Depth studies

Germany
 Lesson objectives

• Explain the early problems of the republic, 1919-1922

• Discuss the constitution of the Weimar republic
• Mention years of economic crisis-hyperinflation
 The impact of the first world war on Germany
• The Germans were proud people by 1914. The German government was
celebrated for its achievements not withstanding it was a dictatorship. The
Germans prospered economically, had a good educational system, a good
work force properly taken care of etc. Germany was revered as a strong and
prosperous country.
• After the first world war all the achievements of Germany were destroyed.
The German army suffered defeat, there was hunger and starvation, an
epidemic occurred occasioned by the lack of food etc. which killed
thousands of people.
•The impact of the war on Germany is
categorized into three headings:
Economic impact
Political impact
Social impact
 Economic impact
✔ Income: income fell to one-third of what it was by 1913
✔ War left 600,000widows and two million children without fathers.
By 1925, Germany spent one-third of its budget on war pensions
✔ Acute food shortages: Germany could only produce 50 percent of
what it produced before the war. 300,000 people died from
starvation
✔ Reduction in industrial production: industrial production was
reduced to about two third of what it had been before the war
 Political impact
• Germany witnessed a revolution and instability set in as
democratic ideals were destroyed and extremist groups
gained power.
❑ Fighting between right wing and left wing groups
❑ Many ex-soldiers and civilians despised the new
government and believed that the old government had
been betrayed
 Social impact
• The war created divisions in the German society
divisions between the living standard of the rich and poor
One and half million demobilized soldiers went back to society disillusioned
Many German workers were bitter with restrictions placed on their earnings. Only
factory workers had a fortune
Break down of law and order as many Germans were angry with loosing the war
 The Weimar republic
This is used to refer to the government of Germany in 1919. The government formed from
the elections of January 1919.
Weimar Republic, the government of Germany from 1919 to 1933, so called because the
assembly that adopted its constitution met at Weimar from February 6 to August 11, 1919.
The success of the Weimar republic depended on the following;
❑ The constitution: this was a democratic constitution which was meant to represent all
interests in Germany.
❑ The German people: the German people were opposed to change from the dictatorship
of the of the past (Kaizer). There were right wing and left wing opposition figures:
 Right wing
These were the Kaisers advisers who remained in the army, judiciary, civil service and
industry. They restricted what the new government could do. It was believed that the new
president(Ebert) stabbed Germany in the back and caused defeat in WW1. so some people
prayed fro the return of the Kaiser.
LEFT WING
The left wing was made up of communists who wanted Germany to adopt
communism(revolution) just like Russia had done in 1917.
 The Weimar Constitution
• The national assembly met in Weimar on February 6, 1919. Ebert’s opening speech underlined
the breach with the past and urged the Allies not to cripple the young republic by the demands
imposed on it. On February 11 the assembly elected Ebert president of the Reich, and on
February 12 Scheidemann formed a ministry with the Centre Party and the German Democratic
Party (DDP).
Strengths of the Constitution
• The constitution was agreed by the National Assembly which meant that it had agreement from
most of the political spectrum that was represented in the assembly. It allowed for there to be
differences between the states which recognised the differences between the states and allowed
those to continue.
• Historically, German political parties were used to having to make coalitions so the introduction
of proportional representation made this coalition culture an enshrined part of the German
political culture.
• Ultimately, the constitution set up a liberal framework for Germany to operate in, but it
ultimately could not cope with the events that it had to face during the time of the Weimar
Republic.
 Weaknesses of the Constitution
• The electoral system in the form of proportional representation meant that political
parties were abundant, representing almost every form of interest and many got seats in
the Reichstag. This huge number of parties resulted in majority governments being
unachievable. Thus there were many different coalition governments which were
unstable and often collapsed. This led to weak government.
• The second major problem was the distribution of political power. The creation of the
office of the President was an equal powerbase to the Reichstag. It leads to the strange
question as to whether the President or the Reichstag was the ultimate political authority
in Germany. Linked to the President was the Article 48 Emergency Powers which
allowed the President to make laws without consulting the Reichstag. This was a huge
amount of power for the President to have.
 Contents of the Weimar constitution
• The German Reich is a Republic.
• The government is made of a president, a chancellor and a parliament (Reichstag).
• Representatives of the people must be elected equally every four years by all men and women over age 20.
