FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

▪ Profile Leveling
▪ Introduction of Surveying
▪ Differential Leveling
▪ Errors and Mistakes
▪ Tacheometry
▪ Measurement of Horizontal Distances
▪ Stadia Leveling
▪ Corrections in Taping
▪ Stadia Traverse
▪ Measurement of Angles and Directions
▪ Topographic Survey
▪ Traverse Computations
▪ Triangulation
▪ Area Computations
▪ Hydrographic Surveying
 INTRODUCTION OF SURVEYING
SURVEYING
It is the art and science of determining angular and linear measurements to
establish the form, extent, and relative position of points, lines, and areas on or near
the surface of the earth or on other extraterrestrial bodies through applied
mathematics and the use of specialized equipment and techniques.

TWO GENERAL CLASSIFICATIONS OF SURVEYING

1. Plane Surveying – type of surveying in which the earth is considered to be flat
surface, and where distances and areas involved are of limited extent that the
exact shape of the earth is disregarded.
2. Geodetic Surveying – are surveys of wide extent which take into account the
spheroidal shape of the earth. These surveys employ principles of geodesy, are of
high precision, and the related calculations involve the solving of equations
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derived from advanced mathematics particularly spherical trigonometry, calculus,
and some applications of theory of least squares.
TYPESOFSURVEYS
• Cadastral Surveys – are usually closed surveys
which are undertaken in urban and rural locations
for the purpose of determining and defining
property lines and boundaries, corners, and areas.
These surveys are also made to fix the boundaries
of municipalities, towns, and provincial
jurisdictions.
• City Surveys – are surveys of the areas in and near a
city for the purpose of planning expansions or
improvements, locating property lines, fixing
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reference monuments, determining the physical features and configuration of
the land, and preparing maps.
TYPES OF SURVEYS
• Construction Surveys – these are surveys which are
undertaken at a construction site to provide data
regarding grades, reference lines, dimensions,
ground configuration, and the location and elevation
of structures which are of concern to engineers,
architects, and builders.
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• Forestry Surveys – a type of survey executed in
connection with forest management and
mensuration, and the production and conservation
of forest lands.
TYPESOFSURVEYS
• Hydrographic Surveys – refer to surveying streams,
lakes, reservoirs, harbors, oceans, and other bodies
of water. These surveys are made to map shore
lines, chart the shape of areas underlying water
surfaces, and measure the flow of streams.
• Industrial Surveys – sometimes known as optical
tooling. It refers to the use of surveying techniques
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in ship building, construction and assembly of aircraft, laying-out and
installation of heavy and complex machinery, and in other industries where
very accurate dimensional layouts are required.
TYPESOFSURVEYS
• Mine Surveys – are surveys which are performed to
determine the position of all underground
excavations and surface mine structures, to fix
surface boundaries of mining claims, determine
geological formations, to calculate excavated
volumes, and establish lines and grades for other
related mining work.
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• Photogrammetric Surveys – a type of survey which makes use of photographs
taken with specially designed cameras either from the airplanes or ground
stations. Measurements are obtained from the photographs which are used in
conjunction with limited ground surveys.
TYPESOFSURVEYS
• Route Surveys – involves the determination of
alignment, grades, earthwork quantities, location of
natural and artificial objects in connection with the
planning, design, and construction of highways,
railroads, pipelines, canals, transmission lines, and
other linear projects.
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• Topographic Surveys – are those surveys made for determining the shape of
the ground, and the location and elevation of natural and artificial features
upon it. The features shown include such natural objects as hills, mountains,
rivers, lakes, relief of the ground surface, etc; and works of man, such as roads,
building, ports, towns, municipalities, and bridges.
THE FIELD SURVEY PARTY
1. Chief of Party – the person who is responsible for the overall direction,
supervision, and operational control of the survey party. He is also
responsible for its logistical and technical requirements, and problems of a
field survey operation.
2. Assistant Chief of Party – the person whose duty is to assist the chief of
party in the accomplishment of the task assigned to the survey party. He
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takes over the duties of the chief of party during the absence of the chief.
He is primarily responsible for the employment of surveying equipment,
instruments, and accessories used in the survey operation.
THE FIELD SURVEY PARTY
3. Instrumentman – the person whose duty is to set up, level, and operate
surveying instruments such as the transit, engineer’s level, theodolite,
sextant, plane table and alidade, and etc. He sees to it that instruments to
be used in a survey operation are in good working condition and in proper
adjustment.
4. Technician – the person who is responsible for the use and operation of all
electronic instruments required in a field work operation. It is his duty to
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see to it that these equipment are functioning properly, are regularly
calibrated, and are in proper adjustment.
THE FIELD SURVEY PARTY
5. Computer – the person whose duty is to perform all computations of survey
data and works out necessary computational checks required in a field work
operation.
6. Recorder – the person whose duty is to keep a record of all sketches,
drawings, measurements and observations taken or needed for a field work
operation. He keeps table of schedules of all phases of work and the
employment of the members of the survey party.
7. Head Tapeman – the person responsible for the accuracy and speed of all
linear measurements with tape. He determines and directs the marking of
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stations to be occupied by the surveying instruments and directs the clearing
out of obstructions along the line of sight. He inspects and compares tapes
for standard length prior to their use in taping operations and is responsible
for eliminating or reducing possible errors and mistakes in taping.
THE FIELD SURVEY PARTY
8. Rear Tapeman – the person whose duty is to assist the head tapeman
during taping operations and in other related work.
9. Flagman – the person whose duty is to hold the flagpole or range pole at
selected points as directed by the instrumentman. He helps the tapeman in
making measurements and assists the axeman in cutting down branches
and clearing other obstructions to the line of sight.
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10.Rodman – the person whose primary duty is to hold the stadia or leveling
rod when sights are to be taken on it.
11.Pacer – the person whose duty is to check all linear measurements made by
the tapeman. He assists the tapeman in seeing to it that mistakes and
blunders in linear measurements are either reduced or eliminated.
THE FIELD SURVEY PARTY
12.Axeman/Lineman – the person whose duty is to clear the line of sight of
trees, brush, and other obstructions in wooded country. He is also
responsible for the security and safety of the members of the survey party
at the survey site.
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13.Aidman – the person whose duty is to render first air treatment to
members of the survey party who are involved in snake and insect bites,
accidents, and other cases involving their health, safety, and well being.
14.Utilitymen – the persons whose duties are to render other forms of
assistance needed by the survey party or as directed by the chief of party.
Where a survey vehicle is used, a utilityman is designated as driver. If the
survey party has to camp out for days in the field, utilitymen are
responsible for setting up the camp site and its required facilities. They
prepare and serve meals, and also look after the security of the camp site.
 INTRODUCTION OF SURVEYING
DESCRIPTION OF INSTRUMENTS

