MED -TECH 2022 A.Y.

2020-2021, 1 ST SEM

MYCOLOGY-VIROLOGY
LACSON, C.A.

INTRODUCTION TO  Uses organic chemicals for energy

 Mushrooms and Moulds
MYCOLOGY o Multicellular
o Consists of masses of mycelia
DEFINING MYCOLOGY
(composed of hyphae)
 It is the scientific study of mushrooms
 Yeasts are unicellular
 Originated in 1836 by Miles Joseph
Berkley VIRUSES
 Greek terms:
 Acellular
o Mykes – mushroom
 Consists of either DNA or RNA core
o Logos – study of
o Their cores are surrounded by a
 > 50,000 known fungal species protein coat/ capsid
 < 100 are human pathogenic o Proteins coats may be enclosed by a
 Mycoses are pathogenic fungal species lipid envelope
 Replicates only inside a living host’s cell
CATEGORIES OF MICROORGANISMS
 Bacteria – Bacteriology PROTOZOA
 Fungi – Mycology
 Eukaryotes
 Viruses – Virology
 Absorbs/ ingests organic chemical
 Protozoa – Protozoology  May be motile:
 Algae o Pseudopods
o Cilia
Overview
ALGAE
BACTERIA
 Eukaryotes
 Prokaryotes
 Cellulose cell walls
 Unicellular  Uses photosynthesis for chemical energy
 Have peptidoglycan cell walls  Produces molecular oxygen and organic
 Reproduce via binary fission compounds
 Uses organic and inorganic chemical,  Typically found in bodies of water
and performs photosynthesis for their
ARCHAEA
energy
 May be flagellated  Prokaryotes
 Lacks peptidoglycan in their cell walls
FUNGI  Live in extreme environments:
 Eukaryotes o Methanogens – live in areas of high
 Chitin cell walls methane concentration
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o Halophiles – live in areas of high salt NUTRITIONAL STATUS

concentration SACROPHYTES
o Thermophiles – live in areas of high
 Uses non-living organic materials
temperature
 Important scavengers in the ecosystem
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNGI
PARASITES
By Structure
 Uses organic materials from living organism,
 Eukaryotic – with true nucleus
harming them in some way
 Thallophytes – with undifferentiated bodies
 Non-vascular – Without conducting bodies MUTUALISTS/ SYMBIONTS
for the transport of nutrients
 Reproduce by means of spores  Fungi have mutualistically beneficial
o By either sexual, asexual, or both relationship with organisms
 Typically non-motile  Receive energy (in the for carbohydrate)
 Have chitin cell walls directly from a plant or an algal partner
 Mycorrhizae: association of fungi with a
Fungi vs. animals and plants plant’s roots
 Lichens: Association of fungi with algae or
 Fungi are heterotrophic, while plants are
cyanobacteria. Presence of lichens in barks
autotrophic
of tree indicate presence of fresh air
o Heterotrophic – no stems or roots
 Cytoplasmic ultrastructure is broadly similar PHASES OF FUNGI
to plants, but organelles and inclusion differ MOLD PHASE
significantly
 Most fungi store their food as glycogen (like  Consists of cottony mycelial masses
animals); plants store their food as starch  Grows at 25⁰C (room temperature)
 Fungi: digest then ingest; Animals: ingest
YEAST PHASE
then digest
 Their cell membranes are composed of  Creamy; resembles bacterial colony
ergosterol instead of cholesterols  Grows at 35-37⁰C (body temperature)

Fungi and Light DIMORPHIC PHASE

 Fung lacks chlorophyll. Due to this they:  Demonstrates both yeast and mould phase
 Example: Candida albicans
 Are not dependent on light
 Can grow in dark habitats YEAST PHASE
 Can grow in any direction  Unicellular fungi do not form hyphae or
 Can invade interiors of substrate mycelia
with the use of absorptive filaments
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MYCOLOGY-VIROLOGY
LACSON, C.A.

 Oval-shaped measuring about 5-10 um in Aerial mycelia – Contains the fruiting bodies
diameter that produces the reproductive structure
 Budding – process undergone by yeast (conidia and spores).
where it undergoes mitosis, producing a
tiny cell at its border
o The tiny cell eventually grow and
separate from the parent cell

Two types of Hyphae

 Septate hyphae – Contains cross walls

 Aseptate hyphae – Continuous; without FUNGAL LIFE CYCLE AND REPRODUCTION
cross walls

MOLD PHASE
Parts

Mycelium – Intertwining structure composed of

a mass of hyphae

Hyphae – Tubular filaments; the microscopic

unit of fungi. Parts of the hyphae:

o Pore/ Septum
o Cytoplasm
o Cell wall
o Nucleus (haploid) FUNGAL REPRODUCTION: SEXUAL PHASE

  Requires formation of special structures

for fertilisation or nuclear fission to occur
Two parts of the Mycelium  Meiosis follows the merging of cells and
nuclear fusion
Vegetative mycelia (Thallus) – Grows in a  Occurs during stressful conditions
substrate and absorbs water and nutrients  Produces spores
 Perfect fungi – species that undergo sexual
reproduction
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Types of specialised spores in sexual

reproduction

 Ascospores – contained in a ascus (sac-like

nucleus)
 Basidiospores- Contained in a club-shaped
basidium
 Default mode under stable conditions
 Zygospores - Fusion of two identical cell
from the same hyphae FUNGAL REPRODUCTION: ASEXUAL PHASE
 Oospores - Fusion of cells from two  Also produces spores
separate, non-identical hyphae  Imperfect fungi/ fungi imperfecti – species
that only undergo asexual reproduction
The Process
The Process
 (+) = Males, (-) = Females
 Sexual reproduction begins with the  (+) = Males, (-) = Females
production of haploid gametes  Asexual reproduction begins with the
 This haploid gametes are produced by development of the mycelium with spore-
parental fungal cells of opposite sexual producing structures, which would then
types produce the spores
 Plasmogamy – Fusion of compatible  Spores – haploid (n); dispersed and
hyphae; initiates heterokaryotic phase germinates to become a mycelium. In both
 Karyogamy – Fusion of nuclei; initiates sexual and asexual reproduction, spores are
zygotic phase haploid
 Zygote – (Diploid) 2n; best described to be
“zygote-like”
 Spores – haploid (n); dispersed and
germinates to become a hyphae. In both
sexual and asexual reproduction, spores
haploid
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Types of Asexual Spores 2. BLASTOSPHORE

 Also, Blastoconidia
1. CONIDIOPHORES
 Develops as the daughter cell buds off the
 Specialised vegetative hyphae
mother cell that is pinched off
 Also, Conidia
 Ex. Yeast
 Produce singly or multiply in a long chain
 Pseudohyphae – results from elongated
 Phialides – Secondary segment of blastoconidia
conidiophores
Pseudohyphae vs. True Hyphae

