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Guidelines for Assignment Content

These guidelines apply to both minor and major assignments, but especially to major
assignments. It might seem as if all these details and formalities are pretty pointless, but
there are good reasons for them. Most importantly, they help to organise the presentation
of your ideas and get your message across more effectively. They also give you practice at
writing and working to specific requirements. And, of course, they'll get you a better
mark.

Please read them carefully, and feel free to ask about anything which is unclear to you.
Marks will be deducted if the work you submit does not comply with these guidelines.

If you are having difficulties with the content or references for any of the assignments,
feel free to contact your lecturer or tutor. If you are having more general difficulties with
assignments, contact the Learning Skills Centre in the Support Centre in the Guild
building.

Contents

• 1. General
• 2. Structure
• 3. Referring to other works
o 3.1 Selection of Sources
o 3.2 Referencing methods
 3.2.1 List of References
 3.2.2 Referencing in text
 3.2.3 Direct Quotation

 3.2.4 Paraphrase
  3.2.5 Characterisation or summary of source
 3.2.6 Second-hand References

1. General

Good academic writing should both give proper coverage of the topic and be easy to
understand. So you need to focus on both the content and the style/presentation.

In terms of style, your aim should be readability with accuracy. Some people feel that
using dense, convoluted or highly abstract expression gives the impression that the writer
has a solid intellectual grasp of the content but we think that clarity is a much better way
to demonstrate this. When you are reading an article or book, you know when it is clear
and easy to read and when it is not, and you know how much more you can get from an
article or book when it is easy to read. Well that's what you want your writing to be like.
Write for the reader!

Semi-random points:

Avoid inane presentational formulae such as 'It is interesting that...' - unless it really is
interesting and relevant, in which case make sure that it is clear how it is relevant to your
argument/description. If it is an interesting point which is not strictly relevant to your
argument/description but which you would nonetheless like to include, put it in a footnote.

Similarly, avoid formulae like 'It should/can/must be noted that...' 'It is notable that...' -
unless the point has particular relevance at this stage in your argument/description, in
which case make sure that it is clear how it is relevant.

Avoid overusing 'thus' and 'therefore'.

2. Structure (mainly relevant to major assignments)

It is not enough to simply string together facts, points or arguments selected from various
sources. The essential task is to present a coherent overall view or argument, and to make
clear how those facts, points etc. relate to that overall view. Recognising which points are
relevant and developing a coherent overall view is intellectual work, and it is this which is
the main focus of assignments (and assessment).

You should be aware that different disciplines have different kinds of requirements for
essays, partly through tradition but also because of the different natures of the different
disciplines. Make sure you understand how the Linguistics requirements described in this
documents differ from those in your other units.

The basic structure of an essay is Introduction, Detailed Points/Arguments, and the

Conclusion. This follows a well-established principle for getting complex ideas across:
Tell'em what you're gonna tell'em, Tell'em, Tell'em what you told'em.

Introduction

The Introduction should succinctly do the following:

1. identify the central point(s) your assignment addresses,

2. summarise the conclusions you come to, and
3. sketch out the structure of the argument/description that leads you to those
conclusions.

In this way, the Introduction is like an abstract of the assignment. It gives the reader the
key points, and that gives them a mental framework for understanding the detailed points
you need to make to justify your conclusions. Without a good Introduction which
summarises the conclusions, the reader has to take on each of the detailed points as they
read without really knowing where they're leading and that makes it harder for them to get
the key points you're trying to make.

Some students don't like the idea of summarising the conclusions in the Introduction -
"Isn't that what the Conclusion is for?" This might be one of those differences between
disciplines, or whatever, but it generally works better in Linguistics assignments to make
this distinction between the logical conclusions to your argument/description and the final
section of the assignment.

Sketching out the structure of your argument/description within the Introduction needn't
take much more than something like: "I will first discuss A, then look at B and C" or "The
first section deals with A, the second with B and the third with C." Keep it short and to the
point.

