CHAPTER (7)

Limits and Continuity ‫النهايات و االتصال‬

7.1 LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS: Page (200)
Objectives:
*One-Sided Limits
*Rules for Calculating Limits
* The Squeeze Theorem.
INTRODUCTION TO LIMITS
Example: 1
Describe the behavior of the function
x2 1
f x   near x=1.
x 1
Solution:
* As an illustration , consider
x2 1
f x  
x 1
* Note that 1 is not in the domain of f , since substituting
12 1 0
x  1 gives us the undefined expression  .
1 1 0
x f x  x f x 

0.5 1.5 1.1 2.1

0.9 1.9 1.01 2.01
0.99 1.99 1.001 2.001
0.999 1.999 1.0001 2.0001
0.9999 1.9999 1.00001 2.00001
0.999999 1.999999 1.000001 2.000001

* It appears that the closer x to 1 , the closer f  x  to 2 .

x2 1
lim f  x   lim  2.
x1 x1 x 1

* In general
x2 1
f x  
x 1
* The number 1 is not in the domain of f since the meaningless
( 1 )2  1 0
expression  is obtained if 1 is substituted for
1 1 0
x.
* Factoring the numerator and denominator
x2 1 ( x  1 ) x  1 
lim  lim
x1 x 1 x1 x  1 
* Since x  1 , we may cancel the common factor  x  1 
 lim  x  1   1  1  2 .
x1
Homework 1:
1
2
What happens to the function g(x)=(1+x 2 ) x as x approaches
zero.
Solution:
x f x  x f x 

0.1 2.7048138294 -0.1 2.7048138294

0.01 2.7181459268 -0.01 2.7181459268
0.001 2.7182804691 -0.001 2.7182804691
0.0001 2.718287983 -0.0001 2.718287983
0.00001 2.7182820532 -0.00001 2.7182820532
0.000001 2.718523496 -0.000001 2.718523496

* It appears that the closer x to 0 , the closer f  x  to

2.7182818285 .
1
lim f  x   lim (1+x 2 ) x  e  2.7182818285
2

x0 x0

* In general
1
f  x   (1+x 2 ) x
2

* The number 0 is not in the domain of f since the meaningless

1
expression is obtained if 0 is substituted for x .
0
1
lim g(x)= lim (1+x 2 ) x  e  2.7182818285
2

x0 x0
Definition 1 An informal definition of Limits of a function :
Page (206)
NOTATION INTUITIVE GRAPHICAL
MEANING INTERPRETATION

We can make
f  x  as close to
lim f  x   L L as desired by
xa
choosing x
sufficiently close
to a , and x  a .

Example (2) : Page (201)

Find (i) lim x (ii) lim c (where c is a constant)
xa xa

Solution :
(i) lim x  a . (ii) lim c  c .
xa xa

HOMEWORK 2
Evaluate:
1 1

x x 2
2
x 2
( a ) lim ( b ) lim x a ( c ) lim
x  2 x 2  5 x  6 xa x a x  4 x 2  16

Solution:
x2  x 2
a) f  x   2
x  5 x 6
* The number -2 is not in the domain of f since the
(  22 )  
( 2 ) 2
meaningless expression  is
(  22 )  5 ( 2 )
0 6
obtained if -2 is substituted for x .
* Factoring the numerator and denominator
x2  x 2  x  2  x  1 
lim 2  lim
x  2 x  5 x  6 x   2  x  2  x  3 

* Since x  2 , we may cancel the common factor  x  2 

x  1  2   1 3
lim f  x   lim    3 .
x 2 x  2 x  3  2   3 1
b)
1 1

f(x)  x a
x a
* The number a is not in the domain of f since the meaningless
1 1

expression a a  0 is obtained if a is substituted for x .
a a 0
* Factoring the numerator and denominator
1 1 (ax)

x a xa (ax) 1
lim  lim  lim
xa x a xa ( x a) xa xa ( x  a )
* Since x  a , we may cancel the common factor  x  a 
( x  a ) 1 1 1
 lim  lim  2
xa xa ( x  a ) x  a xa a
 x 2
c) f ( x ) 
x 2  16
* The number 4 is not in the domain of f since the meaningless
4  2 2 2 0
expression   is obtained if 4 is
4  1 6 1 6 1 6
2
0
substituted for x .
* Factoring the numerator and denominator
x 2 ( x 2)
lim f  x   lim  lim
x4 x4 x 2  16 x  4 ( x  4 )( x  4 )
( x 2)
 lim
x  4 ( x  2 )( x  2 )( x  4 )

* Since x  4 , we may cancel the common factor ( x  2 )