 Pseudohyphae – Constricted on the septa;

form branching at the septa
 True Hyphae – No constrictions at the septa

3. CHLAMYDOSPORES
 Also, Chlamydoconidia
Types of Conidiophores  Thick-walled, resistant, resting spores
 Produced by “rounding up” and
 MACROCONIDIA enlargement of the terminal hyphal cell
o Large  Formed during unfavourable conditions and
o Septate and club, oval, or spindle- then germinate when environment
shaped becomes favourable
o Thick or thin walled
o Surface is either spiny (echinulate) Types of Chlamydospores
or smooth
 Terminal – located at the hyphal tip
 MICROCONIDIA
 Intercalary - Located within the hyphal
o Small and unicellular
strand
o Round, elliptical, or pyriform-
 Sessile – Located on the side of the hyphal
shaped (pear) strand
o Types:
 SESSILE MICROCONIDIA –
Born directly on the hyphae 4. ARTHROSPORES
 PEDUNCULATE  Also, Arthroconidia
MICROCONIDIA – Born on  Simple, fragmentation of the mycelium at
the end of a short the septum into the rectangular/
conidiophore cylindrical/ casked-shaped spore
 Thick-walled; adjacent in arrangement
 Have disjunctor cells (empty spaces)
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DEFINING MYCOSES
5. SPORANGIOSPORES  Diseases caused by fungi; those fungi
 Contained in sporangia/sacs that were successful at crossing the
 Produced terminally On barrier and were able to establish
sporangiophores/aseptate hyphae
infections
 Sporulation – rupture of the sporangial
wall, releasing the sporangiospores Classifications of Mycoses
 Zygomycetes – fungi with sporangiophores
 Site of Infection – What body part is
affected?
BOTANICAL TAXONOMY: GENERAL  Route of acquisition - Mode of
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PHYLA UNDER
KINGDOM FUNGI transmission; mechanism by which the
organism enters the body
ZYGOMYCOTA (ZYGOMYCETES) o Exogenous –From the outside
o Endogenous – From the inside
 Generally, coenocytic mycelium
 Type of virulence exhibited – How does
 Produces zygosporangia & zygospores
 Ex.: Mucor, Absidia, Rhizophus
it affect the body? Does it cause mild,
acute, or chronic infection? Does it
DEUTEROMYCOTA (DEUTEROMYCETES) present symptomatic or asymptomatic
characteristics? Is it caused by a primary
 Most of the medically important fungi
 Septate hyphae
or opportunistic pathogen?
 Asexual reproduction o Primary Pathogens – Disease is
 Ex.: Aspergillus, Penicillium caused by the main pathogen
o Opportunistic Pathogens -
BASIDIOMYCOTA (BASIDIOMYCETES) Infection is already because
 Septate mycelium there is already an pre-exist
 Simple septa condition
 Haploid mycelium
Types of mycoses
 Produces endospores (ascospores) in an
ascus Site of Infection/
 Often dominant asexual reproduction TYPES Skin (Tissue)
Predilection
Superficial Mycoses Limited to the
outermost layer of
the skin (epidermis)
INTRODUCTION TO Cutaneous Mycoses Extends deeper into
the epidermis
MYCOSES
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Can also invade the o During these months the body

hair and nails tend to produce more oil and
Subcutaneous Involves the dermis, sebum
Mycoses subcutaneous
 Common site of infection includes the
tissues, muscle,
face, chest area, upper back to the
tendon, and bone
Systemic Mycoses Originated primarily lower trunk, stomach area
in the lungs; may
Identification
spread to many
organ systems  Skin scrapings with KOH – reveals
Opportunistic Infections of
hyphae and spherical yeast under the
Mycoses patients with
immune deficiencies microscope
 SDA (Sabouraud dextrose agar) with
olive (culture media) – creamy, yeast-
SUPERFICIAL MYCOSES like colonies (after incubation for 2-4
days at 30⁰C)
 Confined to the epidermis (specifically,
 Wood’s lamp – Emission of yellow
the Stratum corneum) and/or the hair
fluorescence
 Non-invasive; do not activate any o Device that utilise UV light in
inflammatory reaction or tissue
order to examine the area
response
infection
Species under superficial mycoses

Malassezia furfur Hortaea werneckii

 Spaghetti and meatball appearance  Also, Phaeoannellomyces werneckii,

 Lyophilic (grows in areas where sebum Exophiala werneckii, Cladosporium
and oil accumulate) werneckii

Disease: Pityriasis versicolor (Tinea Disease: Tinea Nigra

versicolor)
 Causes dark to brown painless patches
 Causes hypopigmentation (pale patches) on the soles of the hands and feet
or hyperpigmentation (fawn coloured  Single brown to black scaly patch with a
liver spots) patches on the skin distinct border
 The patches become evident in warm  Tinea nigra palmaris – when the
and humid months condition is only confined to the palms

Identification
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 SDA – Grey, shiny, moist yeast-like cells  SDA - White to cream-coloured,

(incubated at room temperature) wrinkled colonies (incubated at room
 Under the microscope – Brown, temperature for 5 days)
septate, branching hyphae; dark one to o Ring looks like a Powder puff,
two-celled blastoconidia rice pressed in ring form
 Under the microscope – hyaline
hyphae, blastoconidia, and arthrospores
Piedraia hortae

Disease: Black Piedra CUTANEOUS MYCOSES

 Confined to the outermost layer of the
 Infection that occurs in the hairs of the
skin and its appendages (hair and nails)
scalp
 Also, dermatomycoses,
 Hard, dark brown to gritty nodules that
Dermatophytoses
are firmly attached to the hair shaft
 Mild and superficial; others are severe
 Nodules consists of asci (sac-like
 Deeper infections may evoke immune
structures)
response, producing pain and ulcerating
 Endemic in tropical areas like Africa,
lesions
Asia, and Latin America
 They secrete enzymes called keratinase
Identification which digests keratin

 SDA – Green-black, heaped colonies Genera under dematophytoses

(incubated at room temperature)
Dermatophyte Site of Infection
 Under the microscope – Dark, thick-
Hair, skin, and
walled hyphae with swellings Trichophyton
Nails
Microsporum Hair and Skin
Epidermophyton Nails and Skin
Trichosporon beigelli

Disease: White piedra

Disease: TINEA / RINGWORM
 Occurs in the hair shaft
 Has ring-like appearance
 Characterised by a soft mycelial mat
 Red and scaly with a distinct margin
surrounding the hair of scalp, face, and
 Cord-like bumps beneath the skin that
pubic region
resembles a worm
 Appears as light brown, soft nodules
Classification of fungi causing Tinea
Identification
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Classification Source Species

E. floccosum, M.audouinii, T. rubrum, T.
Anthropophilic Fungi Humans
tonsurans, T. violaceum, T. schoenleinii
Zoophilic Fungi Animals M. canis, T. mentagrophytes, T. verrucosum
Free-living M. gypseum, M. manum, T. terreste, T.
Geophilic Fungi
saprophytes ajelloi

Disease: Tinea Pedis Disease: Tinea unguium (Onichomycosis)

