Hydraulics and Pneumatics - Notes

UNIT I
FLUID POWER PRINCIPLES AND FUNDEMENTALS (REVIEW)
FLUID POWER: It may be defined as the technology that deals with the generation, control and
transmission of power using pressurized fluids
TYPES OF FLUID SYSTEMS:

Fluid Transport systems: The objective of the fluid transport systems is to transport fluids
from one place to another place to achieve some useful purpose
Fluid Power systems: The Fluid power system is primarily designed to perform work. That is
these systems use pressurized fluids to produce some useful mechanical movements to accomplish
the desired work.
Method of transmitting power:
 Electrical power transmission
 Mechanical power transmission
 Fluid power transmission
 Hydraulic power transmission
 Pneumatic power transmission
ADVANTAGES OF FLUID POWER:

1. Easy and Accuracy to Control With the use of simple levels and push buttons, the fluid power
system can facilitate easy starting, stopping, speeding up or slowing down and positioning
forces that provide any desired power
2. Multiplication of small forces to achieve greater forces for performing work
3. It easily provides infinite and step less variable speed control which is difficult to obtain from
other drives
4. Accuracy in controlling small or large forces with instant reversal is possible with hydraulic
systems
5. Constant force is possible in fluid power system regardless of special motion requirements.
Whether the work output moves a few millimeters or several meters per minute.
6. As the medium of power transmission is fluid, it is not subjected to any breakage of parts as in
mechanical transmission.
7. The parts of hydraulic system are lubricated with the hydraulic liquid itself.
8. Overloads can easily controlled by using relief valves than is possible with overload devices on
the other systems. Air equipments reduces the danger of fire and explosion hazard in
industries such as painting and mining.
9. Because of the simplicity and compactness the cost is relatively low for the power transmitted.
10. No need of lubrication
Co mp il e d b y D r. M. Pu vi y ar a s an , F acu l t y i n M ech a ni cal En gi n ee r in g Page 1 of 79

DISADVANTAGES:
1. Leakage of oil or compressed air
2. Busting of oil lines, air tanks
3. More noise in operation
APPLICATIONS OF FLUID POWER:

1. Agriculture: Tractors and farm equipments like ploughs, mowers, chemical sprayers,
fertilizer spreaders, hay balers
2. Automation: Automated transfer machines
3. Aviation: Fluid power equipments like landing wheels on aeroplane and helicopter, aircraft
trolleys, aircraft engine test beds.
4. Building Industry: For metering and mixing of concrete ingredients from hopper.
5. Construction Equipment: Earthmoving equipments like excavators, bucket loaders, dozers,
crawlers, post hole diggers and road graders.
6. Defense : Missile-launch systems and Navigation controls
7. Entertainment: Amusement park entertainment rides like roller coasters
8. Fabrication Industry: Hand tools like pneumatic drills, grinders, bores, riveting machines,
nut runners
9. Food and Beverage: All types of food processing equipment, wrapping, bottling
10. Foundry: Full and semi automatic molding machines, tilting of furnaces, die casting machines
11. Glass Industry: Vacuum suction cups for handling
12. Material Handling: Jacks, Hoists, Cranes, Forklift, Conveyor system
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM:
An electric motor drives the hydraulic pump so that the fluid is pumped from the tank at the
required pressure. The fluid circulated into the system should be clean to reduce the wear of the
pump and cylinder; hence a filter is used immediate to the storage tank. Since the pump delivers
constant volume of fluid for each revolution of the shaft the fluid pressure rises indefinitely until a
pipe or pump itself fails. To avoid this some kind of pressure regulators is used to spill out the excess
fluid back to the tank. Cylinder movement is controlled by a 3 position change over control valve. One
side of the valve is connected to a pressurized fluid line and the fluid retrieval line and other side of
the valve is connected to port A and port B of the cylinder. Since the hydraulic circuit is a closed one,
the liquid transferred from the storage tank to one side of the piston, and the fluid at the other side of
the piston is retrieved back to the tank.
Raise: To lift the weight, the pressurized fluid line has to be connected to port A and the retrieval line
has to be connected to the port B, by moving the valve position to “raise”.

Lower: To bring down the weight, the pressurized fluid line has to be connected to port B and the
retrieval fluid line has to be connected to port A, by moving the valve position to “lower”.
Off: The weight can be stopped at a particular position by moving the valve position to off. This
disconnects the port A and port B from the pressurized line and the retrieval line which locks the fluid
in the cylinder.
PNEUMATIC POWER SYSTEM:

Air is drawn from the atmosphere through the air filter and raised to the required pressure by
an air compressor. Air contains significant amount of water vapour and also the air temperature is
raised considerably by the compressor. So the air must be cooled before using it in the system, which
results in condensation. The compressed air is stored in the reservoir which has water outlet at the
bottom of the reservoir and a pressure switch to control the pressure of the compressed air. Pressure
switch stops the motor when the required pressure is attained and starts the motor when the
pressure falls down the mark. The cylinder movement is controlled by the pneumatic valve. One side
of the pneumatic valve is connected to the compressed air line and silencers for the exhaust air and
the other side of the valve is connected to port A and port B of the cylinder.

Raise: To lift the weight, the compressed air line has to be connected to port A and the port B is
connected to the exhaust air line by moving the valve position to raise.
Lower: To bring down the weight, the compressed air line is connected to port B and the port A is
connected to exhaust air line by moving the valve position to lower.
Off: The weight can be stopped at a particular position by moving the valve position to off. This
disconnects the port A and port B from the pressurized line and the retrieval line which locks the air
in the cylinder.
COMPARISON BETWEEN HYDRAULIC, PNEUMATIC AND ELECTRO MECHANICAL POWER

SYSTEM
Hydraulic System Pneumatic System Electro-Mechanical System
Energy is transmitted through

Pressurized Liquid is used Compressed Air is used
mechanical components
Energy stored in Batteries
Energy stored in Accumulator Energy stored in Tank
Variable Frequency drives

Hydraulic Valves are used Pneumatic Valves are used
Transmission through Transmission through

Transmission through
Pneumatic cylinders, Mechanical components like
Hydraulic cylinders, Actuators
Actuators Gears, Cams

Hydraulic System Pneumatic System Electro-Mechanical System
Excellent with minimum loss

Flow rate is 2 to 6 m/s Flow rate is 20-40 m/s
More Precision Less Precision More Precision

Limited force can be Large force can be realized but
Large force can be generated
achieved poor in efficiency
Medium Cost High cost Low Cost
Dangerous and fire hazardous

Noisy Easy to work
because of leakage
FUNCTIONS OF FLUIDS IN A FLUID POWER SYSTEM:

1. Transfer fluid power efficiently
2. Lubricate the moving parts
3. Absorb, Carry and Transfer heat generated within the system
4. Be compatible with hydraulic components
5. Remain stable against physical and chemical changes
VARIOUS HYDRAULIC FLUIDS:

 Water: The least expensive hydraulic fluid is water. Water is treated with chemicals before
being used in a fluid power system. This treatment removes undesirable contaminates.
Advantages: Inexpensive, Readily available, Fire resistance
Disadvantage: No lubricity, Corrosive, Temperature limitations
 Petroleum Oils: These are the most common among the hydraulic fluids which are used in a
wide range of hydraulic applications. The characteristic of petroleum based hydraulic oils are
controlled by the type of crude oil used. Naphthenic oils have low viscosity index so it is
unsuitable where the oil temperatures vary too widely. The aromatics have a higher presence
of benzene and they are more compatible with moderate temperature variation. Paraffinic oils
have a high viscosity index and they are more suitable for the system where the temperature
varies greatly.
Advantages: Excellent lubricity, Reasonable cost, Non-corrosive
Disadvantage: Tendency to oxidize rapidly, Not fire resistance

 Water Glycols: These are solutions contains 35 to 55% water, glycol and water soluble
thickener to improve viscosity. Additives are also added to improve anticorrosion, anti wear
and lubricity properties.
Advantages: Better fire resistance, Less expensive, Compatible with most pipe compounds
and seals
Disadvantage: Low viscosity, Poor corrosion resistance, not suitable for high loads
 Water Oil Emulsions: These are water-oil mixtures. They are of two types oil-in-water
emulsions or water-in-oil emulsions. The oil-in-water emulsion has water as the continuous
base and the oil is present in lesser amounts as the dispersed media. In the water-in-oil
emulsion, the oil is in continuous phase and water is the dispersed media.
Advantages: High viscosity index, Oxidation stability, Film strength
Disadvantage: Depletion of water due to evaporation decreases fire resistance,
Demulsification may be problem with water-in-oil emulsions.
 Phosphate Ester: It results from the incorporation of phosphorus into organic molecules.
They have high thermal stability. They serve as an excellent detergent and prevent building up
of sludge.
Advantages: Excellent fire resistance, Good lubricity, Non corrosive
Disadvantage: Not compatible with many plastics and elastomers, Expensive
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS:
1. Viscosity: It is a measure of the fluid’s internal resistance offered to flow. Viscosity is the most
important factor from the stand point of flow. If the viscosity of the hydraulic oil is higher than
recommended, the system will be affected in the following manner.
1. The viscous oil may not be able to pass through the pipes.
2. The working temperature will increases because there will be internal friction.
3. The consumption of power will increase
If the viscosity of the oil is lesser than recommended then,
1. The internal and external leakage will increase
2. It cannot lubricate properly and will lead to rapid wear of the moving parts.
2. Viscosity Index: This value shows how temperature affects the viscosity of oil. The viscosity of
the oil decreases with increase in temperature and vice versa. The rate of change of viscosity with
temperature is indicated on an arbitrary scale called viscosity index (VI). The lower the viscosity
index, the greater the variation in viscosity with changes in temperature and vice versa.

3. Oxidation Stability: The most important property of an hydraulic oil is its oxidation stability.
Oxidation is caused by a chemical reaction between the oxygen of the dissolved air and the oil. The
oxidation of the oil creates impurities like sludge, insoluble gum and soluble acidic products. The
soluble acidic products cause corrosion and insoluble products make the operation sluggish.
4. Demulsibility: The ability of a hydraulic fluid to separate rapidly from moisture and
successfully resist emulsification is known as Demulsibility. If oil emulsifies with water the
emulsion will promote the destruction of lubricating value and sealant properties. Highly refined
oils are basically water resistance by nature.
5. Lubricity: Wear results in increase clearance which leads to all sorts of operational
difficulties including fall of efficiency. At the time of selecting a hydraulic oil care must be taken to
select one which will be able to lubricate the moving parts efficiently.
6. Rust Prevention: The moisture entering into the hydraulic system with air causes the parts
made ferrous materials to rust. This rust if passed through the precision made pumps and valves
may scratch the nicely polished surfaces. So additives named inhibitors are added to the oil to keep
the moisture away from the surface.
7. Pour Point: The temperature at which oil will clot is referred to as the pour point i.e. the
lowest temperature at which the oil is able to flow easily. It is of great importance in cold countries
where the system is exposed to very low temperature.
8. Flash Point and Fire Point: Flash point is the temperature at which a liquid gives off
vapour in sufficient quantity to ignite momentarily or flash when a flame is applied. The minimum
temperature at which the hydraulic fluid will catch fire and continue burning is called fire point.
9. Neutralization Number: The neutralization number is a measure of the acidity or

alkalinity of a hydraulic fluid. This is referred to as the PH value of the fluid. High acidity causes the
oxidation rate in an oil to increase rapidly.
10. Density: It is that quantity of matter contained in unit volume of the substance.
11. Compressibility: All fluids are compressible to some extent. Compressibility of a liquid
causes the liquid to act much like a stiff spring. The coefficient of compressibility is the fractional
change in a unit volume of liquid per unit change of pressure

