-war movement in the US, see Simon Hall, Rethinking the
American Anti-War Movement (New York: Routledge, 2012). There are too many
texts on other region’s anti-war movements to mention here. However, for Russia,
for example, see Socialist Flower Power: Soviet Hippie Culture, Wende Museum
2018 Exhibition, https://www.wendemuseum.org/programs/socialist-flower-power-
soviet-hippie-culture, accessed 15 September 2019.
36 Vitrierat Ng and Kin-man Chan, ‘Emotion Politics: Joyous Resistance in Hong
Kong’, The China Review 17, no. 1 (2017): 83–115.
37 Rowan Callick, ‘Hong Kong’s Spirit of Struggle’, Inside Story, 13 September 2019,
https://insidestory.org.au/hong-kongs-spirit-of-struggle/, accessed 15 September
2019.
38 See Sharon Crozier-De Rosa, Shame and the Anti-Feminist Backlash: Britain, Ire-
land and Australia, 1890–1920 (New York: Routledge, 2018).
39 Many of these periodicals have been very recently digitised (e.g. Votes for Women
and the Anti-Suffrage Review which are now available via the London School of
Economics Women’s Rights Collection, https://digital.library.lse.ac.uk/collections/
suffrage, accessed 15 September 2019).
40 Stephanie Downes, Sally Holloway and Sarah Randles, eds, Feeling Things.
Objects and Emotions Through History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018).
41 Women’s March on Washington Archive, University of Florida, https://ufdc.ufl.
edu/womensmarch; and Art of the March, Northeastern University: http://artofth
emarch.boston/page/about, both accessed 14 September 2019.
42 Neil Jarman, ‘Painting Landscapes: The Place of Murals in the Symbolic Con-
struction of Urban Space’, in Symbols in Northern Ireland, ed. Anthony Buckley
(Institute of Irish Studies, Queen’s University of Belfast: Belfast, 1998), 81–98.
17 Technology and feeling
Susan J. Matt and Luke Fernandez

In the fall of 1953, Annie Porter, a grief-stricken Utah widow, wrote in her diary
that she had watched the World Series on television. ‘I brot Dicks picture to be
by me while I listened. We always used to listen – together!’1 The tools of her
daily life – a diary, a treasured photo, a glowing television – helped her express
her loneliness and sorrow.
Roughly a decade later, in 1964, Marshall McLuhan famously declared ‘the
medium is the message’, arguing that communication technologies were not
empty vessels, separable from the ideas they carried, but were an intrinsic part
of the messages they conveyed.2 This insight is useful for scholars of the
emotions. For whether they be radios, machine guns or tweets, devices of
daily life not only communicate and shape messages, they also shape and
convey feelings, and therefore offer a rich trove of sources on inner life.
This essay explores the importance of technology to the history of emo-
tions. First, it defines technology and explains its relevance to the emotions.
Then it offers examples of how tools have affected inner life, looking both at
how technologies have reshaped people’s feelings as well as how people have
felt about their tools. Finally, it considers the sources that elucidate these
relationships. Given the vast array of technologies humans have created, this
essay focuses particularly, though not exclusively, on communication tools,
and especially those of the modern era.

Defining technology
While we may think we know what we mean when we talk about technology, the
term’s current meaning is of recent vintage. As Leo Marx noted, technology’s
modern definition, as ‘the mechanic arts collectively’, only became common
after 1900. Before that, the word signified the study of such things – ‘a branch of
learning, or discourse, or treatise concerned with the mechanic arts’.3 Therefore,
if historians go looking for ‘technology’ in the past, they will not find it, or at
least not as we mean it today. There are further complications in defining tech-
nology. A technology is not just a single object, but is part of larger systems of
production. Of the auto, Marx wrote:
 Technology and feeling 213
Its defining, indispensable material core was … the internal combustion
engine, plus – naturally – the rest of the automobile chassis. But surely
the technology also includes the mechanised assembly lines, the factories,
the skilled work-force, the automotive engineers, … the corporate struc-
tures …, and the networks of dealers and repair facilities.4

Then too, when a tool becomes integrated into daily life, people may forget it
is a ‘technology’, and instead may regard it merely as a mundane object.
Hats, window shades and nail clippers are tools that have become so com-
monplace that they are often invisible.5 As literary scholar Walter Ong wrote,
‘Today’s ballpoint pens … are high-technology products, but we seldom
advert to the fact because the technology is concentrated in the factories that
produce such things … and is thereby obfuscated’.6
However, rather than taking such technologies for granted, and ignoring
their effects on human feelings, historians should attend to the way cheap,
disposable ballpoint pens democratised writing and changed how people
expressed themselves. More fundamentally they should examine written
language itself as a technology. Ong described the rise of writing as ‘techno-
logizing the word’, arguing it ‘restructure[d] thought’, distanced writer from
reader, separated past from present, and lifted words out of their lived
context. While uncontroversial in most modern societies, at its inception
written language provoked anxieties, for some, like Plato, feared it would
profoundly alter speech, memory and debate.7
The recognition that tools like writing transform inner life and interpersonal
relations is one we should carry with us as we examine the past. Historians too
often pluck references to sadness or joy, ennui or homesickness, from letters,
diaries, telegrams and TV shows, regarding them as unaffected by the form or
vehicle through which they were conveyed. However, the message is indeed
inseparable from the medium.
All technologies hold within them a history of aspirations and yearnings,
for humans build them to extend their own powers and compensate for their
deficiencies. Theologian Philip Hefner contends, ‘We create technology in
order to compensate for our finitude. Because technology can outlive us and
be stronger than we are, more accurate, and faster, the very existence of our
technology reminds us of our finitude and mortality’.8 Tools, then, are essen-
tial sources for gauging what humans have wanted to be and to feel, what
powers they have wanted to extend, what limitations they have encountered,
and how they have imagined themselves and others.

Tools and feelings

There is a small but growing literature on technology and emotion. Some
scholars have examined how communication tools create new opportunities
for feelings and their expression, as well as how they may reinforce or
undermine existing emotional norms. Others have studied how people have
214 Susan J. Matt and Luke Fernandez
felt about their tools – gauging whether they provoked anger, joy or dread.
Still others have considered how scientists used new devices to reconceptualise
the notion of feeling itself.
The scholarship on communication technology is particularly rich. For
instance, Katie Barclay, writing on ‘technologies of love’ in eighteenth-century
Scotland, has described how love letters and wedding certificates ‘become not
just how we make love but part of its makeup’.9 Similarly, when the US
postal service expanded in the nineteenth century, Americans of all classes
and races had increased opportunities to express themselves on paper. His-
torian Karen Lystra has shown how in the act of writing love letters, corre-
spondents engaged in self-definition and disclosure. Such letters were
fundamental to the rise of nineteenth-century individualism.10 Recent work
by Luke Fernandez and Susan Matt has likewise shown how the development
of an affordable postal service and the resulting culture of correspondence
gave Americans new permission to write about their feelings, overcoming
longstanding prohibitions on self-absorption, self-promotion and vanity.11
Communication technologies do more than just create new emotional
experiences for individuals. To borrow Barbara Rosenwein’s terms, nine-
teenth-century letter writing also created ‘emotional communities’, offering
correspondents space to share intimate thoughts and forge new emotional
styles.12 David Henkin documented how the postal service’s expansion
reconfigured notions of domesticity, transforming family life from a set of
kin relations sustained by geographic proximity to a set of relations
maintained through expressions of affection recorded on paper and sent
through the mails.13 Christian Miller and his cousin Benjamin Kenaga
found just such community in correspondence. While they both had grown
up in upstate New York, they had migrated to different parts of the Mid-
west. Reflecting upon the role letters played in their relationship, Christian
observed in 1881, ‘Dear Cousin … although once we were allmost [sic] in
dayly [sic] conversation with each other[,] … by fate unavoidable … [we]
have been separated and therefore obliged to carry on our conversations
by the medium of pen & ink’.14 Pen and ink became the infrastructure of
their relationship.
These communication tools have also inculcated particular modes of
expression. While letters encourage extended acts of self-definition and dis-
closure, telegrams, postcards and tweets all require brevity and prompt
informality. Historian John Kasson suggested the postcard’s emergence in the
late nineteenth century represented an alternative to Victorian gentility:

postcards offered a way to celebrate one’s outing as a step outside the

everyday world. Messages like ‘Margaret and I are down here having lots
of fun’, and ‘Greetings to all from Coney Island’, … constituted a radical
break with the older epistolary style in favor of a clipped new form of
communication for an age of mass leisure.15
 Technology and feeling 215
Sometimes not just the limited physical space of a message, but limits
imposed by cost shaped expression. Initially, telegrams were the privilege of
elites – or the costly necessity of those facing dire emergencies. To send a ten-
word message across the Atlantic cost $50 in 1866; a message across the US
cost between $5 and $6 – a sum roughly two or three times the daily wage of
an industrial worker.16 Consequently, Americans of modest means used tele-
grams mostly for emergencies and tragedies, sending terse, sorrowful mes-
sages. Similarly, mid-twentieth-century Americans made remarkably short
long-distance calls because of their expense. These technological and eco-
nomic limitations surely shaped emotional expression and family intimacy.
However, most people have not relied exclusively on one technology to
communicate their feelings. Affluent Victorian families sent telegrams with
time-sensitive news, and then sent longer letters with more space for inti-
macies. In 1864, Sarah Butler wrote to her husband, General Benjamin
Butler, ‘You have my letter … which explains my telegram’.17 Such sources
remind us that different technologies each have particular ‘affordances’ (to
borrow an awkward tech theory term), and that individuals use a mix of tools
and techniques to articulate and communicate feeling.
Digital technologies also have been studied for their emotional implica-
tions. Social media has rewritten the rules for anger, and given individuals
new opportunities to vent online, thus democratising a feeling once con-
sidered the exclusive prerogative of white men.18 Likewise, the rise of smart-
phones may have reduced moments of transient boredom, but created a new
malaise.19 Peter Stearns argues social media has also created new opportu-
nities for shaming.20
Other types of technology, while not explicitly designed for communication,
nevertheless transmit feeling. John Kasson demonstrated how amusement parks
legitimated and simultaneously industrialised pleasure in the late nineteenth
century.21 Gary Cross and Robert Proctor argue that during that same period the
rise of commercialised, ‘packaged’, morsels of pleasure – from cigarettes to soft
drinks, phonograph records to pornography – changed how members of indus-
trialised societies sought and experienced enjoyment.22 Another tool with a
central role in emotional life is the car. Mimi Sheller described the ‘emotional
investments’ people have in their cars. Autos connect individuals with ‘family
and friends’, thereby creating ‘emotional geographies’.23
Even small refinements to existing tools are worth studying, for their effects
can be dramatic. Gerald Linderman demonstrated how rifling on muskets
transformed the meaning of courage. At the start of the American Civil War,
soldiers sought out opportunities for conspicuous displays of bravery. Gen-
erals encouraged their men to charge enemy lines, claiming such frontal
attacks embodied courage. In contrast, dodging bullets, ducking behind trees,
burrowing in the earth to avoid enemy fire were tactics of fearful cowards.
Such evasive actions were also less necessary, given the inaccuracy of early
American guns. Ulysses Grant noted that an enemy might shoot at you for
hours ‘without you finding it out’. However, once rifled guns were adopted,
216 Susan J. Matt and Luke Fernandez
the old advice about valour seemed unsuited to the new conditions of combat,
for the effective range of these guns increased from 100 yards to 300 or 400
yards. With new arms, soldiers easily picked off their enemies. Consequently,
men began to duck, hide behind trees, and dig trenches. During the first year
of the war, a soldier recalled, ‘the spade had been considered an ignoble
weapon’, but after the battle of Shiloh, soldiers considered it ‘not in the least
inconsistent with the highest development of personal courage’. As a result of
rifled guns, courage was no longer defined by ostentatious heroics. Instead, to
merit the label of valorous, one need merely survive.24
Considering more recent innovations in military technology, geographer
Mei-Po Kwan has argued that geo-spatial technologies (GT), such as GIS
systems, obfuscate feelings and bodies. Describing how these tools aid warfare
by guiding drone strikes, she notes, ‘a large number of bodies are affected by
the application of GT (e.g. people profiled by geodemographic application
and civilians who were annihilated as “collateral damage” by GPS-guided
smart bombs that missed their targets)’. People ‘are often treated merely as
things, as dots on maps’ and consequently empathy for opponents and civi-
lians diminishes.25
In addition to tools which carry and embody hate, love, anger, and
excitement, technologies have been used to measure and identify feelings
(with questionable results). In the nineteenth century, early psychologists
tried to provoke responses in laboratory subjects with electricity. Otniel
Dror, Rob Boddice, Brent Malin and Jan Plamper have all discussed the
invention of devices – from the polygraph to the ‘Kissometer’ – designed
to detect and measure emotion.26 Dror describes nineteenth-century
psychologists’ embrace of technology, writing ‘they generated, purified,
quantified, measured, manipulated, and … recorded and preserved
emotions in visual or numeric form’. Physiologist Claude Bernard used a
newly invented ‘cardiograph’ to ‘read in the human heart’, believing this
device could record emotional changes. Italian physiologist Angelo Mosso
tried to induce particular emotions in animals, and also tracked how his
own temperature corresponded to his feelings. Other scientists measured
glucose levels in the Harvard football team’s urine to explain their waning
enthusiasm. These scientists hoped their cutting-edge technologies would
make the invisible, interior self visible.27 Contemporary psychologists still
attempt this today as they fire up their fMRIs. While it is debatable as to
whether these machines actually measure emotion, their invention and use
nevertheless reveals much about how feelings have been reconceptualised
over the last two centuries.28
These are but a few examples of the ways that the history of emotions is
entangled with the history of technology. While most of the examples are
drawn from the modern period, the underlying idea – that, at least in part,
feelings depend upon the tools that transmit them – applies to all eras. The
question, then, is where to find sources that elucidate these relationships?
 Technology and feeling 217
Sources
Fortunately, there are abundant bodies of evidence which reveal how technolo-
gies have shaped feelings. There is also plentiful evidence to help answer a related
question – how individuals have felt about their tools. Both are worthy areas of
study for historians of the emotions, and this section will suggest sources for
both areas of enquiry. Evidence about tools’ effects on feelings can be found in
many of the sources historians traditionally examine for more conventional stu-
dies – but emotions scholars must examine them with a new eye. Newspapers,
letters, diaries, telegrams, sermons, advertisements and etiquette guides offer
glimpses of what particular devices meant, and how they affected individuals’
inner lives. Additionally, the design and construction of the tools themselves
reveal humans’ changing aspirations and desires.
An obvious starting point for modern and early modern historians is the
newspaper. Papers themselves have been tools for spreading emotional norms,
publicising feeling, creating emotional – and sometimes ‘imagined’ – com-
munities.29 But in addition to the highly charged messages that papers carry
and spread, they also frequently report on new devices and their anticipated
effects. For instance, early press coverage of the telegraph suggested it would
unite the sentiments of far-flung individuals. In 1846, a Philadelphia news-
paper predicted the telegraph would ‘make the whole land one being – a
touch upon any part will – like the wires – vibrate over all’.30
Papers also offer hints about whether such expectations were realised and
how technologies were assimilated into daily life. In 1893, New York’s Eve-
ning World carried stories of the raw anger sparked by the telephone (and its
infrastructure), describing ‘a small-sized mob’, which ‘cut down a pole erected
by the Delaware and Atlantic Telephone and Telegraph Company’ in New
Jersey.31 Or one can learn of the joyful uses people eventually found for the
telegram in the twentieth century. A Nebraska paper reported that due to
falling telegram prices, ‘Cupid is Using Telegrams’, while a Richmond, Vir-
ginia paper reported that a couple had been ‘Married by Wire’.32
Historians can also find evidence of technology’s emotional effects from
accounts of celebrations. For instance, reports on the completion of the
Trans-Atlantic telegraph in 1858 detailed Americans’ hopes for the cable.
‘New-York yesterday went Cable-mad’, reported the New York Times. A
journalist noted, ‘the enthusiasm that was generated knew no bounds; hen-
pecked husbands and virago wives, whose lips had not met for years gave way
to the excitement of the occasion, and saluted each other … vigorously …
men meeting in the streets shook hands more heartily than usual’. New Yor-
kers were so excited that they set off cannons, tolled church bells, paraded
through streets and launched fireworks which set City Hall afire. 33
David Nye’s work on the technological sublime likewise relied upon
accounts of public festivities to uncover Americans’ deep affection for grand
technologies. On the fiftieth anniversary of the Golden Gate Bridge, a quarter
of a million people turned out to walk across it. Nye writes,
218 Susan J. Matt and Luke Fernandez
San Francisco officials were unprepared for the massive turnout because
they did not understand the American public’s affection for spectacular
technologies. Each day crowds visit the Kennedy Space Center, ascend St.
Louis’s Gateway Arch, and visit the observation decks of prominent sky-
scrapers. The public response to the birthday of the Golden Gate Bridge was
matched by the excitement at the centenary of the Brooklyn Bridge or
Statue of Liberty. For almost two centuries the American public has
repeatedly paid homage to railways, bridges, skyscrapers, factories, dams,
airplanes, and space vehicles. The sublime underlies this enthusiasm for
technology. One of the most powerful human emotions, when experienced
by large groups the sublime can weld society together.34