1 1 1
 lim  
x  4 ( x  2 )( x  4 ) ( 4  2 )( 4  4 ) 32

Example (3) : Page (201)

1
a) Show that lim does not exist .
x0 x

Solution
1
* The graph of f  x   is sketched in Figure 2 .
x
Figure 2
* Note that we can make f  x  as large as desired by choosing
x sufficiently close to 0 ( but x  0 ) .
* For example , if we choose x  0.000001 , we obtain
f  x   1 ,000 ,000 and if we choose x  0.000001 , we
obtain f  x   1 ,000 ,000 .
* Since f  x  does not approach a specific number as x
approaches 0 , the lim it does not exist
1
lim  does not exists .
x0 x

Example 3 b)
 x if x  2
Let g  x   
1 if x=2
lim g  x   lim x  2 , Although g(2)=1
x2 x2

One- sided Limits of a function : Page (208)

NOTATION INTUITIVE GRAPHICAL
MEANING INTERPRETATION

We can make
lim f  x   L f  x  as close
x  a to L as desired
(left –hand by choosing x
limit) sufficiently close
to a , and x  a .
We can make
lim f  x   L f  x  as close
x  a to L as desired
(right –hand by choosing x
limit) sufficiently close
to a , and x  a .

Homework 3 : Page (202)

x
The signum function s g n x  , sketch the graph of f
x
and find , if possible ,
(a) lim sgn  x  . (b) lim sgn  x  . (c) lim sgn  x  .
x0 x0 x0

Solution
 x
f ( x )  sgn  x  
x
 x if x  0
* Since x  
  x if x  0
0
* f is undefined , , at x  0 .
0
x x
* If x  0 , the x  x and f  x    1 .
x x
x x
* If x  0 , the x   x and f  x     1 .
x x
Figure 2.7

(a) lim sgn  x    1 .

x  0

(b) lim sgn  x   1 .

x  0

(c) Since lim sgn  x   lim sgn  x  , then

x  0 x  0

lim sgn  x  does not exist .

x 0
Theorem (1) : Relationship between one-sided and two-sided
limits Page (202)
A function f(x) has limit L at x=a if and only if it has both left
and right limits there and these one-sided limits are both equal
to L
lim f  x   L  lim f  x   L  lim f  x 
x a x  a x  a

Example (4) : Page (202)

x 2
If : f  x  
x2  x 6
Find lim f  x  , lim f  x  , and lim f  x  .
x 2 x 2 x2

Solution
 x 2
 x 2  x  6 , for x>2
f(x) 
 ( x  2 ) , for x  2
 x 2  x  6

* If x  2 , then
x 2 x  2  1
lim  lim  lim
x 2 x 2  x  6 x  2   x  2  x  3  x  2   x  3 
1
 .
5
* If x  2 , then
 ( x  2 ) x  2  1
lim  lim  lim 
  x  2  x  3   x  3 
x 2 x  x 6
 2
x2 x2
1
 .
5
* Since lim f  x   lim f  x  , then
x 2 x 2

lim f  x   does not exist . .

x2

Homework 4:
What one-sided limits does g ( x )  1  x 2 have at x=-1 and
x=1?
Solution:

* If x  1 , then
lim f  x   lim 1  x 2  l im 1  ( 1 ) 2  0 .
x  1  x  1  x  1 

* If x  1 , then
lim f  x   lim 1  x 2  1 ( 1 )2 0 .
x  1 x 1 
Rules for Calculating LIMITS : Page (209)
Theorem (2) :Limits Rules
If lim f  x   L and lim g  x   M both exist , then
xa xa

(i) lim f  x   g  x    lim f  x   lim g  x   L  M .

xa xa xa

Example: find
lim ( 3 x 2  5 x  9 )
x  2

 lim ( 3 x 2 )  lim ( 5 x )  lim ( 9 )

x  2 x  2 x  2

 3( 2 )2  5( 2 )  9  12  10  9  7
(ii) lim f  x  . g  x    lim f  x  . lim g  x   L .M .
xa xa xa

lim 20 x  ( x  5 )  lim ( 20 x )  lim ( x  5 )  ( 20  2 )  ( 2  5 )

x 2 x 2 x 2

 40  7  280
f x   x  a   L
lim f x
(iii) lim     , provided M  0 .
x  a  g x  lim g  x  M
xa

lim ( x 2  1 )
( x  1 ) x 4
2
16  1 15
lim   
x 4 4x lim 4x 44 4
x 4

 
(iv) lim k f  x    k  lim f  x    kL .
xa x  a 
Example : lim 9 x  9 lim x  9  8  72
x 8 x 8
 (v) lim f  x   g  x    lim f  x   lim g  x   L  M .
xa xa xa