REQUIRED QUALITIES OF GOOD HYDRAULIC OIL:
1. Stable viscosity characteristics
2. Good lubricity
3. Compatibility with system materials
4. Stable physical and chemical properties
5. Good heat dissipation capability
6. High bulk modulus and degree of incompressibility
7. Good flammability
8. Low volatility
9. Good demulsibility
10. Better fire resistance
11. Non toxicity and good oxidation stability
12. Better rust and corrosion prevent qualities
13. Ready availability and inexpensive
FLUID FLOW:
Laminar Flow: It is one in which paths taken by the individual partials do not cross one
another and moves along well defined paths. The laminar flow is characterized by the fluid flowing in
smooth layers of lamina. This type of flow is also known as streamline or viscous flow because the
particles of fluid moving in an orderly manner and retaining the same relative positions in successive
cross sections.
Examples:
1. Flow of oil in measuring instruments
2. Flow of blood in veins and arteries
Turbulent Flow: It is that flow in which fluid particles move in a zigzag way. It is
characterized by continues small fluctuations in the magnitude and direction of the velocity of the
fluid particles. It causes more resistance to flow, Greater energy loss and increase fluid temperature
due to greater energy loss.
Examples: High velocity flow in a pipe of large size

REYNOLDS NUMBER:
Osborne Reynolds in 1883 conducted experiments to ascertain the conditions under which a flow
through pipe is laminar or turbulent. He applied the dimensional analysis on variables and introduced
a dimensionless number called Reynolds number Re. It is given by the following equation to
determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.
VD VD
Re = 
 
ρ = Density of fluid (kg/m3)
V = Velocity of Flow (m/sec)
D = Inside diameter of pipe (m)
υ = Kinematic viscosity of fluid (m2/sec)
μ = absolute viscosity of fluid (Ns/m2)
Experiments showed that the flow is laminar when Reynolds number (Re) is less than 2000 and
turbulent for Re greater than 4000. And for 4000 < Re < 2000 then the flow is in transition from
laminar to turbulent. It is always desirable to maintain laminar flow in hydraulic system because
the chaotic turbulent flow causes more energy loss.
DARCY – WEISBACH EQUATION:

The energy loss due to friction in a hydraulic system results in a loss of potential energy. This
potential energy loss leads to a pressure drop or head loss in the system. Pressure or head loss due to
friction in pipes carrying fluids are derived using the Darcy-Weisbach Equation.
L V2
HL = f ( )( )
D g
HL – Head Loss V – Velocity of Flow
f - Friction Factor g – Acceleration due to gravity
L - Length of pipe
D – Inner Diameter
During laminar flow the friction is relatively independent of the surface conditions of the inside
diameter of the pipe.
The friction factor ‘f’ for laminar flow can be found by the equation
64
f= when Re < 2000
Re
But in turbulent flow friction factor depends on both the Reynolds number and roughness of the pipe.
An American engineer L.F.Moody documented the experimental and theoretical investigation on the
laws of friction in pipe flow in form of a diagram. He showed the variation of friction factor with the

governing parameters namely the Reynolds number and relative roughness of the pipe. This
D

diagram is known as Moody diagram which is employed for predicting the values of ‘f’ in turbulent
flow.
LOSSES IN VALVES AND FITTINGS:

Pressure drops are also due to valves, expansions, contractions, bends, elbows, tees and pipe
fittings. The losses in valves and fittings in hydraulic systems are frequently computed in terms of
equivalent length of hydraulic tube. Equivalent lengths can then be substituted in Darcy-Weisbach
equation to solve for total pressure loss in the system. The formula for computing equivalent length is
KD
Equivalent length Le = k= Factor for valve and fittings
f
Valve and Fitting K Factor

Globe Valve
Full open 10
Half open 12.5
Gate Valve
Full open 0.19
Half open 4.5
Check Valve
Poppet Type 3.0
Ball type 4.0
Return Bend 2.2
Standard Tee 1.8
Standard Elbow 0.9
45o Elbow 0.42

PASCAL’S LAW :
This law states that the pressure generated at any point in a confined fluid acts equally in all
directions.
CONTINUITY EQUATION: It states that if no fluid is added or removed from the pipe in any length
then the mass passing across different sections shall be same.
A1 V1 = A2 V2
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION: It states that in a ideal incompressible fluid when the flow is steady and
continuous the sum of potential energy, kinetic energy and pressure energy is constant across all
cross sections of the pipe.
2 2
V P V P
Z1 + 1 + 1 = Z2 + 2 + 2
2g w 2g w

UNIT II
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM AND COMPONENTS
Introduction:
A pump which is the heart of a hydraulic system converts mechanical energy into hydraulic
energy. The mechanical energy is delivered to the pump via prime mover such as electric motor. Due
to the mechanical action the pump creates a partial vacuum at its inlet. This permits atmospheric
pressure to force the fluid through the inlet line and into the pump. The pump then pushes the fluid
into the hydraulic system.
Pump Classifications:
1. Non Positive Displacement Pumps: The most common types of dynamic pumps are the
centrifugal and axial pumps. Although these pumps provide smooth continuous flow, their
flow output is reduced as circuit resistance is increased and thus are rarely used in fluid
power systems. In dynamic pumps there is a great deal of clearance between the rotating
impeller and the stationary housing. Thus as the resistance of the external system starts to
increase, some of the fluid slips back into the clearance spaces, causing a reduction in the
discharge flow rate. This slippage is due to the fact that the fluid follows the path of least
resistance. When the resistance of the external system becomes infinitely large the pump will
produce no flow. These pumps are typically used for low pressure, high volume flow
applications. Also since there is a great deal of clearance between the rotating and stationary
elements, dynamic pumps are not self priming unlike positive displacement pump.
2. Positive Displacement Pump: This type of pump ejects a fixed quantity of fluid per
revolution of the pump shaft. As a result, pump output flow, neglecting changes in the small
internal leakage is constant and not dependent on system pressure. This makes them
particularly well suited for fluid power systems. However positive displacement pumps must
be protected against overpressure if the resistance to flow becomes very large. This can
happen if a valve is completely closed and there is no physical place for the fluid to go. The
reason for this is that a positive displacement pump continues to eject fluid causing an
extremely rapid buildup in pressure as the fluid compressed. A pressure relief valve is used to
protect the pump against overpressure by diverting pump flow back to the hydraulic tank
where the fluid is stored for system use.
Classification of Positive Displacement Pump:

1. Gear Pumps
a. External Gear Pump
b. Internal Gear Pump
c. Lobe Pump
d. Screw Pump

2. Vane Pumps
a. Unbalanced Vane Pumps
b. Balanced Vane Pumps
c. Pressure Compensated Vane Pump
3. Piston pumps
a. Axial Piston Pump
b. Radial Piston Pump
GEAR PUMPS:
External Gear Pump:
The given figure shows the operation of an external gear pump, which develops flow by carrying fluid
between the teeth of two meshing gears. One of the gears is connected to a drive shaft connected to
the prime mover. The second gear is driven as it meshes with the driver gear. Oil chambers are
formed between the gear teeth, the pump housing and the side wear plates. The suction side is where
teeth come out of mesh and it is here that the volume expands bringing about a reduction in pressure
to below atmospheric pressure. Fluid is pushed into this void by atmospheric pressure because the oil
supply tank is vented to the atmosphere. The discharge side is where teeth go into mesh and it is here
that the volume decreases between mating teeth. Since the pump has a positive internal seal against
leakage the oil is positively ejected into the outlet port. The displacement of the gear pump is
determined by volume of fluid between each pair of teeth, Number of teeth and speed of rotation.
QT = VD x N

VD = (Do2-Di2) L
4
QT – Theoretical Pump Flow Rate L – Width Of Gear
VD – Displacement Volume of Pump N – Speed of Pump
Do, Di – Outside and Inside Diameter of Gear Teeth

There must be a small clearance between the teeth tip and pump housing. As a result some of the oil at
the discharge port can leak directly back toward the suction port. This means that the actual flow rate
QA is less than the theoretical flow rate QT which is based on volumetric displacement and pump
speed. This internal leakage called pump slippage is identified by the term volumetric efficiency.
QA
v 
QT
Advantages Disadvantages
 High speed  Four bushings in liquid area
 High pressure  No solids allowed
 No overhung bearing loads  Fixed End Clearances
 Relatively quiet operation
 Design accommodates wide variety of
materials
Applications
 Various fuel oils and lube oils
 Chemical additive and polymer metering
 Chemical mixing and blending (double pump)
 Industrial and mobile hydraulic applications splitters, lifts
 Acids and caustic (stainless steel or composite construction)
Low volume transfer or application
Internal Gear Pump:

The figure shows the operation of the internal gear pump. This design consists of an internal gear, a
regular spur gear, a crescent shaped seal and an external housing. As power is applied to either gear
the motion of the gears
draws fluid from the
reservoir and forces it
around both sides of the
crescent seal which acts as
a seal between the suction
and discharge ports. When
the teeth mesh on the side
opposite to the crescent
seal the fluid is forced to
enter the discharge port of
the pump.

 Only two moving parts  Usually requires moderate speeds
 Non-pulsating discharge  Medium pressure limitations
 Excellent for high-viscosity liquids  One bearing runs in the product
 Constant and even discharge regardless of pumped
pressure conditions  Overhung load on shaft bearing
 Operates well in either direction
 Single adjustable end clearance
Applications
 All varieties of fuel oil and lube oil
 Resins and Polymers
 Alcohols and solvents
 Food products such as corn syrup, chocolate, and peanut butter
 Paint, inks, and pigments
Lobe Pump:
In this pump, the gears are replaced by the lobes. This pump operates in a similar fashion as that of
external pump. But unlike the external gear pump, these both lobes are driven independently and
they do not have actual contact with each other.
Lobe contact is prevented by external timing gears located in the gearbox. Pump shaft support
bearings are located in the gearbox, and since the bearings are out of the pumped liquid, pressure is
limited by bearing location and shaft deflection. As the lobes come out of mesh, they create expanding
volume on the inlet side of the pump. Liquid flows into the cavity and is trapped by the lobes as they
rotate. Liquid travels around the interior of the casing in the pockets between the lobes and the casing
it does not pass between the lobes. Finally, the meshing of the lobes forces liquid through the outlet
port under pressure. So, they are quieter than other types of gear pumps. Since the lobe pump has
smaller number of mating
elements, the lobe pump output
will have a somewhat greater
amount of pulsating, although its
volumetric displacement is
generally greater than that for
other types of gear pumps.Lobe
pumps are frequently used in food
applications because they handle
solids without damaging the
product.

 Pass medium solids  Requires timing gears
 No metal-to-metal contact  Requires two seals
 Long term dry run (with lubrication  Reduced lift with thin liquids
to seals)
Applications
 Paper coatings
 Soaps and surfactants
 Paints, dyes, Rubber and adhesives
 Pharmaceuticals
Gerotor Pump: It is a positive displacement pumping unit. The name gerotor is derived from
"Generated Rotor". A gerotor unit consists of an inner and outer rotor. The inner rotor has N teeth,
and the outer rotor has N+1 teeth. The inner rotor is located off-center and both rotors rotate. During
part of the assembly's rotation cycle, the area between the inner and outer rotor increases, creating a
vacuum. This vacuum creates suction, and hence, this part of the cycle is where the intake is located.
Then, the area between the rotors decreases, causing compression. During this compression period,
fluids can be pumped, or compressed (if they are gaseous fluids).
Gerotor pumps are generally designed using a trochoidal inner rotor and an outer rotor formed by a
circle with intersecting circular arcs. A gerotor can also function as a motor. High pressure gas enters
the intake area and pushes against the inner and outer rotors, causing both to rotate as the area
between the inner and outer rotor increases. During the compression period, the exhaust is pumped
out.

 High Speed  Medium pressure limitations
 Only two moving parts  Fixed clearances
 Constant and even discharge regardless of  No solids allowed
pressure conditions  One bearing runs in the product pumped
 Operates well in either direction  Overhung load on shaft bearing
 Quiet operation
Applications
 Light fuel oils
 Lube oil
 Cooking oils
 Hydraulic fluid
Screw Pump:
It is an axial flow positive displacement unit. Three precision ground screws, meshing within a close
fitting housing, deliver non pulsating flow quietly and efficiently. The two symmetrically opposed
idler rotors act as rotating seals, confining the fluid in a succession of closures or stages. The idler
rotor are in rolling contact with the central power rotor and are free to float in their respective
housing bores on a hydrodynamic oil film. There are no radial bending loads. Axial hydraulic forces on
the rotor set are balanced, eliminating any need for thrust bearings. The liquid is introduced at the
two ends and discharged at the centre. The pumping action comes from the sealed chamber. The
sealed chamber formed by the contact of the two gears at the intersection of their addenda and by the
small clearance between the screws and the pump housing. This working is similar to a nut moving
along a thread rod when the rod rotated. In these pumps, it should be noted that the liquid does not
rotate but moves linearly. Thus the liquid moves forward along the axis with the rotation of the screw
and is discharged to the outlet port.

Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. Give uniform pressure with negligible 1. It is difficult to manufacture the
pulsations. screw profile to maintain close
2. Very quiet, because of rolling action of the tolerance.
screw spindles. 2. Overall volumetric and mechanical
3.Can handle liquids containing vapour and gases efficiency is relatively low.
Types of Vane Pumps:
1. Unbalanced Vane Pumps
a. Fixed displacement unbalanced pumps
b. Variable displacement unbalanced pumps
2. Balanced Vane Pumps
Unbalanced Vane Pump:
The pump consists of a rotor which contains radial slots splined to the drive shaft. The rotor rotates
inside a cam ring. Each slot contains a vane which is free to slide in or out of the slots in the pump
rotor. The vane is designed to mate with the surface of the cam ring as the rotor turns. The cam ring
axis is offset to the drive shaft
axis. As the rotor rotates, the
centrifugal force pushes the
vanes out against the surface of
the cam ring. The vanes divide
the space between the rotor and
the cam ring into a series of
small chambers. During the first
half of rotor rotation, the
volume of these chambers
increase, thereby causing a
reduction of pressure. This is
the suction process which
causes the fluid to flow through
the inlet port and fill the void.
As the rotor rotates through the second half, the cam ring pushes the vane back into their slots and
the trapped volume is reduced. This positively ejects the trapped fluid through the outlet port. In this
pump, all the pumping action takes place in the chambers located on the one side of the rotor and
shaft. So the pump is of an unbalanced design.
Fixed Displacement Unbalanced Vane Pumps: In this type rotor housing eccentricity is constant.
Hence the displacement volume is fixed. A constant volume of fluid is discharged during each
revolution of the rotor.

Variable Displacement Unbalanced Vane Pump: Variable displacement can be provided if the
housing can be moved with respect to the rotor. This movement changes the eccentricity and hence
the displacement. Usually a hand wheel or pressure compensator can be used to move the cam ring to
change the eccentricity.
Balanced vane pump:
In balanced vane pump, the rotor rotates inside a cam ring of elliptical shape. It has two inlet and
outlet ports which are diametrically opposite each other. Movement of the vanes in and out causes the
chamber between
them to increase
and decrease.
When these
chambers are
increasing in size,
the fluid is being
sucked into the
pump through the
inlet ports. The two
inlet ports are
connected to a
common inlet
passage. When the
chambers are
decreasing in size,
the fluid starts being delivered into the system through the outlet ports which are connected to a
common outlet passage. Because the pressure ports are opposite to each other, a complete hydraulic
balance can be achieved. One disadvantage of balanced vane pump is that it cannot be designed as a
variable displacement pump.
Advantages: Disadvantages:
1. Volumetric and overall efficiencies are high. 1. They cannot handle abrasive liquids
2. only small changes in capacity occur with 2. They require seals and foreign bodies can
variations in viscosity and discharge pressure damage the pump
3. Their vanes are self compensating for wear and 3. They cannot be operated against a closed
also vanes can be easily replaced. discharge without damage to the pump.
4. They are self priming, robust and give constant Hence relief valves are required
delivery for a set rotor speed.
Pressure Compensated Variable Delivery Pump:

In this system pressure acts directly via a hydraulic piston on the right side. This forces the cam ring
against a spring loaded piston on the left side. If the discharge pressure is large enough, it overcomes
the compensator spring force and shifts the cam ring to the left. This reduces the eccentricity and
decreases the flow. If the pressure continues to increase, there is no eccentricity and pump flows
becomes zero.
Piston Pumps:
In piston pumps, the pumping action is affected by a piston that moves in a reciprocating cycle
through a cylinder. The basic operations of piston pumps are very similar to that of the reciprocating
engines. These pumps are classified as
1. Axial Piston Pumps
a. Swash plate axial piston pump
b. Bent axis Axial piston pump
2. Radial Piston Pumps
In axial piston pumps, a number of pistons and cylinders are located in a parallel position with respect
to the drive shaft, while in the radial type they are arranged radially around the rotor hub.
Axial Piston Pump:

In this type rotary shaft motion is converted to axial reciprocating motion which drives the piston.
Most axial piston pumps are multi piston designs and utilize check valves or port plates to direct
liquid flow from inlet to discharge. Output can be controlled by manual, mechanical or pressure
compensated controls.

Swash Plate (In line) axial Piston Pump:
In this pump rotary drive
motion is converted to
reciprocating, axial piston
motion by means of the
swash plate, mounted on
the drive shaft. Thus the
rotation of the swash plate
produces in and out motion
of the piston in their
cylinders and hence the
fluid is discharged.
This type of pumps can also
be designed to have variable
displacement capability. This can be achieved by altering the angle of the swash plate. Because in the
swash plate axial pump, the angle of tilt of the swash plate determines the piston stroke and hence the
pump displacement. The increase in the swash plate angle will increase the piston stroke and hence
the fluid displacement. When the swash plate is vertical, then the displacement is zero. Even one can
reverse the flow direction by changing the angle of swash plate. However, the maximum swash plate
angle is generally limited to 17.5o, due to various design considerations.
Bent Axis Axial Piston Pump:

This type of pump contains a cylinder block rotating with the drive shaft. As shown the centerline of
the cylinder block is sent at an offset angle relative to the centerline of the drive shaft. The cylinder
has a number of
pistons and cylinders
arranged along a
circle. The ball and
socket joints connect
the piston rods with
the drive shaft flange.
When the distance
between the drive
shaft flange and
cylinder block
changes, the piston
move in and out of

the cylinder. In order to provide alignment and positive drive, a universal link is used to connect the
block to the drive shaft. When the piston carrying body turns, the exit passage in the cylinder bores
move along the control slots of a firmly positioned control plate and are thus connected alternatively
to suction or discharge pipelines.
In the fixed displacement pumps, the pumps are mounted in a fixed casing so that swing angle cannot
be adjusted. So the fixed displacement of the piston and hence the constant discharge of fluid are
achieved. In variable displacement pumps, the swing angle can be varied. Because the volumetric
displacement of the pump varies with the offset angle. When the offset angle is zero, then the
displacement will be zero. However, the angle will vary from 0 o to 30o.
Radial Piston Pump:

The radial piston pump has a number of radial pistons in a cylinder block which revolves around a
stationary pintle or valve. The pistons remain in contact with the reaction ring due to centrifugal force
and back pressure on the pistons. A drive shaft is attached to the end of cylinder block and provides
the power needed to the pump. The reaction ring is moved eccentrically with respect to the pintle
axis.
If the cylinder block is rotated in a clockwise direction, the pistons on one side travel outward and
sucks the fluid when it passes the suction port of the pintle. When the piston passes the maximum
point eccentricity, it is forced inward by the reaction ring. This force the fluid to enter into the
discharge port. The displacement can be varied by moving the reaction ring to change the piston
stroke.

Important Formulas:
1. Theoretical Discharge for Gear Pump: Do – Outer Diameter of Gear
 Di – Inner Diameter of Gear
QT = (Do2 – Di2) b N
4 b - Width of Gear
N – Speed of Pump
2. Theoretical Discharge for Vane Pump: Dc – Diameter of Cam Ring
 DR – Diameter of Rotor
QT = (Dc + DR) 2 e L N
4 e – Eccentricity
L – Width of Rotor
3. Bent Axial Piston Pump D- Piston circle Diameter
S A – Area of Piston
QT = DANY sin  ; sin  =
D Y – Number of pistons
 - Offset angle
S – Piston stroke
4. Swash Plate Pump:  - Offset angle of Swash
QT = DANY tan  Plate
5. Radial Piston Pump

QT = 0.5 e Y π D2 N
Volumetric Efficiency: It indicates the amount of leakage within the pump. This involves
considerations such as manufacturing tolerances and flexing of the pump casing under the design
pressure operating conditions.
Actual Flow rate produced by pump

v= X 100
Theoretical flow rate the pump should produce
QA
 v=
QT
Mechanical Efficiency: It indicates the amount of energy losses that occur due to reasons other than
leakages. This includes friction in bearings and between other mating parts. It also includes energy
losses due to fluid turbulence.
Theoretical Power required to operate the pump
m= x 100
Actual power delivered to the pump
PQT
 m=
2NT
Overall Efficiency:
 o=  v x  m

HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS
ACTUATORS:
It is a device used for converting hydraulic energy into mechanical energy. The pressurized
hydraulic fluid delivered by the hydraulic pump is supplied to the actuators, which converts the
energy of the fluid into mechanical energy. This mechanical energy is used to get the work done.
TYPES OF ACTUATORS:
1. Linear Actuators (Hydraulic cylinders)
2. Rotary Actuators (Hydraulic motors)
a. Continuous rotary actuators
b. Semi rotary actuators
HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS:
A hydraulic cylinder is a device, which converts fluid power into linear mechanical force and
motion. It usually consists of a movable element, a piston and a piston rod operating within a cylinder
bore.
TYPES OF HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS:
1. Single acting cylinders
2. Double acting cylinders
3. Telescoping cylinders
4. Double rod cylinder
5. Tandem cylinder
SINGLE ACTING CYLINDER:
A single acting cylinder is designed to apply force in only one direction. It consists of a piston
inside a cylindrical housing called barrel. Attached to end of the piston is a rod which extends outside.
At the other end (Blank end) is a port for the entrance and the exit of oil. A single acting cylinder can
exert a force only in the extending direction, as fluid from the pump enters through the blank end of
the cylinder. Single acting cylinders do not hydraulically retract. Retraction is accomplished by using
gravity or by the inclusion of a compression spring at the rod end.

Advantages and Disadvantages:
1. The single acting cylinders are very simple to operate, and compact in size.
2. The single acting cylinders with spring return cannot be used for larger stroke length.
DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER:
A double acting cylinder is capable of delivering forces in both directions. The barrel is made
of seamless steel tubing, honed to affine finish on the inside surface. The piston which is made of
ductile iron contains U cup packing to seal the leakage between the piston and the barrel. The ports
are located in the end caps which are secured to the barrel by tie rods. The load of the piston rod at
the neck is taken by a rod bearing, which is generally made of brass or bronze.
A rod wiper is provided at the end of the neck to prevent foreign particles and dust from entering into
the cylinder along with the piston rod. When the fluid from the pump enters the cylinder through port
1, the piston moves forward and the fluid return to the reservoir from the cylinder through port 2.
During the return stroke the fluid is allowed to enter the cylinder through port 2 and fluid from the
other side of the piston goes back to the reservoir through port 1.
CYLINDER CUSHIONING:
As long as the piston is moving in the middle range of the cylinder, nothing will hit the piston
head. But, due to the inertia forces of the moving parts at the end of the piston travel, the piston will
hit the cylinder head at full speed. To overcome this, the designers provide a cushioning arrangement
by which the hydraulic cylinder can be slowly retarded or cushioned, during the last portion of the
stroke. The figure shows the position of the piston at the start of the cushioning action. In this
position, the fluid from the pump enters into the rod end of the cylinder moving the piston towards
the left. The fluid from the head end of the cylinder flows freely to the reservoir through the fluid port.