First-hand perspectives on new tools are also available in letters and diaries
(which are again themselves technologies). Delia Locke, a California pioneer
who kept a journal for half a century, recorded how the telegraph affected her
moods. She wrote in September 1858: ‘We have again received the Eastern
mail. And the joyful tidings it brings sends a thrill of pleasure through every
heart. The Atlantic Cable is laid – the mighty Telegraph enterprise has been
successful! … God be praised for all his rich gifts to rebellious man!’35
However, her enthusiasm for the telegraph soon waned. In virtually every
subsequent reference, she recorded that it brought news of deaths and dis-
aster. For instance, in 1864, ‘sad day – Aunt Hannah died about three o’clock
this afternoon…. A telegram was sent to Mr. & Mrs. Read.’36 Her diary
records her changing experience of a new technology and also reflects how
economics shaped her relationship to telegraphy, for like most Americans she
used telegrams only in emergencies. The Confederate diarist Mary Boykin
Chesnut expanded on this: ‘A telegram reaches you, and you leave it on your
lap. You are pale with fright. You handle it, or you dread to touch it, as you
would a rattle-snake; worse, worse, a snake could only strike you. How
many … will this scrap of paper tell you have gone to their death?’37
Photographs can also be telling sources. The shifting ways people have
arranged their facial expressions, related to others in a picture, and shared
their images, reflect both changing expressive conventions and attitudes about
the camera’s purpose. Victorians often used photography to capture images of
the dead, reflecting their awareness of the fleeting nature of life. By the
twentieth century, however, funerary photography was declining and record-
ing cheerful family occasions and vacation exploits came to be the new emo-
tional purpose of the camera.38
Prescriptive literature records the rules that emerged in response to new
tools. Etiquette books advised readers how to use communication devices to
convey feeling. A 1906 manual lectured, ‘Postal cards are not for social usage
and type-writing is strictly for business’.39 Emily Post, in 1922, offered model
telegrams, such as a condolence telegram which read, ‘Words are so empty! If
only I knew how to fill them with love and send them to you.’40
 Technology and feeling 219
Sermons and moralistic writing reveal anxieties about particular tools’
emotional and moral effects. For instance, when photography was first
invented, German writers worried it would spur ‘a mass epidemic of vanity’,
and considered it a tool for the ‘Devil’s artistry’.41 Similarly, some observers
warned against the automobile, fearing it enabled sexual and romantic free-
dom, and labelling it a ‘house of prostitution on wheels’.42
Advertisements are also promising prescriptive sources, for they try to
frame emotional responses to the devices they tout. Adverts for phonographs,
phones and radios instructed consumers to reach for the phonograph, the
radio knob or the phone book in empty moments. The phone ‘banishes
loneliness’, promised Nebraska Bell in 1912. The National Phonograph
company in 1906, claimed, ‘You can’t be lonesome if you own an Edison’. 43
During the 1920s, adverts depicted autos as commodities that might provoke
envy or assuage it (if one purchased the car in question).44 Airline advertising
tried to allay consumers’ fears of flying, coaching them to regard their anxi-
eties as symptomatic of feminine weakness or an ‘underdeveloped psyche’.45
Legislation and crime records reveal social norms about the proper and
deviant uses of particular machines. Early motorists, for instance, encoun-
tered hostile legislators and neighbours alike, and faced laws which required
extremely slow speeds and gave right of way to horses.46 Sometimes, residents
threw stones and tin cans at reckless drivers.47 Other opponents of the car left
‘nails and wire in the wheel track’.48
Oral histories can convey how technologies were used – often in ways far
different from how similar tools are used today. While twenty-first-century TV
viewing is frequently a solitary pursuit, or done just with one’s family, initially
it was a more communal, less isolating experience. Chicagoan Pat Amino
recalled it was her sister who first had a television: ‘So, every Friday, Saturday
and Sunday, we would rush over there to look at this little TV. It must have
been nine inches … About twenty of us are gathered around this little televi-
sion, watching Lawrence Welk … It was fun.’49
While such sources provide information about how people used and felt
about their technologies, the architecture of the devices themselves should be
analysed to understand their creators’ assumptions about human feelings.
Neil Postman has suggested that every tool contains a philosophy, ‘which is
given expression in how the technology makes people use their minds, in what
it makes us do with our bodies, in how it codifies the world, in which of our
senses it amplifies, in which of our emotional and intellectual tendencies it
disregards’.50 For instance, the construction of the party line telephone
assumed a level of communal feeling and intimacy many would find foreign
today. Neighbours eavesdropped on each other’s calls and also used the
system to bring the community together. Iowa resident H.E. Wilkinson, born
in 1892, remembered the party line relieved the boredom of farm life. When a
peddler came to town and lodged with a local family, his hosts persuaded him
to play his ‘jew’s harp’ for the neighbourhood over the phone. To summon the
audience, they used the ‘general ring’, and all the families picked up. Entire
220 Susan J. Matt and Luke Fernandez
households gathered around the receiver to listen in. Wilkinson recalled, ‘we
thought the music was wonderful, we who were so hungry for diversion of any
kind, … we applauded loudly and happily into the transmitter. It was enter-
tainment, and it was coming mysteriously over that slender thread of wire strung
on poles along our fence lines.’51 Early phone system architecture assumed a
level of neighbourly intimacy and its design encouraged such feelings.
Today’s software code likewise carries expectations about feeling. Emoticons –
the typographic portrayal of emotional expression like :-) – and emoji – the pic-
tured faces designed to relay feeling states – are based on the idea of universal,
basic emotions.52 While that theory is flawed, these symbols nevertheless shape
emotional expression online; as such, they are useful sources both to discern
online correspondents’ feelings, as well as important evidence of the (contested)
assumptions about psychology pervading Silicon Valley.53
New devices likewise promise to measure emotion, though they may end up
standardising rather than gauging it. Tara Brigham describes ‘affective com-
puting’ which aims to ‘identify, interpret, process, and even respond to a
human’s emotional state’.54 Such aspirations pervade the digital world. Bar-
bara Rosenwein notes that video-game designers embed within their games
particular emotional models which constrain the range of feelings and deci-
sions players are able to express and enact. Other programmers are monitor-
ing gamers’ expressions to gauge their feelings. Some designers in fact
describe their software development process as ‘emotioneering’. 55
While twenty-first-century designers are explicit about their efforts to shape
emotions through their tools, this is not a new trend. When studied together,
the history of emotions and the history of technology reveal that our tools
have long been both an expression of our feelings, and an abiding influence
on them. Inner experience has never been divorced from the outer, material,
technological world; instead inner and out, feeling and tool, shape and
reshape each other. We would do well to explore them together.