• The term of the President is seven years.
• All orders of the President must be endorsed by the Chancellor or a Reich Minister.
• Article 48 allows the President to suspend civil rights and operate independently in an emergency.
• Two legislative bodies (the Reichstag and the Reichsrat) were formed to represent the German people.
• All Germans are equal and have the same civil rights and responsibilities.
• All Germans have the right to freedom of expression.
• All Germans have the right to peaceful assembly.
• All Germans have the right to freedom of religion; there is no state church.
• State-run, public education is free and mandatory for children.
• All Germans have the right of private property.
• All Germans have the right to equal opportunity and earnings in the workplace.
 Threat or rebellion from the left wing
The Spartacists
These were left wing opposition to the republic. They were led by Karl Liebkneccht and Rosa Luxemberg.
They formed a party fashioned after Lenin’s Bolsheviks in Russia. They wanted Germany to be ruled by the
workers council.
The Spartacists launched a bid to take over government in 1919. They joined hands with rebel soldiers,
sailors etc. to set up soviets in many towns. Some anti-communist ex-soldiers formed vigilante groups
called FREIKORPS. Ebert made an agreement with the commanders of the army and the Freikorps to
bring down the rebellion. Street fighting ensued and the Spartacists were defeated and their leaders
murdered.
Another rebellion in Bavaria south of Germany soon followed the Spartacists. The freikorps were also used
by Ebert to crush the revolt in 1919 and about 600 communists were killed.
In 1920, another communist agitation broke out in the Ruhr region. Police, army and Freikorps crushed the
rebellion and there were 2000 casualties.
Ebert was brutal against the communists which created bitterness against them through out the 1920s.
Ebert was afraid that Germany could become communist.
 • Hyperinflation and the Fallout
Despite its new constitution, the Weimar Republic faced one of Germany’s
greatest economic challenges: hyperinflation. Thanks to the Treaty of
Versailles, Germany’s ability to produce revenue-generating coal and iron ore
decreased. As war debts and reparations drained its coffers, the German
government was unable to pay its debts.
The Ruhr region(industrial base) of Germany was taken over by the French
and Belgian forces. This means Germany could not produce.
In response to the seizure of the Ruhr region, the government of Germany
asked its workers to go on strike . So for the government to pay the workers,
it resorted to printing more currencies. This led to hyperinflation in Germany.
 Achievements of the Weimar republic
The Golden Age
• In 1923, the Weimar Republic was on the verge of collapse, but, surprisingly, the crisis was the
start of a period of stability and success. The period 1923-1929 was a time when the economy
boomed and cultural life flourished in Germany. It is known as the Golden Age of Weimar.
• This dramatic turnabout happened because Germany was saved by two people, Gustav
Stresemann and Charles Dawes.
Gustav Stresemann
• Gustav Stresemann, a nationalist politician, realized that something needed to be done to save
Germany. He was the most important politician between 1923 and 1929, however he only
survived as Chancellor of a coalition government for a few months. He was a leading member
of every government from 1923-1929 and his main role was as Foreign Minister.
Some of the achievements of the Weimar republic include the
following:
Under Stresemann's guidance, the government called off the
strike, persuaded the French to leave the Ruhr and changed the
currency to the Rentenmark which helped solve hyperinflation.
Stresemann also introduced reforms to help ordinary people such
as job centres, unemployment pay and better housing
Organization of the Great Coalition of moderate, pro-democracy
parties in the Reichstag which brought stability to the government.
 Economic developments 1923-1929
Charles Dawes
• Charles Dawes was the US budget director. In 1923, he was sent to Europe
to sort out Germany's economy. Under his advice, the German Reichsbank
was reformed and the old money was called in and burned. This ended the
hyperinflation. Dawes also arranged the Dawes Plan with Stresemann,
which gave Germany longer to pay reparations. Most importantly, Dawes
agreed to America lending Germany 800 million gold marks, which
kick-started the German economy.
• Following a lowering of the war reparations after the Dawes Plan of 1924,
further changes to the reparations came with the Young Plan in 1929.
 Owen Young
• The committee that looked at the reparations issue was led by Owen Young, an
American industrialist. It was a committee that had been appointed by the Allied
Reparations Committee. The final plan was an attempt to support German through her
financial pain.
• Payments were reduced by three-quarters.