As the stroke nears completion, the cushion nose starts entering in the space of the cylinder head. Due
to the taper front of the
cushion nose, the fluid port
path is gradually closed. So
the fluid cannot flow
through the port or
through the passage of
check valve. Now
entrapped fluid can escape
only through the passage
controlled by the needle
valve. Thus due to the
restricted outflow during
the last portion of the
stroke, the piston
decelerates slowly. By
adjusting the needle valve,
rate of deceleration is controlled. For starting the forward stroke of the piston, the fluid is allowed to
enter the fluid port. The fluid will now flow from all passages. Thus the full piston area will be
subjected to the system pressure.
During deceleration of the load, extremely high pressures will develop within the cylinder
cushion. Ideally, the back pressure will be constant over the entire cushioning length. But in practice,
the cushion pressure is higher when the piston rod has just entered the cushion.
SPEED OF A HYDRAULIC CYLINDER:

Every hydraulic cylinder has its own economical and practicable range of speeds. If the speed
of the cylinder is increased beyond this limit, the sudden stoppage of the piston will create shock load
on the piston head, piston rod and other mechanical parts causing serious damages. The high speed
will also create difficulty in the accurate positioning of the movable parts. So at the time of deciding
the speed of a hydraulic cylinder, proper care is to be taken in the design stage itself.
The maximum speed of the piston rod is limited by the rate of fluid flow in and out of the
cylinder and the ability of the cylinder to withstand the impact forces which occur when the piston
movement is arrested. In an un-cushioned cylinder it is normal to limit the maximum piston
movement is arrested. In an un-cushioned cylinder it is normal to limit the maximum piston velocity
to 8m/min. This value is increased to 12m/min for a cushioned cylinder and 45m/min is permissible
with high speed cylinders. Oversized ports are necessary in cylinders that are used in high speed
applications.

Velocity equations:
Consider a double acting cylinder
D – Diameter of the piston
d – Diameter of piston rod
D 2
A – Area of Blank end -
4
d 2
a- Piston rod area -
4
Q – Input flow rate
qE – Flow rate from rod end of the cylinder when extending
qR – Flow rate from blank end of cylinder when retracting

Rod End Area – (A-a) = (D2-d2)
4
1. When Piston rod is extending:
Q qE
Piston velocity VE = =
A ( A  a)
( A  a) (D 2  d 2 )
Thus qE = Q =Q
A D2
Thus as the piston rod is extending, the flow rate of the fluid leaving the cylinder is less than
the flow rate of fluid entering the cylinder.
2. When piston rod is retracting:
Q q
Piston velocity VR = = R
Aa A
A D2
Thus qR = Q =Q
( A  a) (D 2  d 2 )
Thus when the piston rod is retracting, the rate of fluid leaving the cylinder is greater than the
flow rate of fluid entering the cylinder.
SPECIAL TYPE CYLINDERS:

DOUBLE ROD CYLINDER:
It is a cylinder with single piston and a
piston rod extending from each end. This
cylinder allows work to be performed at
either or both ends. It may be desirable
where operating speed and return speed
are equal.

TANDEM CYLINDER:
It design has two cylinders mounted in line with pistons connected by a common piston rod. These
cylinders provide increased output force when the bore size of a cylinder is limited. But the length of
the cylinder is more than a standard cylinder and also requires a larger flow rate to achieve a speed
because flow must go to both pistons.
TELESCOPING CYLINDER:
They are used where long work strokes are needed. A telescoping cylinder provides a relatively long
working stroke for an overall reduced length by employing several pistons which telescope into each
other.
Since the diameter A of the ram is relatively large, this ram produces a large force for the beginning of
the lift of the load. When ram A reaches the end of the stroke, ram B begins to move. Now ram B
provides the required smaller force to continue raising the load. When ram B reaches the end of its
stroke, then ram C moves outwards to complete the lifting operation. These three rams can be
retracted by gravity acting on the load or by pressurized fluid acting on the lip of each ram.
TWO STAGE DOUBLE ACTING TELESCOPING CYLINDER:

Retraction stroke: During the retraction stroke, the fluid is fed into the first stage annulus via retract
port A. therefore the first stage piston is forced to the left until it uncovers the fluid ports connecting
this with the second stage annulus. This, in turn, moves the larger piston to the left until both the
pistons are fully retracted into the body of the cylinder.

Extension Stroke: During the extension stroke, the fluid is fed through the extend port B. Now the
fluid forces both pistons to the right until the cylinder is fully extended.
MOUNTING CONFIGURATIONS:
The type of mountings on cylinder is numerous, and they can accommodate a wide variety of
applications. The most common mountings are lugs, flange, trunnion, clevis and extended tie rods.
One of the important considerations in selecting a particular mounting style is whether the major
force applied to the load will result in tension or compression of the piston rod. The ratio of rod length
to diameter should not exceed 6:1 proportion at full extension. This helps to prevent the rod from
buckling due to compression or tensile shock forces.

Alignment of the rod with the resistive load is another important consideration while selecting
cylinder mounts. Misalignment or non axial loading also tends to place unnecessary loads on the rod
and the rod guides, bushes or bearings. Due to the immense loads and the extreme forces induced by
the rod there are large stresses on the rod at full extension. Centre lugs, centre trunnions and clevis
arrangements tend to help keep the rod or shaft in line with the load.
Fixed centerline mounts: These are used for thrust that occur linearly or in the centerline with the
cylinder. Proper alignment is essential to prevent compound stresses that may cause excessive
friction and bending as the piston rod extends. Additional holdings strength may be essential with
long stroke cylinders.
Fixed non-centerline mounts: These are convenient where exceptionally heavy linear thrusts are
encountered. Generally, integral keys or pins are used if excessive hydraulic shock is expected. This
helps to relieve shear loads. Since the cylinder has to expand and contract with temperature changes,
only one end should be keyed or pinned.
Pivoted centerline mounts: These are used to compensate for thrusts that occur in multiple planes
or if the attached load travels in a curved path. Ball joints, trunnions and clevis mounts allow thrust to
be taken up along the cylinder centerlines.
GRAPHIC SYMBOLS FOR LINEAR ACTUATORS:

HYDRAULIC MOTORS:
A hydraulic motors converts fluid power into mechanical power in the form of rotational
motion. Motors perform the opposite function of the pump, which converts mechanical power from an
electric motor or engine into fluid power. Motors take pump flow and pressure as their input and
output rotational motion and torque. Motor displacement is the volume. Pump displacement is the
volume of the pump outputs per revolution of the pump shaft, a similar concept. Like pump motors
can be fixed or variable displacement. Increasing the displacement of a motor decreases its speed
because it requires more fluid to turn it each revolution. Increasing displacement increase torque
output because more area within the motor is subjected to pressure. Decreasing motor displacement
increases speed and decreases torque.
Hydraulic motors are most commonly gear, vane or piston type. All have a construction
similar to the hydraulic pump of the same type. They also have similar properties. Gear motors are the
least efficient, most dirt tolerant and have the lowest pressure ratings of the three. Piston motors are
the most efficient, least dirt tolerant and have the highest pressure ratings. Vane and piston motors
can be fixed or variable displacement like vane and piston pumps. Gear motors like gear pump are not
available with variable displacement.
GEAR MOTOR:
The operation of gear motor is shown in the figure. One of the gears is keyed to an output
shaft, while the other is simply an idler gear. Pump flow and pressure are sent to the inlet port of the
motor. The pressure is then applied to the gear teeth, causing the gears and the output shaft to rotate.
The pressure builds until enough torque is generated to rotate the output shaft against the load. Most
gear motors are bi-directional the direction of rotation can be reversed by simply reversing the
direction of flow.

VANE MOTORS:
In this type of motors the pump flow and pressure are applied to the vanes and the output
shaft is rotated. The figure shows
the balanced vane type motor.
Recall from the discussion on vane
pumps that balanced means that
pressure is applied on both sides of
the shaft resulting in no net force on
the bearings.
This increases the maximum
operating pressure and drive speed
at which the motor can operate. The
vanes extent and retract twice per
revolution of the rotor, which
necessitates the use of two inlet and
two outlet chambers. These chambers are combined into one common inlet and one common outlet
within the motor housing. Most of the vane motors are bidirectional.
PISTON TYPE MOTORS:

Piston motor develops an output torque at its shaft by allowing hydraulic pressure to act on
pistons. Piston designs may be either axial piston type or radial piston type.
Axial piston motors:
Swash plate or bent axis type: It consists of a port plate, cylinder barrel, pistons, shoe plate,
swash plate and a shaft. The arrangement is similar to a swash plate type pump. When fluid pressure
acts on a piston, a force is developed which pushes the piston out and causes the piston shoe to slide
across the swash plate surface. As the piston shoe slides, it develops a torque attached to the barrel.
Swash Plate Type

Bent Axis Type
The amount of torque depends on the angle of slide caused by the swash plate and the pressure in the
system. Since the swash plate angle controls the stroke in pistons of an axial piston motor, changing
the angle will alter the stroke and motor displacement. The operating principle of an bent axis motor
is similar to swash plate type. The angle of the cylinder block assembly with respect to drive shaft
determines the stroke or motor displacement. Both these motors are used in high speed application
only.
SEMI ROTARY ACTUATORS:

These are used to convert fluid pressure energy into torque which turns through an angle
limited by the design of the actuator. With the majority of designs, the angle of rotation is within 360
degrees although it is possible to considerably exceed this when using piston operated actuators.
VANE TYPE ACTUATORS:
Vane type semi rotary actuator consists of one or two vanes connected to an output shaft
which rotates when hydraulic pressure is applied to one side of the vanes. A single vane is limited to
280o rotation and a double vane unit to approximately 100o. Power in a two vane design is doubled.
Single Vane Semi Rotary Actuators

There will always be some internal fluid leakage across the vanes and these increases with the
operating pressure as the viscosity of the working fluid decreases. This causes problems where a
smooth speed control of the rotary motion is required. So, for the applications of vane type actuators,
the manufacturer’s recommendations regarding the operating pressure and type of fluid must be
followed.
Double Vane Semi Rotary Actuators

The maximum torque obtainable from the currently available single vane unit is approximately
40X103 Nm and for double vane unit is 80X103 Nm.
PISTON TYPE SEMI ROTARY ACTUATORS:

RACK AND PINION SEMI ROTARY ACTUATOR:
In this design, the cylinder drives a pinion gear and the rack is an integral part of the piston
rod. The angle of rotation depends upon the stroke of the cylinder, rack and the pitch circle diameter
of the pinion. The start and finish of the stroke is adjusted by means of an internal shop. The output
torque available from the rack and pinion type is in an excess of 80X103 Nm at a pressure of 210 bar.

LEVER ARM SEMI ROTARY ACTUATOR:
A double acting
cylinder can be made to
generate rotary motion by
using a lever arm. The
angle of rotation will be
less than 180o. The output
is the product of {Piston
trust x Sin φ x length of
lever).
CHAIN AND SPROCKET SEMI ROTARY ACTUATOR:

In this design an endless chain and sprocket is used and it is suitable for multi revolution
applications. The chain is anchored to two pistons, one large and the other small, which when in their
respective bores, separate the halves of the unit. The large cylinder is the power cylinder and the
small cylinder is the chain return or seal cylinder.
The idler is automatically a tensioned one, so a constant tension is maintained. Pressure is applied to
one port of the actuator. The larger piston moves away from the port due to the differential area of the
two pistons. Movement of the larger piston pulls the chain, causing the sprocket and output shaft to
rotate.
HELICAL SCREW SEMI ROTARY ACTUATOR:

This type consists of a cylinder in which the piston is prevented from rotating by guide rods.
The piston rod and the piston contain a helical groove and they mate together analogous to a screw
and a nut. As the piston is driven along the barrel, it causes the rod to rotate.
Because of the difficulty in providing a hydraulic seal between the piston and rod, this design is
limited to low pressure applications. The self locking helix angle of the piston and rod eliminate the
possibility of external torque causing any rotary movement of the piston rod.