Notes
1 Annie Maude Porter Dee Diary, 1 October 1953, Thomas D. Dee and Annie
Taylor Dee Family History Collection, Stewart Library Special Collections, Weber
State University, Ogden, UT.
2 Marshall McLuhan, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (New York:
McGraw Hill, 1964), 7.
3 Leo Marx, ‘Technology: The Emergence of a Hazardous Concept’, Technology
and Culture 51 (2010): 561–77.
4 Marx, ‘Technology’, 574.
5 Neil Postman, ‘Five Things We Need to Know about Technological Change’,
Denver, Colorado, 28 March 1998, https://web.cs.ucdavis.edu/~rogaway/classes/
188/materials/postman.pdf, accessed 30 August 2019.
6 Walter J. Ong, ‘Writing is a Technology that Restructures Thought’, in The Writ-
ten Word: Literacy in Transition, Wolfson College Lectures 1985, ed. Gerd
Bauman (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985), 30.
7 Ong, ‘Writing’, 23–50.
 Technology and feeling 221
8 Philip Hefner, ‘Technology and Human Becoming’, Zygon 37 (2002): 655–66 (658–9).
9 Katie Barclay, ‘Doing the Paperwork: The Emotional World of Wedding Certifi-
cates’, Cultural and Social History (online first 14 March 2019): 2, https://doi.org/
10.1080/14780038.2019.1589156, accessed 2 September 2019.
10 Karen Lystra, Searching the Heart: Women, Men, and Love in Nineteenth-Century
America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 27.
11 Luke Fernandez and Susan J. Matt, Bored, Lonely, Angry, Stupid: Changing
Feelings about Technology, from the Telegraph to Twitter (Cambridge, MA: Har-
vard University Press, 2019), 21–33.
12 Barbara H. Rosenwein, ‘Worrying about Emotions in History’, The American
Historical Review 107: 3 (2002): 821–45.
13 David M. Henkin, The Postal Age: The Emergence of Modern Communications in
Nineteenth-Century America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006), 146.
14 Christian Miller to Benjamin Kenaga, 18 April 1881, Series 1, Box 3, folder 83,
Christian Miller correspondence, 1874–82, Kenaga Family Papers, Beinecke
Library, Yale University, New Haven, CT.
15 John F. Kasson, Amusing the Million: Coney Island at the Turn of the Century
(New York: Hill & Wang, 1978), 40–1.
16 Anton A. Huurdeman, The Worldwide History of Telecommunications (Hoboken:
John Wiley & Sons, 2003), 135n; Robert Luther Thompson, Wiring a Continent:
The History of the Telegraph Industry in the United States, 1832–1866 (Princeton,:
Princeton University Press, 1947), 369; ‘Measuring Worth’, https://www.measur
ingworth.com/calculators/uscompare/, accessed 11 November 2019; Tomas Non-
nenmacher, ‘History of the U.S. Telegraph Industry’, http://eh.net/encyclopedia/
history-of-the-u-s-telegraph-industry/, accessed 3 July 2016; Clarence D. Long,
Wages and Earnings in the United States, 1860–1890 (Princeton: Princeton Uni-
versity Press, 1960), 14.
17 Sarah Hildreth Butler to Benjamin Franklin Butler, 29 May 1864, in Private and
Official Correspondence of Gen. Benjamin F. Butler, During the Period of the Civil
War, vol. 4 (Norwood, MA: Plimpton Press, 1917), 281.
18 Carol Zisowitz Stearns and Peter N. Stearns, Anger: The Struggle for Emotional
Control in America’s History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986); Fer-
nandez and Matt, Bored, Lonely, Angry, Stupid, 294–355.
19 Fernandez and Matt, Bored, Lonely, Angry, Stupid, 141–87.
20 Peter N. Stearns, Shame: A Brief History (Urbana: University of Illinois Press,
2017).
21 Kasson, Amusing the Million.
22 Gary S. Cross and Robert N. Proctor, Packaged Pleasures; How Technology and
Marketing Revolutionized Desire (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014).
23 Mimi Sheller, ‘Automotive Emotions: Feeling the Car’, Theory, Culture & Society
21, no. 4/5 (2004): 221–42 (222, 229, 236).
24 Gerald Linderman, Embattled Courage: The Experience of Combat in the Amer-
ican Civil War (New York: Free Press, 1987), 135, 143, 134–55.
25 Mei-Po Kwan, ‘Affecting Geospatial Technologies: Toward a Feminist Politics of
Emotion’, The Professional Geographer 59, no. 1 (2007): 22–34 (23–4).
26 Rob Boddice, ‘Medical and Scientific Understandings’, in A Cultural History of
the Emotions in the Age of Romanticism, Revolution, and Empire, ed. Susan J. Matt
(London: Bloomsbury, 2019), 17–32; Jan Plamper, The History of Emotions: An
Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015); Otniel Dror, ‘The Scientific
Image of Emotion: Experience and Technologies of Inscription’, Configurations 7,
no. 3 (1999): 355–401; Brent Malin, Feeling Mediated: A History of Media Tech-
nology and Emotion in America (New York: New York University Press, 2014).
27 Dror, ‘The Scientific Image’, 357, 358, 361, 398, 391.
222 Susan J. Matt and Luke Fernandez
28 William M. Reddy, ‘Humanists and the Experimental Study of Emotion’, in Sci-
ence and Emotions after 1945: A Transatlantic Perspective, ed. Frank Biess and
Daniel M. Gross (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014), 41–66; Plamper,
The History of the Emotions, 180, 184–5; Thomas Dixon, From Passions to Emo-
tions: The Creation of a Secular Psychological Category (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press 2006).
29 Fernandez and Matt, Bored, Lonely, Angry, Stupid, 294–355; David Paul Nord,
‘Newspapers and American Nationhood, 1776–1826’, Proceedings of the American
Antiquarian Society 100, no. 2 (1991): 391–405; Benedict Anderson, Imagined
Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, rev. ed.
(London: Verso, 1991).
30 Quoted in Daniel J. Czitrom, Media and the American Mind: From Morse to
McLuhan (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1982), 12.
31 The Evening World [New York] 20 May 1893, Sporting Extra, 2; Fernandez and
Matt, Bored, Lonely, Angry, Stupid, 96.
32 ‘Love Always Finds a Way’, The Norfolk Weekly News Journal 25 March 1910;
‘Married by Wire’, The Bee, 4 May 1905
33 ‘The Ocean Telegraph’, New York Times, 18 August 1858, 1.
34 David E. Nye, American Technological Sublime (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1994), xiii.
35 Delia Locke, 18 September 1858, in Delia Locke Diary, 1858–1861, Locke-Ham-
mond Family Papers, MSS 110, Holt-Atherton Special Collections, University of
the Pacific, http://www.pacific.edu/University-Libraries/Find/Holt-Atherton-Specia
l-Collections/Delia-Locke-Diaries.html, accessed 15 April 2013.
36 Delia Locke, 23 May 1864, in Delia Locke Diary, 1862–1869.
37 Mary Boykin Chesnut, 9 June 1862, in A Diary from Dixie, as Written by Mary
Boykin Chesnut, ed. Isabella D. Martin and Myrta Lockett Avary (New York: D.
Appleton and Company, 1906), 177; Fernandez and Matt, Bored, Lonely, Angry,
Stupid, 259.
38 Fernandez and Matt, Bored, Lonely, Angry, Stupid, 21–46; Christina Kotch-
emidova, ‘Why We Say “Cheese”: Producing the Smile in Snapshot Photography’,
Critical Studies in Media Communication 22 (2005): 2–25 (2); Nancy Martha West,
Kodak and the Lens of Nostalgia (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia,
2000).
39 Ellin Craven Learned, The Etiquette of New York To-Day (New York: Frederick
A. Stokes Company, 1906), 193.
40 Emily Post, Etiquette in Society, in Business, in Politics and at Home (New York:
Funk & Wagnalls, 1922), 485.
41 Der Leipziger Anzeiger (1839), quoted in Richard Rudisill, Mirror Image: The
Influence of the Daguerreotype on American Society (Albuquerque: University of
New Mexico Press, 1971), 50.
42 Frederick Lewis Allen, Only Yesterday: An Informal History of the 1920s (New
York: Harper & Row, 1957), 83; Robert Staughton Lynd and Helen Merell Lynd,
Middletown: A Study in American Culture (San Diego: Harcourt Brace, 1957), 258.
43 The Alliance Herald 25 April 1912; Evening Star 8 April 1906, 15; Fernandez and
Matt, Bored, Lonely, Angry, Stupid, 103.
44 Susan J. Matt, Keeping Up with the Joneses: Envy in American Consumer Society,
1890–1930 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003), 50, 94.
45 Richard K. Popp, ‘Commercial Pacification: Airline Advertising, Fear of Flight,
and the Shaping of Popular Emotion’, Journal of Consumer Culture 16, no. 1
(2016): 61–79 (63, 62).
46 Dorothy V. Walters, ‘Devil-Wagon Days’, The Wisconsin Magazine of History 30,
no. 1 (1946): 69–77 (70).
47 ‘New York Pedestrians Confront Reckless Drivers, 1902’, in Major Problems in
American Urban and Suburban History: Documents and Essays, Second Edition,
 Technology and feeling 223
ed. Howard P. Chudacoff and Peter C. Baldwin (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Com-
pany, 2005), 266–67.
48 Walters, ‘Devil-Wagon Days’, 70.
49 Interview with Pat Aiko (Suzuki) Amino by Mary Doi, 30 March 1998, Regen-
erations Oral History Project: Rebuilding Japanese American Families, Commu-
nities, and Civil Rights in the Resettlement Era, Chicago Region, vol. 1, 43, http://
texts.cdlib.org/view?docId=ft7n39p0cn&doc.view=entire_text, accessed 2 Septem-
ber 2019.
50 Postman, ‘Five Things’.
51 H.E. Wilkinson, Memories of an Iowa Farm Boy (Ames: Iowa State University Press,
[1952] 1994), 90–1; Fernandez and Matt, Bored, Lonely, Angry, Stupid, 159–60.
52 ‘Don’t Know the Difference between Emoji and Emoticons? Let Me Explain’,
Guardian, 6 February 2015, https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/feb/06/
difference-between-emoji-and-emoticons-explained, accessed 20 August 2019.
53 Rich Firth-Godbehere, ‘Silicon Valley Thinks Everyone Feels the Same Six Emo-
tions’, Quartz 17 September 2018, https://howwegettonext.com/silicon-valley-think
s-everyone-feels-the-same-six-emotions-38354a0ef3d7, accessed 23 June 2019; Luke
Fernandez and Susan Matt, ‘AI Doesn’t Know How You Feel’, BLARB, Los
Angeles Review of Books Blog, 4 November 2019, http://blog.lareviewofbooks.org/
essays/ai-doesnt-know-feel/, accessed 11 November 2019.
54 Tara J. Brigham, ‘Merging Technology and Emotions: Introduction to Affective
Computing’, Medical Reference Services Quarterly 36, no. 4 (2017): 400.
55 Barbara H. Rosenwein and Riccardo Cristiani, What Is the History of the Emo-
tions? (Cambridge: Polity, 2018), 112–20.
18 Emotions and the body
Mark Neuendorf

Over the past four decades, the body has emerged as an object of focused
historical enquiry. Amidst wider scholarly challenges to universalist assump-
tions about gender, sexuality and race, historians have come to view the body
as a site of contested meanings, constituted through discourse. Bodies have
‘been lived differently, brought into being within widely dissimilar material
cultures, subjected to various technologies and means of control, and incor-
porated into different rhythms of production and consumption, pleasure and
pain’.1 Continued research into the histories of bodies from outside the
modern West has served to ‘denaturalize the Western body’ as the focal point
of scholarly research.2
‘Body studies’ offers an obvious entry into the field of the ‘history of emo-
tions’, whose practitioners share similar ambitions to upend simplistic assump-
tions about the biological bases of feeling and behaviour. While human biology
may remain relatively stable, the articulation, expression and experience of feel-
ing is informed by culture, in all its manifestations; as such, comparisons of
bodies over time can illustrate ‘how factors such as social rank, gender, place and
religion affected people’s experiences of emotion’.3 The adaptation by historians
of emotion of a ‘biocultural’ model of experience – that is, the assumption that
feeling is ‘the dynamic product’ of physiological processes and ‘culturally bound
expression’ – allows for such a ‘historicization of the human’.4 By paying careful
attention to the ‘layers of historical-cultural scripts’ shaping representations of
emotions, historians of the body can re-examine ‘archival material with an eye to
the literal’, with a view to reconstructing past actors’ context-specific perceptions
of their feeling bodies.5
Issues relating to the intersection of emotions and the body have been
examined by scholars in disparate fields across the humanities and social sci-
ences, from a range of methodological perspectives: material culture, affect
studies, performativity, sensory history. A particularly influential model for
drawing together these varied research strands has been Monique Scheer’s
framework for the study of ‘emotional practices’.6 Drawing upon Bourdieuian
practice theory, Scheer explains bodies as being shaped by regulatory social
scripts and feeling rules, which cultivate ‘habits of feeling’. Through sociali-
sation, these competencies become ingrained into a disposition, known as the
 Emotions and the body 225
habitus, which situates people in the environment and social body. Key to this
process are ‘emotional practices’: ‘complexes of speech acts and bodily percep-
tions and arousals’ enacted through rituals and social interactions, which allow
people to achieve valued emotions, be it through the mobilisation, regulation,
navigation or communication of feelings.7 It is through such practices that the
material ‘reality’ of emotions is constituted; the ‘flesh’ of any historical actor or
community is the sum total of words, objects, rituals and metaphors that con-
struct or represent affective life.8 Attention to emotional practices, and their
changing significance, thus provides insights into the experience of embodiment,
otherwise inaccessible to historians.
This approach also broadens the search for instances of historical emo-
tions: any source that offers a snapshot of bodies from the past, and particu-
larly those that sustain ‘traces of observable action’, such as movements,
gestures or facial expressions, can provide some insight into the feeling rules
and rituals that constitute bodily habits.9 This chapter provides a survey, by
no means exhaustive, of some of the sources available to historians of the
body, while also discussing some of the key approaches and methodological
concerns that have interested scholars in this growing field and how these can
contribute to the study of emotional practices. Reflecting scholarship in the
field of ‘history of emotions’ more generally, there is a focus here on the
modern West; however, some suggestions have been made concerning direc-
tions for further study. The first section considers questions relating to the
reading and interpretation of sources, which is followed by thematic sections,
discussing the performance of emotion and the feeling body.