• The length of time Germany had to pay was extended to 59 years.
• Reparations were reduced to 37,000 million marks. A part of the Young Plan designed to
support Germany was the actual requirement of repayment per year.
• Germany had to pay one-third of the amount required each year as part of a compulsory
agreement – about $157 million.
• However, the other two-thirds only had to be paid if Germany could afford to do so in a
manner that would not harm her economic development
• Consequences of Stresemann’s leadership, Dawes and
Young Plan
Successes
• The economy improved with falling unemployment, rising factory
production and more confidence.
• There was a rise in number of votes for political parties
supporting democracy and the Weimar Republic.
• The Communists and Nazis did not do well in elections compared
to the parties supporting the Weimar Republic. The Nazis had
only 12 seats in the Reichstag in 1928.
• Calling off the ‘passive resistance’ of German workers in the Ruhr. This
helped Germany’s economy because goods were back in production and the
Government could stop printing money to pay striking workers.
• Promising to begin reparations payments again. This persuaded France and
Belgium to end the occupation of the Ruhr by 1925.
• Introducing a new currency called the Rentenmark. This stabilised prices as
only a limited number were printed meaning money rose in value. This
helped to restore confidence in the German economy both internally and
internationally.
• Reducing the amount of money the government spent (700,000 government
employees lost their jobs) so that its budget deficit reduced.
 Problems of Stressman’s leadership and Dawes’s plan
• Treaty of Versailles was still in place and very harsh on Germany.
• The Locarno Pact made permanent the land that was lost under the Treaty of Versailles.
• The number of troops were still limited, therefore Germany still felt weak and defenceless.
• Germany continued to pay reparations.
• Voters were still suspicious of democracy. The Communists were still a potential threat; the
Nazis were rebuilding their party organisation.
• Important organisations in Germany, like the army and judges, not totally convinced about
supporting the Weimar Republic.
• Germany's economic recovery depended on loans from the USA under the Dawes plan.
• The politician responsible for Germany’s relative improvement, Gustav Stresemann, died in
1929.
 Why Hitler was able to dominate Germany by 1934
• 25 point programme of the German workers party(Nazi party)
• The Munich Putsch
• Hitler's propaganda
• Hitler’s trial after the Munich Putsch
• Changing policy and strategies(Reichstag principle)
• Expansion of the SA
• Mien kampf
• Appointment of Goebbels in charge of propaganda
 Nazi consolidation of power 1933-34
The following events saw Hitler and the Nazis strengthen their grip on power, ending in Hitler becoming Fuhrer
(leader) of Germany.
• 20 March 1933
• The first concentration camps are established for political prisoners.
• 23 March 1933 - The Enabling Act
• Hitler was given the power to make his own laws.
• 26 April 1933
• Hitler sets up the Gestapo, the secret police of Nazi Germany.
• 2 May 1933
• Trade unions are banned.
• 14 July 1933
• All political parties, except the Nazi Party, are banned.
• This destroys democracy by removing the need for elections, creating a one-party state.
• 30 June 1934 - 'Night of the Long Knives'
• The SA demand to take the place of the German army.
• Hitler cannot afford to lose the support of the army.
• The SS assassinate many of the SA’s leadership. Officially just under 100 members die,
including its leader Ernst Röhm.
• This wipes out opposition to Hitler within the Nazi Party. It also gives more power to
the SS.
• 19 August 1934 - The Führer
• President Hindenburg dies of old age.
• Hitler joins the titles of President and Chancellor and became head of the German army.
• He takes the title of Führer and has complete dictatorial powers.
 Actions taken by the Nazis
The Nazis came to power due to the actions they took as well as world events.
• Appealing to all Germans
• Actions taken by the Nazis gained support from many Germans. They promised that they
would help many different Germans:
• Socialists – they promised that farmers would be given their land and public industries would be
owned by the state.
• Nationalists – they promised that Germany would be strong.
• Racists – they promised that Jews would not be German citizens.
• Fascists – they promised a strong central government.
• Businessmen, landowners and the rich – they promised more business and protection from the
communists.
• The unemployed and workers – they promised an increase in employment and wages.
• Popular leadership
• Hitler was a popular and effective public speaker.
• He used speeches to tell many Germans that the Nazis would help them
• He used simple language that was easy to remember.
• He seemed to be someone who cared about the German people.