Detailed Points/Arguments

The sequence of individual points or arguments you provide in your assignment should be
logically organised.

Each should be clearly introduced so that the reader can clearly distinguish what the
detailed point is. Section headings can be very useful in making the structure of your
argument/description clear. [This is one of those differences between disciplines: section
headings are punishable by death in some other disciplines.]

Language examples of one or two words may be included within the body of a paragraph.
Larger examples should be set off from the text and numbered. Interlinear glosses should
generally be provided for languages other than English. Make sure that the point of any
example you use is clear - it won't always be as obvious to the reader as it is to you.
Conclusion

The Conclusion should briefly reiterate the central point and remind the reader of the
main points of the argument/description which support that central point. Think of it as
the thing that ties together the various threads in your assignment so that the reader can
more easily see how the details fit into the overall argument/description.

As the preceding paragraph implies, don't introduce new points in the Conclusion.
However the Conclusion may identify further questions for research, but it certainly
doesn't have to, and more often than not it's better not to.

Avoid inane conclusions of the type 'Well, different people said different things and it's
not clear yet which one is right but progress marches on.'

Remember: Don't hold back the logical conclusion of your argument for the Conclusion,
it should be introduced in the Introduction!

3. Referring to other works

The main reasons for providing references in your written work are:

• to demonstrate that your intellectual work is better because you have considered a
range of existing facts, arguments or opinions in formulating your ideas.
• to give proper recognition to intellectual contributions, which means
distinguishing your intellectual work from that of others (i.e. your analysis,
arguments, comments, criticisms, comparisons, summaries, evaluations,
identification of important points, original presentation of facts, etc.).
• to allow readers to follow up the original sources if they wish.

You should bear in mind that the focus in assessment is on your intellectual work, so
extensive quotation or close paraphrase is valued much less highly than work which is in
your own words. Using your own words helps to demonstrate that you understand the
intellectual content of any sources you use and have considered the facts and arguments
involved.

3.1 Selection of Sources

The selection of sources is an important part of the intellectual work in an assignment, and
this is reflected in the assessment. You are strongly advised to start this part of the
assignment work as soon as possible. No special consideration is given to students who
leave it so late that they are unable to get access to suitable sources in time.

You are generally expected to at least consult the reference works nominated for the unit,
including those held in closed reserve in the library. You should be aware that using 1st-
year introductory texts as significant sources in higher-level units suggests that you have
not read adequately in the literature recommended for the unit and may result in a lower
mark. The same goes for excessive reliance on the various dictionaries and encyclopaedias
of linguistics in the Library - though these are generally good sources and can make a
good place to start your reading.

It's not a good idea to start your work on an assignment with the thought that you just
need to find a couple of references, just enough to get you to the required number of
words. You need to do enough reading to form a solid overview of the topic - that's one of
the key things we're looking for in assignments.

On-line Sources

An enormous amount of information is available on the web but you should focus on
scholarly works. (i.e. Generally avoid sources such as a webpage entitled 'Dade County
Family Services Tips for New Parents: How your child learns to speak'). Publications
such as books and journal articles which have undergone academic refereeing are
generally more highly valued in scholarly work. UWA students have access to many such
books and journals in hardcopy and on-line via the Library catalogue. Many academics
also make copies of their refereed and unrefereed articles available via their websites and
these can be excellent sources.

With unrefereed papers, one way to check whether they are likely to be suitable is to
search for refereed publications by the same author. An author who has many refereed
publications is likely to be a better bet than one who has no significant publications. But
in the end you have to use your judgement.

Relying solely on on-line sources for your assignment can mean that you have ignored
some excellent hard-copy resources (books and journals) available in the library, and your
selection of sources may be assessed on this basis.

Make sure that all the URLs for on-line sources are accurate and check that they are still
live before you submit your assignment. [Copy the URL from the assignment document
and paste it into the browser to make sure.] It is not uncommon for a source to be 'NOT
FOUND' when a lecturer or tutor follows up on a reference, and this may prevent your
lecturer/tutor from crediting you with the intellectual work you have done in summarising
from the source. (Some students like to temporarily save a copy of any on-line sources
they use and to note in their assignment that they are available if necessary.)

