Elasticity

About Elasticity
• Nearly all solid materials respond to a small
applied force by changing their length.
• This response takes three progressive
forms as the force increases:
• Elastic region
(proportional deformation)
• Plastic region (permanent
deformation, dislocations)
• Failure (fracture)
 Elastic Properties of Solids
Observation:
Solid object gets deformed as external forces act on it, though the
internal forces resist those deformations.

• Deformations of solids can be understood in terms of stress and

strain:
 Stress: A quantity proportional to the external force (load)
causing deformation.
 Strain: Measure of degree of deformation.
• Typical deformations are: extension, compression, bending,
shear, twisting, …..
• It is empirically known, that for small stresses, strain is
proportional to stress.
(Better not to ask about the general case ….!!!!!).
 Hooke’s law
Remember:
for small stresses, strain should be proportional to stress.

The constants of proportionality are called Elastic moduli,

and we can make the following (formal) definition:
stress = elastic modulus × strain

There are three types of deformations and related moduli:

1. Extension, compression: Young’s modulus.
2. Shape changes: Shear modulus.
3. Volume changes: Bulk modulus.
 Survey of topics
• Stress and strain, Young modulus,
Poisson ratio.
• Shear modulus and bulk modulus.
• Stress-strain diagrams.
• Strain energy.
 Stress
• Definition: Stress σ is load F per unit area.
A
F F

F : load applied in N=kg·m/s2

F
  A : cross sectional area in m²
A σ : stress in Pa (=N/m2)

• Normal load (load perpendicular to material surface):

Tension, material becomes longer

Compression, material becomes

shorter
 Strain
• Definition: Strain ε is a dimensionless ratio of the
elongation e of a material to its original length L0.
Lo e

e e : elongation (m)
 L0 : unloaded (original) length of a material (m)
L0 ε : strain (m/m, i.e. dimensionless)

• Elongation:

e  L  L  L0 L : loaded length of material (m)

 Young’s modulus
A Lo e
FN FN
L

FN e
• Young modulus Y:  Y  Y
A L0

 tension: 𝑒 = ∆𝐿 > 0; 𝜎 > 0

 compression: 𝑒 = ∆𝐿 < 0; 𝜎 < 0
• Properties:
 Y >0.
 large Y refers to stiff materials, small Y to soft
materials.
Example:
Length of wire = 30 m
Diameter = 2.5 cm
Axial loading applied = 1.1 x 105 N Wire
Elongation due to loading = 2.5 cm

1) Find the normal stress. loading

A   r 2   (1.25 cm)2  4.9  10 4 m 2
F 1.1 105 N
  4
 2.24  10 8
Pa
A 4.9  10 m 2

2) Determine the strain.

e 2.5 10 2 m
   0.00083
Lo 30m
Example:

Two rods of different material and length, but with the same cross-
sectional area, are joined end to end, as shown in the diagram. The
materials are such that the Young’s modulus for 2 is twice that for
1. When forces are applied to the ends of the rods, which one of
the following statements about the stresses (σ) and the strains
(ε) is completely correct?

(a) σ1 = σ2, ε1= ε2 (b) σ1 = 2σ2, ε1 = 2ε2 (c) 2σ1 = σ2, 2ε1 = ε2
(d) σ1 = σ2, 2ε1 = ε2 (e) σ1 = σ 2, ε1 = 2ε2 (f) σ1 = 2σ2, 2ε1 = ε2
Solution:

F
• First we have a look at the stresses: 1    2
A

• Next we analyze the strains:

F Y2 1
 1   Y11   2  Y2 2  2    1  2 2
A Y1  2

Thus the right answer is (e).

Machine for Tension & Compression test
A36 Steel

Stress and Strain Diagram

Example:
i. A force F produces a strain ε in a steel wire of diameter 1.20
mm. If the same force F produces the same strain ε in a piece of
copper wire, calculate the diameter of the copper wire.
ii. Explain why you do not need to know whether the lengths
of the wires are equal or not.
Young’s modulus: steel: 2.0.1011 N.m-2 copper: 1.3.1011 N.m-2

Solution:
F F
• Young‘s modulus:  Ys and  YCu
As ACu
 2
d Cu
ACu 4 Ys Ys 2.0 1011
• Thus:  
 2 YCu
 d Cu  d s  1.20mm   1.49mm
As ds YCu 1.3 1011

4
As we are only considering strain, initial lengths are irrelevant15.
Remark: Hooke’s Law for elastic springs.

• Textbook: 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥
F is restoring force, not stress.
• Reformulate things using stress, strain, moduli:
𝜎 𝐹 𝐹 𝐿0 𝐴𝑌 𝐴𝑌
𝑌= = 𝐴 = →𝐹= 𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 → 𝑘 =
𝜀 ∆𝐿 𝐴𝑥 𝐿0 𝐿0
𝐿0
1 1 𝐴𝑌
𝑈= 𝑘𝑥 2 = ∙ ∆𝐿 2 (elastic energy)
2 2 𝐿0

k depends on Young’s modulus Y and geometrical shape A!

• Mass and spring

model for elastic solids:
 Shear modulus
𝐹𝑇
Shear stress: τ = (tangential force)
𝐴
∆𝑥
Shear strain: 𝜀 = = tan 𝜑 ≈ 𝜑
𝑎0
𝐹𝑇 ∆𝑥
Shear modulus G: 𝜏 = =𝐺 ≈ 𝐺𝜑
𝐴 𝑎0

• Combination of tensile and shearing forces:

F
F F FT FN
A A* F produces tensile stress
N
FT produces shear stress
Example:
A rugby player of mass 100 kg running at 4 m.s-1 is tackled and
brought to a halt in 0.2 s. The impact of the tackle is absorbed
by one of his legs, leading to the shearing of a particular bone of
cross-sectional area 3.10-4 m2. If the shear modulus of bone is
1010 N.m-2 and the breaking strain is 10-3, calculate whether or
not the bone will break.