• Use of propaganda
• Josef Goebbels was in charge of raising support for the Nazis.
• The Nazis used radio, rallies, newspapers and posters to campaign.
• The Nazis used simple slogans to introduce their ideas and to make them appeal to the
ordinary people of Germany.
 The Reichstag fire
• On 27 February 1933 the Reichstag caught fire.
• This was where the German Government met. The communists were blamed for the
fire and a Dutch communist called Van der Lubbe was found in the building.
• Hitler used the fire to the Nazi Party’s advantage in two ways:
• He banned the communists from Parliament and imprisoned many communist leaders
to stop them campaigning for votes.
• He announced that the country was in danger from the communists. This encouraged
many to vote for the Nazis.
• This helped the Nazis to win more seats in the election of 5 March 1933.
 The Enabling Act
• 23 March 1933
• With the communist deputies banned and the SA intimidating all the remaining non-Nazi deputies, the
Reichstag voted by the required two-thirds majority to give Hitler the right to make laws without the
Reichstag's approval for four years.
• Arguably this was the critical event during this period. It gave Hitler absolute power to make laws, which
enabled him to destroy all opposition to his rule. This removed the Reichstag as a source of opposition.
Night of the Long Knives
• 30 June 1934
• Many members of the SA, including its leader Ernst Röhm, were demanding that the Nazi party carry
out its socialist agenda and that the SA take over the army. Hitler could not afford to annoy
businessmen or the army, so the SS (Hitler's personal bodyguards) murdered around 400 members of
the SA, including Röhm, along with a number of Hitler's other opponents like the previous Chancellor,
von Schleicher.
• This destroyed all opposition to Hitler within the Nazi Party and gave power to the brutal SS. It also
showed the rest of the world what a tyrant Hitler was. This removed any internal Nazi Party opposition
to Hitler.
The Sturmabteilung (SA)
• The SA began in 1921 by Adolf Hitler. The majority of early members are disgruntled
former soldiers who fought during World War I. The SA worked as a paramilitary force
which worked mainly to intimidate political rivals during the early rise of the Nazi Party.
This force was often known as Stormtroopers or Brownshirts because of their uniform.
• In 1923, The Beer Hall Putsch in Munich sparked a failed coup supported by the SA. On
9 November 1923, Hitler and the 600 SA members attempted to overthrow the Weimar
Republic. Hitler was arrested two days after the failed coup.
Led by Ernst Röhm from 1931 to 1934, it was distinctly separate from the German army
and often used street violence to intimidate Nazi opposition. Quickly growing in numbers
due to the Great Depression, the SA was much larger than the army and likely was made
up of about 2,000,000 men.
 The Schutzstaffel (SS)
• In April 1925, the SS began as a group of bodyguards for Adolf Hitler. With the fall of
the SA following The Night of the Long Knives, the SS became the superior
paramilitary force in Nazi Germany. This force was under the control of Heinrich
Himmler and answered only to Hitler himself.
• The SS was recognisable by their black uniforms. The collar of these uniforms had the
two runic S’s, which looked like lightening bolts. Other recognisable insignias included
death’s head badges and silver daggers.
• From its beginning as the personal bodyguards of Hitler and other Nazi leaders, the SS
quickly expanded both in size and in responsibility. By the start of World War II in 1939,
the SS was about 250,000 men.
• Divided into two groups, a SS member was either a part of the Allgemeine-SS or the
Waffen-SS. The Allgemeine-SS was in charge of the various police forces, such as the
Sicherheitspolizei (Sipo), Kriminalpolizei (Kripo), and Gestapo.
 Effects of wall street crash on Germany
• Events in the USA played a significant role in the growth of support for the Nazis in Germany, starting
with the Wall Street Crash of October 1929, when share price falls lead to significant losses amongst
financial institutions, individuals and a decline in confidence.
• The chain reaction from Crash spread far beyond the USA and lead to economic turmoil in Germany for
the second time in around a decade. The stronger economy created by Stresemann was severely
damaged.
Why did the Crash affect Germany so badly?
• German banks had been large investors in US companies and suffered huge losses as the share prices of
these companies fell. This in turn created a banking crisis in Germany as savers began to fear for their
savings. Several banks went bust as savers attempted to recover their savings (a so-called “run on a
bank”). To avoid also going out of business, German banks started to recall loans from businesses which
in turn lead to many businesses failing, triggering a sharp rise in unemployment.