 Also, Athlete’s foot, Alipunga  Ringworm of the nails

 Ringworm of the foot  Nails become yellow (discoloured),
 Most prevalent of all dermatomycoses brittle, thickened, and crumbly
 Occurs as a chronic infection of the toes  Onchymycosis - non-dermatophytic
causing crack and peeling of the skin fungal infection attributed to yeast and
 Requires warmth and moisture other fungi
 Caused by: T. mentagrophyte, T.  Caused by: T. rubrum, T.
rubrum, E. floccosum mentagrophytes, E. floccosum

Types

 Toe Web/ Interdigital – Affects the Disease: Tinea manuum

underside of the toes; Maceration that
 Ringworm of the hands, palms, and in-
lead to painful fissure
between of fingers
 Moccasin Type – Affects the later side
 Dry lesions
of the feet; characterised by diffused
erythema scaling  Caused by T. rubrum
 Vesicular – Affects the sole of the foot;
characterised by the acute onset of Disease: Tinea cruris (Jock itch)
bullae
 Also, Hadhad
 Ringworm of the groin
 Presents dry, itchy lesions that often
start on the scrotum and spread to the
groin
 Commonly encountered among athletes
and military personnel who shares
towels or clothing
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 Caused by: E. floccosum, T. rubrum, T.  The warm climate and its interaction
mentagrophytes with cultural practices, occupation and
immune responsiveness increases the
Disease: Tinea corporis
susceptibility of the Filipinos to fungal
 Also, Buni infections
 Ringworm of the trunk/body  (Superficial and Cutaneous) fungal
 Anthrophophilic infection caused by E. infections rank second leading cause of
floccosum, T. rubrum, T. tonsurans consultation. Specifically prevalent are:
 Geophilic infection caused by M. canis, o Pityriasis versicolor
M. gypseum o Tinea corporis
o Tinea cruris
o Tinea pedis
Disease: Tinea capitis

 Also, Tinea of the scalp, Tinea

tonsurans SUBCUTANEOUS
 Ringworm of the scalp MYCOSES
 More common in children  Involves deeper skin layers, including
 Involves the scalp, eyebrows, and the bones, muscles, and connective
eyelashes tissues
 Caused by M.audouinii and M. canis  Caused by soil inhabiting fungi
(Grey-patch ringworm); T. tonsurans  Usually results from the traumatic
(Black-dot ringworm); , T. implantation of foreign objects into the
mentagrophytes (inflammatory) deeper layers of the skin
 In inflammatory tinea capitis, kerion  Infections are of low virulence
(pus) is present

Disease: Tinea barbae

 Ringworm of the beard/mustache

 Usually zoophilic General types of Subcutaneous Mycoses
 Occupational hazard of farm workers
 Caused by T. mentagrophytes, M.
canis, T. verrucosum

MYCOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES

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Subcutaneous Mycoses Fungal Species

Fonsecaea pedrosoi, Fonsecaea compactum, Phialophora
Chromoblastomycosis verrucosa, Cladosporium carrionni, Exophiala jeanselmi,
Exophiala spinifera, Wangiella dermatitidis
Mycetoma Pseudoallescheria, Acremonium, Madurella
Bipolaris, Curvularia, Exophiala jeanselmi, Phialaphora
Phaeohyphomycosis
richardsiae, Wangiella dermatitidis
Sporotrichosis Sporothrix schenckii

Disease: CHROMOBLASTOMYCOSIS Phialophora verrucosa

 Also, Verrucous dermatitidis,
chromomycosis  Characteristic flask-shaped phialides
with distinctive funnel-shaped, darkly
 Lesions are usually confined to the
pigmented collarettes
extremities
 Longstanding lesions have a Cladosporium carrionii
“cauliflower-like” surface
 Characterised by round, brown,
sclerotic bodies called “Copper
Disease: MYCETOMA
pennies”  Supperative and granulomatous
o Histological examination reveals subcutaneous mycosis (capable of
muriform cells with producing pus) which is destructive to
perpendicular septations bones, tendons, and skeletal muscles
Causative agents of chromoblastomycosis  Characterised by swelling with exudate
draining to the skin surface through
Fonsecaea pedrosoi sinus tracts
 May be caused by either fungi or
 Conidiospores arising from dark, septate
bacteria
hyphae
 Colonies are very slow growing with Types of Mycetoma
olive, grey or black colour, and have a
velvety texture EUMYCOTIC MYCETOMA

 Caused by true fungi

 Causative agents: Pseudoallescheria
boydii, Aspergillus, Exophalia,
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Acremonium, Curvalaria, and  Lives on vegetations; found in soils and

Madurella on plants (Rose thorns and splinters)
 Causative agent of sporotrichosis
ACTINOMYCOTIC MYCETOMA
Mycelial Form
 Caused by aerobic actinomycetes
 Causative agents: Norcardia  Grows at 25⁰C
brasiliensis, Actinomadura,  Thin hyphae that septate, branching
Streptomyces with hyaline colour
 Pyriform condia – rosette appearance

Yeast Form
Disease: PHAEOHYPOMYCOSIS
 Caused by dematiaceous fungi  Grows at 35-37⁰C
o darkly pigmented fungi or fungi  Elliptoid budding; cigar-shaped yeasts
with melanin in their cell wall
 Can be Superficial, subcutaneous, or
systemic SYSTEMIC MYCOSES
o may include endocarditis,
 Caused by organisms that have been
sinusitis, mycotic keratitis, and
historically categorised together
pulmonary, and systemic
because they share several
infections
characteristics
o Caused by dimorphic fungi:
Histoplasma, Coccidioides,
Disease: SPOROTRICHOSIS Blastomyces species
 Also, Rose Handler’s disease o Characteristics they share
 A chronic infection characterised by include: mode of transmission,
subcutaneous nodules and ulcerative dimorphism, and ability to cause
lesions along the lymph channels systemic infections
 Occupational hazard for gardeners  Affects internal organs or deep tissues
o Gardeners pricked with thorns of the body
contaminated with the  Most cases are asymptomatic or
organisms clinically mild infections

Sporothrix schenckii Disease: COCCIDIODOMYCOSIS

 Also, Valley Fever, California Fever
 Thermally dimorphic fungus
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 Coccidioides immitis – Causative agent;  Histoplasma capsulatum - Causative

most virulent of all human mycotic agent
agents o Reside in soil, particularly in
 Inhalation of a single spore can initiate areas highly contaminated with
infection bat and bird guano
 Restricted to hot, semi-arid areas of  Infections can range from asymptomatic
southwest USA and Mexico to acute pulmonary disease
o Endemic in San Joaquin Valley  Highest endemnicity: Ohio, Missouri,
California Mississipi river deltas

Manifestations More Information about Histoplasmosis

 Infections are self-limited

 Asymptomatic infections – Pulmonary
disease, Allergic manifestation
 Symptomatic infections – Fever,
respiratory distress, cough, anorexia,
headache, malaise, Myalgias (≥ 6
weeks)
 Symptomatic infections may lead to
secondary coccidioidomycosis