Example: find
lim ( 3 x  5 )  lim ( 3 x )  lim ( 5 )  3  4  5  12  5  7
x 4 x 4 x 4
m
m m
 n
(vi) lim  f  x  
  lim f  x  
n  Ln , provided L>0 if n is
xa  xa 
even, and L  0 if m<0.
Example: find lim ( 3 x  5 )2  [ lim ( 3 x  5 )] 2  7 2  49
x 4 x 4

(vii) If f ( x )  g ( x ) on an interval containing a in its interior,

then
L M

Example 5
x2  x 4
Find a) lim 3 and b) lim 2x 1
x  a x  2 x 7
2
x 2

Solution:
x2  x 4 a2  a 4
a) lim 3  , provide a 3
 2 a 2
7  0
x  a x  2 x 7 a  2 a 7
2 3 2

b) lim 2 x  1  2.2  1  5
x2

Theorem (3) Limits of Polynomials and Rational Functions

1-If P(x) is a polynomial and a is any real number, then
l im P ( x )  P ( a )
xa
2-If P(x) and Q(x) are any polynomials and Q ( a )  0 , then
P( x ) P( a )
lim  .
x  aQ ( x ) Q( a)
3-If m , b , and a are real numbers , then
lim  m x  b   m a  b
xa

Quiz (1)
x 3 3x 4
Find a) lim ( x  4 x  1 )
2
b) lim , c) lim
x4 x3 x 6 x  2 5 x 7

Solution
a) lim ( x 2  4 x  1 )  ( 4 ) 2  4 ( 4 )  1  1
x4

x 3 3 3 6 2
b) lim   
x3 x 6 3 6 9 3
lim  3 x  4 
3x 4 x 2 3 2   4 10
c) lim    .
x  2 5 x 7 lim  5 x  7  5  2   7 17
x2

Quiz (2) :
Prove that lim x 3  a 3 .
xa

Solution
* Since lim x  a ,
xa

lim x 3  lim  x .x .x 
xa xa
      
  lim x  .  lim x  .  lim x  .
xa  xa  xa 
 a .a . a  a 3 .

Theorem 4. The Squeeze(sandwich) theorem Page (211)

Suppose f  x   h  x   g  x  holds for all x in some open
interval containing a , except possibly at a , suppose also that
If lim f  x   L  lim g  x  ,
xa xa

Then lim h  x   L .
xa

Similar statements hold for left and right limits.

Figure 5

Homework (5) : Page (211)

Given that 3  x 2  u( x )  3  x 2 for all x  0 , find
lim u( x )
x 0
Solution :
* Since lim
x0
3  x   3 ,
2
lim
x0
3  x   3
2
, then
 lim u( x )  3
x0

End
More examples
QUIZ1:
2x2 5 x  2
If f  x   , find lim f  x  .
5 x 7 x  6
2 x 2

Solution
2x2 5 x  2
f x  
5 x 2 7 x  6
* The number 2 is not in the domain of f since the meaningless
0
expression is obtained if 2 is substituted for x .
0
* Factoring the numerator and denominator
2x2 5 x  2  x  2  2 x  1 
lim  lim
x  2 5 x 7 x  6 x  2  x  2  5 x  3 
2

* Since x  2 , we may cancel the common factor  x  2 

2 x  1 2 2   1 3
lim f  x   lim   .
x2 x2 5 x  3 5  
2  3 13

QUIZ (2) :
x 9
If f  x   .
x 3
(a) find lim f  x  .
x9
(b) Sketch the graph of f and illustrate the limit in part (a)
graphically .
x 9
(a) f x  
x 3
* The number 9 is not in the domain of f since the meaningless
0
expression is obtained if 9 is substituted for x .
0
* Rationalizing the denominator by multiplying the numerator
and denominator by x 3
x 9  x 9 x 3 
lim  lim  . 
x9 x 3 x9 x 3 x 3 
x  9  x 3 
 lim
x9 x 9
* Since x  9 , we may cancel the common factor  x  9 
lim f  x   lim
x9 x9
 
x 3  9 3  6 .