• Rising unemployment lead to falling demand for goods and services - making the initial problem even
worse. Overall, unemployment rose from 1.3 million in September 1929 to 6.1 million in January 1933.
  
Germany and the Depression, 1929-1933
• In 1929 as the Wall Street Crash led to a worldwide depression. Germany suffered more than any other
nation as a result of the recall of US loans, which caused its economy to collapse. Unemployment
rocketed, poverty soared and Germans became desperate. This led to a chain of events that ended in the
destruction of German democracy:
• With the government unable to win a majority in the Reichstag, laws could only be passed
by presidential decree. As a result, not enough action was taken to tackle the economic and social
consequences of the Depression and Germans increasingly began to look to the political extremes for
answers.
• The Nazis benefitted from this the most, as a combination of policies with widespread appeal, a
charismatic leader in Hitler and the violence of the SA helped make them the largest party in the
Reichstag by the middle of 1932.
• In January 1933, Hitler was appointed Chancellor by President Hindenburg.
• Hitler quickly set about dismantling German democracy. He forced the passing of an Enabling Act
through the Reichstag, which gave him unlimited powers for four years. He then eliminated any
potential sources of opposition: other political parties, trades unions and even Ernst Rohm, the leader of
the SA.
• By the time President Hindenburg died in August 1934, Hitler was able to declare himself Führer and
had absolute power in Germany.
 Life in Nazi Germany
objectives
• Describe the Nazi racial state
• Discuss Kristallnacht, ‘Crystal Night’, 9 November 1938.
• Discuss opposition to Nazi rule
• Discuss the July Bomb Plot
• Explain the outbreak of war and the impact of war on Germany 1939-45.
• Describe the Wanse Conference and the Final Solution
 The Police State
• Hitler and the Nazis created a Police State to exercise control over the population. There were
three main parts to it:
Internal security forces
• After the elimination of the SA in the Night of the Long Knives in June 1934, Hitler used
three main organisations (in addition to the regular German police force) to control the
German people through spying, intimidation and imprisonment
The Schutzstaffel (SS) was led by Heinrich Himmler and was the most important of the three
organisations. It oversaw the others. Initially it was set up in 1925 as Hitler’s personal bodyguard
service, and it was fanatically loyal to the Führer and utterly ruthless. By 1935, it numbered
200,000. Its leaders became more important than the Party organisation in running the country.
The SS set up concentration camps where ‘enemies of the state’ were sent. They also developed
their own huge industrial enterprises, where prisoners were used as slave labour.
 The Gestapo
• The Gestapo was the Nazis’ secret police force. In 1934 Himmler replaced Hermann Göring as
its leader. Its job was to monitor the German population for signs of opposition or resistance to
Nazi rule and eliminate it. Although its membership was not huge, it was greatly feared because
it was powerful. They listened to telephone calls, intercepted letters and encouraged ordinary
Germans to inform on their fellow citizens.
• The Sicherheitsdienst (SD) was the intelligence-gathering agency of the SS. It was responsible
for the security of Hitler and other top Nazis and was led by Himmler’s right-hand
man, Reinhard Heydrich.
• To help these organisations a spy network made up of ordinary people was established across
the Germany.
• At a local level, Blockleiters were in charge of listening to gossip, keeping an eye on neighbours
and informing on anything suspicious in a block of flats or a group of houses.
• At the top of the network were the 42 regional Gauleiters.
 The legal system
• The Nazis swept away many of the freedoms that Germans had enjoyed under the Weimar
Republic. The Nazi’s control of the legal system made opposition to the regime very difficult.
• Judges had to swear an oath of loyalty to Hitler and were expected always to act in the interests
of the Nazi state.
• All lawyers had to join the Nazi Lawyers' Association, which meant they could be controlled.
• The role of defence lawyers in criminal trials was weakened.
• Some trials were staged as publicity stunts.
• “People’s Courts” were set up in 1934 to try those accused of “crimes against the state”.
• Standard punishments for crime were abolished, so local prosecutors could decide what
penalties to impose on those found guilty.
• The number of crimes that carried the death penalty increased from three to 46.
• “Protective custody” was introduced for those who might commit a crime. This meant people
could be arrested and interned even if they had not broken the law.