Risk factors for developing disseminated

Cocciodioidomycosis

 Race: Filipinos > African American>  H. capsulatum in association with soil in

avian habitat; it is enrich by alkaline
Caucasian
nitrogen substrate in guano
 Age: Ages at both extremes are more  Human transmission occurs via inhalation
susceptible of microconidia. H. capsulatum spread in
 Sex: Males are more susceptible the air when the guano-infused soil is
 Pregnancy disturbed
 Grows as encapsulated yeast in the body.
 Immunosuppression
Transformation from microconidia into
Disease: HISTOPLASMOSIS encapsulated yeast occurs due to the
warm temperature of the body
 Also, Cave’s disease, Darling’s disease,
 The yeast travel to the lymph nodes 
Spelunker’s disease, blood  different organs. This then
Reticuloendothelial cytomycosis causes systemic histoplasmosis
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 Endemic in central and south America,

and Mexico
Disease: BLASTOMYCOSIS
 Also, North American Blastomycosis,
Gilchrist’s disease, Chicago Disease OPPURTUNISTIC
 Blastomyces dermatitidis – Causative MYCOSES
agent  Fungal infection caused by fungi that
 Most prevalent among middle-aged normally do not induce disease, but may
men (40-60 years old) do so when the person has
 Most infections are asymptomatic, altered/decreased defence mechanism
though some may exhibit flu-like  Endogenous transmission – When
symptoms normal flora becomes pathogenic due
 Granulomatous mycotic infection that to immune suppression
predominantly involve lungs and skin,  Exogenous transmission – Fungi is
but can spread to other organs contracted for the environment by the
 Endemic in Mississipi and Ohio river immune-compromised host
basins  Weakened immune function may be
due to:
o Inherited immunodeficiency
Disease: PARACOCCIDIOIDOMYCOSIS
 Also, Brazilian Blastomycosis, South diseases
American Blastomycosis, Lutz- o Immunosuppresive drugs
Splendore-Alemeida disease o Radiation therapy
 Paracoccidioides brasiliensis – o Cancer
Causative agent; acquired through o Diabetes
inhaling spores or chewing fungal o Advanced aged
infected food o Malnutrition
 Symptoms include: chronic  Most common infections include:
mucocutaneous or cutaneous ulcers Candidiasis, Aspergillosis,
that spread to the liver and spleen Cryptococcosis, Zygomycosis
 In adults: Affects the lungs and causes
Disease: CANDIDIASIS
lesions in the mouth and throat
 Most common opportunistic fungal
 In children: Swollen lymph nodes and
infection
skin lesions
 Candida albicans – Causative agent
 The yeast form takes the appearance of
 Involvesbrasi the epidermal and
a Mariner’s or Ship’s wheel
mucosal surfaces including those of the
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oral cavity, pharynx, oesophagus,  Enhanced by steroids, antibiotic, high

intestines. Urinary bladder, and Vagina level of glucose, and immunodeficiency
 One of the most common cause of
Nosocomial sepsis
 Often associated with protracted CHRONIC MUCOCUTANEOUS CANDIDIASIS
courses of broad spectrum antibiotics,
cytotoxic chemotherapy,  Label given to a group of overlapping
corticosteroids, vascular catheters, syndromes that have a common pattern
Diabetes mellitus of persistent, severe, and diffuse
cutaneous candida infection
Types of Candidiasis  Affects the skin, nails and mucous
membrane
 Develops chronic, raised, crusty and
highly disfiguring keratotic lesions in the
skin, scalp, and oral mucosa
 Starts at early childhood; associated
with autoimmunity and
hypoparathyroidism

Disease: CRYPTOCOCCOSIS
 Cryptococcus neoformans – Causative
agent
 Primary infection is in the lungs, due to
the inhalation of yeast from pigeon, bat,
and bird droppings
o Often presents as meningitis,
pulmonary disease, or
septicaemia
ORAL THRUSH (MONILIASIS)  Cryptococcal meningitis – Most
common disseminated manifestation
 Candidiasis of the tongue, lips, gum,
and it can spread to skin bones, and
palate
prostate
 Appears as white adherent patches
 India Ink preparation – reveals a
consisting of pseudomycelium and
capsule that produces the characteristic
desquamative epithelium with minimal
mucoid colony appearance
erosion on buccal mucous membranes
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Pathogenesis o Infections of the nasal mucosa,

palate, sinuses, face, and lungs
 Rhinocerebral syndrome – Life-
threatening form of zygomycosis; occus
together to those with diabetic
ketoacidosis
o Invasion of the nasal passages
and blood vessels
o Causes thrombosis, infarction,
and necrosis of affected tissues
o Progresses rapidly due to the
invasion of the eyes, cranial
bones, and the entire brain
 Other risk factors include prolonged
antibiotic therapy, corticosteroid
therapy, and immunosuppressive
Disease: ASPERGILLOSIS therapy
 Most common fatal infection seen in
patients with chronic granulomatous Rhizopus
disease of childhood
 Large, sac-like sporangia containing
 Progressive and disseminated disease sporangiospores are characteristics of
can complicate neoplastic disease, the zygomycetes
especially acute leukemia, bone marrow
and organ transplantation
 Causative Agents: Aspergillus
Disease: HYALOHYPHOMYCOSIS
fumigatus, A. flavus, A. niger, A.
 Oppurtunistic fungal infection caused by
terreus
any of a variety of normally saprophytic
fungi with hyaline hyphal elements
o Saprophytic fungi –free-living
Disease: ZYGOMYCOSIS fungi thriving in soils
 Also, Mucormycosis
 Fusarium spp. – causes pneumonia, and
 Caused by Rhizophus, Rhizomucor, disseminated infection with cutaneous
Absidia, Mucor Species lesions among neutropenic patients
 Causes invasive sinopulmonary o Neutropenic – individuals with
infections
low WBC count (neutrophils);
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Patient with neutropenic diets – obtain specimens or those that

diets low on nutrition involve invasive collection (e.g.,
 Causative agents: Acremonium, CSF)
Fusarium oxysporum, Scopulariopsis  Accurate and complete labels of the
specimen containers used
o Must include a minimum of 2
LABORATORY identifiers
o Primary identifiers: Name, Age
DIAGNOSIS OF FUNGAL o Secondary identifiers: Date and
DISEASES time of collection, site of
collection
MOST IMPORTANT STEPS IN SUCCESSFUL
ISOLATION OF ETIOLOGIC AGENTS IM  Specimen should be in the actual
MYCOSES infection site
 Proper collection of specimens o To make sure that normal flora is
 Rapid Transport of the specimens to the not collected
laboratory  Prompt delivery in the laboratory
 Prompt and correct processing of the o To avoid overgrowth of fungal
specimens contaminants
 Inoculation of specimens onto
TYPES OF SPECIMEN, PROPER COLLECTION,
appropriate culture media and
& PATHOGENS PRESENT
incubation at suitable temperatures BLOOD COLLECTION
o Inoculation must occur inside a
biosafety cabinet  Collected by: Venipuncture
 Placed in: EDTA (Purple-top) Tube;
GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR SPECIMEN Recommended: Wright’s or Giemsa
COLLECTION
stain bottles
 Use sterile collection methods and
 Possible pathogens present:
containers to avoid contamination
o H. capsulatum
o Contamination may lead to
o C. neoformans
inaccurate results, leading to
o C. albicans
wrong diagnosis
o B. dermatitidis
 Sufficient quantity of specimens
o Whether you are the receiver or
collector of the specimen,
double-check the amount n BONE MARROW
especially in cases of hard to
 Collected by: Bone marrow aspiration
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o Invasive, not done by MLS