Reading bodies in historical sources

References to affected or moved bodies abound in the historical record and
reflect the ideals and beliefs that ordered people’s understanding of emotion
and embodiment. Emotion terms have thus been recognised as a window to
the ‘prevailing emotional norms’ of a community.10 Practice theory provides a
tool for further recovering the experience of embodiment from historical
sources; its ‘analytical perspective … [allows] for a critique of past theories of
emotion, especially their strategies of naturalization and interiorization’ – that
is how ideas about emotion come to be experienced in the body.11 A focus on
the practices that past actors have used to shape their emotions allows his-
torians to re-create the processes by which bodily habits are cultivated. Evi-
dence for emotional practices can be gleaned from any artefacts or objects
that either depict bodies or were implicated in bodily practices.12
Such an approach provides an entry point from which to study embodi-
ment in ancient societies, for which visual representations of emotion have
often survived with little contextual information. Archaeologists, to date, have
been more comfortable identifying ‘[s]ocial emotional values’ than the ‘sub-
jective emotional experience’ of people from the past, owing to the nature of
the material available to them.13 Such approaches have, certainly, revealed the
226 Mark Neuendorf
nuances of emotional life in classical or prehistoric societies, illustrating, for
instance, distinctions in emotional norms between people of different status,
as Stephen Houston has shown, in an important study of Classic Maya ico-
nography (c. 250–750 CE).14 A focus on embodiment and practice has the
potential to further refine such claims. As Rosemary Joyce suggests, similar
icons were also likely used as ‘models … for the embodied gestures of living
people’: that is, as objects from which bodily practices were learnt.15
Richer histories of embodiment are possible for literate societies, for which
survive both visual depictions of emotional ideals and written descriptions of
bodies’ purported experiences. Commonly, feelings are scripted in corporeal
metaphor, reflecting the sort of ‘merging of body and mind’ characteristic of
the habitus’s ‘knowing body’.16 These terms often ‘reflect what people think
or thought is/was happening in and outside their body’, and so attention to
the contexts in which they were formulated can bring to light histories of
experience.17 In medieval Icelandic sagas, for instance, verbs such as ‘springa,
to burst, and bregða, to move’ are indicative of a prevailing conception of
emotion as movement, and likely shaped these emotions for readers.18 Early
modern European descriptions of a heart ‘bursting’ with joy reflect con-
temporary understandings of the emotional body; in an era where the heart
was believed to direct passions, such verbs denoted a vessel figuratively filled
to the brim with roiling blood and spirits.19 The use of such metaphors and
terms undoubtedly shaped the habitus too, reflecting and informing the bodily
practices enacted by actors in different contexts.20
Attention to such terms and representations in the historical record is useful, as it
is through emotion that individuals ‘come into being’.21 The process of identifying
and representing feelings, in language or art, helps us to ‘“figure out” what we feel’,
however imprecise the representations are.22 Since ‘emotion talk’ – writing about or
vocalising feelings – is ‘always bound up in a bodily practice’, the ways that people
emote offer a frame through which to reveal the body’s role in producing or culti-
vating identities.23 Personal diaries, for instance, provide examples of past actors
examining and reporting on their emotions, and through this systematic emotion
talk conditioning their bodies to particular ways of knowing and feeling. Some of
the most expressive emotional communities in the modern West have been asso-
ciated with such texts, for example Calvinists and Protestant non-conformists, who
kept spiritual diaries as a method of discovering and validating their faith and
humility. Their diary entries regularly explored intense feelings, and the association
with the Divine; for women in particular, Alison Searle notes, descriptions of pain
in such writings were a way of representing the ‘embodied life of faith’.24
In scripting their feelings, actors are still always constrained by culture and
their social position: assumptions relating to class, gender, family, nationality,
sexuality and race all inform the navigation of feeling. Emotional norms may
encourage particular forms of embodiment, or inhibit them, which has
implications for the interpretation of sources. Karen Harvey, for instance, has
shown how, in the early modern period, the gendering of the ‘body–emotion
connection’ made it ‘difficult to disentangle a woman’s description of physical
 Emotions and the body 227
and emotional anguish because women in particular linked their experience of
emotions (their own and other people’s) to direct effects on their bodies’. This in
turn guided Harvey’s interpretation of moments of corporeal pain reported by
Mary Toft, an eighteenth-century woman investigated for faking monstrous
births; when read alongside Toft’s anxieties about family, health and the body,
conspicuous moments of ‘physical suffering’ are shown to have passed for gen-
eralised expressions of ‘emotional distress’.25 We can expect to find manifold
different configurations of the ‘body–emotion connection’ reflected in the sour-
ces, depending on the unique circumstances of their creation. An attention to
moments of bodily experience, considered alongside the broader cultural scripts
informing the expression of emotion, can enable historians to reveal the pro-
cesses by which identities were discovered and explored.
The terms and emblems used to represent bodily experience can differ
between communities – even within the same society. In many cases these
differences reflect divergent ideas about social or biological difference. Emo-
tion terms also evolve over time, with some words becoming obsolete; as
Barbara Duden has shown, geblüt, the ‘key word by which women designated
the lived flesh’ in early eighteenth-century Germany, has fallen out of medical
use since the decline of humoural pathology.26 Changing emotional lexicons,
or the disuse of key descriptors of bodily experience in the sources, hint at
wider changes in communities’ feeling rules and emotional practices, and so
are key areas for the study of historical bodies.
Emotion terms have varied origins. Often, bodily metaphors filter down
from academic discourses to shape popular understandings of emotion, and so
attention to more outwardly ‘scholarly’ works (e.g. philosophical and theolo-
gical treatises, and physicians’ case notes) can inform the interpretation of lay
reflections on somatic conditions, as reported in, for example, letters, diaries,
medical correspondence and other autobiographical material. Folk traditions
and mythology have also historically informed the representation of feelings, as
have religious and spiritual texts, which often provide ready exemplars for
emotional expression. Literature, including popular culture sources, provide a
space for the development of, and experimentation with ‘emotives’; that is,
personal emotional descriptions that have ‘an exploratory and a self-altering
effect’.27 Descriptions of emotions in creative works function to evoke the same
in readers, inviting them to ‘simulate’ the feelings of characters by ‘[recalling]
their own past sensory experiences’.28 Emotives in popular texts generally
conform to dominant emotional styles, however emotions scripted from out-
side, or in opposition to, the dominant emotional regime, also shape different
or subversive bodies, as histories of countercultures attest; for example, the
‘alternative emotional practices’ of left-wing activists in 1970s West Germany,
detailed in specialist journals and newspapers, promoted intense, convivial, or
at time disruptive emotions, which were intended to counteract the fear and
alienation said to be imposed by capitalist society.29 Whichever way emotions
are recorded, caution is always required in the reading, to discern the interests,
perspectives and prejudices of the person that recorded them.
228 Mark Neuendorf
Images provide a useful complement to the historical study of bodies in
literate societies, revealing norms of display and gesture, and also hinting at
the practices used to cultivate emotions. In all cases though, an informed
reading is needed, which takes into account contemporary valuations of
emotion. Whether, for instance, a stand-alone depiction of weeping – one of
the foremost communicative acts represented in the Western canon – is to be
interpreted as grief, love, joy, or religious zeal, depends largely on the situat-
edness of the figure; it is only with a recognition of prevailing cultural scripts,
including knowledge of identities (e.g. gender, race, status) that the specific
composition of the body can be understood. For those modern societies
where abundant written and material sources survive, evidence of framing
strategies can illustrate the methods that past actors undertook to guide the
appropriate interpretation of bodies. In the medieval and early modern peri-
ods, significant icons and frescoes – including images of Christ’s Passion –
were often staged in settings that guided bodily practices. Early modern prints
were usually accompanied by verse directions, explaining to the viewer how to
interpret the feelings displayed by the figures presented within. Newspaper
editors and film and television producers have proved adept at editing images
to deliver desired impressions; headlines, captions and commentary assist in
this delivery. This contextual information can provide insights into an image’s
meanings and interpretations (though caution must to be taken not to infer
viewers’ individual responses without documentary evidence).
While ideas about emotion and physiology inform modes of representation,
the materiality of sources, and associated processes of production, have also,
historically, influenced the definition of emotions. The introduction of photo-
graphic reproduction, for instance, offered unprecedented opportunities to
analyse and record emoting bodies in clinical settings. However, as Beatriz
Pichel has shown, the vagaries of the inscription process raised questions
about the utility of the medium.30 What elements of a figure best represented
an emotion? Could a single image, devoid of movement, adequately capture
the complexities of an emotion? Scientists’ experiments with different techni-
ques and technologies – as recorded in scientific writings – ultimately shaped
the terminology used to describe emotional display (e.g. ‘expression’, to
describe a scientific still-frame of a face), while also fanning debates over the
physiology of feeling. Such moments of tension in the sources, which invari-
ably emerged at times of cultural or technological change, provide particu-
larly interesting subjects for the study of emotional practices.