GRAPHIC SYMBOLS:

UNIT III
HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS AND THEIR DESIGN
3.1 INTRODUCTION: A fluid power system can be broken down into three segments. The power
input segment consisting of the prime mover and the pump. The control segment consisting of valves
that control the direction, pressure and flow rate. The power output segment, consisting of the
actuators and the load. This unit is devoted to each of the following categories of control valves.
1. Directional control valves
2. Pressure control valves
3. Flow control valves
DCVs control the direction of flow in a circuit, which among other things; can control the direction of
the actuator. PCVs control the pressure level, which controls the output force of a cylinder or the
output torque of a motor. FCVs control the flow rate of the fluid which controls the speed of the
actuators.
3.2 VALVE CONFIGURATION: There are the essential types of control valves based on their
configuration or modes of operation. They are
1. .Poppet or Seat Valves
2. Sliding Spool Valves
3. Rotary Spool Valves
3.2.1 POPPET OR SEAT VALVES:

The Figure shows the construction of the poppet valve. Normally this valve is in the closed
condition and hence there is no connection between port 1 and port 2. In poppet valves, balls are used
in conjunction with valves seats to control the flow.
When the push button is depressed the ball is pushed out
of its seats and hence the flow is permitted from port1 to
port2. When the push button is released spring and fluid
pressure force the ball back up against its seat and so
closes off the flow.
These types of valves are simple in design and less
expensive. The force required to operate the poppet
valves are more, so they are suitable mostly for low
pressure applications.
3.2.2 SLIDING SPOOL VALVES:
These types of valves are most frequently used in hydraulic system. A spool moves
horizontally within the valve body to control the flow. The raised areas called lands block or open port

to give the required operation. In first position the port 1 and port 2 is opened and port 3 is blocked
so the flow is permitted between ports 1 and 2. In the second position the ports 2 and 3 are open and
port 1 is blocked so the flow is permitted between 2 and 3.
By using this type of valves different operations can be achieved with a common body and different
spool. It is used for high pressure applications.
3.2.3 ROTARY SPOOL VALVES

These valves have a rotating spool which engages with ports in the valve casing to give the
required operation. The Figure shows the cut section of a rotary spool valve. When the spool rotates,
it opens and closes ports to allows and prevent the fluid flow through it. There are four ports 1, 2, 3,
and 4. In the first position there is flow between 1 and 3, 2 and 4. In second position flow between 2
and 3, 1 and 4. In third position all the ports are blocked by the spool and there is no flow.
3.4 DIRECTION CONTROL VALVES

These valves are used to control the direction of flow in a hydraulic circuit. According to the
construction of internal moving parts it is classified as poppet type and sliding spool type. It may be
further classified as one way, two way, three way and four way valves, depending upon the number of
port connections available. On the basis of actuating devices, it can be classified as manually operated,
mechanically operated, solenoid operated and pilot operated.
3.4.1 CHECK VALVES
The simplest direction control valve is a check valve. It allows flow in one direction and blocks flow in
the opposite direction. It consists of a ball with a light bias spring that holds the ball against the valve
seat. Flow coming into the inlet pushes the ball off the seat against the light force of the spring and
continues to the outlet.
Application of Check Valve

If flow tries to comes in from left it cannot pass through the check valve. It is therefore forced to go
through the component. When the flow comes in from the right, however the flow goes through the
check valve and the component is bypassed. This occurs because the check valve is designed to have
less resistance to flow than the component in this direction.

3.4.2 PILOT OPERATED CHECK VALVE
One commonly used type is the pilot to open check valve. Pilot lines are hydraulic lines that
are used for control purposes. They typically send system pressure to component, so that the
component can react to pressure changes. The free flow in the normal direction from a port A to port
B is achieved in a usual manner. But the reverse flow is blocked as the fluid pressure pushes the
poppet into the closed position. In order to permit the fluid flow in the reverse direction that is from
port B to port A, a pilot pressure is applied through the pilot pressure port. The pilot pressure pushes
the pilot piston and the poppet down. Thus the fluid flow in the reversed direction is also obtained.
The purpose of the drain port in the circuit is to prevent oil from creating a pressure building in the
bottom of the pilot piston. The pilot lines are shown in dashed lines.
Symbols for Pilot Operated Check Valve
3.4.3 TWO WAY DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVE

A spool valve consists of a cylindrical spool that slides back and forth inside the valve body to
either connect or block flow between ports. The larger diameter portion of the spool, the land, blocks
flow by covering a port. This particular valve has two ports, labeled P and A. P is connected to the
pump line and A is the outlet to the system.
'Figure A' shows the valve in its normal state and its corresponding symbol. The valve is held in this
position by the force of the spring. In this position,
the flow from the inlet port P is blocked from
going to the outlet port A.

Two way, Two position normally closed DCV
'Figure B' shows the valve in its actuated state and its corresponding symbol. The valve is shifted into
this position by applying a force to overcome the resistance of the spring. In this position, the flow is
allowed to go to the outlet port around the smaller diameter portion of the spool. The complete
symbol for this valve is shown in 'Figure C'. The symbol has two blocks, one for each position of the
valve. Valves may have more than two positions. The spring is on the closed position side of the
symbol, which indicates that it is a normally closed valve. The symbol for the method of actuation is
shown on the opposite side of the valve. In this case, the valve is push button actuated. Thus, the
graphic symbol in 'Figure C' represents a two way, two positions, normally closed DCV with push
button actuation and spring return.
The below Figure shows the example of an application for a two way valve. Here pair of two way
valves is used to fill and drain a vessel. Although two tanks are shown in this schematic, there may in
fact be only one tank in the actual system. When valve1 and valve2 are in the closed position then the
line from pump and tank are blocked to hold the fluid in the vessel. When the valve1 is shifted to the
open position and valve 2 remains closed. This will fill the vessel.

Application of Two way DCV valves
When valve2 is shifted to the open position and valve2 remains closed. This will drain the vessel. The
above figure shows that valve1 and valve2 are in open position so that fluid is filled and drain from
the vessel. There are other types of construction for two way valves in addition to the spool type are
ball valves and gate valves.
3.4.4 THREE WAY DIRECTION CONTROL VALVES

As discussed earlier two way valves are used to start and stop fluid flow in a particular line.
They can either allow or block flow from a
pump to an outlet line for example. Three
way valves also either block or allow flow
from an inlet to an outlet. They also allow
the outlet to flow back to the tank when
the pump flow is blocked, while a 2 way
does not. A three way valve have three
ports a pressure inlet port (P), an outlet to
the system (A), and a return to the tank
(T). In its normal position, just as with the
two way DCV, the valve is held in position
with spring. In the normal position 'Figure
A' the pressure port (P) is blocked and the
outlet (A) is connected with the tank (T).
This depressurizes or vents the outlet port.
In the actuated position the pressure port
is connected with the outlet and the tank Three way, Two position normally closed DCV

port is blocked. This sends flow and pressure to the system. The spring is shown on the normal side of
the valve symbol and the actuation type is shown in opposite side by push button. The symbol
indicates that this is a three way two position normally closed DCV with push button and spring
return.
The most common application for a three way valve in a hydraulic circuit is to control a single acting
cylinder. Part A shows the valve in normal position in which pressure port is blocked and the outlet is
return to the tank. This allows the force of the spring to act on the piston and retract the cylinder. The
cylinder will remain retracted as
Application of Three Way Two Position DCV
long as the valve is in this position. In part B the valve is shifted so that the pressure port is connected
to the outlet and the tank port is blocked. This applies pump flow and pressure to the piston and
extends the cylinder against the relatively light force of the spring. A two way valve could not be used
in this application. It would not allow the cylinder to retract when it is in the closed position because
the closed position of a two way does not have a return to the tank. A pressure relief valve, a device
that limits the maximum pressure in a hydraulic circuit, is included in the previous circuit. These
valves are required components in every hydraulic system. The importance of the pressure relief
valves are discussed in upcoming topics.
The next figure shows application of three way three position DCV using gravity return type single
acting cylinder. A third valve position called neutral may be desirable for this application. This
position shown as the center position in the symbol blocks all the three ports. This holds the cylinder
in a mid-stroke position because the hydraulic fluid, which is relatively incompressible, is trapped
between the valve and the cylinder. Many cylinder applications require this feature. This introduces
another type of actuation manual lever and detent. A detent is a mechanism that holds the valve in any
position into which it is shifted. Detented valves have no normal position because they will remain
indefinitely in the last position indicated.
Application of Three way three position DCV

(A) Extend Cylinder (B) Hold Cylinder (C) Retract Cylinder
3.4.5 FOUR WAY DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES

Four way valves are the most commonly used directional control valves in hydraulic circuits
because they are capable of controlling double acting cylinders and bidirectional motors. Figure
shows the operation of a typical four way, two positions DCV. A four way has four ports, usually
labeled P, T, A and B. P is the pressure inlet and T is the return to tank. A and B are outlets to the
system. In the normal position, pump flow is sent to outlet B and outlet A is connected to the tank. In
the actuated position, pump flow is sent to port A and port B is connected to the tank.
Four way DCV control two flows of fluid at the same time, while two way and three way DCV control
only one flow at the time.

The most common application for a four way DCV is to control a double acting cylinder as shown in
below Figure. When the valve is in the normal position, the pump line is connected to the rod end of
the cylinder and the blind end is connected to the tank . The cylinder will therefore retracted, the
pump flow will go over the pressure relief valve back to the tank, as it must whenever the pump flow
cannot go to the system. In Figure B, the pump line is connected to the blind end of the cylinder and
the rod end is connected to the tank. This will cause the cylinder to extend. When the cylinder is fully
extended, pump flow will again go over the pressure relief valve to the tank.
Four way, Two position DCV

Application of Four way, Two position DCV
Four way, Three position DCV

3.4.6 SHUTTLE VALVES
These valves allow two alternate flow sources to
be connected to one branch circuit. They have two inlets
(P1 and P2) and one outlet (A). Outlet A received flow
from whichever inlet is at a higher pressure. If the
Pressure at P1 is grater than that at P2, the ball slides to
the right and allows P1 to send flow to outlet A. If the
pressure at P2 is grater than at P1, the ball slides to the
left and P2 supplies flow to outlet A. The Figure shows a
circuit that utilizes a shuttle valve. This circuit allows
either of two three way buttons to operate a single
acting cylinder. 'Figure A' shows both three ways in their normal position. The cylinder is vented to
the tank and will remain retracted under the force of the spring. In 'Figure B' three way number 1 is
shifted and pump flow is sent to the cylinder through the path shown.
Shuttle Valve Circuit
3.4.7 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVE ACTUATION

Various methods used to shift the valve are shown in Figure. All shown controlling a spring return
four way two position valve. Manual lever is a popular method of actuation for DCVs used in mobile
equipment applications such as back hoes, bulldozers and farm equipment. Push button actuation is
more prevalent in industrial applications.

Foot pedal actuation, which could be used in
an application in which hands free shifting
of the DCV is required. Cam actuated valves
shift when depressed by some mechanical
component of the machine. Pilot operated
valves are shifted with system pressure. As
stated earlier, pilot operated check valves
use system pressure to hold a check valve
open or closed when pressure is applied to
the pilot line. Solenoid actuated DCV valves
are shifted using electrical current, which
induces a magnetic force that shifts the
valve spool. Solenoid valves are widely used
in industrial applications on electronically
controlled machinery. The pilot operated
solenoid valves are essentially two valves in
one package. The solenoid is used to actuate
a small pilot DCV, which in turn uses the
pressure of the system to shift the main
valve. This method of actuation is necessary
on large valves that operate in systems at
high pressures. They are necessary because the solenoid alone cannot generate enough force to shift a
large valve against a high pressure. The solenoid can, however, generate enough force to shift the
small pilot valve, which can then use the pressure of the system to shift the main valve.
3.5 PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES

The force of a cylinder is proportional to the pressure in a system and the area over which the
pressure is applied. Controlling the pressure level in a circuit will therefore allow us to control the
output force of a cylinder pressure control valves control the max pressure level and also protect the
circuit from excessive pressure, which could damage components and possibly cause serious injury.
Some types of pressure control valves simply react to pressure changes rather than control the
pressure.
3.6 PRESSURE RELIEF VALVES

Pressure relief valves limit the max pressure in a hydraulic circuit by providing an alternate
path for fluid flow when the pressure reaches a preset level.
The basic types are
1 Direct acting pressure relief valve
2 Pilot operated pressure relief valve
3.6.1 DIRECT ACTING PRESSURE RELIEF VALVES
All relief valves have a pressure port that is connected to the pump line and a tank port that is
connected to the tank. The Figure shows the direct acting press relief valve, a ball or poppet is
subjected to pump pressure on one side and the force of a spring on the other. When the pressure in
the system creates a force on the ball that is less than the spring force, it remains on its seat and the
pump flow will go to the systems as shown in Fig. A. When the pressure is high enough to create a
force greater than the spring force, the ball will move off its seat and allow pump flow to go back to
the tank through the relief as shown in Fig. B. The pressure at which the relief valve opens can be
adjusted by changing the amount of spring compression, which changes the amount of force applied
to the ball on the spring side.
Direct Acting Pressure Relief Valve

This is accomplished with an adjustment screw or knob. This type of relief valve is called
direct acting because the ball is directly exposed to pump pressure. The graphic symbol for an
adjustable pressure relief valve, along with a pump is shown in Fig. C. The symbol shows that the
valve is normally closed on one side of the valve; pressure is fed in to try to open the valve, while on
the other side the spring is trying to keep it closed. The arrow through the spring signifies that it is
adjustable, allowing adjustment of the pressure level at which the relief valve opens.
3.6.2 PILOT OPERATED PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE

The Figure A, B shows the pilot operated pressure relief valve, rather than a direct acting
relief valve, is used to control the maximum pressure. A pilot operated relief valve consists of a small
pilot relief valve and a main relief valve. It operates in a two stage process. First the pilot relief valve
opens when a preset maximum pressure is reached, which then causes the main relief valve to open.