Age of Sources

Depending on the assignment topic, the most appropriate sources may be quite old.
However when the focus is on current work/theories/etc it is worth considering whether
the age of the source makes it the most suitable one or whether there are more recent ones
which would be better. When in doubt, feel free to consult your lecturer/tutor.
Number of Sources

Your aim should be to read widely enough to be confident that you have a good overview
of the points that are most relevant to the topic. There is no simple formula for the number
of sources that should be consulted, and accordingly the assessment of selected sources is
not a simple count. As an example, it would be rare for a good 2000-word assignment to
use less than, say, six sources but more important than just the number is how they are
used. Five sources that barely contribute anything to the assignment are less valuable than
one source that makes a major contribution.

Place of Source in the Scholarly Literature

An important aspect of selecting sources is to recognise the place of a particular

argument/theory/description within the wider context covered in textbooks and/or in the
lecture program. An important part of this is often to understand the place of a source in
the historical development of the relevant area of theory/description.

One type of error that you can make in this regard is to draw points or issues from
different sources without realising that they are quite different because they come from
very different theoretical backgrounds or descriptive approaches. If you are unsure about
such things, consult your lecturer/tutor.

3.2 Referencing methods

There are a number of styles of referencing that follow the general principles of proper
referencing outlined above. The dominant style in Linguistics journals and books is one or
other variant of the Harvard system. In order to work with this literature and to learn to
write for it, we generally require you to use this style as outlined below, unless your unit
co-ordinator tells you different for specific assessments in the individual units.

In addition to the outline below, the Library has a more detailed guide to the Harvard style
of referencing.

You might find it a bit frustrating that different unit co-ordinators and different disciplines
require or allow different styles of referencing. The fact is that different journals and
publishers have chosen to use differerent styles of referencing for whatever reason and we
just have to learn a range of styles and how to implement them properly and consistently.

3.2.1 List of References

A description of all literature that is actually referred to should be given in a references
list at the end of the assignment (rather than in footnotes). Although we recommend the
Harvard style, any of the formatting and punctuation conventions for reference list entries
in common use in the social sciences may be used provided they are are compatible with
the general requirements below. Either outdent the first line of each entry in the
bibliography to make the first author's name prominent, as in the above examples, or leave
a blank line between entries.

References should be in alphabetical order according to the surname of the first author,
and should include:

• the names of all authors of the paper, chapter, book, etc.

• the year of publication
if you include more than one work by the same author(s) with the same year,
distinguish them with letters, e.g. 1988a, 1988b, etc.
• the full title
• if a book, indicate the edition if there is more than one, and give the place of
publication and the name of the publisher

Chomsky, N. and M. Halle 1968. The Sound

Pattern of English, New York: Harper and Row

• if an article, give the name of the journal with volume and page numbers

Carstairs, Andrew 1988. 'Paradigm Economy: a

reply to Nyman', Journal of Linguistics
24:489-99

• if a chapter in an edited book, also give the title of the book and the name of the
editor(s)

Newman, Paul (1986) Contour tones as phonemic

primes in Grebo. In K. Bogers et. al. (eds)
The phonological representation of
suprasegmentals, 175-94. Dordrecht: Foris

if more than one reference is from the same edited book, it is acceptable to make a
separate entry for the book and refer to this in the individual chapter/article entries
in the bibliography

Hammond, M. and M. Noonan (eds) (1988) Theoretical

Morphology: Approaches in Modern Linguistics,
San Diego: Academic Press
Perlmutter, D. (1988) 'The split morphology
hypothesis: evidence from Yiddish', in Hammond
and Noonan 1988 (eds), 79-100.
 • if a web page, indicate the author, title or page heading, '[web page]', version
number and date if available, the URL and the date you accessed that page to get
the information

Becklehimer, Jeff How do you cite URLs in a

bibliography? [web page] Aug 26 1996;
http://www.nrlssc.navy.mil/meta/bibliography.h
tml [Accessed 10 June 1998].