Performing emotions
Theories of performativity, derived from the work of Erving Goffman and
Judith Butler, explain identities as being cultivated through repeated commu-
nicative acts, shaped by social norms. It is in this tradition that Scheer’s con-
cept of emotional practices has typically been conceived: an actor’s emotions
and dispositions are cultivated and learned through repeated interactions with
 Emotions and the body 229
the environment. Understanding the ‘situatedness’ of historical bodies – their
habits, and the practices that cultivate them – is a key concern of historians of
emotions; this is best achieved by ‘get[ting] a look at bodies and artifacts of
the past’.31 Prescriptive sources, which outline the limits of acceptable beha-
viours and expressions, are probably the most accessible sources for the his-
tory of bodily practices. Iconography, portraiture, conduct manuals, didactic
and educational works, and sources of popular culture, have all, historically,
provided models for the appropriate expression of emotion. When read
alongside contemporary sources that offer ‘traces of observable action’ – let-
ters, diaries, hagiographies, news reports, travelogues, illustrations, candid
photographs and film, to name a few – the processes by which bodily prac-
tices are rehearsed and habituated, and identities communicated through
feeling, can be revealed and recreated.
The predominance of prescriptive texts on emotional expression can be a
useful signifier of a rigid or complex emotional regime. Take for instance the
so-called ‘age of sensibility’, a period of effusive emotional display in the
eighteenth century. As consciously ‘enlightened’ people across the Atlantic
world came to prize politeness and sentimental emotion as markers of genti-
lity and virtue, outward displays of feeling came to substitute for honour and
sincerity. This led to a preoccupation with dramaturgy in ‘polite’ society, with
new feeling rules, derived largely from contemporary acting manuals and
physiognomic tracts, instrumental in shaping new standards of expression and
oratory, across the bar and pulpit.32 Actors perfected accentuated sentimental
emotions for the stage, which were in turn scrutinised by onlookers, and then
reconstructed in prints, letters, news columns and theatrical criticism. Novels,
too, provided explicit direction on the performance of emotion, with feeling
bodies rendered visible through a ubiquitous ‘verbal pictorialism’.33 Painting
manuals, which detailed the precise rendering of sentimental emotion, were
widely distributed, encouraging artists to capture an eloquent expression of
feeling. Together, these texts and performances naturalised a distinctive style
of expression and display, moulding new standards of address and comport-
ment. This much is evident from contemporary letters and memoirs, which
illustrate heightened concerns about bodily control, and fixate on the
physiognomy of others; editorials and periodical essays that agonised over the
potential affectation of feeling similarly highlight the strains and anxieties
imposed by this rigid emotional regime.
Taken together, such arrays of sources thus document the situatedness of
bodies in a particular context, and rich documentary evidence survives to
pursue similar studies in other contexts. Taking a wide view of a period’s
cultural artefacts and extant ephemera – e.g. treatises, novels, memoirs,
newspapers, works of art, photographs and film, legal statutes, pictorial
advertisements, toys, medical textbooks, websites – a community’s feeling
rules and emotional practices can be readily identified and recreated. Histor-
ians have fruitfully developed case studies for the management of bodies in
the modern West. Peter Stearns and Carol Z. Stearns, in a series of works,
230 Mark Neuendorf
pioneered research into the emotional codes of the modern United States,
ranging from specific emotions to more general emotional styles (e.g. ‘Amer-
ican cool’).34 In an important study documenting the importance of cheer-
fulness to the evolution of individualism and consumer culture in the United
States, Christina Kotchemidova has highlighted the multifarious sources by
which the new bodily ideal was delivered; conduct literature, workplace
managerial strategies, self-help guides and visual media were all deployed to
assist people with smiling, and feeling happy.35 An examination of a broad
subsection of sources from any society could similarly highlight the practices
it mobilises to shape bodies and identities.
The situatedness of bodies is necessarily dependent on the environment.
Spatial variables, including buildings, objects, audiences and institutional dis-
play rules, operate to sanction or restrain expressions in different arenas.
Katie Barclay has usefully employed the term ‘performative space’ to describe
the interplay of bodies with a physical location and associated feeling rules.36
The study of such spaces is made possible through examination of a broad
cross-section of sources relating to a building or environment, and the traces
of action performed within.
The most prominent performative spaces are those invested with powerful
institutional or corporate ideologies, and which exert sustained surveillance of
bodies. The courtroom is Barclay’s paradigmatic example. As the spaces in
which the rights and privileges of property and nation are secured, Western
legal institutions impose norms and practices to promote adherence to these
ideologies. Participants are expected to acquiesce to the norms of the court –
ideally, to submit to the law’s ‘majesty’. Bodies are central to this process. In
the Western legal tradition, emotions have come to be scrutinised as markers
of interiority, with ‘ideas about guilt and innocence … often closely connected
to how the body on trial [is] read and interpreted’.37 For defendants, ‘feelings
of guilt or expressions of atonement’ have the potential to affect verdicts
handed down to them.38 As such, the courtroom has developed into an arena
for the communication of emotion, through the interplay of bodies and insti-
tutional environment. Instrumental to this process was the opening up of legal
spaces to observers, and particularly journalists, who ensured that the social
interactions that constituted the ‘courtroom drama’ were scrutinised, and
circulated widely through newspapers and other media.39 Though these were
by no means unmediated accounts, reporters’ preoccupations with particular
emblems and bodies provided ‘insights into wider cultural beliefs about how
power is produced’ in the courtroom, and indeed played a central role in the
construction of its actors’ public identities.40
Given the wide variety of sources available to the historian – depositions,
court records, news reports, images and film – the courtroom provides a par-
ticularly rich site for the study of performative space. For instance, as Laura
Kounine has shown, in a study of trial documents produced during early
modern witchcraft prosecutions, a prevailing ‘embodied view of subjectivity’,
in which ‘physicality and comportment’ informed assumptions about motive
 Emotions and the body 231
and conscience, meant that culturally significant corporeal expressions could
stand as evidence in trials.41 In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, par-
ticipants in criminal trials – including judges and lawyers – were scrutinised
by reporters and other onlookers, who searched for visible cues of their inner
states (e.g. a judge’s tears during sentencing that illustrated the law’s over-
riding humanity; appropriate displays of masculinity that conferred good
‘character’ on male suspects). The gradual integration of visual media into
legal proceedings – illustrators in the crowd, photographers parked outside
judicial buildings, videographers even entering some courtrooms – has created
even greater scrutiny of the spectacle of legal emotions. Such images are grist
for the study of emotions in the performative space. Legal cartoons, with their
exaggerated depictions of the gestures and expressions of judges, lawyers and
defendants, implicitly remark on the figures’ credibility or dissimulation, or
indeed mock the court’s claims to judicial objectivity.42 Photographs of pro-
ceedings are no less significant. When, for instance, the Italian anarchist Luigi
Lucheni – under arrest for assassinating Empress Elisabeth of Austria – was
photographed grinning while being led by officers of the state, the smile
became a focus of the investigation itself, a symbol from which reporters,
magistrates and psychologists debated the suspect’s motives and character.43
Attention to such spectacles in the sources provides evidence ‘of the emotive
body driving historical action’, and can also, potentially, bring to light the
agency of marginalised actors.44
Different spaces and rituals can also channel collective emotions, uniting
individuals into social bodies through the performance of emotion. This can
occur in situations and spaces with loosely defined emotional norms, and which
allow for the combination of (potentially disorganised) crowds. The importance
of public streets or civic squares as ‘performative’ spaces has been highlighted by
historians, who identify emotions through a comparison of written sources with
visual depictions of crowded bodies in urban settings (e.g. in taverns or the high
street).45 The combination of emotional bodies into crowds is perhaps most
prominent in arenas with specified boundaries. Some of our best sources of
‘crowd behaviour’ exist for organised meetings of strangers for entertainment or
instruction. Written sources dealing with premodern theatrical performance and
oratory regularly reference the emotional responses of audiences, with viewers’
accounts often also detailing the appraisal of emotion in others, and the author’s
efforts to replicate these displays. Working from testimony recorded in social
surveys, oral histories and newspapers, James Jones has demonstrated the com-
munal experience reported by mid-twentieth-century British working-class cine-
magoers. Some patrons evidently sought privacy in the darkened rooms;
however, testimonials also made clear that for others, ‘[r]eading, interpreting and
appropriating the emotional experiences of others became a significant part of
[their] own emotional responses’.46
Attention to performativity can similarly help us interpret the interests and
motives of crowds in more outwardly political demonstrations. Historians of ‘the
crowd’ have dismissed explanations of popular mobilisations as irrational,
232 Mark Neuendorf
instead stressing the organisation of even disruptive mass movements, like
riots. There is no universal experience or expression of collective ‘anger’:
crowd violence, like individual emotions, are unique to their historical con-
text. Examining evidence from nineteenth-century newspapers and sermons,
Margrit Pernau has linked the increasing fervour of religious demonstrations
in colonial South Asia to shifts in emotional norms, which positioned visceral
emotion as an admirable marker of zeal. Thus, for example, the Muslims of
Kanpur, after facing spiritual disparagement by British colonisers, responded
to the partial demolition of a mosque with highly emotive processions, and
clashes with the colonial police: acts which were intended to embody
politically relevant emotions, specifically the zeal of martyrs at the storied
Battle of Karbala.47 A careful reading of sources relating to seemingly ‘vio-
lent’ outbursts in other contexts can similarly help to reveal the underlying
logic of crowd behaviour.
The contours of any performative space can be reconstructed, provided
evidence remains of ‘observable action’, and spectators’ responses to it. An
examination of hagiographies, chronicles and monuments could potentially
provide insights into the practices of medieval religious communities. A cross-
section of memoirs, superintendents’ diaries, rule books, medical case notes,
police reports, photographs and contemporary novels can be used to recon-
struct the emotional repertoires produced by formal and informal institutions
(schools, hospitals, churches, prisons, neighbourhoods, sporting clubs). Film,
images, ephemera and oral history interviews can be used to re-create the
experiences of people in modern arenas; Benno Gammerl, for instance, has
combined photographs and oral history testimony to uncover the spatial
settings and feeling rules that shaped the performative spaces of diverse gay
men’s venues in West Germany.48
Visual sources are integral to the study of bodies and performance in the
age of photographic reproduction, though attention needs to be paid to the
camera as an agent of the performative space. Bodies are often staged for
purportedly ‘candid’ shots or ‘objective documentary photos’,49 and so the
historian of emotional practices must take care to consider the cultural
ideals and editorial priorities framing the production of images, as well as
the rehearsed or even habituated responses of observers to a camera lens.
The presence of a recording device at everyday events – dinner parties, cel-
ebrations, weddings, funerals – may prompt adherence to specific display
rules. Documentary evidence can bring these tensions to light. For instance,
during the Victorian era, as photographic portraits became more common,
trade journals agonised over whether, and in what ways, the presence of
photographers and their machines influenced the expressions of sitters.50
Such sources hint at prevailing anxieties over technology, and its relation to
the body and emotion. They also, perhaps, provide fleeting evidence of the
evolution of the habitus – reflections on bodies learning to respond to the
camera.
 Emotions and the body 233
Feeling bodies
Bodies are moved or affected – often in relation to other bodies and the
environment. It is through feeling bodies that social formations come into
being, and ideologies inculcated. To date, much of the research into the his-
tory of feelings has drawn from methodological approaches developed in
cultural studies. A prominent, though contested, method for reclaiming
experience from sources has been to read for the production and circulation
of ‘affect’, broadly defined as ‘the embodied, sensate aspect of mental and
emotional activity’. Theorists of affect have conceived it as an intensity that
precedes, or in some way is independent of, language or cognition.51 From
this basic premise, it has been argued that certain arrangements of spaces and
objects create affective ‘atmospheres’ which impress upon bodies, with various
social and political implications.
Recent work has critiqued the notion of autonomous affective responses;52
seemingly involuntary bodily responses are more productively thought of as
habits, ‘executed by a knowing body’ according to acquired cultural scripts.53
As Scheer notes, communities enact emotional practices to create meaningful
feelings and aesthetic experiences.54 It is often with recourse to other objects
that such embodiments are enacted; works of art, broadly defined, help evoke
‘sensual resonances’ which in turn communicate emotions, and thus con-
tribute ‘to the formation of identity and self-expression’.55
The same can be said for any aesthetic or sensory engagements that are
enacted for ritual or political purposes. In Europe’s Middle Ages, for instance,
‘mystic assemblages’ – networks for the circulation of spiritually significant
texts and objects – were constructed in certain religious communities to
rehearse and cultivate specific affects, as a means of creating bonds and
intensifying devotional practices. As Christine Libby notes, such networks are
identifiable by ‘moments of affective excess and/or dissonance … in the tex-
tual record’: in this instance, hagiographies and mystic texts that document
moments of spiritual ecstasy.56 Similar moments can be identified in other
written and visual sources, which can be productively read as technologies for
the mobilisation of bodily practices. Despite the apparent inexpressibility of
affect, as it is defined by some scholars in this field (i.e. as ‘intensities’ or
‘resonances’), habituated feelings are often represented as bodily movements,
carefully scripted according to the dictates of the prevailing emotional regime.
Such instances of feeling provide insights to past actors’ efforts to emote. In
the ‘culture of sensibility’, sentimental spectacles in textual or visual works
provoked rapturous commentary from cultivated spectators, who described
with relish the exquisite feelings these scenes supposedly excited in them:
warm, sensuous or ‘voluptuous’ feelings. Similar arrays of desired or pro-
scribed ‘affects’ are commonly mobilised in textual sources in most emotional
regimes, and their insertion can hint at efforts to attain or cultivate particular
habits or dispositions.
234 Mark Neuendorf
Bodies and faces, or their representations, have traditionally been viewed as
powerful ‘catalyst[s] for feeling’.57 The processes by which such representa-
tions are invested with meanings has thus been a focus of much research in
the fields of affect studies, and the history of emotions. As Leila Dawney
notes, ‘[p]olitical formations, such as nationalism or militarism, are experi-
enced as feeling: they are lived, known and felt through and between
bodies’.58 To the historian, the encounter of publics with ‘material-affective
entities’ – representations (usually of bodies) that enact distinctive cultural
scripts – marks a point at which ideologies are embodied, and political
regimes substantiated.59 In the modern period, in which feelings of sympathy
have become associated with corporeal sensation,60 the spectacle of the body
in pain assumed unprecedented significance to Western publics, for its pre-
sumed capacity to induce such feelings in observers. Visceral depictions
of abject or wounded bodies were increasingly found to ‘create a sense of
property in the objects of compassion’, implicating spectators in the plight of
unfortunates, and so creating a moral imperative to act against perceived
injustices.61 Abject bodies became sources of authority which, in social refor-
mers’ words, ‘spoke for themselves’; graphic depictions, in both word and
image, thus became the stock-in-trade of any number of social reformist and
public health texts: medical case notes and textbooks, hygienist treatises,
abolitionist tracts, autopsies and parliamentary inquiries.
By the age of photographic reproduction, the political import of broken
bodies needed little explanation; images of the sombre figure of infant refugee
Alan Kurdi, drowned and washed ashore on a beach in Turkey in 2015, were
widely distributed in the assumption that their affective force would implicate
Western viewers in the figures’ suffering. Such is the nature of these depic-
tions, and associated affects, that they were (and continue to be) mobilised in
support of both ‘progressive’ and ‘reactionary’ causes. Depictions of the dirty
or degraded bodies of the working poor in nineteenth-century medical jour-
nals or parliamentary debates served the interests of medical imperialism or
industrial capitalism. Written descriptions or images of war dead, or wounded
ex-service-people have been circulated in service of nationalism’s affective
politics from at least the nineteenth century; as Dawney points out, selective
staging of disabled service-people by military charities in the twenty-first cen-
tury – with images often circulated in carefully edited television specials – utilises
the affective force of wounded bodies to ‘[tie] the bodies of publics’ to the wider
cause that the soldiers represent.62
Feeling bodies are integral to the production of social bodies. An assump-
tion in affect studies is ‘that we are not self-contained in terms of our ener-
gies’; affect, however defined, has been shown to be readily transmitted
between individual bodies and environments.63 Scheer points out that the
presence of others, or expressive crowds, ‘can cause us to do an emotion’, and
this sort of response is often habitual.64 Collective emotions, however
seemingly irrational, can reflect communities’ learned bodily habits. In exam-
ining early modern accounts of crowd paranoia over the presence of the
 Emotions and the body 235
undead in eastern Europe, Stephen Gordon interprets collective displays of
fear as part of an attempt to ‘restore cohesion’ in a traumatised group, emo-
tions that were likely mimetically performed by people habituated into the
same emotional repertoire.65
In some cases, elaborate ritual is employed to unite bodies through feeling.
Evidence of communal emotional practices can be determined by examining
both ethnographic writings and artefacts or archaeological findings. John
Laurence Creese, for instance, has shown that alliances amongst Northern
Iroquois societies were negotiated through elaborate ‘emotion work’, focused
around ‘persistent attentions’ on the body and objects (e.g. communal cele-
brations, personal grooming, adornment, sharing of goods and pipes).66
Religious groups have, historically, sought to strengthen cohesiveness or assert
their authority through ritual processions. Early modern religious processions,
for example, used rehearsed chants, sermons and other devotional activities to
create ‘a visual and aural spectacle’ that was ‘intended to unite communities
through physical participation in an emotional ritual’.67 The significance of
such events is testified by surviving documentary evidence and devotional
objects dating back to Europe’s classical era.
The figurative or physical effects of collective emotions can be read in his-
torical sources from the use of physiological or corporeal terms. Observers
across the long eighteenth century conceptualised crowd behaviour using the
language of sympathy and emotional contagion developed in contemporary
medical and philosophical works. Just as it was assumed that the nervous
system communicated disorder sympathetically between the body’s organs, so
too did writers conceive of sympathy transmitting potentially ‘disruptive
energies’ between individual bodies; in the words of the eighteenth-century
physician Robert Whytt, sympathy between persons communicated ‘various
motions and morbid symptoms … from one to another, without any corpor-
eal contact or infection’.68 Influenced by popular mesmerism, nineteenth-
century writers in Europe and the United States described charismatic orators
as affecting crowds through ‘animal magnetism’.69 The trope of electrical
currents running through excitable crowds is a commonplace of reporting on
popular entertainments and political mobilisation in the modern sensation
cultures. The use of such terms in historical sources point to the assumed
embodied feeling produced by a crowd, as well as contemporaries’ efforts to
understand, interpret and communicate affect.
As with other depictions of bodies, it is possible that the emotional values
of crowds and outsiders differ, creating obstacles to communication, and
leading sometimes to disharmony. Whether communal fellow-feeling is
praised in a source as a vehicle for humanitarian cohesion, or denounced as a
harbinger of insurrection depends largely on the author’s identity, and the
direct political and intellectual context. Ruling-class opponents to popular
movements have, historically, viewed crowds with trepidation, with social and
racial prejudices tending to obscure or erase the political will of mass move-
ments – and indeed the individuality of those bodies making up the movement.
236 Mark Neuendorf
This is reflected in the tropes and terms used to describe crowds. Popular protests
can be typecast using generic descriptions of monstrosity or ill-discipline (e.g. the
unruly or impressionable ‘mob’); concerned with the social unrest in France
around the 1840s, Charlotte Brontë, for instance, described the people as suffer-
ing ‘spasms, cramps and frenzy-fits’.70 Consideration is needed when reading
highly partisan sources about crowds, with the emotional communities of both
participants and observers taken into account.71 Where possible, a range of texts
and images, produced by people from different perspectives, should be consulted,
to allow for a critical evaluation of the atmosphere of the crowd.

Conclusion
Scholars, working from a range of methodological perspectives, have made sig-
nificant inroads into the recovery of the history of experience. Emotions come
into being through practices, and a careful reading of historical sources – be they
textual, visual or tactile – allows historians to document the processes by which
the learning body habituates particular dispositions. The impact of space and the
environment on bodily practices can be revealed through the consultation of
sources that convey ‘traces of observable action’. Various affective objects – often
visual or textual representations of bodies – are involved in the articulation of
feeling. When examined together, combinations of such sources provide a useful
basis for examining the feeling self, and its place in the world.