Just like the direct acting type, the pilot operated type has a pressure port that is connected into the
pump line and a tank port that is connected to tank.
A - Pilot Operated Pressure Relief Valve – Closed
B - Pilot Operated Pressure Relief Valve- Open

The pilot relief is usually a poppet type. The main relief consists of a piston and stem. The main relief
piston has a hole called the orifice drilled through it. This allows pressure to be applied to the top side
of the piston, as well as the bottom side. The piston has equal areas exposed to pressure on the top
and bottom and is therefore balanced it will have equal force on each side. It will remain stationary in
the closed position. The piston has a light bias spring to ensure that it will stay closed. When the
pressure is less that the relief valve setting, the pump flow goes to the system. The pressure is also
applied to the pilot poppet through the pilot line. If the pressure in the system becomes high enough,
it will move the pilot poppet off its seat. A small amount of flow begins to go through the pilot line
back to tank. Once flow begins through the piston orifice and pilot line, a pressure drop is induced
across the piston due to the restriction of the piston orifice. This pressure drop then causes the piston

PEC / DoME /IV Year- Mech.Engg. / VI Sem / ME 6021- Hydraulics and Pneumatics
and stem to lift off its seat and the flow goes directly from the pressure port to the tank. The symbol
for the pilot operated relief valve is the same as that used for the direct acting relief valve. The
advantages are usually smaller than a direct acting type for the same flow and pressure ratings. They
also generally have a wider range for the maximum pressure setting. Another advantage is that they
can be operated remotely. This is achieved by connecting a direct acting relief valve to the vent port of
the pilot operated relief valve as shown in Figure C. Notice that the vent port is connected into the
pilot line. The direct acting relief valve, called the remote in this arrangement, acts as a second pilot
relief valve. Flow can now go back to tank through either the onboard pilot or the remote pilot.
Whichever pilot is set to a lower pressure will cause the relief valve to open. Flow through either pilot
will cause the main poppet to lift off its seat and allow full flow back to the tank. The advantage of this
type of arrangement is that the on board pilot can be set to the absolute maximum pressure that the
circuit is designed for, while the remote can be set for a lower
C - Pilot Operated Pressure Relief Valve with Remote Control

pressure dictated by the current operating parameters. This method of pressure control has two key
advantages
1. The on board pilot can be made in accessible so that if the machine operator were to
inadvertently set the pressure of the remote too high, the pressure would never rise above
the absolute maximum setting determined by the on board pilot.
2. The remote pilot can be located away from the circuit in a safe location that is easily
accessible to the operator. In the symbol the lines associated with the remote are dashed
because they are control pilot lines.
The pressure at which the relief valve begins to open is known as the cracking pressure. At this
pressure, the poppet just begins to lift off its seat and some of the pump flow begins to go through the
relief valve back to the tank. The rest of the flow goes to the system. The pressure at which the relief
valve is completely open is known as the full flow pressure. The difference between the cracking
pressure and the full flow pressure is often called the pressure over ride in manufacture’s literature.

3.7 UNLOADING VALVES

In the case of pressure relief valve, the pump delivers full pump flow at the pressure relief
valve setting and thus operates at maximum horse power conditions.
Unloading Valve
The ‘In’ port of the unloading valve is connected to the line which is to be unloaded. The pilot
port is connected to the line which is supposed to send the pressure impulse for unloading the valve.
As soon as the system pressure reaches the setting pressure which is available at the pilot port, it lifts
the spool against the spring force. The valve is held open by pilot pressure and the delivery from the
pump starts going into the reservoir. When the pilot pressure is released, the spool is moved down by
the spring and the flow is directed through the valve into the circuit. The unloading valve is useful to
control the amount of flow at any given time in systems having more than one fixed delivery pump.
The symbol for each is shown in 'Figure A' for comparison. Both send flow back to the tank
when a preset pressure is reached. However, an unloading valve reads the pressure in an external
line, rather than in its own line, as indicated by the dashed pilot lines. 'Figure B' shows the application
for an unloading valve. This circuit can be used in an application in which high flow (speed) and low
A - Symbol Comparison

B - Unloading Valve Circuit
pressure (force) is required for a part of the cylinder’s stroke, while low flow and high pressure are
required for the rest for example a metal stamping machine. In this machine it may be desirable for
the cylinder to move into position very quickly, and then slow down when it reaches the work piece.
The first part of the cycle requires only minimal pressure because the only resistance is the flow
resistance of the components and the friction of the cylinder. The second part of the cycle requires
high pressure because the cylinder is deforming the metal. This circuit supplies the cylinder with from
both the high flow pump and the low flow pump when the pressure is below 500 bar. When the
pressure reaches 500 bar, the unloading valve opens and unloads the high flow pump back to tank at
low pressure. Only the low flow pump supplies the cylinder with flow at pressure from 500 bar to
1500 bar. If the pressure reaches 1500 bar, flow from the low flow pump is forced over the relief valve
at this pressure. Check valve 1 isolates the high flow pump from the system pressure while it is being
unloaded. Check valve 2 prevents the flow the high flow pump from flowing into the low flow pump
line. This would reverse the low flow pump, which would cause damage to the power unit.
3.8 PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE

This type of valve is used to maintain reduced pressure in specified locations of hydraulic
systems. It is normally an open valve. It is actuated by down stream pressure and tends to close as this
pressure reaches the valve setting. The figure shows the construction of the valve. This valve is one
which uses a spring loaded spool to control the down stream pressure. If down stream pressure is
below the valve pressure, fluid will flow freely from the inlet to the out let. When the outlet pressure
increases the valve setting, the spool moves to partially block the outlet port. If the valve is closed
completely by the spool, it could cause the down stream pressure to build above the valve setting. To
avoid this, a drain line is provided to drain the fluid to the tank.

Pressure Reducing Valve
The below Figure compares the symbol for a relief valve and a reducing valve. The reducing valve is
normally open, while relief valve is normally closed.
Symbol Comparison
The reducing valve reads the pressure down stream while the relief valve reads the pressure
upstream. The reducing valve has an external drain line, while a relief valve does not. When a valve
has an external drain, a line must be connected from the valves drain port to the tank. Drain lines, like
pilot lines are shown as dashed lines.

Pressure Reducing Valve Application
The above figure shows an application for a pressure reducing valve. Here, two cylinders are
connected in parallel. The circuit is designed to operate at a maximum pressure of 1500 bar, which is
determined by the relief valve setting. This is the maximum pressure that cylinder will see. For a
reason determined by the function of the machine, cylinder 2 is limited to a maximum pressure of
1000 bar. This is accomplished by placing a pressure reducing valve in the circuit in the location as
shown.
If the pressure in the circuit rises above 1000 bar, the pressure reducing valve will close
partially to create a pressure drop across the valve. The valve then maintains the pressure drop so
that outlet pressure is not allowed to rise above 1500 bar setting. The disadvantage of this method of
pressure control is that the pressure drop across the reducing valve represents lost energy that is
converted to heat. If the pressure setting of the reducing valve is set very low relative to the pressure
in the rest of the system, the pressure drop will be very high, resulting in excessive heating of the
fluid. When the hydraulic fluid becomes too hot, its viscosity reduces, causing increased component
wear.
3.9 SEQUENCE VALVES

When the operation of two hydraulic cylinders is required to be performed in sequence by
using a single direction valve, a special valve is required for this purpose and it is known as the
sequence valve.

The sequence valve is to direct

flow in a predetermined of
sequence. The sequence valve
operates on the principle that
when system pressure over comes
the spring setting, the valve spool
moves up allowing flow to the
secondary port that is connected
with the second operating
hydraulic cylinder.
The figure shows the symbol
comparison of pressure relief
valve and sequence valve.
Instead of sending flow back to the tank, however, a sequence valve allows flow to a branch circuit
when a preset pressure is reached. The check valve allows the sequence valve to be by passed in the
reverse direction. The
component enclosure line
indicates that the check is
an integral part of the
component. The sequence
valve has an external drain
line, therefore a line must
be connected from the
sequence valves drain port
to the tank.
The below figure shows the circuit of tube bending machines uses sequence valve for clamping and
bending tubes in sequence. As per the required sequence first the work piece has to be clamped, then
bend to required shape, bending cylinder retract and clamping cylinder retract to unclamp the work
piece. In this circuit, the bending cylinder will extend only after the clamp cylinder is fully extended
and the clamp cylinder will retract only after the bending cylinder is fully retracted.

Sequence Valve For Tube Bending Machine
3.10 COUNTER BALANCE VALVES

A counter balance valve is used to maintain back pressure on a vertical cylinder to prevent it from
falling due to gravity.
This valve operates on the principle that the line of flow from the bottom of the vertical cylinder into
the valve remains closed till a pilot
pressure is achieved. As soon as the
pressure is developed, it over comes the
spring force and the line of flow finds a
free passage between primary port and
secondary port. When the DCV is shifted
to extend the cylinder, the weight may
cause the cylinder to accelerate too
quickly. When this occurs, the load is
driving the cylinder, as apposed to the

more controllable situation of the cylinder driving load. This can cause damage to the load, or even to
the cylinder itself, when the load is stopped quickly at the end of its travel. This can be remedied by
placing a counter balance valve on the rod end of the cylinder as shown in below figure.
Counterbalance Circuit
When the DCV is shifted to lower the weight, the cylinder will not extend until a preset
pressure is reached in the rod end. This provides a back pressure against the rod end of the piston,
which acts to stabilize the downward movement of the cylinder. The check valve allows the counter
balance valve to be passed when the cylinder is retracted. A counter balance valve has an internal
drain, unlike the sequence valve, which has an external drain.
3.11 BRAKE VALVES

Brake valves, like counter balance valves, are used to prevent loads from accelerating
uncontrollably. Counter balance valves are used with cylinders, brake valves are used with hydraulic
motors. Brake valves are most commonly used in circuits in which the motor must lower a large
weight, such as in a winch application. A simple winch circuit is shown in Figure.
When the weight is lowered, it may tend to drive the motor, instead of the motor lowering the
weight. This is known as an over running load. In this situation, the load will probably accelerate too
quickly. The motor is being driven by the load and is basically acting as a pump. When this occurs, the

pressure at the outlet will be higher than the pressure at the inlet. The brake valve senses the
pressure in both the inlet and outlet lines of the motor, just as it is with a pump.
Brake Valve In Winch Application

Whenever the pressure at the outlet is lower than the pressure at the inlet, the motor is functioning
normally and the brake valve allows nearly unrestricted flow out of the motor. When the pressure at
the outlet is higher than at the inlet, however, the brake valve closes partially to provide enough of a
back pressure on the outlet of the motor to keep the load in control. The check valve allows the valve
to be by passed when the weight is being raised.
3.12 FLOW CONTROL VALVES
Flow control valves control the flow rate of fluid in a circuit. They accomplish this by
incorporating a variable orifice into the circuit that acts like a faucet; closing the flow control valve
orifice reduces the flow rate and opening the orifice increases the flow rate. The speed of an actuator
depends directly upon the flow rate in the system. Controlling the flow rate therefore allows us to
control the speed of actuators. A variable displacement pump’s flow output can be varied, even while
it is being driven at a constant speed. This will also control the actuator’s speed. In spite of this, flow
control valves are commonly used because they are much less expensive and easier to control than
variable pumps.
Types
1. Needle flow control valve

2. Pressure compensated flow control valve
3.12.1 NEEDLE VALVE
The simplest type of flow control valve is needle valve as shown in Figure.
Needle Valve
This valve is basically just an adjustable orifice than can be closed to reduce the flow rate in a
circuit. The orifice size is adjustment by turning the adjustment knob, which raises or lowers the valve
stem and needle. The first figure shows the valve fully open, allowing nearly unrestricted flow. The
valve is partially closed and is restricting the flow in the next figure. In the last figure, the valve is
completely closed and is therefore allowing no flow. The symbol for a needle valve is shown in D.
Needle valves are often used as manual shut-off in applications that require good metering
characteristics. In most fluid applications, a needle valve with an integral check valve is used to
control the flow rate as shown in below Figure. Part A shows the flow going through the valve from A
to B. In this direction, it cannot go through the check and must therefore go through the restriction. In
part B, the flow is coming from the opposite direction B to A and can pass through the check valve.
The flow is virtually unrestricted in this direction. This flow control valve therefore only controls the
flow rate from A to B. From B to A, the flow is uncontrolled because the restriction is by passed
through the check.