• if a paper or manuscript downloaded from a web or ftp site, cite as for any other
manuscript but give the version number and date, the URL and the name of the
archive it comes from, if it has one

Alderete, John, Jill Beckman, Laura Benua,

Amalia Gnanadesikan, John McCarthy, & Suzanne
Urbanczyk. 1996. Reduplication and segmental
unmarkedness. Ms., UMass Amherst. [July 1996]
ROA-134. Rutgers Optimality Archive,
http://ruccs.rutgers.edu/roa.html.

No work should be included in the references list unless it is explicitly cited in the body of
the assignment. Do not list works that you have consulted in the process of preparing your
assignment but do not actually cite in the assignment. If some work you have consulted
has been directly important in developing your ideas, then the relevant point warrants
mention in your assignment.

3.2.2 Referencing in text

If a citation refers to content on a particular page or pages in the source, then the page
numbers must be given. If it refers to the general content or theme of the work as a whole,
page numbers need not be given. However, if it is possible to give a specific page
reference where the general content or theme has been explicitly characterised by the
author, then give the specific page reference.

Each citation in the text should identify the author's name(s), the year (with letter if
necessary) and the page number where that is possible. For example, ...(Harrison 1990:
212)... or Harrison (1990: 212) claims...

We prefer that you don't use footnotes for referencing.

3.2.3 Direct Quotation

If you include significant content from a source using the form of words used in that
source, then it must be marked as a direct quote with a reference to the page number in the
source. This includes content from the body of the text as well as illustrative examples,
data items, tables, diagrams, notes etc. An expression in common use in the literature need
not be referenced.
Use quotes sparingly - only when you think the author makes an important point
succinctly, or where the exact form of words is important to your argument.

Quotes are to be enclosed in quotation marks, except for long quotes which should be in a
separate, indented paragraph.

Example:

The sample of languages chosen by Bybee was 'designed to be as free as possible of

genetic or areal bias' (1985b: 25).

3.2.4 Paraphrase

If you restate significant content from a source without using the form of words used in
that source, it must still be referenced to the relevant page number in the source (but does
not need to be in quotation marks). Significant content here means a fact, idea, point,
analysis, argument, definition, etc.

Example:

For example, psycholinguistic research on the learning of inflectional systems seems to

suggest that agglutinative patterns are always learned more quickly and accurately than
fusional ones, irrespective of the type on the language being learned (Slobin 1971;
Dressler 1988: 202).

When presenting a number of points from a single source together in a single section, a
reference need only be given at the beginning of the section so long as the section is
worded in such a way as to make it clear throughout which points are yours and which
come from the source.

Example:

Weinreich (1974: 18-9) lists four types of phonological interference. Under-differentiation

occurs when a phonemic contrast in the second language involves phones which are more
or less the same as the allophones of a single phoneme in the first language, and a speaker
consequently fails to recognise the phonemic contrast in the second language. In over-
differentiation, the opposite situation holds, and a speaker imposes a phonemic contrast
from their first language on the phones of the second language. The remaining two types,
reinterpretation of distinctions and phone substitution, are not relevant to the present
point.

An important point here is that readers (and teachers assessing the work) take anything
without quotation marks to be your work. If you are drawing on other work, anything
without quotation marks is taken to be your presentation of your interpretation of the
source. For this reason, close paraphrase, using the form of words used in the source but
with only a few words different or with only minor re-ordering, should be avoided since it
wrongly presents someone else's work as yours. Close paraphrase of an extensive section
of the source is not acceptable (roughly: a large part of a sentence, or more than one
sentence) . Fairly close paraphrase is only acceptable where it is giving an explicit listing
of a number of very brief points or facts which form the background to a point you are
making, but this should be done sparingly.

It can sometimes seem hard to avoid writing close paraphrase when you have the source
right in front of you. If you find this, first make sure you understand what is being said
and then keep the source out of sight while you try to explain the point(s) in your own
words.