(b) The graph of f is the same as the graph of the equation

y  x  3 , except for the point  9 ,6  , as illustrated in
Figure 2.3 .
* As x gets closer to 9 , the point  x , f  x   on the graph of
f gets closer to the point  9 ,6  .
* Note that f  x  never actually attains the value 6 ; however ,
f  x  can be made as close to 6 as desired by choosing x
sufficiently close to 9 .
Figure 2.3
 1
Use the sandwich theorem to prove that lim x 2 sin 2
0 .
x0 x
Solution
* Since 1  sin t  1 for every real number t ,
1
1  sin 2
 1 , for ever y x  0
x
* Multiplying by x 2 ( which is positive if x  0 ) , we obtain
1
 x 2  x 2 sin  x2
x2
1
* This inequality implies that the graph of y  x 2 sin 2
lies
x
between the parabolas y   x 2 and y  x 2 .
* Since lim   x 2   0 , lim x   0
2
, then
x0 x0

1
lim x 2 sin 2
0 .
x0 x
Theorem (2.10) : Page (62)
If n is a positive integer , then
(i) lim x n  a n .
xa
n
 
(ii) lim  f  x     lim f  x   , provided lim f  x 
n
xa x  a  xa

exists .

Example (3) : Page (62)

Find lim  3 x  4 
5
.
x 2

Solution
5
 
* lim  3 x  4 5   lim  3 x  4  
x2 x  2 
 3  2   4 
5
 10 5  100 ,000 .

Example (4) : Page (62)


Find lim 5 x 3  3 x 2  6
x2
 .

Solution
lim
x  2
5 x 3

 3 x 2  6  lim
x  2
 5 x   lim  3 x   lim
3
x  2
2
x  2
6 
5 lim  x   3 lim  x   6
3 2
x  2 x  2

 5  2   3  2   6
3 2
  5  8   3 4   6   34 .

Theorem (2.11) : Page (62)

If f is a polynomial function and a is a real number , then
lim f  x   f  a  .
xa

Corollary (2.12) : Page (63)

If q is a rational function and a is in the domain of q , then
lim q  x   q  a  .
xa

Example (5) : Page (63)

5 x2 2x 1
Find lim .
x3 4 x 7
3

Solution
5 3   2 3   1
2
5 x2 2x 1
* l im 
4 x 7 4  3  7
3 3
x3

45  6  1 40
  .
108  7 101
Theorem (2.13) : Page (63)
1-If a  0 and n is a positive integer , or if a  0 and n is
an odd positive integer , then
lim n
x na .
xa

2-If m and n are positive integers and a  0 , then

m
 x  
 a
m m
lim n
  lim n x   n
xa xa 
m
or lim x n  am n
xa

Example (6) : Page (64)

x2/ 3 3 x
Find lim .
x8 4   16 / x 
Solution

x 2/ 3
3 x x8
lim x 2/ 3
3 x 
* lim 
x8 4   16 / x  lim 4   16 / x  
x8

lim x 2 / 3  lim 3 x
x8 x8

lim 4  lim  16 / x 
x8 x8

82/ 3 3 8

4   16 / 8 
4 6 2 4 6 2
   2 3 2 .
4 2 2
Theorem (2.14) : Page (64)
If a function f has a limit as x approaches a , then
lim n f  x   n lim f  x  ,
xa xa

provided either n is an odd positive integer or n is an even

positive integer and lim f  x   0 .
xa

Example (7) : Page (64)

3
Find lim 3 x 2 4 x  9 .
x5

Solution
* lim
x5
3
3 x 2  4 x  9  3 lim
x5
3 x 2
4 x  9 
 3 3 5   4 5   9
2

 3 64  4 .
 7.2 LIMITS at INFINITY and
INFINITE LIMITS:
Page (212)
Objectives:
*Limits at infinity
*Limits at infinity for Rational Functions
* Infinite Limits.
Limit at Infinity:
Consider the function:
x
f(x) 
x2 1
Find lim f ( x ), lim f ( x ) .
x x  

Solution:

lim f ( x )  1 , lim f ( x )  1
x x  
Definition (3) : Limits at infinity and negative infinity (informal
definition). Page (213)
If the function f is defined on an interval (a,  ) and if we can
ensure that f(x) is as close as we want to the number L by
taking x large enough, then we say that f(x) approaches the
limit L as x approaches infinity, and we write
lim f  x   L
x

If the function f is defined on an interval (-  ,b) and if we can

ensure that f(x) is as close as we want to the number M by
taking x negative and large enough in absolute value, then we
say that f(x) approaches the limit L as x approaches negative
infinity, and we write
lim f  x   M
x  

1
Example 1: Find lim
x   x
Solution:
1 1
In figure 8, we can see that lim  lim  0 , the x-axis is
x x x   x
1 1
a horizontal asymptote of the graph y  , then lim 0
x x   x
Definition Page (214)
If n is a positive rational number and c is any number , then
c c
lim n  0 and lim n
0 ,
x x x   x

provided x n is always defined .