 Placed in: Heparinized (Green-top)
Tube
 Possible pathogens present: SKIN SCRAPPINGS
o H. Capsulatum
o C. Neoformans  Collected by: Clear Skin with 70%
alcohol
o C. albicans
o Scrape the outer edge of the ring
o B. dematitidis
in cases of wringworm
 Placed in: Sterile petri dish
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID  Examination: Microscopic examination
with KOH
 Collected by: Spinal Tap
 Possible pathogens present:
o Invasive, not done by MLS
o Candida
 Amount: 2mL
o Trichophyton
 Placed in: Sterile tubes
o Microsporum
 Possible pathogens present:
o Epidermophyton
o C. immitis
o M. furfur
o C. Neoformans
o Phialaphora spp.
o H. capsulatum
o Candida spp.

NAIL SPECIMEN

CUTANEOUS HAIR  Collected by: Clear nail with 70%

alcohol via a nail clipper
 Collected by: Plucking by the roots
o Scrape the discoloured or
with the use of sterile forceps
hyperkeratotic area
o Select hair that fluoresces,
o Cut into small pieces
broken, or scaly
 Placed in: Sterile petri dish
 Possible pathogens present:
 Examination: Microscopic examination
o Trichophyton or Microsporum
with KOH
spp.
 Possible pathogens present:
o Piedraia or Trichosporon
o Candida
o Trichophyton
o Epidermophyton
o Aspergillus spp.
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 Collected by (SPUTUM): Deep cough

and expel sputum. Saliva should not be
included in the collection
o Collected early in the morning
MUCOCUTANEOUS TISSUES
for 3 consecutive days
 Collected by: Scrapping plaques with  Placed in (ASPIRATE): Sterile Saline
tongue depressor  Examination: Microscopic examination
o Scrape the outer edge of the ring with KOH
in cases of wringworm  Possible pathogens present:
 Transport in: Sterile saline o C. albicans
 Possible pathogens present: Candida o Penicillium
albicans o Mucor
o Rhizophus
o Aspergillus spp.
SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUES: LESIONS AND
ABSCESS
THROAT SWAB
 Collected by: Biopsy or Needle
 Collected by: 2 sterile swabs and
Aspiration
tongue depressor
o Invasive, not done by MLS
 Possible pathogens present: C. albicans
 Examination: Check for presence of
granukes
 Possible pathogens present:
URINE
o Candida
o Cladosporidium  Collected by: Clean catch, midstream;
o C. immitis first morning; catheterised
o B. dematitidis o Catheterised specimen is to be
o B. Fonsecaea transferred into a sterile
o C. neoformans container
o Avoid 24 hr. specimen due to
possibility of fungal overgrowth
SPUTUM, BRONCHIAL WASHINGS, o Process within 2 hrs; refrigerate
TRANSTRACHEAL ASPIRATES to avoid bacterial overgrowth
 Placed in: Sterile container
 Examination: Microscopic examination
and plating of sediments
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o Centrifuge the urine to get the SALINE MOUNT

sediments
 Quick and simple
 Possible pathogens present: C. albicans
 How to perform? (1) 1 Drop saline (2)
(>100,000/ mL)
Examine in LPO (3) When suspected
fungal element is seen, examine in HPO
 Disadvantage: Lack of contrast; makes
VAGINAL, CERVICAL SWABS
fungal elements somewhat hard to see
 Collected by: 2 swabs placed in  Observed fungal elements:
transport medium o Budding yeast
 Placed in: 1 swab = Sterile petri dish, 1 o Hyphae
swab = slide o Pseudohyphae
 Examination: Microscopic examination
with KOH; Plate
 Possible pathogens present: Candida KOH (Potassium Hydroxide) Mount
(heavy overgrowth)
 Rapid and simple testing used to
examine hair, nails, skin scrapings,
fluids, exudates, and biopsies
HAIR
o In hair, infection may be
 Collected by: Sterile forceps/scissors determined whether it is
 Examination: Wood’s lamp endothrix or exothrix
o Emits UV light (>365 um)  How to perform? (1) Drop 15% KOH (2)
o Fungal Species fluoresces Preparation is allowed to clear (3)
 Possible pathogens present: Examine
Microsporum audouinii o KOH – Dissolves keratin, because
it may obscure fungal elements
o Chitin –Seen in fungal cell well;
IDENTIFICATION METHODS OF DIANOSIS: not dissolved by KOH
MICROSCOPIC METHODS
o Heating- Accelerates clearing
 Uses microscope and stains
 Disadvantage: Poor contrast
 Require the keen observation and skilful
 Observed fungal elements:
practice of the microscopist to identify
o Budding hyphae
the fungus
o Yeast – Grows within 24-72
 Needs the performance of confirmatory
hours
testing (i.e., culture, antigen testing)
o Spherule
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 Disadvantage: May be difficult to

interpret due to the presence of
artefacts (e.g., WBCs) that may be
interpreted as capsules
 Observation: yeasts of Cryptococcus
neoformans
CELLUFLOR or CALCOFLUOR WHITE STAIN LACTOPHENOL COTTON BLUE (LPCB)
 CELLUFLUOR – Chemifluorescent  Used to visualise microscopic fungal
brightening agent morphology
o added to KOH solution, for  May also be used in tease preparation
excellent contrast preparation (wet mount) and slide cultures
when examined with fluorescent  How to perform? (1) 1 Drop LPCB (2)
microscope Add cover slip (3) Examine under the
 How to perform? (1) Drop Celluflor + microscope
KOH (2) Examine with fluorescent  Advantage: May be permanently sealed
microscope for inter-studies
 Observation: Cell walls are stained blue- o Use permount or nail polish
white or intense apple-green colour  Observation: blue colour of cell walls

INDIA INK or NIGROSINE PREPARATION HUCKER MODIFICATION OF THE GRAM

 Quick and simple STAIN
 INDIA INK – Colloidal suspension of  Observations:
carbon particles in aqueous solution o Fungi – Stains poorly gram
 How to perform (CSF)? (1) 1 drop of positive
fluid, 1 drop of india ink (2) Direct o C. Neoformans- Appears pale
examination for presence of capsule lavender with blue inclusion
o Capsule appearance: Halos  Inclusion are capsules
against dark background that prevents adequate
o Note that not all Cryptococcus staining
spp. have capsular antigens, such o Oval or Budding Yeast,
in the case of patients with Arthrospores, and Yeast – Stains
autoimmune deficiency well with gram stain
syndrome (AIDS)  Fungal Characteristics under gram stain
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o Hyphae: 2-3x wider than gram-  GOMORI METHENAMINE SILVER (GMS)

positive bacilli – Modification; used for detecting fungi
o Size: 2-3x lager than gram in histologic sections
positive cocci