STEEL TAPE
It is used by the surveyor and for
engineering measurements and is
sometimes called the engineer’s or
surveyor’s tape, and woven nonmetallic
and metallic tapes. For most surveying
operations, steel tapes are graduated in
feet or meter together with decimal parts
of these units.
DESCRIPTION OF INSTRUMENTS
 INTRODUCTION OF SURVEYING
BRUNTON POCKET COMPASS
A compass consists of a magnetized steel needle mounted on a pivot at the
center of a graduated circle. The needle
points toward magnetic north. It is
constructed so as to allow a needle to
swing freely on a pivot when in use, and to
allow a line of sight to be directed from
the occupied point to a terminal point.
DESCRIPTION OF INSTRUMENTS

DUMPY LEVEL
It is the most widely used direct leveling
instrument. It consists of a telescope
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which fixes the direction of the line of sight and which can be rotated through
360 degrees in the horizontal, a bubble tube attached to the telescope, a
leveling head which supports the
telescope and permits the bubble in the
tube to be centered, and a supporting
tripod.
DESCRIPTION OF
INSTRUMENTS

WYE LEVEL
The telescope tube of the wye level is
supported by two Y-shaped uprights fixed
to a horizontal bar and in turn attached
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to the vertical spindle about which the instrument rotates. The wye level is
simpler to adjust than a dumpy level since
its telescope can easily be lifted from the
wyes and turned end for end.
DESCRIPTION OF INSTRUMENTS

AUTOMATIC LEVEL
Self-leveling features are incorporated in
automatic levels. Rough leveling using a
three-screw leveling head approximately
centers a bull’s-eye bubble in most of
these instruments. Most automatic levels
are comparatively expensive, however,
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they are very useful under conditions of unstable ground and wind, and where
speed in speed in leveling work is an important consideration.
DESCRIPTION OF INSTRUMENTS taping to determine if the tape is
being held horizontally. It is also
HAND LEVEL used to advantage for estimating
how high or how low the engineer’s
AND
level must be set in order to be able
CLINOMETE to read the leveling rod. The
R clinometer is simply a hand level
The hand level is a hand-held instrument adapted for measuring vertical
consisting of a telescope and level vial. It is angles. It is popularly used by
used on reconnaissance surveys where foresters in determining height of
extreme accuracy is unnecessary and in
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trees by measuring the rates of grade to LEVELI
the top and bottom of the tree.
NG
ROD

DESCRIPTION OF INSTRUMENTS
INTRODUCTION OF SURVEYING
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These are used in conjunction with an
instrument such as a transit or level to
determine distances or differences in
elevation. There are different kinds of rods
used in surveying. Some rods are made in
one piece and others either hinged or
telescoping, and are made of wood,
fiberglass, or metal and have graduations
in feet and decimals, or meters and
decimals.
DESCRIPTION OF INSTRUMENTS
 INTRODUCTION OF SURVEYING
ENGINEER’S TRANSIT
The transit is essentially a telescope and
two large protractors, one protractor
mounted in a vertical plane the other in a
horizontal plane, fixed to measure the angle
of rotation of the telescope about the
horizontal and vertical axes, respectively. Its
three main parts are: the upper plate, lower
plate, and leveling head.
DESCRIPTION OF INSTRUMENTS
 INTRODUCTION OF SURVEYING
THEODOLITE
It is a precision surveying instrument for
measuring angles. A modern theodolite is
compact, simple in design, and light in weight,
yet rugged enough to withstand severe usage.
The telescope, circle, clamps, micrometers,
microscope, and leveling screws are fully
enclosed and virtually dust- and moisture-proof.
DESCRIPTION OF INSTRUMENTS