For example:
1 1 1
lim  0 , lim 2
 0 , lim 3
 0 ,...
x   x x   x x   x

Example (2):
x
Evaluate lim
x   x2 1
Solution:
Rewrite the expression for f(x) as follows:
 x x x
lim  lim  lim
x   x2 1 x  
x2( 1 
1
)
x  
x2 1 
1
2
x x2
x sgn x
 lim  lim , Re meber x 2  x
x   1 x   1
x 1 2 1 2
x x
x 1 if x>0
Where sgn( x )  
x -1 if x<0
Then
 1
  1 if x  
sgn x  1 0
: lim 
x   1  1
1 2  1 if x  
x 
 1 0
Then

x x
lim  1 , and lim  1
x x 1
2 x   x 1
2

Limits at infinity for rational functions:

Let
Pm ( x )  am x m  ...  a0 , and Q n ( x )  b n x n  ...  b 0
be polynomials of degree m and n, respectively, so that
am  0 ,b n  0 . Then
 0 if m<n

Pm ( x )  am
Lim  if m=n
x  Q n ( x )
 bn
(   )does not exist if m>n

Homework (1) : Page (214)

2x2 x 3
Evaluate lim
x   3x2 5
Solution:

2x2 x 3 2
lim  , m n 2
x   3x 5
2
3
Homework (2) : Page (214)
5x 2
Evaluate lim
x   2x3 1
Solution:

5x 2
lim  0 ,m  1 ,n  3 ,m  n
x   2x 1
3

Quiz (1) :
2x2 5
Find lim .
x   3x x 2
2
Quiz (2)
2x2 5
Find lim .
x 3x x 2
4

Example (5) : Page (216)

x3 1
lim 2
x x 1

Solution:
x3 1
lim 2   , m  3 ,n  2 ,m  n
x x 1

Quiz (3)
2x3 5
Find lim .
x 3x x 2
2

Example (3) : Page (215)

If f ( x )  x 2  x  x , find
(a) lim f  x  . (b) lim f  x  .
x x  

Solution
f x   x 2  x  x
(a)
 ( x 2  x  x )( x 2  x  x )
lim x  x  x  lim
2
x x
( x2  x  x )
x2  x x2
 lim
x 1
( x (1 ) x)
2
x
x
 lim
x 1
(x (1 ) x)
x
1 1
 lim 
x 1 2
( 1  ) 1
x

b) lim x 2  x  x   ( does not exists)

x 

Infinite Limits:
A function whose values grow arbitrary large can sometimes be
said to have an infinite limit.
lim f  x   
xa

Homework 3
1
Describe the behavior of the function f ( x )  2
near x=0
x
Solution :
1 1
lim 2   , and lim 2  
x0 x x0 x

Example 4:
 1
Describe the behavior of the function f ( x )  near x=0
x
Solution :

1 1
lim   , and lim  
 x  x
x0 x0

1
lim  does not exists
x0 x

Homework 4
a ) lim ( 3 x 3  x 2  2 )   b ) lim ( 3 x 3  x 2  2 )  
x  x 

c ) lim ( x 4  5 x 3  x )   c ) lim ( x 4  5 x 3  x )  
x  x 

Example (5) : Page (216)

x3 1
lim 2
x x 1

Solution:
 x3 1
lim 2   , m  3 ,n  2 ,m  n
x x 1

End

More examples.
Example (2) : Page (70)
Find each limit , if it exists .
1 1 1
(a) lim . (b) lim . (c) lim .
x  4 x 4  x  4 x 4  x  4 x 4 
3 3 3

Solution
(a) If x is close to 4 and x  4 , then x  4 is close to 0 and
negative , and
1
lim   .
x  4 x 4 
 3
(a) If x is close to 4 and x  4 , then x  4 is close to 0 and
positive , and
1
lim   .
x  4 x 4 
 3

1 1
(c) Since lim  lim , then
x4 
x 4  3
x4 
x 4  3

1
lim does not exist .
x4 x 4  3

1
* The graph of y  is sketched in Figure 2.29 . The
x 4  3

line x  4 is a vertical asymptote .

Figure 2.29

Quiz (3)
2x3 5
Find lim .
x 3x x 2
2
Solution
* Since the highest power of x in the denominator is 2 , we first
divide numerator and denominator by x 2 , obtaining
5
2 x 
2x3 5 x 2
lim  lim
x 3x  x  2
2 1 2
x
3  2
x x
 0 
    .
3 0 0 3
Example (6) : Page (74)
9x2  2
If f  x   , find
4x 3
(a) lim f  x  . (b) lim f  x  .
x x  

