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18.01 Single Variable Calculus

Fall 2006

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Lecture 30 18.01 Fall 2006

Lecture 30: Integration by Parts, Reduction

Formulae

Integration by Parts
Remember the product rule:
(uv)� = u� v + uv �
We can rewrite that as
uv � = (uv)� − u� v
Integrate this to get the formula for integration by parts:
� �
uv dx = uv − u� v dx
�

�
Example 1. tan−1 x dx.
At first, it’s not clear how integration by parts helps. Write
� � �
tan−1 x dx = tan−1 x(1 · dx) = uv � dx

with
u = tan−1 x and v � = 1.
Therefore,
1
v = x and u� =
1 + x2
Plug all of these into the formula for integration by parts to get:
� � �
1
tan−1 x dx = uv � dx = (tan−1 x)x − (x)dx
1 + x2
1
= x tan−1 x − ln |1 + x2 | + c
2

Alternative Approach to Integration by Parts

As above, the product rule:

(uv)� = u� v + uv �
can be rewritten as
uv � = (uv)� − u� v
This time, let’s take the definite integral:
� b � b � b
� �
uv dx = (uv) dx − u� v dx
a a a

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Lecture 30 18.01 Fall 2006

By the fundamental theorem of calculus, we can say

� b �b � b
uv � dx = uv� − u� v dx
�
a a a

Another notation in the indefinite case is

� �
u dv = uv − v du

This is the same because

dv = v � dx =⇒ uv � dx = u dv and du = u� dx =⇒ u� v dx = vu� dx = v du
�
Example 2. (ln x)dx
1
u = ln x; du = dx and dv = dx; v = x
x
� � � � �
1
(ln x)dx = x ln x − x dx = x ln x − dx = x ln x − x + c
x

We can also use “advanced guessing” to solve this problem. We know that the derivative of
something equals ln x:
d
(??) = ln x
dx
Let’s try
d 1
(x ln x) = ln x + x · = ln x + 1
dx x
That’s almost it, but not quite. Let’s repair this guess to get:
d
(x ln x − x) = ln x + 1 − 1 = ln x
dx

Reduction Formulas (Recurrence Formulas)

�
n
Example 3. (ln x) dx
Let’s try: � �
1
u = (ln x)n =⇒ u� = n(ln x)n−1
x
v � = dx; v = x
Plugging these into the formula for integration by parts gives us:

� � � � 1
n n n−1 1�
�
(ln x) dx = x(ln x) − n(ln x) x � dx
� x
Keep repeating integration by parts to get the full formula: n → (n − 1) → (n − 2) → (n − 3) → etc
�
Example 4. xn ex dx Let’s try:

u = xn =⇒ u� = nxn−1 ; v � = ex =⇒ v = ex

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Lecture 30 18.01 Fall 2006

Putting these into the integration by parts formula gives us:

� �
xn ex dx = xn ex − nxn−1 ex dx

Repeat, going from n → (n − 1) → (n − 2) → etc.

Bad news: If you change the integrals just a little bit, they become impossible to evaluate:
�
� −1 �2
tan x dx = impossible

ex
�
dx = also impossible
x

Good news: When you can’t evaluate an integral, then

� 2 x
e
dx
1 x

is an answer, not a question. This is the solution– you don’t have to integrate it!
The most important thing is setting up the integral! (Once you’ve done that, you can always
evaluate it numerically on a computer.) So, why bother to evaluate integrals by hand, then? Because
you often get families of related integrals, such as
� ∞ x
e
F (a) = a
dx
1 x

where you want to find how the answer depends on, say, a.

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Lecture 30 18.01 Fall 2006

Arc Length
This is very useful to know for 18.02 (multi-variable calculus).

ds
y=f(x) dy
dx

Figure 1: Infinitesimal Arc Length ds

ds
dy

dx

Figure 2: Zoom in on Figure 1 to see an approximate right triangle.

In Figures 1 and 2, s denotes arc length and ds = the infinitesmal of arc length.
�
2
�
ds = (dx)2 + (dy)2 = 1 + (dy/dx) dx

Integrating with respect to ds finds the length of a curve between two points (see Figure 3).
To find the length of the curve between P0 and P1 , evaluate:
� P1
ds
P0

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Lecture 30 18.01 Fall 2006

P₁

P₀

a b

Figure 3: Find length of curve between P0 and P1 .

We want to integrate with respect to x, not s, so we do the same algebra as above to find ds in
terms of dx. � �2
(ds)2 (dx)2 (dy)2 dy
= + =1+
(dx)2 (dx)2 (dx)2 dx
Therefore, �
� P1 � b � �2
dy
ds = 1+ dx
P0 a dx

Example 5: The Circle. x2 + y 2 = 1 (see Figure 4).

Figure 4: The circle in Example 1.

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Lecture 30 18.01 Fall 2006

We want to find the length of the arc in Figure 5:

Figure 5: Arc length to be evaluated.

�
y= 1 − x2
� �
dy −2x 1 −x
=√ =√
dx 1−x 2 2 1 − x2
� � �2
−x
ds = 1 + √ dx
1 − x2
�2
x2 1 − x2 + x2
�
−x 1
1+ √ =1+ 2
= 2
=
1−x 2 1−x 1−x 1 − x2
�
1
ds = dx
1 − x2
� a ⏐a
dx
s= √ = sin−1 x⏐ = sin−1 a − sin−1 0 = sin−1 a
⏐
1−x 2 0
0
sin s = a
This is illustrated in Figure 6.

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Lecture 30 18.01 Fall 2006

s
a

a
1

Figure 6: s = angle in radians.

Parametric Equations
Example 6.
x = a cos t
y = a sin t
Ask yourself: what’s constant? What’s varying? Here, t is variable and a is constant.
Is there a relationship between x and y? Yes:

x2 + y 2 = a2 cos2 t + a2 sin2 t = a2

Extra information (besides the circle):

At t = 0,
x = a cos 0 = a and y = a sin 0 = 0
π
At t = ,
2
π π
x = a cos = 0 and y = a sin = a
2 2
Thus, for 0 ≤ t ≤ π/2, a quarter circle is traced counter-clockwise (Figure 7).

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Lecture 30 18.01 Fall 2006

t=π/2
(0,a)

(a,0)
t=0

Figure 7: Example 6. x = a cos t, y = a sin t; the particle is moving counterclockwise.

Example 7: The Ellipse See Figure 8.

x = 2 sin t; y = cos t
2
x
+ y 2 = 1( =⇒ (2 sin t)2 /4 + (cos t)2 = sin2 t + cos2 t = 1)
4

t=0
(0,1)

(2,0)
t=π/2

Figure 8: Ellipse: x = 2 sin t, y = cos t (traced clockwise).

Arclength ds for Example 6.

dx = −a sin t dt, dy = a cos t dt
� � �
ds = (dx)2 + (dy)2 = (−a sin t dt)2 + (a cos t dt)2 = (a sin t)2 + (a cos t)2 dt = a dt