Needle Valve with Integral Check Valve
3.12.2 PRESSURE COMPENSATED FLOW CONTROL VALVE

The flow control valves blocks the flow in term there is a pressure drop across the valve. This
pressure drop affects the motion of the actuators and also increases the temperature of the fluid. To
eliminate the above problems pressure compensated flow control valve is designed as shown in
below Figure .
Pressure Compensated Flow Control Valve

This type of flow control valves automatically adjusts the size of the orifice in response to changes in
system pressure. It accomplishes this through the use of a spring loaded compensator spool that
reduces the size of the orifice when the upstream pressure increases relative to the downstream
pressure. Once the valve is set, the pressure compensator will act to keep the pressure drop across the
valve nearly constant. This in turn keeps the flow rate through the valve nearly constant. This valve
consists primarily of a main spool and a compensator spool. The adjustment knob controls the main
spool’s position, which controls the orifice size at the outlet. The pressure upstream of (before) the
main spool is ported to the left side of the compensator spool through pilot line A. Pressure
downstream of (after) the main spool is ported to the right side of the compensator spool through
pilot line B. The compensator spring bases the compensator spool to the fully open position. If the
pressure upstream of the main spool increases too much relative to the downstream pressure (ie the
pressure drop becomes too high), the compensator spool will move to the right against the force of
the spring. Thos acts to keep the pressure drop across the main spool and consequently the flow rate
nearly constant.
3.13 METER-IN FLOW CONTROL

A cylinder with meter-in flow control of the extend stroke is shown is below Figure.
Cylinders with Meter-In Flow Control

When the cylinder is extending, the flow coming from the pump cannot pass through the check
valve and is forced to go through the metering orifice (part A). When the cylinder is retracting, the
needle valve is being by passed through the check (part B). The net result is that the flow control valve
is controlling the extend speed, while the retract speed of the cylinder is uncontrolled. It is common to
control only the working stroke of a cylinder, while allowing the return stroke move at full speed.
3.14 METER-OUT FLOW CONTROL

The Figure shows a cylinder with meter-out flow control of the extend stroke.
Cylinders with Meter-Out Flow Control

The flow control valve in this circuit is placed in the rod end line. When the cylinder is
extending, the flow coming from the cylinder cannot pass through the check and is forced to go
through the metering orifice (part A). When the cylinder is retracting, the metering orifice is being by
passed through the check (part B). The net result is the same as with the previous circuit. The extend
speed is controlled, while the retract speed is uncontrolled. However, in this circuit we control the
flow rate act of the cylinder, while in the previous circuit we controlled the flow rate into the cylinder.
3.15 BLEED-OFF CONTROL VALVE

In addition to meter-in and meter-out flow control, there is a less commonly used flow control
configuration known as bleed-off.
Cylinders with Bleed- Off Control

In this type of flow control, an additional line is run through a flow control back to the tank. To
slow down the actuator, some of the flow is bled off through this line, thereby reducing the flow to the
actuator 'Figure A' shows bleed off control of the extend stroke, 'Figure B' shows control of the retract
stroke. Note that the operation of a bleed-off flow control valve is opposite to a meter-in or meter-out
flow control valve. Opening a bleed-off flow control valve slows down an actuator, while opening a
meter-in or meter-out flow control valve increases actuator speed.
3.16 FLOW DIVIDER

Flow dividers divide the flow from a pump into two or more streams of equal flow rates. They
maintain equal flow rates in the branch circuits even if the pressures in the branches are not equal.
Without flow divider, the flow from the pump would follow the path of least resistance.
There are two commonly used flow divider designs balanced spool and rotary. The Figure
shows a simplified cut away of a balanced spool flow divider. The spool is free to slide back and forth
in the housing and will naturally assume a position so that the pressure on either side of the spool will
be equal. The spool is therefore pressure balanced. For example if the pressure at outlet 1 was greater
than the pressure at outlet 2, the spool would slide to the right to partially cover outlet 2.
By partially restricting the more lightly loaded outlet, the flow divider adds more resistance to this
path. This acts to equalize the resistance of each path.

Balanced Spool Flow Divider

Outlet 1 Outlet 2
The rotary flow divider is basically two gear pumps are in one housing
whose inlets are joined together as shown in Figure.
Their shafts are also coupled together so that they must turn at the
same speed. Because they are forced to turn at the same speed, they will
supply equal flow to their outlets when placed in a pump line.
3.17 ACCUMULATORS
Accumulators are devices that store hydraulic fluid under pressure. Storing hydraulic fluid
under pressure is a way of storing energy for later use. Perhaps the most common application for an
accumulator is supplementing the pump flow in a hydraulic system in which a high flow rate is
required for a brief period of time.
Types;
1. Weight loaded accumulator
2. Spring loaded accumulator
3. Gas charged accumulator
4. Piston type
5. Bladder type
6. Diaphragm type
3.17.1 WEIGHT LOADED ACCUMULATOR

It is basically a vertically mounted cylinder with a large weight as show in Figure.

Weight Loaded Accumulator

When hydraulic fluid is pumped into this accumulator, the weight is raised. The weight then
applies a force to the piston, which generates a pressure on the fluid side of the piston. The advantage
of this type of accumulator over all of the other, it applies a constant pressure on the fluid throughout
its entire range of motion. The disadvantage is that a very large weight must be used to generate
enough pressure. Because of that this type is seldom used.
3.17.2 SPRING LOADED ACCUMULATOR

A spring loaded accumulator stores energy in the form of a compressed spring as shown in
figure.
Spring Loaded Accumulator

Hydraulic fluid is pumped into the accumulator, causing the piston to move up and compress the
spring. The spring then applies a force on the piston that exerts a pressure on the hydraulic fluid. The

pressure is constantly decreasing as hydraulic fluid is drawn out because the spring decompresses
and therefore exerts less force on the piston. This type is not commonly used in hydraulic circuit
because a large spring must be used to generate enough pressure.
3.17.3 PISTON TYPE ACCUMULATOR

The basic construction of a piston type, gas charged accumulator is shown in Figure.
Its operation begins when the gas chamber is filled with a gas to some predetermined pressure called
the pre-charge, which causes the free-sliding piston to move down. Once the accumulator is pre-
charged, hydraulic fluid can be pumped into the hydraulic fluid port.
As the hydraulic fluid enters the accumulator, it causes the piston to slide up, thereby compressing the
gas. Compressing the gas increases its pressure, and this pressure is then applied to the hydraulic
fluid through the piston. Because the piston is free sliding, the pressure on the gas and the hydraulic
fluid is always equal. Whenever the pressure in the system drops below the pressure in the
accumulator, fluid will flow out of the accumulator and into the system. As the hydraulic fluid flows
out of the accumulator, the gas decompresses and loses pressure, which in turn causes the pressure
on the hydraulic fluid to be reduced. The gas used to pre-charge accumulator is usually nitrogen
because it is an inert gas and does not support combustion.
3.17.4 BLADDER TYPE ACCUMULATOR

The basic construction of a bladder type accumulator is shown in Figure. These
accumulator functions in the same way as a piston accumulator, storing energy in the form of a
compressed gas. However, instead of the gas and hydraulic fluid being separated by a piston, they are
separated by a synthetic rubber bladder. The bladder is filled with nitrogen until the desired pre-
charge pressure is achieved. Hydraulic fluid is then pumped into the accumulator, thereby
compressing the gas and increasing the pressure in the accumulator, just as with the piston type. The

port cover is a small piece of metal that protects the bladder from damage as it expands and contacts
the hydraulic fluid port.
Bladder Type Accumulators
3.17.5 DIAPHRAGM ACCUMULATOR
Diaphragm Accumulators
The vessel is separated into two components by a flexible diaphragm. One compartment is
connected to the hydraulic system and the other to the high pressure gas system. Thus the diaphragm
serves as an elastic barrier between the oil and the gas. When the oil is delivered into the accumulator,
it deforms the diaphragm. The gas is compressed when the charged oil pushes the diaphragm against
it. This gas pressure is used as the potential energy to force the oil out when it is required in the
circuit. The advantage of bladder and diaphragm accumulators over the piston type is that they have
no sliding surface that requires lubrication and can therefore be used with fluids with poor lubricating

qualities. They are also less sensitive to contamination due to lack of any close fitting sliding
components.
3.17.6 NON-SEPARATED TYPE ACCUMULATOR

It consists of a fully enclosed shell containing a gas charging valve on the top and an oil port on
the bottom. The confines at the top and oil remain at the bottom and there is no physical separator
between them. Since the gas has direct contact with the oil, this type is termed as non separator type
accumulator. Due to the absence of separator, the gas is absorbed and also entrapped in the oil. This
accumulator type is not preferred for use with high speed pumps because the entrapped gas in the oil
may cause cavitations and damage to the pump. The problems of aeration of the oil often limit their
use in hydraulic system.
3.18 APPLICATIONS OF ACCUMULATORS

Accumulators are used as
1. Leakage compensator
2. Auxiliary power source
3. Emergency power source
4. Hydraulic shock absorber
5. Fluid make-up device
3.18.1 ACCUMULATOR AS LEAKAGE COMPENSATOR
The stored energy of the accumulator can be used to compensate any possible loss of energy
due to internal or external leakage in a system. This application is extremely helpful in circuits, such
as are used for hydraulic presses, which require high pressure for long periods. First operator places

work piece on the press and shifts handle of the 4/2 DC valve. Now the oil flows to blank end of
cylinder and piston extends. The pressure builds up and oil fills the accumulator. When maximum
pressure is reached, the pressure switch stops the pump motor. In these applications, the cylinder and
piston arrangement is required to press the work piece for a longer period of time. During this period,
the internal and external leakage may reduce the cylinder pressure. The leakage oil is replaced with
the oil from the accumulator. This leakage replacement of oil is carried for a longer period of time. The
maximum length of time is determined by the volume of the accumulator and the rate of leakage in
the cylinder. When the pressing cycle has been completed, the operator shifts the handle of the 4/2
DC valve to original position. Thus a cycle is completed.
3.18.2 ACCUMULATOR AS AUXILIARY POWER SOURCE

As we know, the electric motor or pump motor is a primary power source. In this application,
the accumulator stores the oil during one portion of the work cycle and releases the oil during the
remaining cycle. Thus accumulator serves as a secondary power source. Figure shows the circuit
using accumulator as a secondary power source. After placing the work piece on slide table and shifts
handle of 4/2 DC valve. Now oil flows from the accumulator to blank end of slide cylinder. This
extends the piston until slide table reaches end of stroke. When the cylinder is in the fully extended
position, the accumulator is charged with the oil by the pump. Then the operator shifts the handle of
4/2 DC valve for the retraction of the cylinder. Now the oil flows from the pump as well as from the
accumulator to retract the cylinder quickly.