Solution
9x2  2
f x  
4x 3
(a) If x is large and positive , then
9x2  2  9x2  3x and 4x 3 4x
and hence
9x2  2 3x 3
f x    
4x 3 4x 4
3
this suggests that lim f  x   .
x 4
* To give a rigorous proof we may write
  2 
x2 9  2 
9x2  2  x 
lim  lim
x 4x 3 x 4x 3
2
x2 9
 lim x2
x 4x 3
If x is positive , then x 2  x , and dividing numerator
and denominator of the last fraction by x gives us
2
x2
9 2
9x2  2 x
lim  lim
x 4x 3 x 4x 3
2
x 9
 lim x2
x 4x 3
2
9
 lim x2
x 3
4
x
9 0 3
  .
4 0 4
(b) If x is large negative , then x 2   x . If we use the
same steps as in part (a) , we obtain
 2 
x2 x2 9  2 
9x2  2  x 
lim  lim
x   4x 3 x   4x 3
 2
 x  9
 lim x2
x   4x 3
2
 9
 lim x2
x   3
4
x
 9 0 3
   .
4 0 4
7.3 CONTINUTY: Page (218)
Objectives:
 Continuity at a Point
 Continuity on an interval
 There are lots of continuous functions.
 Continuous Extension and Removable Discontinuities.‫لالطالع‬
Continuity at a point.
Definition (4) :Continuity at an interior point. Page (219)
We say that a function f is continuous at an interior point c of
its domain if
lim f  x   f c 
xc

If either lim f  x  fails to exists or it exists but is not equal to

xc
f c  , then we say that f is discontinuous at c.
Which equivalent to the following conditions :
(i) f c  is defined .
(ii) lim f  x  exists .
xc

(iii) lim f  x   f c  .
xc

Figure 10
* Not that :
In (i) of the Figure 10 , f c  is not defined .
In (ii) , f c  is defined ;however , lim f  x   f c  .
xc

In (iii) , lim f  x  does not exist, f c  is defined.

xc

In (iv) , f c  is undefined and , in addition , lim f  x   

xc

Definition (5) : Right and left continuity Page (219)

We say that f is right continuous at c if lim f  x   f c 
x  c

We say that f is left continuous at c if lim f  x   f c 

x  c

Example 1:
The Heaviside function
1 if x  0
H( x)  
-1 if x<0
Lim H ( x )  Lim 1  1 , H ( 0 )  1
 
x 0 x 0
 Lim H ( x )  H ( 0 )

x 0
Then H(x) is right continuous at 0.

Lim H ( x )  Lim  1  1 , H ( 0 )  1
 
x 0 x 0
 Lim H ( x )  H ( 0 )

x 0
Then H(x) is not left continuous at 0.
Theorem (5) : Page (219)
Function f is continuous at c if and only if I it is both right
and left continuous at c.

Definition (6) Continuity at endpoint Page (220)

We say that f is continuous at a left end point c if it is right
continuous there. lim f  x   f c 
x  c

We say that f is continuous at a right end point c if it is left

continuous there. lim f  x   f c  .
x  c

Homework (1) : Page (220)

If f  x   9  x 2 , sketch the graph of f and prove that f is
continuous on the closed interval  3 , 3  .
Solution
f x   9  x 2
* The graph of x 2  y 2  9 is a circle with center at the origin
and radius 3 . Solving for y gives us y   9  x 2 , and
hence the graph of y  9  x 2 is the upper half of that
circle .
 Figure 2.37

* If 3  c  3 , then
lim f  x   lim 9  x 2  9  c 2  f c  .
xc xc

Hence f is continuous at c .
* All that remains is to check the endpoint of the interval
 3 , 3  using one-sided limits as follows :

lim f  x   lim 9  x 2  9  3 2  0  f  3 
x  3  x  3 

lim f  x   lim 9  x 2  9  3 2  0  f 3 
x 3 x 3

Thus , f is continuous from the right at 3 and from the

left at 3 .
* Then , f is continuous on  3 , 3  .
Continuity on an interval

Definition 7 Continuity on an interval:

Page (220)
We say that a function f is continuous on the interval I if it is
continuous at each point of I. In particular, we will say that f is a
continuous function if f is continuous at every point in its
domain.