PLANE TABLE
It is composed of a drawing board mounted on a
tripod so that it can be set up in the field and
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leveled. The primary use of the plane table is in field compilation of maps. The
plane table method of surveying is especially adapted to securing details of the
map. It is a valuable and commonly used means of completing the compilation of
maps from aerial photographs, particularly where the ground is hidden by thick
overgrowth.
DESCRIPTION OF by a pedestal rigidly attached to a base or
INSTRUMENTS blade. The telescope is similar to that of a
transit and is equipped with a vertical and a
ALIDA horizontal cross-hair, and two stadia hairs.
DE Aside from plotting angles graphically, the
alidade can be used to determine
It is a combination of a straight horizontal, vertical, and inclined distances
edge and a sighting device. It by the stadia method.
consists of a telescope supported
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DESCRIPTION OF INSTRUMENTS
 INTRODUCTION OF SURVEYING
SUBTENSE BAR
It is a device used for determining distances
indirectly. It consists of bar made from an alloy
having a low coefficient of expansion. The
instrument is mounted horizontally on a tripod
and aligned perpendicular to the line by means
of a sight device on top of the bar. The bar is
leveled by means of a bull’s eye level and
leveling screw.
DESCRIPTION OF INSTRUMENTS
 INTRODUCTION OF SURVEYING
SEXTANT
It is an angle measuring instrument, held in the hand of the user. It functions by
the physical principle that a light ray striking a plane mirror causes the angles of
incidence and reflection to be equal. It is used by navigators and surveyors for
measuring angles from a boat, but it is also employed on exploratory,
reconnaissance, and preliminary surveys of land.
DESCRIPTION OF INSTRUMENTS
PLANIMETER
It is a device used to determine the area
of any shape of figure, bounded by
straight or curved lines, if the figure is
plotted to a known scale. It is most useful
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for determining irregular areas, areas of
road cross-section and in checking
computed areas in property surveys. The
precision of the resulting area is
dependent on the scale to which the figure is
drawn, and on the skill of the operator of
the planimeter.
DESCRIPTION OF INSTRUMENTS

GEODETIC TOTAL STATION

It consists of an electronic distance
measuring instrument, an electronic digital
theodolite, and a microcomputer. They are
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also referred to as electronic tacheometers. This type of instrument has the
capability to simultaneously measure distance, as well as direction, and transmit
the results automatically to a microcomputer.
DESCRIPTION OF INSTRUMENTS

REFLECTORS & TARGETS

A reflectors is a device used with an EDM
(Electronic Distance Measurement)
instrument when a continuous beam of
light needs to be transmitted during the
measurement of distances. The EDM is
located at one end of the line to be
measured, and the reflector occupies the
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other end of the line. The reflector used consists of one or more prisms which
returns the light beam precisely to its source.
DESCRIPTION OF INSTRUMENTS
REFLECTORS & TARGETS
In the case of microwaves, a repeater is
used. The repeater is very nearly like a
transmitting station except that after a
predetermined momentary delay, it
returns a microwave beam like the one
received. The combined target/reflector
can be mounted and force-centered on a
compatible tripod or can be connected to
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a hand-held centering rod when many sights are being taken from a
single set up.
TAPING ACCESSORIES
1. Range Poles
It is sometimes called as flags or lining rods and is
used as guides or markers when sighting points, and
for lining up tapemen in order to keep them going
along the correct direction.

2. Chaining Pins
It is sometimes referred to as taping (or surveyor’s) arrows and is used for
marking the ends of tapes or intermediate points during taping.
 INTRODUCTION OF SURVEYING
TAPING ACCESSORIES
3. Tape Thermometer
In precise taping operations, a thermometer is
attached to the attached to the tape for the
purpose of determining the temperature
during the actual taping.

4. Spring Scale
It is sometimes called a tension handle and is
used at the end of a tape for reading the pull
applied to thetape during measurement.
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TAPING ACCESSORIES
5. Tape Clamping Handle
To apply tension by a strong grip using a scissor-
type action on any part of a steel tape, a
clamping handle is used. It provides the
tapeman a device for protecting his hands from injury
when handling steel tapes with sharp edges.

6. Plumb Bob
It is used in taping to project a point on the tape
down to the ground, or to project a point on the
ground up to the tape.
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TAPING ACCESSORIES
7. Tape Leather Thongs
A tape thong is attached to the forward end of a steel tape to
allow the tapeman a better hold on the tape during
measurement.

8. Wooden Hub/Peg
These are used in surveying to establish points on the
ground, In engineering surveys, they are driven into the
ground and are used in staking out a building, to run road
center lines, and in staking out lines or grades.