Notes
1 Catherine Gallagher and Thomas Laqueur, ‘Introduction’, in The Making of the
Modern Body, ed. Catherine Gallagher and Thomas Laqueur (Berkeley: University
of California Press, 1987), vii.
2 Frances E. Mascia-Lees and Patricia Sharpe, ‘Introduction: Soft-Tissue Modifica-
tion and the Horror Within’, in Tattoo, Torture, Mutilation, and Adornment: The
Denaturalization of the Body in Culture and Text, ed. Frances E. Mascia-Lees and
Patricia Sharpe (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992), 1–9 (2).
3 Karen Harvey, ‘The Body’, in Early Modern Emotions: An Introduction, ed. Susan
Broomhall (London: Routledge, 2017), 165–8 (165).
4 Rob Boddice, A History of Feelings (London: Reaktion Books, 2019), 9, 11.
5 Ibid., 11; Rob Boddice, ‘The History of Emotions: Past, Present, Future’, Revista
de Estudios Sociales 62 (2017): 10–15 (14).
6 Monique Scheer, ‘Are Emotions a Kind of Practice (And Is That What Makes
Them Have a History)? A Bourdieuian Approach to Understanding Emotion’,
History and Theory 51 (2012): 193–220.
7 Pascal Eitler, Bettina Hitzer and Monique Scheer, ‘Feeling and Faith – Religious
Emotions in German History’, German History 32, no. 3 (2014): 343–52 (345).
8 Barbara Duden, ‘Heterosomatics: Remarks of a Historian of Women’s Bodies (à
propos the History of the Greek Orders of Columns by Joseph Rykwert)’, RES:
Anthropology and Aesthetics 47 (2005): 247–50 (247).
9 Scheer, ‘Emotions’, 218.
10 Barbara Rosenwein, Emotional Communities in the Early Middle Ages (Ithaca:
Cornell University Press, 2006), 29.
11 Scheer, ‘Emotions’, 217.
 Emotions and the body 237
12 Ibid., 217–18.
13 Sarah Tarlow, ‘Emotion in Archaeology’, Current Anthropology 41, no. 5 (2000):
713–46 (728).
14 Stephen D. Houston, ‘Decorous Bodies and Disordered Passions: Representations
of Emotion among the Classic Maya’, World Archaeology 33, no. 2 (2001): 206–19
(215).
15 Rosemary A. Joyce, ‘Archaeology of the Body’, Annual Review of Anthropology 34
(2005): 139–58 (145).
16 Scheer, ‘Emotions’, 218.
17 Inger Leemans, ‘Comment: Embodied Emotions from a Dutch Historical Per-
spective’, Emotion Review 8, no. 3 (2016): 278–80 (280); Scheer, ‘Emotions’, 218.
18 Kirsi Kanerva, ‘Porous Bodies, Porous Minds: Emotions and the Supernatural in
the Íslendingasögur (ca. 1200–1400)’ (PhD thesis, University of Turku, 2015), 97.
19 Michael Stolberg, ‘Emotions and the Body in Early Modern Medicine’, Emotion
Review 11, no. 2 (2019): 113–22 (113–15).
20 Scheer, ‘Emotions’, 218.
21 Joanna Bourke, ‘Fear and Anxiety: Writing about Emotion in Modern History’,
History Workshop Journal 55 (2003): 111–33 (123).
22 Rob Boddice, ‘Introduction: Hurt Feelings?’, in Pain and Emotion in Modern His-
tory, ed. Rob Boddice (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 1–15 (1).
23 Scheer, ‘Emotions’, 212.
24 Alison Searle, ‘“A Kind of Agonie in my Thoughts”: Writing Puritan and Non-
conformist Women’s Pain in 17th-Century England’, Medical Humanities 44
(2018): 125–36.
25 Karen Harvey, ‘What Mary Toft Felt: Women’s Voices, Pain, Power and the
Body’, History Workshop Journal 80 (2015): 33–51 (43).
26 Duden, ‘Heterosomatics’, 248.
27 William Reddy, The Navigation of Feeling: A Framework for the History of Emo-
tions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 128.
28 Laura Otis, Banned Emotions: How Metaphors Can Shape What People Feel
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2019), 4.
29 Joachim C. Häberlen and Jake P. Smith, ‘Struggling for Feelings: The Politics of
Emotions in the Radical New Left in West Germany, c.1968–84’, Contemporary
European History 23, no. 4 (2014): 615–37 (623–5).
30 Beatriz Pichel, ‘From Facial Expressions to Bodily Gestures: Passions, Photo-
graphy and Movement in French 19th-century Sciences’, History of the Human
Sciences 29, no. 1 (2016): 27–48.
31 Scheer, ‘Emotions’, 217
32 Paul Goring, The Rhetoric of Sensibility in Eighteenth-Century Culture (Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 5–6.
33 Janet Todd, Sensibility: An Introduction (London: Methuen, 1986), 5.
34 See, e.g., Carol Z. Stearns and Peter N. Stearns, Anger: The Struggle for Emotional
Control in America’s History (London: University of Chicago Press, 1986); Peter
N. Stearns, American Cool: Constructing a Twentieth-Century Emotional Style
(New York: New York University Press, 1994).
35 Christina Kotchemidova, ‘From Good Cheer to “Drive-By Smiling”: A Social
History of Cheerfulness’, Journal of Social History 39, no. 1 (2005): 5–37.
36 Katie Barclay, Men on Trial: Performing Emotion, Embodiment and Identity in
Ireland, 1800–45 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2019). See also Mar-
grit Pernau, ‘Feeling Communities: Introduction’, The Indian Economic and Social
History Review 54, no. 1 (2017): 1–20 (15).
37 Laura Kounine, ‘Emotions, Mind, and Body on Trial: A Cross-Cultural Perspec-
tive’, Journal of Social History 51, no. 2 (2017): 219–30 (222).
238 Mark Neuendorf
38 Daphne Rozenblatt, ‘Introduction: Criminal Law and Emotions in Modern
Europe’, Zitiervorschlag: Rechtsgeschichte – Legal History 25 (2017): 242–50
(242).
39 Barclay, Men on Trial, 11.
40 Ibid., 13.
41 Laura Kounine, Imagining the Witch: Emotions, Gender, and Selfhood in Early
Modern Germany (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), 54–5; Isabelle Laskaris,
‘Agency and Emotion of Young Female Accusers in the Salem Witchcraft Trials’,
Cultural and Social History (online first 2019), https://doi.org/10.1080/14780038.
2019.1585316.
42 Rozenblatt, ‘Introduction’, 247.
43 Daphne Rozenblatt, ‘The Assassin’s Smile: Facial Expression as Political Expres-
sion’, History of Emotions – Insights into Research, October 2016, https://doi.org/
10.14280/08241.48.
44 Laskaris, ‘Agency and Emotion’.
45 For a useful survey see Una McIlvenna, ‘Emotions in Public: Crowds, Mobs and
Communities’, in The Routledge History of Emotions in Europe 1100–1700, ed.
Andrew Lynch and Susan Broomhall (Abingdon: Routledge, 2020), 216–32.
46 James Jones, ‘“These Intimate Little Places”: Cinema-Going and Public Emotion
in Bolton, 1930–1954’, Cultural and Social History (online first 2019), https://doi.
org/10.1080/14780038.2019.1609801.
47 Margrit Pernau, ‘Anger, Hurt and Enthusiasm: Mobilising for Violence, 1870–
1920’, in Emotions, Mobilisations and South Asian Politics, ed. Amélie Blom and
Stéphanie Tawa Lama-Rewal (London: Routledge, 2020), 95–112.
48 Benno Gammerl, ‘Curtains Up! Shifting Emotional Styles in Gay Men’s Venues
since the 1950s’, SQS: Suomen Queer-tutkimuksen Seuran Lehti, 10, no. 1 (2016):
57–64.
49 Rozenblatt, ‘Assassin’s Smile’.
50 Pichel, ‘From Facial Expressions’, 34.
51 Stephanie Trigg, ‘Affect Theory’, in Early Modern Emotions: An Introduction, ed.
Susan Broomhall (London: Routledge, 2016), 10–13 (11).
52 See, e.g., Ruth Leys, ‘The Turn to Affect: A Critique’, Critical Inquiry 37, no. 3
(2011): 434–72.
53 Scheer, ‘Emotions’, 199–202.
54 Ibid., 212.
55 Erin Sullivan and Marie Louise Herzfeld-Schild, ‘Introduction: Emotion, History
and the Arts’, Cultural History 7, no. 2 (2018): 117–28 (122–3).
56 Christine Libby, ‘The Object of His Heart: Subjectivity and Affect in Mystic
Texts’, Literature Compass 13, no. 6 (2016): 362–71 (369).
57 Stephanie Downes and Stephanie Trigg, ‘Facing Up to the History of Emotions’,
Postmedieval: A Journal of Medieval Cultural Studies 8 (2017): 3–11 (4).
58 Leila Dawney, ‘Affective War: Wounded Bodies as Political Technologies’, Body &
Society 25, no. 3 (2019): 49–72 (55).
59 Ibid., 52.
60 See, e.g., Tara MacDonald, ‘Bodily Sympathy, Affect, and Victorian Sensation
Fiction’, in Affect Theory and Literary Critical Practice: A Feel for the Text, ed.
Stephen Ahern (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019), 121–37 (122).
61 Thomas Laqueur, ‘Bodies, Details, and the Humanitarian Narrative’, in The New
Cultural History, ed. Lynn Hunt (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989),
176–204 (176–7).
62 Dawney, ‘Affective War’, 51.
63 Teresa Brennan, The Transmission of Affect (Ithaca: Cornell University Press,
2004), 6.
64 Scheer, ‘Emotions’, 209.
 Emotions and the body 239
65 Stephen Gordon, ‘Emotional Practice and Bodily Performance in Early Modern
Vampire Literature’, Preternature: Critical and Historical Studies on the Pre-
ternatural 6, no. 1 (2017): 93–124 (98).
66 John Laurence Creese, ‘Emotion Work and the Archaeology of Consensus: the
Northern Iroquoian Case’, World Archaeology 48, no. 1 (2016): 14–34.
67 McIlvenna, ‘Emotions in Public’, 225.
68 Mary Fairclough, The Romantic Crowd: Sympathy, Controversy and Print Culture
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 22, 39.
69 See, e.g., Alison Winter, Mesmerized: Powers of Mind in Victorian Britain (Chi-
cago: University of Chicago Press, 1998).
70 Quoted in Winter, Mesmerized, 332.
71 Barbara H. Rosenwein, ‘Problems and Methods in the History of Emotions’,
Passions in Context 1, no. 1 (2010): 1–32 (12–13).
19 Epilogue
Peter N. Stearns

History is an empirical discipline, which means that, ultimately, historical research

depends heavily on the kinds of sources available for any given topic. Historians
may integrate their empiricism with theory or place their evidence within larger
generalisations; they may explore issues like causation beyond the strict limits of
available evidence. But ultimately they need data, and their work can be evaluated
in terms of the data they have uncovered and on how well they use it.
Historical sources are always a bit tricky, regardless of the specific topic. They
are sometimes hard to find and no small amount of imagination goes into dis-
covery. They often require careful interpretation because every source is produced
for a particular reason and context that shapes its meaning; the content of a source
can rarely be read at face value. Even when a variety of sources are assembled,
there are often some aspects of the topic that are not fully covered, requiring some
additional, careful interpretation. Historical sources also must often be teased to
reveal experiences well beyond what their creators intended to convey.
As the chapters in this book suggest, the history of emotion poses some par-
ticularly acute source problems. What kinds of sources can possibly allow jud-
gements about the nature of emotional life in the past? After all, it’s sometimes
hard to figure out emotional life in the present, when the individuals involved
can be directly questioned. Most emotions historians are careful to admit their
challenges, and acknowledge the gaps in evidence that sometimes cannot be
entirely closed. One crucial issue (aside from opportunities in material culture
and art) frequently involves the challenge of language. Historians have to work
hard to understand what emotion words which are familiar in the present meant
in the past and, equally important, to interpret cases where new words are
introduced or old ones drop away.
But the chapters in this volume also suggest, correctly, that emotions his-
torians, despite being a fairly new breed, have been very imaginative in
uncovering a wide range of evidence. Many have begun their work with some
of the more obvious opportunities, like prescriptive literature, or the musings
of philosophers like Aristotle or Confucius, or some of the more readily
available artistic portraits. But the field by now has gone well beyond these
initial forays (which, however, remain vital and useful), to deal with court
records, letters, diaries and social media, and so on.
 Epilogue 241
These steadily expanding empirical opportunities have allowed emotions
historians to connect their work to a wide array of additional topics, like
social protest or technological change. They are beginning to allow analysis of
the emotional experience of social groups, like workers or immigrants, that
once seemed impossibly elusive compared with the more abundant evidence
available on the middle and upper classes.
Additional discovery is also beginning to expand the field beyond its initial
focus primarily on the experience of Western societies (in Europe, but also
‘settler’ societies like Australia or the United States). Much remains to be
done, and some societies offer a somewhat different array of sources from
those more familiar in the Western past. But, as one of the previous chapters
suggests, careful work on sources is beginning to allow some comparative
analysis; another desirable next step in the field.
One point is abundantly clear, as the preceding essays collectively suggest:
the history of emotions depends heavily on a capacity to combine different
kinds of sources, in making judgements about past emotional experience and
about significant changes in this experience over time. On many topics it may
seem sensible first to explore sources that suggest what kinds of emotional
standards are being ‘officially’ recommended in a society, through prescriptive
materials, religious treatises and so on. But to get beyond the level of recom-
mendations, it is vital to look for other evidence, and this is where legal
records, or artefacts or diaries come into the picture. Diversity of sources is
important for many fields of history, but it stands tall in the emotions field.
Another vital aspect of emotions history, emphasised particularly in some
of these introductory essays, involves the need and opportunity for inter-
disciplinary interactions, even as historians of emotions go about their work
in uncovering and analysing historical sources. In some cases, collaboration
with linguists proves vital, and there are good examples of this in the analyses
of changing word use. Interaction with scholars who deal with literature, or
art, or material culture has produced important insights, and sometimes
applies directly to the ways relevant sources are discovered and analysed. But
emotions historians also need to work actively with sociologists, psychologists
and even neuroscientists, taking advantage of their findings but also seeking
to contribute a vital historical dimension – including an explanation of the
sources of evidence available and how they can be handled. Here, too, there is
abundant opportunity for the future.
As essays in this collection attest, historical methodologies in the field of
emotions history have developed. Approaches have been designed to help
interpret source material with greater sophistication and nuance. Yet, prac-
tical and ethical issues continue to be uncovered. We continue to confront and
deal with concerns about whose voices, and whose emotions, to highlight. We
understand that the researcher–subject relationship too is important and so
we work on recognising not only how emotions helped to create the source
but on how we are shaped by our emotional engagement with the past.
Finally, the future is where these essays aim, even as they discuss the kinds of
242 Peter N. Stearns
sources that have been brought into play thus far in the history of emotion.
There is so much still to accomplish. Some emotions or emotion-related
experiences have not been explored very well – one historian has cited the
challenge of doing a history of joy, for example. Certain social groupings need
more attention. The regional dimension, in moving beyond the Western
experience, offers obvious invitation. Even for Western Europe, some time
periods (including, in some cases, more recent periods) have received less
attention than others.
So this collection invites scholars and students not only to think about how
sources have been deployed thus far, but to consider next steps. The history of
emotion offers abundant opportunities for student research, to help deal with
some of the many topics that warrant further attention. Many of the sources
discussed in the preceding essays are directly available for student use, though
obviously opportunities vary depending on the topics involved. Student work
has already proved revealing in dealing with challenging subjects like the
history of gratitude or the history of patience, where emotional components
are central. Individual or group projects or, often, active student–faculty col-
laborations will continue to advance the field. Whatever the format, students
can use research opportunities to advance their own skills (useful in many
careers, including but not confined to the historical profession), and they can
really contribute directly to the field as a whole.
The history of emotions remains an exciting venture. It has already depen-
ded on the skills, imagination and diligence of many scholars at various levels
of training. It will move forward as additional researchers lend their talents,
pondering what kinds of sources (established or more novel) and what kinds
of empirically based analysis will generate answers to key questions about the
emotional experience of the past and its evolution into the emotional experi-
ence of our own time.
Index

Introductory Note
When the text is within a figure, the number span is in italic.
Eg, Google Ngrams 56, 59, 61–2
When the text is within a note, this is indicated by page number, ‘n’, note number.
Eg, ethnicity 7, 95, 97n17, 183