Let a function f be defined on a closed interval  a ,b  . The

function f is continuous on  a ,b  if it is continuous on  a ,b 
and if , in addition ,
lim f  x   f  a  and lim f  x   f b  .

xa xb

Example 2
Show that the function f ( x )  x is a continuous function.
Solution:
The Domain is 0 ,   .The function is continuous at the left
endpoint 0 because it is right continuous there.
lim f  x   lim x  0  f 0 
 
x0 x0

Also, f is continuous at every number c>0 since:

lim f  x   lim x  c  f c  ,c  0
xc xc

Homework 2:
1
Show that the function f ( x )  is a continuous function.
x
The function f is continuous on its domain (  ,0 ) ( 0 ,) ,
the point 0 is not in its domain.
Example 3:
The greatest integer function: f ( x )   x   n if x  [n,n+1) ,n
is an integer.
Solution : examples: [2]=2,[2,5]=2,[-1]=-1,[-1.5]=-2,…
This function is continuous on every interval [n,n+1) , n is an
integer. It is right continuous at each integer n but it is not left
continuous there, so it is discontinuous at the integers.
Lim [ x ]  n  [ n ],
x n 
Lim [ x ]  n  1  n  [ n ].
x n 

There are Lots of Continuous Functions:

The following functions are continuous wherever they are
defined
a) All polynomials
f
b) A rational function q  is continuous at every number
g
except the numbers c such that g c   0 .
 m
 xm
n
c) All rational powers xn
d) The sine, cosine, tangent, secant, cosecant and cotangent
functions and
e) The absolute values function |x|.
Theorem 6: Combining continuous functions Page (221)
If f and g are continuous at c , then the following are also
continuous at c :
(i) the sum f  g and the difference f  g .
(ii) the product f g .
(iii) the constant multiple kf, where k is any number.
(iv) the quotient f / g , provided g c   0 .
1

(vi) the nth root ( f ( x )) n , provided f(c)>0 if n is even.

Theorem7 : Page (221)
If f ( g ( x )) is defined on an interval containing c, and if
lim g  x   L and if f is continuous at L , then
xc

 
lim f  g  x    f  L   f  lim g  x   .
xc  xc 
In particular, if g is continuous at c and if f is continuous at
L  g c  , then
 
(i) lim f  g  x    f  lim g  x    f  g c   .
xc  xc 
(ii) the composite function f g is continuous at c .
Homework 3
The following functions are continuous everywhere on their
respective domains.
x-2
a ) 3 x 2  2 x b) 2 c) x 2  1
x 4
x
d) x e) x 2  2 x  5 f)
x 2

Quiz (1) :
x2 1
If f  x   , find the discontinuities of f .
x  x 2x
3 2

Solution
x2 1
f x  
x3  x2  2x
* Since f is a rational function, it follows that the only
discontinuities at the zeros of the denominator x 3  x 2  2 x .
* By factoring we obtain
 
x 3  x 2  2 x  x x 2  x  2  x  x  2  x  1   0

* Setting each factor equal to zero , we see that the

discontinuities of f are at 0 ,  2 ,and 1 .
Continuous Extension and Removable Discontinuities
First: Continuous Extension
If f  c  is not defined, but lim f  x   L exists, we can define
x c
a new function F  x  by
 f ( x ), if x is in the domain of f
F  x  
 L if x=c.
F  x  is continuous at x  c . It is called the continuous
extension of f  x  to x  c . For rational functions f  x  ,
continuous extensions are usually found by cancelling common
factors.
Example 4:
x2  x
Show that f  x   2 has a continuous extension to x=1
x 1
and find that extension.
Solution :

11 0
Although f  1    is not defined, if x  1 we have
1 1 0
 x2  x x( x  1 ) x
f  x  2  
x  1 ( x  1 )( x  1 ) x  1
The function
x
F  x 
x1
is equal to f  x  for x  1 but it is also continuous at x  1 ,
1
having there the value . The graph of f  x  is shown in
2
figure 14. The continuous extension of f  x  to x  1 is F  x  .
1
It has the same graph as f  x  except with no hole at ( 1, ) .
2
Second: Removable Discontinuities
If a function f  x  is undefined or discontinuous at a point a
but can be redefined at the single point so that it becomes
continuous there, then we say that f has a removable
discontinuity at a . The function f in the above example has a
1
removable discontinuity at x=a. To remove it, define f  1  
2

Homework 4:
 x if x  2
The function   
g x 
1 if x=2
lim g  x   lim x  2 , Although g(2)=1
x2 x2

Has a removable discontinuity at x=2. To remove it redefine

g(2)=2.
 x if x  2
G  x  
 2 if x=2
End

ILLUSTRATION :
FUNCTION VALUE GRAPH DISCONTINUITIES

None , since for every c ,

lim f  x   c  2
f x   x  2 xc

 f c 

c  1 since g  1  is
x2  x  2 undefined
g x  
x 1 (removable discontinuity).
 x2  x  2