GIEMSA or WRIGHT STAIN

 Used for the detection of intracellular

PERIODIC ACID- SCHIFF (PAS) STAIN
Histoplasma capsulatum in blood
smears, lymph nodes, lung, liver, or  Stains hyphae of molds, and some
bone marrow yeasts
o Appears as small, oval yeast cells  Obeservation:
that stain light to dark blue o Periodic acid oxidises hydroxyl to
o Usually grows within 24-72 hours form aldehydes
 Used also for the detection of both  Hydroxyl of CHO of cells
intracytis and trophic form of walls
Pneumocystis jivorecii (carnii)  Counterstain: Fast green
 C. neoformans – Stains well with giemsa o Used to provide contrast
or grams stain  Useful for histologic staining

METHENAMINE SILVER NITRATE STAIN HAEMATOXYLIN AND EOSIN (H&E)

 Used for screening clinical specimen  Used for general purpose histologic
 Observations: staining
o Chitin: Oxidised to aldehyde  Best for demonstrating host reactions in
group which reacts with the infected tissues
silver nitrate to form metallic  Stains most fungi; useful for
silver colour demonstrating natural pigment in
 Provides good contrast dematiaceous fungi
and staining
o Fungi: Appears outlined in black
with dark rose to black colour CULTURE MEDIA
against a pale green  Mixture of nutrients need by the
microorganism
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 Consists of:  Cyclohexamide - Inhibits saprophytic,

o Energy source (e.g., carbon, contaminating fungi
nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus,  Chloramphenicol – Inhibits most
hydrogen, oxygen buffers) bacteria
o Dyes and Antibiotics to increase
BRAIN-HEART INFUSION (BHI) MEDIUM
the viability of the
microorganisms  Used for the isolation of systemic
mycoses
 Can be:  Most useful in isolation of pathogenic
o Broth – Liquid form fungi from sterile specimens
o Agar – Gel form
 Must provide:
o Nitrogen (e.g., nitrate, nitrite,
amino acids, urea)
o Carbon (e.g., glucose)
 Types of media
o Primary media - Incorporates
red blood cells and antibiotics
into the general isolation media
o Differential media – Used to
differentiate various groups and
and species of fungi

PRIMARY ISOLATION MEDIA

SABOURAUD DEXTROSE AGAR (SDA)

 General isolation medium

SDA with CYCLOHEXIMIDE and

CHLORAMPHENICOL (SDA-CC)

 Inhibits C. neoformans, some Candida

spp., and Aspergillus spp.
o A medium of this agents should
also be used for initial culture
 Commercially available mycosel or
mycobacterium medium
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OTHER PRIMARY ISOLATION MEDIA

Primary Isolation Media Indication

Brain-Heart Infusion (BHI) agar Isolation of saprophytic and pathogenic fungi from sterile sites

BHI w/ antibiotics
(cycloheximide and Isolation pathogenic fungi exclusive of dermatophytes
chloramphenicol)

BHI w/ biphasic blood culture Recovery of fungi from blood and bone marrow

Dermatophyte Test Medium

Isolation of dermatophytes from hair, skin and nail specimen
(DTM)

Isolation of dermatophytes from hair skin and nail specimen;

Mycosel or Mycobiotic agar inhibitory agents: cycloheximide and chloramphenicol (same w/
DTM)

Primary recovery of saprobic and pathogenic fungi; used for initial

Saboraud dextrose agar (SDA)
culture

SDA w/ cycloheximide and Recovery of pathogenic fungi; saprophytic

chloramphenicol fungi-inhibited
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DIFFERENTIAL TEST MEDIA

Continued on the next page

GERM TUBE PRODUCTION

 Germ tubes appear as early hyphal-like

Differential Test Media Indication

Isolation of Cryptococcus neoformans

Birdseed (niger seed) agar
Forms brown-black colonies within 4-7 days

Stimulation of conidiation and chlamydospore

Cornmeal agar w/ Tween 80 production in Candida species; useful for
differentiation of Candida

Conversion of mold phase of Blastomyces

Cottonseed agar
dermatitidis to yeast phase

Nitrate Reduction medium Confirmation of nitrate reduction in C. neoformans

Stimulation of conidia production in fungi; useful in

Potato dextrose agar slide cultures; Demonstrates pigment production of
T. rubrum

Rice medium ID of Microsporum audouinii

Trichophyton agars (1-7) Differentiation of Trichophyton species

extensions of yeast cells that produce

Differential Test Media Indication

Detection of urease production by C.

Urea agar neoformans; differentiates T.
mentagrophytes and T. rubrum

Detection of carbohydrate assimilation

Yeast assimilation media (carbon or nitrogen) through utilization of carbon or nitrogen
by yeast

ID of yeast by fermentation reactions w/

Yeast fermentation broth
various carbohydrates
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constrictions at the point of origin from  Requires more time and skill than tease,
the yeast cell but allows fungus to be preserved in its
 Generally accepted and most original state
economical method for yeast  How to perform? (1) Inoculate a small
identification block of agar with the suspected
 Most important and easiest test to organism (2) Place the block on the
perform for yeast identification slide placed on a bent glass rod inside a
 Presumptive test for C. albicans petri dish with filter paper (3) Growth
 Requires use of serum or plasma (foetal is observed microscopically with LPCB
bovine plasma)
 Alternatives:
o BHI CELLOPHANE TAPE MOUNT
o Trypticase soy broth
o Nutrient broth  Involves application of double-sticky
tape or cellophane tape (that is lopped
back on itself) to the surface of the
fungal colony
MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION OF GROWTH
 Aerial hyphae – Adhere to the tape,
 Performed in cultures that starts to
which is examined with LPCB
grow
 Involves observation of conidia and INCUBATION REQUIREMENTS
spores for classification  Most fungi grow optimally and more
rapidly at 30⁰C
o If no 30⁰C incubator is available,
TEASE MOUNT
we can use 25⁰C incubator
 Rapid, but often disrupts the original o Some labs use two sets of
arrangement of spores and conidia culture: 1 at 30⁰C (mold phase),
 How to perform? (1) On a slide: 1 drop 1 at 37⁰C (yeast phase). This is
of LPCB + Small portion of colony from because of dimorphic fungi
agar surface (2) Mycelium is teased  Hold plates for 4 weeks until reported
using a dissecting needle (3) Add negative for growth
coverslip (4) Observe with LPO and
HPO

SLIDE CULTURE
MACROSCOPIC EXAMINATION
 Optimal examination for preservation of
fungal morphology
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 Examination of rate of growth, general IMMUNOLOGIC METHODS

topography , texture and pigmentation
 Involves the detection of antibodies
as well as characteristics on differential
(rapid, specific, and sensitive diagnostic
media
method)
TOPOGRAPHY – Best observed on the  Variants:
reverse side of the agar; the inverse side o Latex-agglutination assays –
may be obscured by the aerial hyphae Detects candida; e.g., Pastorex
Candida, Cand-Tec
o Can be flat, heaped, or folded
o Assay methods for Glucan – e.g.,
 Rugose topography - Deep furrows
Fungitec Test
radiating colonies elevated at the
 Glucan - Cell wall found
centre; umbonate colonies may be
in most fungi except
vericosed/ wrinkled
zygomcytes
TEXTURE – Best determined through the o ELISA – Aspergillus-specific
observation of a cross section of the colony; galactomannan; Demonstrates
usually related to the length of the aerial high specificity and high
hyphae sensitivity