Here are examples of some of the things to avoid:

Failure to use source: Pitch accents depend on some sort of obtrusion of pitch at
quotation the point of accent from the pitch of surrounding syllables.
marks for assignment: ... Pitch accents depend on some sort of obtrusion of pitch
identical at the point of accent from the pitch of surrounding
wording syllables (Cruttenden 1994: 40). ...
Trivial re- source: The difference between two sounds therefore has an
wording important linguistic function: it serves to signal distinct
(even with words, and thus distinct meanings.
reference to assignment: The distinction between two sounds therefore has an
source) important function in language: it serves to signal
different words, and thus different meanings (Carr 1993:
16).
Trivial re- source: Cross-linguistic considerations compel us to propose a
structuring feature [coronal] that is more general than the traditional
(even with features alveolar and dental.
reference to assignment: We are compelled by cross-linguistic considerations to
source) propose a feature [coronal] that is more general than the
traditional features alveolar and dental (Brown 1994: 212).

3.2.5 Overall Characterisation or Summary of Source

To explicitly report or summarise (some of) the content of a source, it should be referred
to as in the following examples:

Di Sciullo and Williams (1987: 88-106) adopt a similar analysis of French causative
constructions. They explicitly reject the earlier analysis by Valdman (1977) on the
following grounds: ...
Dorer (1988) offers an explanation along these lines for certain kinds of nominal
expression in German. The main argument against analysing these as compounds...

3.2.6 Second-hand References

If you cite a source it is taken that you have consulted it yourself, unless you indicate
otherwise. If you wish to refer to a source which you have not been able to consult
yourself but which is referred to in another source, use the following format or an
equivalent in the text:

...Halle (1983: 95, quoted in Kenstowicz 1994: 139) proposes a different solution...
...associated with the segmental tier (Archangeli 1988, cited in Roca 1994: 312).

Both the original and secondary sources should appear in the reference list.

These Guidelines developed by John Henderson. Updated March 2010.

ENG 320: Introduction to

Linguistics
Pragmatics assignment home

As a "totally candid" observer, pay attention to the conversation going on around you
(live, in fiction, on TV), with special attention to the pragmatics involved. Write a report,
of two to three double-spaced printed pages, describing and analyzing your observations.
In particular, note instances of implications. Be specific: quote the relevant excerpts of
conversation, explain the implications, analyze how hearers rely on conversational
maxims (be specific about which ones) in order to grasp those implications, and explain
any indirect and/or nonliteral speech.

Write clearly and honestly, in the first person (feel free to write "I"), and with a minimum
of jargon. Rely on your good sense and intuition as an experienced user of language to
make your analysis. Write an interesting report that your classmates would find enjoyable
reading.

See the two sample papers (sample 1, sample 2) below.

Sample 1

by Donna M.
My four children are adept at indirect, non-literal speaking, which they do for many
reasons. Most often, they want something but don't want to ask for it directly. This was
the case recently when my 16-year-old daughter said to me before a date, "Mom, I have
absolutely nothing to wear!" This is indirect, non-literal speech. The sentence is indirect
because, as I found out through questioning her, in fact, what she really wanted was for
me to loan her my new blue shirt and white mini-skirt. So, she made an emphatic
statement rather than simply asking me a simple yes/no question. Also, the use of the
words "absolutely nothing" in this sentence is ludicrous! The child has one closet and two
chests full of clothes! This is a perfect example of non-literal speech.

My 12-year-old son is also good at speaking (and acting) indirectly. He came downstairs
one morning ready for golf practice and, pointing to his shoe, he said, "Mom, did you
notice how I had to tape the sole of my shoe to the upper portion so that I could walk?"
His words and actions (he had encircled several layers of silver duct tape around the
whole forefoot of his right shoe) were not meant merely to solicit a yes or no answer as
his question suggested. He did not mean this directly. What he was indeed looking for
was a new pair of golf shoes, and soon! This sentence was indirect; however, it was fairly
literal because the day before, in practice, he had ripped the sole partially away from the
upper. But the liternalness of the words "had to so I could walk" is questionable.
Needless to say, I gave him the benefit of the doubt and we went shoe shopping a few
days later.