G  x   ;x  1
x1

 3; x1
 c  1 since
x 2  x  2 lim h  x   3
 if x  1 x1
h x    x  1
  h 1 
 2 if x  1
(removable discontinuity).
 x2  x  2
 if x  1
H  x   x  1
 3 if x  1


c  0 since h 0  does
not exist and also
1 lim h  x  does not exist
h x   x0
x
(Infinite discontinuity).
(non-removable
discontinuity)

c  0 since p 0  is
undefined and also
x lim p  x  does not
p x   x0
x
exist
(jump discontinuity).
(non-removable
discontinuity)

Quiz (2) :
9 x2
If k  x   4 ,prove that k is continuous on the
3x 5 x 1 2

closed interval  3 , 3  .
Solution

Let f  x   9  x 2
and g  x   3 x 4
 5 x 2
 1 from
example 3, f is continuous on the closed interval  3 , 3  and
from Theorem (2.21), g is continuous at every real number.
Moreover for every c in  3 , 3  , g ( c )  0 Hence by Theorem
f
(2.23) (iv), the quotient k  is continuous on the closed
g
interval  3 , 3  .
Quiz(3):
If k  x   3 x 2  7 x  12 , show that k is continuous at every
number.
Solution
If we let f  x   x and g  x   3 x 2  7 x  12
Then
k  x   f ( g ( x ))  ( f g )( x )
Since both f and g are continuous function (see example 1 and
(i) of Theorem (6)), it follows from (ii) of Theorem (7) that the
composite function k  f g is continuous at c.

Intermediate value theorem (2.26) : Page (84)

If f is continuous on a closed interval  a ,b  and if w is any
number between f  a  and f  b  , then there is at least one
number c in  a ,b  such that
f c   w .

Figure 2.38
If f  a  and f  b  have opposite signs, then there is a number
c (zero or root ) in  a ,b  such that
f c   0.

Example (6) : Page (84)

Show that f x   x 5  2 x4 6 x 3  2 x  3 has a zero
between 1 and 2 .
Solution
f x   x 5  2 x4 6 x 3  2 x  3
* Substituting 1 and 2 for x gives us the function values :
f  1   1  2  6  2  3  4
f  2   32  32  48  4  3  17
* Since f  1  and f  2  have opposite signs , it follows from
the intermediate value theorem that f c   0 for at least one
real number c between 1 and 2 .
Theorem [2.27].
If a function f is continuous and has no zeroes on an interval
,then either f  x   0 or and f  x   0 for every x in the
interval.

Exercises 2.5, pages 85-87, from 1-60.

Example (2) : Page (70)
Find each limit , if it exists .
1 1 1
(a) lim . (b) lim . (c) lim .
 x 4   x 4  x  4 x 4 
3 3 3
x4 x4

Solution
(a) If x is close to 4 and x  4 , then x  4 is close to 0 and
negative , and
1
lim   .
x  4 x 4 
 3

(a) If x is close to 4 and x  4 , then x  4 is close to 0 and

positive , and
1
lim   .
x  4 x 4 
 3

1 1
(c) Since lim  lim , then
x4 
x 4  3
x4 
x 4  3

1
lim does not exist .
x4 x 4  3

1
* The graph of y  is sketched in Figure 2.29 . The
x 4  3

line x  4 is a vertical asymptote .

 Figure 2.29

Quiz (3)
2x3 5
Find lim .
x 3x x 2
2

Solution
* Since the highest power of x in the denominator is 2 , we first
divide numerator and denominator by x 2 , obtaining
5
2 x 
2x3 5 x 2
lim  lim
x 3x  x  2
2 1 2
x
3  2
x x
 0 
    .
3 0 0 3
Example (6) : Page (74)
9x2  2
If f  x   , find
4x 3
(a) lim f  x  . (b) lim f  x  .
x x  

Solution
9x2  2
f x  
4x 3
(a) If x is large and positive , then
9x2  2  9x2  3x and 4x 3 4x
and hence
9x2  2 3x 3
f x    
4x 3 4x 4
3
this suggests that lim f  x   .
x 4
* To give a rigorous proof we may write
 2 
x2 9  2 
9x2  2  x 
lim  lim
x 4x 3 x 4x 3
2
x 2
9
 lim x2
x 4x 3
If x is positive , then x 2  x , and dividing numerator
and denominator of the last fraction by x gives us
 2
x2 9
9x2  2 x2
lim  lim
x 4x 3 x 4x 3
2
x 9
 lim x2
x 4x 3
2
9
 lim x2
x 3
4
x
9 0 3
  .
4 0 4
(b) If x is large negative , then x 2   x . If we use the
same steps as in part (a) , we obtain
 2 
x2 x2 9  2 
9x2  2  x 
lim  lim
x   4x 3 x   4x 3

2
 x  9
 lim x2
x   4x 3
2
 9
 lim x2
x   3
4
x
 9 0 3
   .
4 0 4