 Dense, high aerial mycelia – cottony or MOLECULAR METHODS (PCR)

woolly texture
How to perform PCR?
 Low aerial mycelia – velvety or silky
texture
 Flat, rough, crumbly colonies –
powdery or granular
 Yeast - Glabrous smooth colonies; wet
waxy, creamy, pastry

SURFACE PIGMENTATION and

PIGMENTATIONS

 Another important colonial

characteristics

OTHER METHODS OF IDENTIFICATION

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BIOCHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION – Secondary o Rubella: 6.0

Metabolites o Smallpox: 6.0
o Measles

WHAT IS A VIRUS?
 Small collection of genetic code of
INTRODUCTION TO either DNA or RNA surrounded by a
protein coat
VIROLOGY  It cannot replicate on its own
 Viruses co-exist with human beings
 It must infect cells and use components
 The most deadliest disease are of viral
of the host to make copies of its self
origin
o They pose a great threat to the General Characteristics of viruses
public health
 They are non-cellular. They do not have
 Study of viruses help us answer the
properties of cells, they do not have
following questions:
organelles to support their life
o What kind of organism a virus is?
 Obligate intracellular parasites. They
o What is in it that can cause
need other living things to replicate and
infection in a human body?
reproduce
o How does this virus establish
 Size range from 20 nm (polio virus) to
infection in a human host?
300 nm (pox virus). They are too small,
they cannot be seen by the unaided eye
or even by light microscope
 Composed of nucleic genome (RNA or
VIRUS AND DISEASES DNA) and Protein Coat (capsid)
 Reproduction number – How many
Are you viruses considered to be living
people each sick or infected people can
microorganisms?
infect on average
 The following are the reproductive  There is an on-going debate as to
numbers of some of viral diseases: whether viruses are living thing or
o MERS : 0.8 lifeless particles, ever since their
o Influenza: 1.5 discovery in 1990’s
o Ebola: 2.0  They are not living things, but they
o COVID-19: 2.5 have properties the same as living
o SARS: 3.5 things
o Mumps: 4.5
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o They do not have cellular  Protein shell or coat

composition  Encloses the nucleic acid genome (RNA
o They do not grow or metabolise or DNA) for protection
organic materials  Serves as attachment of naked viruses
o They do not produce waste
NUCLEOCAPSID
products
o They do not utilise energy  Capsid together with the enclosed
o They do not adapt to their nucleic acid
environment  Capsid + RNA/DNA
o They reproduce, but only within
a living cell CAPSOMERE

How do they differ from other pathogenic  Clusters of polypeptide seen in electron
organisms? microscopy on the surface of
icosahedral particles
 Eukaryotes and bacteria are larger than  Considered to be subunits of capsid
viruses
o Only through the use of electron ENVELOPE
microscope are viruses visualized
 Lipid containing membrane that
unlike the bacteria which can be
viewed under the light microscope surround some viral particles
and some eukaryotic cells which can  Additionally responsible for attachment,
be viewed through a naked eye entry, and assembly of matrix proteins

Basis for their Classification VIRION

 Type of Nucleic acid present. Either  Complete viral particle

RNA or DNA  Serves to transfer viral nucleic acid from
 Capsid Symmetry one cell to another
 Presence or absence of lipid envelope  Can cause infection to different host
o Enveloped= With envelope cells
o Non-enveloped or naked =
GLYCOPROTEIN SPIKES
without envelope
 Found only in some viruses
TERMS RELEVANT TO VIROLOGY
 Helps in attachment to host’s receptor
CAPSID
cell
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VIRAL ARCHITECTURE  Contains a single nucleic acid that

HELICAL encodes the genetic information
necessary for replication
 Resembles a helix, looks like a spring
 Ex., Rhabdoviridae and tobacco mosaic VIRAL LIPIDS
virus
o Rhabdoviridae – Causative agent  Loss or disruption of these lipids results
to loss of infectivity
of rabies; more known for having
a bullet shape VIRAL CARBOHYDRATES
ICOSAHEDRAL  Contained in viral envelope as
glycoproteins
 Has 20 faces of equilateral triangles
 For attachment to the target cell
 Ex., Herpeseviridae

COMPLEX
STRUCTURAL COMPOSITION OF SARS-CoV 2
 A structure more complicated that
MEMBRANE PROTEIN
icosahedral and helical
 Ex., Poxvirus  Most abundant
o Poxvirus – Brick-shaped or box-  Defines the shape of the envelope
shaped  Central organiser or central assembly of
the different structural protein

ENVELOPE PROTEIN
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF VIRUSES
VIRAL PROTEIN  Smallest protein component
 Responsible for the protection of the
 Facilitates the transfer of viral nucleic
viral particles
acid from one host to another
 What is targeted during washing of soap
 Protects viral genome against
inactivation by nucleases o Detachment of envelope causes
 Participates in attachment to loss of virulence/infectivity of
susceptible cell virus
 Provides structural asymmetry of viral SPIKE PROTEIN
particle
 Responsible for attachment of the
VIRAL NUCLEIC ACID membranes of the host cell
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 Gives the coronavirus its distinct  Viral particle taken up (fully engulfed) by
appearance the cell
o Corona = Crown
3. UNCOATING
NUCLEOPROTEIN
 Viral capsid is removed and degraded by
 Composed of the nucleic acid genome + viral enzymes or host enzymes releasing
nucleocapsid the viral genomic nucleic acid
o In SARS-CoV2, it is RNA  Physical separation of viral nucleic acid
 Responsible for transferring the nucleic from the capsid
acid genome, such that it will be able to
hijack the machinery of the host cell, 4. REPLICATION
producing more viral particles to attack  Stage of viral replication
the other host cell  Replication of viral genome, synthesis of
viral proteins
VIRAL REPLICATION CYCLE
 Viruses only replicate inside living cells 5. ASSEMBLY
 They utilise the cell’s machinery and  Viral proteins are packaged with newly
energy to synthesise new viral particles replicated viral genome into new virions
 Although there are different strategies that are ready for release from the host
employed, there are 6 steps that are cell
common among all of them  Newly replicated viral genome and
synthesised protein are assembled
together to form progeny viruses (new
1. ATTACHMENT virions)
 Viral proteins on the capsid or
phospholipid envelope interacts with 6. RELEASE
specific receptors on the host cellular  Release of viral particles through
surface budding or lysis
 Interaction with the surface of virion  New virions are released into the
and the receptor site of the surface of environment
the cell
THE VIRAL CYCLE/REPLICATION
 Bacteriophage is an obligate
2. PENETRATION
intracellular virus that specifically infect
 Process of attachment to a specific
bacteria
receptor which results in the fusion of
the viral and cellular membranes THE LYTIC CYCLE
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MYCOLOGY-VIROLOGY
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 A virion takes over a cell and ultimately Steps of the lysogenic cycle
bursts it open, killing it and spewing out
1. ATTACHMENT
the newly assembled virions
 Virus injects viral genome to the host
Steps of the lytic cycle cell, while simultaneously synthesising
early proteins that will cause
1. ATTACHMENT
degeneration of the cell
 Virus injects viral genome to the host
cell, while simultaneously synthesising
2. ENTRY, DEGRADATION, INTEGRATION
early proteins that will cause
 After degrading the host cell proteins,
degeneration of the cell
the virion will start taking over the cell’s
machinery and energy for it to use in
2. ENTRY AND DEGRADATION
replication and synthesis
 After degrading the host cell proteins,
 Integration – A fragment of the nucleic
the virion will start taking over the cell’s
acid genome becomes part of the host
machinery and energy for it to use in
cell’s nucleic acid genome. A hybrid
replication and synthesis
nucleic acid genome is created
composing of the nucleic acid of both
3. REPLICATION AND SYNTHESIS
the virus and the cell
 Replication of viral genome, synthesis of
viral proteins