I overheard a conversation last week between my son, Luke, and his best friend, Dave.
Luke and Dave were racking up for a game of pool. As they were chalking their sticks, I
heard Dave mutter, "I guarantee you're going to lose, man." Dave's comment, although
meant to be the performative act of guaranteeing, actually broke the felicity condition that
the sayer must have control over the thing he is guaranteeing. Luke countered with "How
long have you been having problems with delusions, man? My stick is smokin'!" Now, it
would appear that Luke broke the conversational maxim of relevance by changing the
subject from whether he loses or not, to Save suffering from delusions. And then, Luke
appears to change the topic again with his next remark, "This stick is smokin'." However,
both boys understood that the comment about delusions was meant to refute Dave's
guarantee that Luke was going to lose, insinuating that the notion of Luke's losing was
false. The comment about delusions was indirect because Luke meant, "You are
incorrect". So he should have used a declarative rather than a "wh" question. The
question about delusions was also non-literal because Luke was not really asking about
delusions, he was negating Dave's guarantee that he would lose.

The comment "My stick is smokin'" was direct, because Luke used a declarative to state a
fact—but the inference was that he was going to have a very good game, not that his stick
was actually "smoking". This is an example of non-literal speech.

Sample 2

by Harry V.
"Are you going to put on a different pair of shorts?" was the seemingly direct
interrogative my wife spoke prior to some of our guests arriving. What was really stated
was an indirect request to change into something more appropriate for the occasion. I
immediately grasped the implication in her voice that what I was wearing was not
suitable. Simultaneously with this thought process was my response: "Let me write that
one down for my paper," since we had been discussing this assignment for my linguistics
class. It was here that I violated the Maxim of Relevance by changing the subject, and at
the same time I was in the process of changing my shorts. My wife's immediate retort
was: "Write it down, I've got a million more if you need them." Her non-literal response
was definitely an exaggeration, and indirect because if I had responded with a query
asking for just several thousand it would have been inappropriate, and also non-literal.

Immediately following this conversation one of my daughters came into the kitchen and
said, "Serve them the brownies with the walnuts." This statement appeared to be direct
and literal. But it actually was indirect and violated the felicity condition that the persons
and circumstances must be appropriate. She cannot tell us what to serve our guests, and it
was indirect because what she really did was to make a request that would leave the
brownies without nuts for her.

Shortly after this exchange my son asked my daughter if he could use her car. She
replied, "It's running on fumes." This is indirect and non-literal because she did not
respond to a yes-no interrogative and non-literal because it is an exaggeration. He replied,
noting the implication that if he uses her car he should buy gas: "I just put five bucks in it
yesterday." His response was direct and literal, but the implication was that he wasn't
going to buy gas for her use. She responded to his direct and literal reply with "So, use
your truck." The implication is if you won't put in gas, then you can't use my car.

The following day my son came in from checking our gillnets. When I asked "Did we
make any money?" he responded with a lengthy list of the fish we had caught, the holes
in the nets, diatribes about his boat and the excessive wind, and finished it off with:
"Don't quit school for fishing." He first violated the Maxim of Quantity by giving a
lengthy and more informative account of the catch than was necessary, an then the
Maxim of Relevance by changing the subject to my staying in school. The implication of
the remark was that we had not done very well in terms of a dollar amount. His response
would have been considered indirect because he did not respond to the direct yes/no I had
asked, but my question was really indirect in that I was more interested in the amount of
money than whether there had been any at all.

The interesting aspect of all of our conversations was that we never stop to analyze what
we are saying or what has been said to us. Somehow all of this has become second nature
to all parties concerned and while the linguists spend much time deciphering the whole
process the world just carries on, blithely unaware of any infractions that may be inherent
in speech, and not ready to make any adjustments to a system which suits us fine.