3.18.3 ACCUMULATOR AS EMERGENCY POWER SOURCE

In some hydraulic applications, it is necessary to retract the pistons of cylinder to their
starting position; even there may be an electrical power failure. In such applications, the accumulator
can be used as an emergency power source to retract the piston of the cylinder.
Accumulators as Emergency Power Source
When operator depresses push button energizing solenoid of the 3/2 DCV, oil flows to blank end of
cylinder. At the same time, the oil also unseats check valve. So the oil under pressure flow to rod end
of cylinder and into the accumulator. When there is a power failure, the solenoid will de-energize. In
the absence of solenoid energy, the spring pressure forces the valve to shift to its spring offset mode.
Now the oil stored under pressure is forced from the accumulator to the rod end of the cylinder. Thus
the piston of the cylinder retracts to the starting position.
3.18.4 ACCUMULATOR AS HYDRAULIC SHOCK ABSORBER

In many high pressure hydraulic systems, the sudden stoppage of a hydraulic fluid flowing at
high velocity in pipelines can cause considerable damage to the piping. This hydraulic shock, also
known as water hammer, may snap heavy pipes, loosen fittings and cause leaks. By installing an
accumulator, this high pressure pulsations or hydraulic shocks can be absorbed. Figure shows the
circuit employing accumulator for serving as a hydraulic shock absorber.

Accumulators as a Hydraulic Shock Absorber
The accumulator installed near the shut-off point in order to be more effective in quickly absorbing
the shock wave. When the system demands to shut-off the supply suddenly, a 2/2 shut-off valve is
used for the purpose. When operator shifts handle of the 2/2 emergency shut-off valve, the fluid flow
is stopped suddenly. This results in high-pressure pulsations or hydraulic shock. The pressure
pulsation is blocked by check valve. The surges between the check valve and the shut-off valve are
used to store the oil in accumulator and thus the pressure pulsations of the oil in the pipe line are
absorbed.
3.19 INTENSIFIER
Pressure intensifier or boosters are devices used to generate pressure greater than
those achievable with standard hydraulic pumps alone. They take the inlet flow from the pump and
intensify the pressure. A simplified cut way of an intensifier is shown in Figure.

Single Acting Intensifiers
The intensifier is shown on the forward stroke. In this situation, the pump flow (Q pump) is fed into
port A of the intensifier, which applies a pressure (P pump) to the piston, causing it to more right. This
in turn generates a force that is applied to the rod. The force on the rod then creates pressure and
flow at the outlet to the system. When the four way directional control valve is shifted to the opposite
position, the pump flow is sent to port B of the intensifier, causing the piston to move left. This causes
fluid to be drawn into the rod chamber which completes one cycle. The Figure shows the usage of
intensifier in the punching machine. After placing the work piece in the fixture and shifts handle of
4/2 DCV to the right side, the oil flows to the blank end of the cylinder through the check valve. When
the pressure in the cylinder reaches the sequence valve pressure setting, the sequence valve opens
and supplies the flow to the intensifier. Now the intensifier starts to operate and gives high pressure
output. This high pressure output of the intensifier closes the pilot check valve and pressurizes the
blank end of the cylinder to perform the punching operation.

Pressure Intensifier Circuit
When the 4/2 DCV is shifted to the left side position, the oil flows to the rod end of the cylinder. When
it builds-up the pressure, the pilot signal opens the check valve. Thus the cylinder is retracted to the
starting position.
3.20 AIR-OVER-OIL INTENSIFIER CIRCUIT

In some applications, the hydraulics and pneumatics circuits are coupled to best use of the
advantage of both oil and air mediums. This combination circuit is also known as hydro-pneumatic or
dual pressure systems. Figure shows a typical air-over-oil intensifier. This circuit can be used for
drawing a cylinder over a large distance at a low pressure and then over a small distance at high
pressure. This circuit consists of two lines- air lines and oil lines. In the circuit the air lines are shown
by single lines and oil lines by double lines. When the first 4/2 DCV valve1 is shifted to left mode, the
air from the reservoir flows to the approach tank. In the approach tank, the air forces the oil to the
blind end of the cylinder through the bottom of the intensifier, as shown by double lines. Now the
cylinder extends. When the cylinder experiences its load, the second 4/2 valve2 is actuated to the left
mode. This valve position sends air to the top end of the intensifier. Now the intensifier moves down,
and the piston of the intensifier blocks the path of oil from the approach tank. Now the cylinder
receives high pressure oil at the blind end to perform the useful work such as punching operation.

Air-Over-Oil Intensifier Circuit

When the valve2 is released, the air flow from the reservoir is blocked. The air from the top
end of the intensifier is vented to the atmosphere. This completes the high pressure portion of the
cycle. When valve1 is released, the air flow is diverted to return tank and also the air in the approach
tank is vented. The diverted air flow pushes the oil to the rod end of the cylinder. This causes the
cylinder to retract. The oil from the piston end of the cylinder is diverted back to the approach tank
through the bottom end of the intensifier. This completes the entire cycle of operation.
3.21 INDUSTRIAL HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS

3.21.1 REGENERATIVE CIRCUIT
It is used to speed up the extending speed of the double acting cylinder. Figure shows a
regenerative circuit that can be used to speed up the extending speed of the double acting cylinder.
This circuit uses a manually operated, three position, four way DCV and a double acting cylinder. It
should be noted in this circuit that the pipelines to the cylinder are connected in parallel and one of
the ports of the DCV is blocked. When the 4/3 DCV is shifted to the left mode, the oil flows from the
pump to the blank end of the cylinder. This pump flow extends the cylinder. When the 4/3 DCV is
shifted to the right mode, the oil from the pump bypasses the DCV and enters into the rod end of the
cylinder. Oil in the blank end drains back to the tank through the DCV as the cylinder retracts. The

speed of extension in the regenerative circuit is greater than that for a regular double acting cylinder.
But the speed of retraction is similar to the regular double acting cylinder. This is because oil flow
from the rod end regenerates with the pump flow to provide a total flow rate, which is greater than
the pump flow rate to the blank end of the cylinder.
Regenerative Circuit
3.21.2 AUTOMATIC CYLINDER RECIPROCATING SYSTEM

The sequence valves can also be used to produce continuous reciprocation of a hydraulic
cylinder. Figure shows a circuit that automatic reciprocation of the hydraulic cylinder. This can be
achieved by using two sequence valves and a pilot pressure operated spring-centered 4/3 DCV. When
the 4/3 DCV is shifted to the flow path configuration, oil flows from the pump to the rod end of the
cylinder. This pump flow retracts the cylinder. The check valve1 prevents shifting of the 4/3 DCV until
the full retraction stroke completes. As the piston reaches its end of stroke, the pressure builds up in
the sequence valve1 and it opens. This allows the pilot pressure signal to shift the DCV to the right
mode. When the pilot signal shifts the 4/3 DCV to the right mode, the oil flows to the blank end of the
cylinder. This pump flow extends the cylinder. The check valve 2 prevents shifting of the DCV until the
full extension stroke completes. As the piston reaches its end of stroke, the pressure builds up in the

sequence valve2 and it opens. This allows the pilot pressure signal to shift the DCV to the left mode
again. Thus the sequence repeats and the cylinder reciprocates continuously.
Automatic Cylinder Reciprocating System
3.21.3 SYNCHRONIZING HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS

There are many industrial applications require nearly perfect synchronization of movement of
two or more cylinders in order to complete some phase of operation. To accomplish the identical task
from the cylinders at the same rate, synchronizing circuits are employed. This is achieved by using
double-end cylinders in series, by using mechanically linked pistons, by using hydraulic motors as
metering devices and by using flow control valves. Figure shows a circuit to synchronize two
cylinders by connecting them in series. This circuit uses a solenoid-operated, spring-offset 4/3 DCV
and two double acting cylinders. When the 4/3 DCV is shifted to the left envelope flow path
configuration, oil flows from the pump to the blank end of cylinder1 and thus the cylinder1 extends.
At the same time, oil from the rod end of cylinder1 is forced to the blank end of cylinder2 and thus the
cylinder2 also extends. Now the oil returns to the tank from the rod end of the cylinder2 through DCV.
Once full extension of cylinder1 and 2 are over the DCV is shifted to the right mode. When the 4/3

DCV is shifted to the right mode, oil flows from the pump to the rod end of cylinder2 and thus the
cylinder2 retracts. As the same time, oil from the blank end of cylinder2 is forced to the rod end of
cylinder1 and thus the cylinder1 also retracts.
Synchronizing Hydraulic Cylinders
Now the oil returns to the tank from the blank end of cylinder1 through DCV. Thus both extension and
retraction operations of both cylinders are synchronized by connecting them is series. But for the two
cylinders to be synchronized, the piston area of cylinder2 should be equal to the difference between
the areas of the piston and rod for cylinder1.
3.21.4 FAIL-SAFE CIRCUIT

Fail-safe circuit is designed to safeguard the operator, the machine and work piece. These
circuits prevent any possible injury to the operator or damage to the machine and the work piece. One
such fail safe circuit is explained below. It is also called as two handed safety circuit. Figure shows the
two handed safety control circuit. This circuit uses a pilot-operated spring-offset 4/3 DCV and two
push buttons. When the 4/3 DCV valve is in its centre position, the oil flows is diverted back to tank
through the pressure relief valve. Therefore the cylinder is hydraulically locked. When operator
pushes down both left and right push buttons, the oil flows in through port R of pilot valve1 and out
through ports, then through port V of pilot valve 2 and out port U. but check valve Z stops flow. At the
same time, the oil also flows to pilot connection A of 4/3 DCV causing the DCV to shift to its left mode.

When the cylinder and thus the cylinder extends. Thus extension of cylinder takes place only when
the operator depresses both the push buttons. When the operator pushes the right button only, oil
flows in through port R to port S of pilot valve1, then through port V to port N of pilot valve2. Thus the
oil is drained to the tank through the pilot valve2. This allow the 4/3 DCV to return to neutral
position, thus the cylinder is hydraulically locked. When the operator pushes the left push button only,
oil flows in port R of pilot valve1 and out port T, then unseats ball in check valve Z, then on to port U of
pilot valve2, and out port V. Oil follows the path of least resistance so it passes in port S of pilot valve1,
out port M and into sump. It does not build up enough pressure to keep pilot pressure on pilot
connection A so 4/3 DCV shifts back to neutral position, thus the cylinder is hydraulically locked.
When the operator releases both left and right push buttons, oil flows in port R of pilot valve1 and out
port T, then through check valve Z and into port U of pilot valve2. Now the oil flows out port W into
pilot connection B of 4/3 DCV shifting its position to right mode. When the 4/3 DCV is shifted to its
right mode, the oil from the pump flows into the rod end of the cylinder and hence the cylinder
retracts. Thus the retraction of cylinder takes place only when the operator releases both the push
buttons.
Two Handed Safety Control Circuit

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UNIT I

FLUID POWER PRINCIPLES AND FUNDEMENTALS (REVIEW)

TYPES OF FLUID SYSTEMS:

ADVANTAGES OF FLUID POWER:

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APPLICATIONS OF FLUID POWER:

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PNEUMATIC POWER SYSTEM:

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COMPARISON BETWEEN HYDRAULIC, PNEUMATIC AND ELECTRO MECHANICAL POWER

Hydraulic System Pneumatic System Electro-Mechanical System

Energy is transmitted through

Variable Frequency drives

Transmission through Transmission through

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Excellent with minimum loss

More Precision Less Precision More Precision

Medium Cost High cost Low Cost

Dangerous and fire hazardous

FUNCTIONS OF FLUIDS IN A FLUID POWER SYSTEM:

VARIOUS HYDRAULIC FLUIDS:

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9. Neutralization Number: The neutralization number is a measure of the acidity or

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DARCY – WEISBACH EQUATION:

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LOSSES IN VALVES AND FITTINGS:

Valve and Fitting K Factor

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Classification of Positive Displacement Pump:

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Internal Gear Pump:

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Pressure Compensated Variable Delivery Pump:

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Axial Piston Pump:

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Bent Axis Axial Piston Pump:

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Radial Piston Pump:

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5. Radial Piston Pump

Actual Flow rate produced by pump

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SPEED OF A HYDRAULIC CYLINDER:

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SPECIAL TYPE CYLINDERS:

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