Abelard, P. 48 anthropology: comparative emotions

Aboriginal people 95, 191 175, 176; fiction 124; legal records 88;
Aers, D. 120 materiality 161, 166; medicine, science
aesthetic-emotional appeal of fiction 124 and psychology 74–5; practice and
affect: emotions and the body 224–5, ethics 27, 33; religious sources 41, 42,
229–30, 233–6; fiction 114, 117, 119, 45, 49; theories and methods 16–17,
121–4; legal records 79–80, 83, 84, 86–7, 20–1
88; materiality 159–60, 162–3, 163–5, Arbeau, T. 134
166–7; medicine, science and psychology architecture 45, 46, 152, 160, 162–3,
66, 68–9, 71–3, 74–5; performance 127, 165, 176
129, 133, 136–7; personal letters 105; archives: comparative emotions 177;
practice and ethics 34–5; protest 200, institutional records 92–6; legal
204–6; religious sources 41–2, 42–5, records 79–80, 81, 83, 86–8, 88–9;
45–6, 47–8; technology 218, 220; materiality 168; performance 129, 139;
theories and methods 15–16, 16–17, 20, personal letters 101–2; primary
21, 23n15; theory 16–17, 23n16, 74, 233; sources 3; protest 203, 207–8
visual sources 152–3 Aristotle 18, 67–8, 69, 130, 136, 199, 240
affective computing 220 Arrangement in Grey and Black No. 1
affective economies 160, 163–5 (Whistler) 144, 154
affective experience 66, 69 asylums 72–3, 95, 148
Africans 69, 88 Attridge, D. 117
African-Americans 154, 185, 188, Augustine of Hippo 42–4
192, 194 Australia: intersectional identities 191;
Ahmed, S. 160, 163–5, 168 legal records 82, 87, 88; materiality
al-Hilal (Cairo-based periodical) 175, 161, 162; personal wartime sources
178–9, 180–1, 181–2 101; protest 203, 207; research in the
Allen, M. 191 history of emotions 3, 6
America see United States automobiles 212–13, 215, 219
anaesthesia 73
ancient times see also Greek; also Latin Barclay, K. 96, 214, 230
67–9, 130–1, 136, 146, 199, 225 Barnes, D. 30
Anglophone countries 70, 80, 82, Bartholomäi, F. 179, 180–1, 182
84, 195 Beethoven, L. van 139
244 Index
behaviourism 60, 72 chronology 6, 8, 28, 108
Berlin 175, 177, 179, 180–1, 181–2, Cicero 130
183, 202 City of God, The (Augustine) 42
Bermuda Group, The (Smibert) 152–3 civil court records 80–6
Bernard of Clairvaux 43–4 classical societies 6
big data approaches 28 collective emotions 45, 89, 203, 231, 234–5
Blackstone, W. 81–2 colonisation 21, 87–8, 95, 186, 190–1,
Blasis, C. 135 193, 232
Boddice, R. 100, 216 Combes, H. 204
Book of Sentences (Lombard) 48 commedia dell’arte 127, 131
Book of the City of Ladies, The (de commissions 143, 145, 149–50, 152, 155
Pizan) 117–18 communication technologies 109, 212,
Bourdieu, P. 20, 160, 224 213–15, 218
Brigham, T. 220 comparative emotions 175–83
Britain: emotions and the body 231–2; Conflict Archive on the Internet for the
feminism 207; intersectional identities Northern Irish Troubles (CAIN)
191, 193; legal records 82; objects with 203, 208
agency 161; personal sources 100–2; Confucianism 53–4, 240
prescriptive literature 57, 62; protest consumerism 30, 58, 165, 230
207; research in the history of contingent universals 17, 29, 75, 115,
emotions 3, 6 119, 123–4
Broomhall, S. 96, 167 Copley, J. S. 150, 151
Buchanan, T. C. 203 Coroners’ Courts 83, 85, 94
Buddhism 43, 45 Crenshaw, K. 185–6
Bulwer, J. 131–2 criminal court records 3, 80–6, 194
Butler, J. 186, 228 crowd 82, 154, 200–2, 203, 205, 218,
231–2, 234, 235, 236
CAIN (Conflict Archive on the Internet Crowe, E. 153–4, 155
for the Northern Irish Troubles) Crozier-De Rosa, S. 11, 205
203, 208 cultural comparisons 58, 123–4,
Cairo 175, 177–8, 178–9, 180–1, 175–83, 224
181–2, 183 cultural scripts 121, 224, 227–8, 233–4
Canada 95, 101 cultural values 19, 43, 56, 57–8, 100,
Carnegie, Dale 57, 61 163–5, 167–8
Carrington, T. 181 Currier & Ives (print workshop) 149–50
case records 94–6
Cassian, J. (360–435 AD) 44 dance 10, 127–8, 128–30, 134–6, 137, 139
categories of identity 188, 189 Darwin, C. 16, 71, 72, 74
Catholicism 48, 63, 147, 165, 204, 208 Dauphin, C. 107
Chance, J. 119 Dawney, L. 234
change identification 58–9 de Pizan, Christine 115, 116–19
children 4, 5, 7, 55–9, 60, 93, 94, 120, decolonising archives 80, 87–8
123, 144, 148, 152–3, 164, 179, 191, Denora, T. 140
192, 205 Descartes, R. 70, 71
China 6, 53–4, 69, 147, 206 diaries: comparative emotions 176;
Chirologia (Bulwer) 132 emotions and the body 226–7, 229,
choreography 129, 134–6, 140 232; evidence 240–1; intersectional
Christianity: fiction 117, 120–1; identities 194; legal records 81, 85,
intersectional identities 189, 190–2; 89; performing emotions 129, 139;
materiality 162, 166; missionaries 179, personal narratives 99–100, 102,
191; religious sources 41–9; research in 108–9; practice and ethics 27;
the history of emotions 6 see also prescriptive literature 58; source
Catholicism; Protestantism; materials 3, 7, 10; technology 213,
Reformation 217–18; theories and methods 21
 Index 245
digitisation: medical sources 67; newspapers emotional practices: comparative
82; personal narratives 101–2; emotions 175, 176–7, 180, 182–3;
prescriptive literature 56; protest emotions and the body 160, 224–5,
sources 199, 203, 207–8, 209 227–8, 229, 232–3, 235; medicine,
Dilthey, W. 122 science and psychology 72; new
diplomatic archives 88, 92 research directions 20–1; performing
Downes, S. 121, 164 emotions 132, 140; religious
drama 127–8, 130–3, 135 sources 45
dramaturgy 229 emotional standards: intersectional
Duden, B. 227 identities 187–8, 189–90, 193, 194;
Durkheim, E. 166 legal records 85, 86, 89; personal
narratives 105; prescriptive literature
early modern period: emotions and the 53, 56–7, 58, 62–3; research in the
body 226, 228, 230, 234–5; legal history of emotions 5, 7, 8, 9, 11;
records 81, 84; medicine, science and source materials 241; visual sources
psychology 69–71; performance 127, 143, 154–5
129, 130–1; practice and ethics 28, 30; emotional stickiness 21, 163–4, 168
religious sources 43; research in the emotional styles: emotions and the body
history of emotions 6; technology 217; 227, 230; intersectional identities 194;
visual sources 151 performance 131; personal letters 214;
economic history 30–1 prescriptive literature 60; working
Egypt 147, 175, 178, 181–2, 183 class protest 203
eighteenth century: emotions and the emotional translations 20–1, 56, 75, 83,
body 227, 229, 235; intersectional 121, 139, 167
identities 188; performing emotions emotional values 163–5, 165–6, 167, 168
127, 129, 131, 133, 135–7, 140; emotions in fiction 114–25
personal narratives 99–100; practice empathy 32–4, 122, 194, 202, 216
and ethics 26, 30–1; prescriptive EMT (Extended Mind Theory) 20
literature 58, 59, 61; religious sources engagement: embodied emotions 160;
44; research in the history of emotions feeling bodies 233; fiction 117, 120–1,
6; technology 214; visual sources 124; medicine, science and psychology
148–9, 151–2, 156nn5–6 70; with the past 241; performance
Ekman, P. 16, 22n11, 74, 175 137, 140; practice and ethics 26–7, 34
Elias, N. 15, 18, 19, 28 Enlightenment period 71–4
embodied emotions 34, 160–1, 224–36, ephemera: emotions and the body 229,
225–8, 228–32, 233–6 232; enabling future research 9; legal
emotional communities: emotions and records 79; performance 129; personal
the body 226, 236; intersectional narratives 109; protest emotions 202,
identities 191, 194; legal records 86; 203, 207
and materiality 165–6; performing epistolary practices 102–4, 104–5,
emotions 128, 136; personal letters 106, 107
105; research in the history of ethics 9, 26–35, 44, 67, 71, 73
emotions 7, 8; technology 214; ethnicity 7, 95, 97n17, 186
theories and methods 15, 19–20 ethnography: feeling bodies 235; felt
emotional cultures 5, 93, 95, 206 judgements 33; legal records 80, 86,
emotional differences 4, 21, 128, 87–8, 89; medicine, science and
175, 178 psychology 75; performance 139–40;
emotional interactions 4, 21, 165 theories and methods 17–18, 24n33
emotional norms: emotions and the body Europe: comparative emotions 178, 183;
225–6, 231–2; enabling future research emotions and the body 226, 233, 235;
11; institutional records 93, 95; epilogue 241–2; fiction 116, 124;
intersectional identities 190, 192, 193, institutional records 95; intersectional
195; legal records 80, 83, 86; new identities 188; legal records 80, 87–8;
concepts 19–20; technology 213, 217 materiality 162; performing emotions
246 Index
130, 134; personal narratives 100, 102; 167; practice and ethics 31; religious
practice and ethics 30; prescriptive sources 48; research in the history of
literature 58, 61; religious sources 41; emotions 6, 8; technology 214–16
research in the history of emotions 6; Geospatial Technologies (GT) 216
theories and methods 21; visual Gerber, D. 103, 104, 106
sources 149, 151 Germany: accessing sources 101;
Extended Mind Theory (EMT) 20 comparative emotions 175, 176, 179,
182, 183; emotions and the body 227,
family: historians 4, 37n30, 145; relations 232; emotions in fiction 122; emotions of
54, 56, 59, 103, 144 protest 199; performing emotions 137,
fear 5, 9, 14n25, 16, 41, 44, 48, 57–61, 140; research in the history of emotions 3,
73, 131, 133, 135, 137, 154, 162, 190, 6; technology 219; theories and methods
199, 201, 204–5, 227, 235 15; visual sources 143
Febvre, L. 15–16, 18, 19 gestures: emotions and the body 225–6,
feeling bodies 233–6 228, 231; enabling future research 10;
feeling rules 5, 86, 105, 224–5, 227, performing emotions 129–30, 130–2,
229–30, 232 135–6; religious sources 43, 47–8;
Felski, R. 119 theories and methods 20–1
felt judgements 18, 32–5 Goffman, E. 186, 228
feminism: felt judgements 34; intersectional Goodman, D. 100
identities 185–7, 193–4; narratives of the Google Ngrams 56, 59, 61–2
self 106, 109; prescriptive literature 54; Gordon, S. 235
protest 198–9, 200, 201, 203, 206–7, Gould, D. B. 201
207–8 Goya, F. 154
Fernandez, L. 11, 214 Great Britain see Britain
fiction, emotions in 114–25, 127–40 Greek 42, 67–8, 76n4
Fillieule, O. 204 Gregory the Great 43
First World War 73, 100, 106, 107 Gross, D. 115
Flam, H. 201 GT (Geospatial Technologies) 216
Florilegium Secundum (Muffatt) 136 Guernica (Picasso) 143–4
folk traditions 227
form and medium 106–8 habitus 129, 160, 225, 226, 232
fourteenth century 114 Haggis, J. 191
framing 69, 120, 228, 232 hagiography 43, 47
France 46, 100, 102, 118–19, 139, 236 Hale, M. 81
Francis of Assisi 49 Hamlet (Shakespeare) 132–3
Frevert, U. 199 Hanna, M. 103, 108
future research 9–12, 96 happiness 54, 56, 57, 67, 121, 130, 163,
178, 181, 201
Galen 68, 69 Harris, O. 160, 161–2
Garrick, David 131 Harvey, K. 226–7
Gell, A. 161, 164, 166 Hausen, K. 181
gender: comparative emotions 177, 182; Hefner, P. 213
emotions and the body 224, 226; Henkin, D. M. 214
emotions of protest 198, 200–1, 202, Hildegarde von Bingen 70
205, 206–8; in fiction 119; institutional Hippocrates 68
records 94; intersectional identities historical contexts: comparative emotions
185–96; materiality 165; personal 175; emotions and the body 232;
narratives 105, 108–9; practice and emotions in fiction 117, 119;
ethics 28, 34; prescriptive literature 55, intersectional identities 195; materiality
58; research in the history of emotions 162, 168; performing emotions 127;
7; visual sources 143–4 personal narratives 100–1, 109; practice
geography: comparative emotions 176–7; and ethics 31; research in the history of
letter writing 102; materiality 165, emotions 11; theories and methods 17
 Index 247
historical time periods see ancient times; language and rhetorical strategies 17,
medieval period; fourteenth century; 43–5, 104–6, 107, 123, 131, 193,
Renaissance period; early modern 198, 199
period; seventeenth century; Latin 41–2, 46, 67–8, 69–70, 76n4
eighteenth century; nineteenth Le Bon, G. 200
century; twentieth century; twenty-first Le Goff, J. 15, 41, 46
century legal archives 79–80, 83, 86–8, 88–9
Hochschild, A. R. 19 legal records 79–89, 241
Hogarth, W. 148, 155 legal testimony 79, 84
Hong Kong 206 legal treatises 81–2
Houston, S. D. 226 legislation 32, 73, 94, 219
Huizinga, J. 15, 18 letters: character 85; family 137; in
human rights 32, 185, 188, 198, legal contexts 86; love 30, 80, 81, 87,
202, 205 103, 190, 191, 211; migrant 101–2;
Hume, D. 28, 71 narrative of self 99–109; newspapers
175–6, 178; persuasive 118; soldiers
identity politics 185–6 100, 102; technology 30, 211–12
idioculture 116–19, 121 letter writers 102–4, 104–5, 106, 107
In Memoriam (Tennyson) 120 Leverage, P. 114
industrial psychology 55, 57, 60 Libby, C. 233
Ingold, T. 166 Linderman, G. 215
insane, care of the 72–3, 95–6, Liszt, Franz 137–8, 139
148, 190 literacy 43, 53, 81, 99–100, 101, 109
institutional records 27, 73, 79, 87, literary history 116, 121, 125
92–6, 177 liturgy 46, 47–8, 49
interdisciplinarity: epilogue 241; materiality lived religion 42, 45, 49
159, 168; practice and ethics 26, Lombard, P. 48
27–30, 35; research in the history of loneliness 8–9, 14n23, 212, 219
emotions 5–6, 9; theories and methods Low Water in the Mississippi (print)
15–16, 21 149–50, 155