4. ASSEMBLY AND RELEASE

3. REPLICATION (PERIOD OF LATENCY)
 As more and more virions are created,
 Alongside the host cell’s nucleic acid,
the cell becomes weakened until such
the viral genome replicated for a long
time it will burst open (cellular lysis) to
time
release the new virions into the
 Stressor – A triggering factor that
environment.
activates the viral nucleic acid to
 The newly assembled virions are ready
undergo lytic cycle
and set to infect other host cells
 Examples of stressor include:
carcinogenic particles and chemical, low
nutrient conditions, UV radiation
THE LYSOGENIC CYCLE
4. REACTIVATION
 The viral nucleic acid is integrated into
 Detachment of the viral genome from
the host genome, thereby becoming
the host genome in order to undergo
part of the cell for a while
the lytic cycle
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MYCOLOGY-VIROLOGY
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 Following reactivation these subsequent o They might have similar

steps occur: (5) ASSEMBLY AND manifestations (e.g., fever, chills,
RELEASE malaise)
 The same virus may produce a variety
of diseases
GENERAL PRINCIPLES IN THE
o Ex Coronavirus. It has produced
DEVELOPMENT OF VIRAL INFECTIONS
VIRAL PATHOGENESIS the following diseases: MERS-
CoV, SARS- CoV, COVID-19
 Process that occurs when virus infects a  The outcome in any particular case is
cell, producing a large change to the cell determined by both viral and host
 Different processes that takes place factors
from the time the virus attaches to the o Viral infections relies on the
host receptor cells  time the patient interplay of host factors,
manifests signs and symptoms  environmental factors, and
recovery, succumb, or death of the agent factors
patient
 Its success relies on the interplay of host Steps in Viral pathogenesis
factors, environmental factors, and 1. ENTRY AND PRIMARY REPLICATION
agent factors  The virus attaches to and enters cells of
the body surface
Important principles of viral diseases  Inside the body, the replicated nucleic
acids and synthesised proteins are
 Many viral infections are subclinical assembled to form new virions
o More often than not, viral
infections are self-limiting, 2. VIRAL SPREAD AND TISSUE TROPHISM
asymptomatic, and not severe.  Mechanisms of viral spread varies; some
o They are dealt by proper may produce the disease at the portal of
management and proper care entry, while other spreads it
over time systematically
 Same disease syndrome may be  In systemic infections, the most
produced by a variety of viruses common route for infection are the
o Syndrome – A collection of blood stream and lymphatics
symptoms  Viraemia – presence of virus in the
o Different viral infections do not bloodstream
exhibit signs and symptoms that
are unique to one 3. CELL INJURY AND CLINICAL ILLNESS
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MYCOLOGY-VIROLOGY
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 Destruction of virus infected cells in the  SDG 6 aims to prevent of pathogen born
targeted tissue and physiologic in the faecal-oral route
alterations that are responsible for the
development of the disease 2. VIRAL SPREAD AND TISSUE TROPHISM
 Period of manifestation of signs and  Invasion of the virus to the regional
symptoms. Actual period of the patient lymph nodes, development of viraemia
getting sick.
3. CELL INJURY AND CLINICAL ILLNESS
 RECOVERY FROM INFECTION  Virus replication in the anterior horn
 Following the infection, the host may cells, cell destruction, motor neurons
either succumb, recover, or establish a are damage, and development of
chronic infection paralysis
 Recovery of the host includes both
adoptive and immune responses 4. VIRUS SHEDDING
 Virus is excreted in faeces
 VIRUS SHEDDING
 Stage of shedding the virus in the
environment
 Occurs from the body surface involved
in the viral entry
 This is not the final stage of viral DIFFERENT MODES OF TRANSMISSIONS
infection, and it does not occur to viral DIRECT TRANSMISSION
infections
o It may occur on the different DIRECT CONTACT
stage or phase of the disease  Involves close contact with infective
(symptomatic or asymptomatic agent and the individual
phase)
 Skin-to-skin contact (e.g., kissing,
o Ex. Chickenpox and COVID-19
intercourse), contact with infected soil
virus may shed during the or vegetation
symptomatic or asymptomatic
phase DROPLET TRANSMISSION

PATHOGENESIS OF POLIO  Droplet - Spray with relatively large,

short-range aerosols
1. ENTRY AND PRIMARY REPLICATION o Size: more than 5 micros wide
 Ingestion of virus through water/food
 Produced by sneezing, coughing, and
talking
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o Droplets of saliva or mucous  The cell undergoes multiple changes

 Considered as direct transmission that converts a normal cell into a
because it spread over a few feet before malignant one
falling into the ground  Appearance of enlarged nucleus and
o Short-range lang ang kaya nilang inclusion bodies
itravel  Caused by oncogenic viruses

LATENT INFECTION
INDIRECT TRANSMISSION
 No signs of infection until reactivation
AIRBORNE  Occurs when the agent has undergone
lysogenic cycle (specifically in the
 Transmission via suspended air particles
replication step)
 Tiny particles that are suspend for long
and can travel far CYTOLYTIC EFFECT (CYTOCIDAL)
 Produced by talking
 Virus kills the host cell
 Size: less than 5 microns wide
 Occurs when the agent has undergone
VEHICLE-BORNE lytic cycle (specifically in the assembly &
release step
 Transmission via fomites (inanimate
objects)

VECTOR-BORNE

 Mechanical - Only transfers/transmits

the virus
 Biologic – Virus undergoes maturation
in the vector

VIRAL EFFECTS ON HOST CELLS

DEGENERATION (CYTOPATHIC EFFECTS)

 Changes in cell morphology caused by

infecting virus
 Changes in size and shape of the cell
 Ex. Cytomegalovirus affecting fibroblasts

TRANSFORMATION
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MYCOLOGY-VIROLOGY
LACSON, C.A.