• These changes meant the legal system was no longer fair. People lost many of their civil rights.
 Concentration camps
• In 1933, Dachau was the first camp to be opened. By 1939 there were six.
• They were run by the Death’s Head Unit of the SS, known as
the SS-Totenkopfverbände (SS-TV). Many of these men were convicted murderers
released specifically for this role.
• A wide variety of people were sent to the camps.
• Many convicted criminals were not released at the end of their prison sentences but were
moved to the concentration camps.
• Political opponents, like communists, as well as Jews, ministers and priests were also sent
there.
• People regarded by the Nazis as “asocial” also ended up in these camps. Nazis classified
the “work-shy", prostitutes and homosexuals as “asocial”.
 The impact of the Police State on the lives of the German people
• The Police State had a big impact on all aspects of people’s lives and was very successful in its
aims.
• The Police State meant there was little opposition to the Nazis. Most people complied
with regulations. They became fearful of being arrested for no reason, particularly as a result of
protective custody.
• Justice disappeared. Many did not receive fair trials because of changes to defence regulations.
On the other hand, convicted Nazis often had their sentences quashed by the intervention of
Hitler.
• Society became more suspicious and tense. Some people publically criticised or informed
on their neighbours to make themselves look more loyal. Children were encouraged to report
on their parents and teachers.
• The number of criminal offences committed was halved by 1939, but the number of
people in prison increased. By 1939, there were over 600,000 in prisons or concentration camps.
Many innocent people were detained as “enemies of the state”.
•
 Propaganda and censorship
Purpose
• The aim of propaganda and censorship was to brainwash people into obeying the Nazis and
idolising Hitler.
• It was achieved by ensuring only the ideas and values of the Nazis were heard and seen by the
masses.
Methods
• The government department responsible for propaganda was the Ministry of Enlightenment
and Propaganda, headed by Dr Joseph Goebbels.
• He believed propaganda worked best if it were “invisible” (i.e. subtle) and “all-pervasive” (i.e.
everywhere).
• Therefore, all aspects of the media, culture and the arts were censored and used for Nazi
propaganda.
• Much of the information Germans received reinforced the message of Aryan racial superiority
whilst bitterly bad-mouthing the Jews and other ‘enemies’ of the regime
 1. CENSORSHIP OF THE PRESS
• Newspapers could only print stories favourable to and approved by the Nazis.
• Daily briefings were held for editors to tell them what to print and where to place articles in their newspapers.
• Jewish journalists were banned.
• Editors had to join the Nazi Party or be dismissed.
• By 1935, 1,600 newspapers were closed.
• By 1939, 69% of newspapers were directly owned by the Nazis.
• 2. Control of radio broadcasts
• All radio output was controlled by Goebbels’ Ministry through the Reich Broadcasting Corporation. Goebbels
saw radio as the most important medium for propaganda.
• Listening to foreign stations was banned.
• 9 million radios were sold cheaply so that most Germans could afford one and thus be indoctrinated. These
“People’s Receivers” could only be tuned to the Nazi station. By 1939, 70 per cent of households owned one of
them.
• Radio wardens were used to ensure people listened to major speeches being broadcast.
 3. Large public events
• There were mass rallies to show public support for Nazism which involved music, speeches
and demonstrations of German military strength. The biggest rally was the annual Nuremberg
Rally held in August. It lasted a week, with a different Nazi organisation being featured each
day. There were four specially-built stadia. The rallies were characterised by order and discipline,
marching, massive displays of flags and symbols, rousing music (like the “Horst-Wessel-Lied”
Nazi anthem) and the clever use of modern technology (such as arc lamps to create
atmosphere, loudspeakers, car cavalcades and flypasts by planes). Rallies were held at other
times in the year as well, for example on Hitler’s birthday.
• Sports events were held to allow people to be either spectators or participants in mass
activities. The Strength Through Joy (KdF) movement organised many of these. Berlin
hosted the Olympics of 1936, which the Nazis used as an opportunity to showcase the success
of the regime and to demonstrate the superiority of the Aryan race. The victories of an
African-American athlete from the USA, Jesse Owens, infuriated the Nazi leadership.
4. Use of loudspeakers in public places
• Loudspeakers were placed in cafés, town squares and workplaces to blare out Nazi propaganda.
Therefore, even those people who did not have a radio did not escape the Nazi message.