intersectional identities 28, 185–96, 198 Ludwig van Beethoven and Intimates
Ireland 82, 186, 190 (painting, Graefle) 139
Islam 6, 43, 232 Lutz, C. 17, 22n8, 175–6
Lydon, J. 191
James, W. 17, 75 Lyons, M. 100
Janin, J. 135 Lystra, K. 103, 214
Japan 54–5, 58, 101, 140, 146, 205
Jasper, J. M. 199–200, 201, 204 Mackie, V. 205
Johnson, C. 200 Making of Modern Law, The (database)
Jones, J. 231 81
Joyce, R. A. 226 Malick, T. 116, 123–4
Marchant, A. 164
Kahlo, F. 145, 155 marginalised people: emotions and the
Kasson, J. F. 214–15 body 231; intersectional identities
Keen, S. 114 186–8; legal records 79, 88; protest
Kholoussy, H. 181 204; visual sources 144, 153–4, 156
King, D. 201 Marx, K. 28, 163, 186
knowledge production 66, 75, 89 Marx, L. 212
Knuuttila, S. 69 Mater Dolorosa 117–18
Kodak 151 materiality 159–68; aesthetics 162–3;
Korea 202 comparative emotions 177; and
Kotchemidova, C. 230 emotional communities 165–6; and
Kounine, L. 230 emotional interaction 159–60;
Kwan, M.–P. 215–16 emotional value and affective
248 Index
economies 163–5; and the body 174, murals 143, 202, 203, 205, 208–9
228; importance of matter 166–7; legal music: comparative emotions 176;
records 87; objects through time 30, performance 127–8, 128–30, 134–6,
167–8; –places and atmosphere 161–2; 136–8, 138–40; research in the history
religious sources 45; theories and of emotions 10; technology 220; visual
methods 21; writing 99, 102–4, 107, sources 149
108, 109 music scores 128–9, 136, 137, 140
Matt, S. J. 11, 214 Muslims 6, 43, 232
McNamara, R. 121
McNamer, S. 121 narratives of the self 99–109, 110n1
medicine 55, 66–75, 85, 95, 177, 188, Nativity 49
227, 232 Navigation of Feeling: A Framework
medieval period: emotions and the body for the History of Emotions, The
226, 228, 233; emotions in fiction (Reddy) 20
114–16, 116–19, 119–22, 124; legal neuroscience 17–18, 20, 29, 66, 75, 176
records 81, 82, 84; materiality 163, New Materialism 21, 34
166; medicine, science and psychology newspapers: comparative emotions
69–71; practice and ethics 28; research 177–8, 178–9, 180, 181–2; emotions
in the history of emotions 6; rituals, and the body 227–8, 230, 231–2; legal
relics and religious rhetoric 41–9; records 82–3, 84, 89; technology 217;
theories and methods 15, 19 working class protest 203
meditative texts 43–5, 118 Ngrams (Google) 56, 59, 61–2
Messner, A. C. 69 nineteenth century: comparative
methodologies: emotions and the body emotions 175–8, 180–1, 181–2, 183;
224–5, 233, 236; epilogue 241; fiction emotions and the body 231, 232, 234;
115–16; institutional records 95; emotions of protest 200; institutional
intersectional identities 185–96; legal records 93–5; intersectional identities
records 87–8; medicine, science and 187–8, 189–90, 195; legal records
psychology 74; narratives of the self 80–4, 88; materiality 161–2, 167;
99–109; practice and ethics 28–30, 33, medicine, science and psychology
35; religious sources 41–2, 49; research 67–8, 71; narratives of the self 99,
in the history of emotions 9, 11–12; 101–2, 103, 106; performing emotions
and theories 15–22 127–30, 135–6, 138; practice and
Mexico 103, 146 ethics 26, 28; prescriptive literature
Middle Ages see medieval period 53–6, 57, 58–62; research in the
middle classes: comparative emotions history of emotions 4, 6; technology
177, 182; institutional records 93; 214–16; theories and methods 16;
intersectional identities 185–8; legal visual sources 143, 149, 151, 154
records 81; practice and ethics 26; Noh (Japanese theatre) 140
prescriptive literature 62–3; protest nonverbal sources 128–9
204; visual sources 149; women 99, non-Western cultures see also Western
109, 185 perspectives 17, 21–2, 89, 127, 196
migration: comparative emotions 182; Northern Irish Troubles 203, 204, 208
emotions of protest 198; epilogue 241; nostalgia 4–5, 16, 35, 104
personal narratives 101–2, 102–3, Nussbaum, M. 18
104–5, 108, 109; technology 214; Nye, D. E. 217–18
visual sources 149
military technology 215–16 objectivity: emotions and the body
missionaries 179, 191 231–2; intersectional identities 187;
monasticism 43–4 legal records 83–4, 86; medicine,
Montagu, Lady Mary Wortley 149–50, 155 science and psychology 66, 74;
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus 129, 137 practice and ethics 26–7, 33, 35
Muffatt, G. 136 objects with agency 161
Munch, E. 143, 145 Olmec statues (Mexico) 146
 Index 249
Ong, W. 213 materiality 160; prescriptive literature
oral histories 27, 31, 89, 109, 219, 231–2 55, 57, 60; and sociology 199–201;
orality 107–8 source materials 3–4, 11; transient
Orchesographie (Arbeau) 134 sources and digitisation 207–8; visual
sources 143; working classes 203–4
parenting 54, 61, 145 Protestantism: embodied emotions 226;
Parents’ Magazine 61 intersectional identities 191; materiality
Peace Monument (Korean) 205–6 165; prescriptive literature 53, 55, 63;
Pearl (poem) 114, 115–16, 119–22, 123–4 protest 204; religious sources 44
Pepperrall Family, The (Copley) psychiatry 55, 85, 94–6
150–1, 153 psychoanalysis 21, 72, 74
performative spaces 230–2 psychology: comparative emotions
performativity 19, 48, 224, 228–32 175–6, 179; emotions of protest 200;
performing arts 10, 127–40 fiction 124; institutional records 94;
performing emotions: emotions and the interdisciplinarity 6, 9, 28–30, 241;
body 228–32; types of performance intersectional identities 190; and
130–3, 134–6, 136–8, 138–40; types of medicine and science 66–75; narratives
sources 128–30 of the self 106; performance 140;
Pernau, M. 21, 160, 163, 167, 232 prescriptive literature 54–5, 57, 59–60;
Perrucci, A. 131 religious sources 42, 44; technology
personal narratives 99–109, 110n1 216, 220; theories and methods 15–16,
phenomenological approaches 124 16–18, 20
photographs: emotions and the body
228–9, 231–2, 234; emotions of protest Quantz, J. J. 137
203, 205–6, 207–8; legal records 80,
85; medicine, science and psychology race 7, 28, 68, 186–90, 194–5, 224, 226
73; performing emotions 130; personal Rake’s Progress, The (Hogarth) 148
narratives 101–2; technology 218–19; Reddy, W. M. 15, 20–1, 29, 33, 84, 122, 189
theories and methods 16; visual redemption 44, 118
sources 143, 144, 145–6, 151, 155 Reformation 53, 165
physiological and psychological relationality 20, 27, 33–4, 100, 101, 164
orthodoxies, postwar 74–5 relics 46–7, 80, 163, 165, 166
Picasso, Pablo 143 religious objects 165–6, 166–7, 168
Pichel, B. 228 religious rhetoric 43–4, 45, 49
pilgrimages 46, 48, 49, 166 Renaissance period 6, 54, 64n6, 156n6
Plamper, J. 16, 216 rhetorical strategies 104–6, 107, 199; see
play scripts 128, 131, 133, 140 also language and rhetorical strategies
Plessner, H. 124 Riis, O. 45
politics of emotions 198, 201, 202, 208 Rites of Passage (van Gennep) 48
portraits 15, 129–30, 144–56, 229, 232, 240 rituals: correspondence 104; emotions
postcards 203, 214 and the body 225, 231, 233, 235; legal
Poublan, D. 107 records 88; materiality 162, 163, 165,
powerful objects 166 166–7; performing emotions 128,
practice theory 20, 160, 224, 225 138–9; prescriptive literature 54;
prescriptive literature 7, 53–63, 149, 151, protest 206; religious sources 47–9
177, 190, 194, 218, 240 rituals, relics and religious rhetoric 41–9
pride 129, 132, 143, 190, 198, 201 Roper, M. 100, 106
primary sources 3–4, 143, 155 Rosenwein, B. H. 15, 19–20, 115, 165,
private feelings 30–2 214, 220
protest 198–209; emotional states 204–6; Ruberg, W. 119
epilogue 241; feeling bodies 236; Russia 101
feminism 206–7; histories 199–201,
202–3; institutional records 96; sacred architecture 46–7, 162
intersectional identities 185, 192; sacred texts 41, 45
250 Index
Saunders, R. H. 144 Statistical Bureau (Berlin) 175, 179, 180
Scheer, M.: comparative emotions 175–7; status affirmation 30–1, 81, 116, 129,
embodied emotions 160–1, 224, 228, 145, 165
233–4; emotional practices 20–1; Stearns, C. Z. 18, 19, 200, 229
emotions in the arts 115, 132 Stearns, P. 15, 200, 203, 215, 229–30
school records 93 Stock, B. 44
Scream, The (Munch) 143 Stoler, A. L. 79, 86
scripts (theatrical) 128, 131, 133, 140 subjectivities: comparative emotions 176;
scriptures 41, 43–4, 47 cultural and historic contexts 162;
Searle, A. 226 emotions and the body 225, 230;
Second World War 101 emotions in fiction 119, 123;
secondary sources 3, 68, 80–1, 182 intersectional identities 187, 191;
self-help books 54, 61, 176, 230; see also personal narratives 106; practice and
prescriptive literature ethics 27, 33–5; theories and methods
self-making 99–101, 106, 109 18–19
self-portraits 144, 145–6, 155 suicides 94
self-representation 192–3 Swartz, S. 96
selfies 144, 145–6
seventeenth century 4–5, 53, 129, 134, Tahiti 88
136, 153 technology 212–20; defining 212–13;
Shakespeare, W. 132, 140 emotions and the body 224, 232, 233;
shame: comparative emotions 181, institutional records 94; performance
182; intersectional identities 193; 130; practice and ethics 28; protest
legal records 86; materiality 165; 207–8; source materials 11; sources
prescriptive literature 53, 57, 59; 217–20; technological change 109,
protest 198, 201, 202, 203, 205–6, 228, 241; tools 213–16; visual sources
206–7; religious sources 44; source 144, 145, 156
materials 4–5, 9, 13n13 telegrams 213, 214–15, 217–18
shamefast 4, 59 Tennyson, Alfred, 1st Baron Tennyson 120
Sheller, M. 215 terracotta warriors (China) 147
Shumway, R. 88 theories and methods 9, 15–25
sibling rivalry 5, 60, 61, 63 Thomas of Celano 49
silences and omissions 195 Thomas, W. I. 102
situatedness 75, 228, 229–30 Tomkins, S. S. 16–17, 74
slavery 153–4, 188, 192, 195, 204 tools and feelings 213–16
Smibert, J. 152 trade union holdings 92
Smith, A. 71 transhistorical emotion 114, 116,
Smith, L. T. 88 119–22, 124
social class 7, 26, 28, 63, 81, 85, 93, 99, transient emotional sources 199, 205,
105, 107, 109, 149, 177, 182, 185–96, 207–8
198, 200, 203–4, 226, 231, 235 translations: cultural context 18, 29, 68,
social mores 100, 105, 147–9, 155 139, 167; emotional translations 20–1,
socialisation 8, 18–19, 56, 93, 224 56, 75, 83, 121, 139, 167; language 21,
sociology: emotions of protest 201–2; 42, 67–8, 69–70, 75, 121, 122
interdisciplinarity 5–6, 27, 28, 241; Tree of Life, The (film, Malick) 116,
intersectional identities 186; legal 123–4
records 86, 199–201; performing Troutman, P. 203
emotions 140; religious sources 45; Truth, Sojourner 185, 192–3
scientific orthodoxies 74; theories and twentieth century: emotions and the
methods 15, 17 body 231; institutional records 94;
Sørensen, T. F. 160, 161–2 intersectional identities 185, 193–4;
Spinoza, B. 71 legal records 82, 84, 87; medicine,
spiritual texts 42–5, 227 science and psychology 67, 74; new
Stanley, L. 109 concepts 19; performing emotions 127,
 Index 251
129–30, 138; personal narratives 101, Weaver, J. C. 94
102, 105, 110n1; practice and ethics Weber, M. 86–7
26, 28, 31; prescriptive literature 54–5, welfare records 93–4, 102
58–9, 60, 61–2; protest 200–1, 202, Western perspectives see also non-Wes-
204, 206–7; research in the history of tern cultures: Christian cultures 41–51;
emotions 6; technology 215, 217, 218; comparative emotions 176; diaries
visual sources 143 108; emotions and the body 224, 228,
twenty-first century: emotions and the 230, 234; emotions in fiction 117, 124;
body 234; emotions in fiction 114; emotions of protest 200; epilogue
emotions of protest 204; prescriptive 241–2; intersectional identities 191,
literature 55; research in the history of 196; legal records 80, 82–3, 88–9;
emotions 3, 6; technology 219–20; medicine, science and psychology
theories and methods 15 68–9; performing emotions 127–8,
136, 140; prescriptive literature 57,
UK see Britain 59, 61–2; research in the history of
United Kingdom see Britain emotions 6; theories and methods
United States: comparative emotions 17–18, 21–2; visual sources 151
178; emotions and the body 230, 235; Wilkinson, H. E. 219–20
emotions of protest 198–9, 202–3, 207, Willard, C. C. 116
208; intersectional identities 185, 186, Wissenschaftsgeschichte (history of
188, 192, 194; personal narratives 102, knowledge) 66, 71
103; prescriptive literature 54–5, 57–8, Woman Holding a Balance (Vermeer) 147–8
61–3, 62; research in the history of Women’s Marches 185, 187, 198, 207, 208
emotions 6; technology 214–15, Woodhead, L. 45
217–18; visual sources 144, 146, working classes: emotions and the body
149–50, 151, 152, 153–4 231; emotions of protest 198, 200,
urban change 175, 177, 181, 182 203–4; institutional records 93;
USA see United States intersectional identities 186, 188;
personal narratives 107, 109; practice
van Gennep, A. 48 and ethics 26; research in the history of
verbal sources 128–30, 134, 138–9, 229 emotions 7
Vermeer, J. 147–8, 155 World War I 73, 100, 106, 107
Virgin Mary 117–18 World War II 101
virtue signalling 145 world wars 15, 60, 101
visual sources 74, 143–56, 168, writing, self-making and emotions 99–101
232, 233
Znaniecki, F. 102
Warner, J. H. 95
Watson, N. 122