Solution:
p mv  0 100  4
• Tangential force: FT    N  2 103 N
t t 0.2

FT FT 2 103
• Shear strain:  G     4
 6.67  10 4
  break
A AG 3 10 10 10

Thus the bone will not break!

 Bulk modulus

• Body immersed in fluid.

• Forces always normal to
surface and inward.

𝐹𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑,𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑
Hydrostatic stress: 𝑃 =
𝐴𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦

(induces volume changes)

∆𝑉
Volume strain: 𝜀 =
𝑉0
Bulk modulus B:
𝐹𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑,𝑖𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 ∆𝑉
𝑃= = −𝐵
𝐴𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑉0
 Poisson’s Ratio
Longitudinal strain does not occur
in isolation, there is also a thinning
(widening) of the specimen, which is
called transverse strain.

b b - b 0
Transverse strain  
b0 b0

ΔL L  L0
Longitudin al strain  
L L
0 0

Transverse Strain (b / b 0 )

-  const.    Poisson' s Ratio
Longitudinal Strain (L / L 0 )
Example:

A tight-rope walker of mass 70 kg, standing at the center of a

massless rope stretched between two points 10 m apart, causes a
sag of 0.50 m. If the Young’s modulus of the wire rope is 1.1.1011
N.m-2, what is the diameter of the rope?
Solution:
θ
T l

• Determine θ, l and Δl:

5
tan    10    84.3 and l  52  0.52 m  5.0249m
0.5
 l  l  l0  0.0249m
• Vertical equilibrium:
mg 70 10
2T cos   mg  T   N  3.52  10 3
N
2 cos  2  cos 84.3

• Diameter of the rope:

T l Tl0 3.52 103  5 6  2
Y  A  m 2
 6.41  10 m 2
 d
A l0 Yl 1.110  0.0249
11
4
4
 d2   6.4110 6 m 2  8.16 10 6 m 2  d  2.86 10 3 m  2.86mm

 Stress-Strain Diagram

• A plot of strain vs. stress.

• The diagram gives us information about the elastic

behavior of the material and its materials properties.

• Each material produces a different stress-strain

diagram.
 Stress-Strain Diagram
ultimate
tensile
strength 3 necking
 UTS
Strain
yield Fracture
strength Hardening
y 5
2
Elastic region
Plastic slope=Young’s (elastic) modulus
Region yield strength
Plastic region
ultimate tensile strength
Elastic strain hardening
σ Eε Region fracture
4 4’
σ 1
E
ε Strain  (e/L0)
Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)

• Elastic Region (Point 1 –2)

 The material will return to its original shape after the
material is unloaded (like a rubber band).
 The stress σ is linearly proportional to the strain ε in
this region.
σ Eε E : Elastic modulus (Young’s Modulus (Y))

 Point 2 : Yield strength : a point at which permanent

deformation occurs. (If it is passed, the material will
no longer return to its original length.)
 Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)

• Plastic Region (Point 2 –3)

 If the material is loaded beyond the yield strength, the material
will not return to its original shape after unloading. It will have
some permanent deformation.
 If the material is unloaded at Point 3, the curve will proceed
from Point 3 to Point 4. The slope will be the same as the slope
between Point 1 and 2.
 The distance between Point 1 and 4 indicates the amount of
permanent deformation.
 Ductile materials (f.e. metals) have a large plastic region,
brittle materials (f.e. glass) have a small plastic region.
Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)

• Strain Hardening
 If the material is loaded again from Point 4, the
curve will follow back to Point 3 with the same
elastic modulus E (slope).
 The material now has a higher yield strength of
Point 3.
 Raising the yield strength by permanently straining
the material is called strain hardening.
 Stress-Strain Diagram (cont)

• Tensile Strength (Point 3)

 The largest value of stress on the diagram is called
Tensile Strength (TS) or Ultimate Tensile Strength
(UTS).
 It is the maximum stress, which the material can
support without breaking.
• Fracture (Point 5)
 If the material is stretched beyond Point 3, the stress
decreases as necking and non-uniform deformation
occurs.
 Fracture will finally occur at Point 5.
 Stress-Strain Diagram
ultimate
tensile
strength 3 necking
 UTS
Strain
yield Fracture
strength Hardening
y 5
2
Elastic region
Plastic slope=Young’s (elastic) modulus
Region yield strength
Plastic region
ultimate tensile strength
Elastic strain hardening
σ Eε Region fracture
4
σ 1
E
ε Strain  (e/L0) 30
 Elastic Strain Energy
What about the area under the curve?
σ
• “stress x strain”.
𝑁 𝑁∙𝑚 𝐽
σmax • Dimension: 2 = 3 = 3 (energy
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
per unit volume).
• Interpretation: Stored energy per unit
εmax ε volume.

Thus (for general modulus E):

σ

"area under the line"

σmax 𝜀𝑚𝑎𝑥
1
= 𝜎𝑑𝜀 (general)= 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜀𝑚𝑎𝑥 (above)
0 2
2
1 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 1 2
εmax ε = = 𝐸𝜀𝑚𝑎𝑥 31
2 𝐸 2
 Some applications
Hysteresis:
σ
A • Stress system along the blue curve form O
to A, and system will return from A to O
along the red curve.
• Difference between the energy input (area
below blue curve) and energy output (area
O under red curve) corresponds to energy loss
ε
due to dissipation (heat).

J-shaped curves (biomaterials):

σ • Composite materials (fibers + soft matrix)
• Stretchiness + sudden increase in Young‘s
modulus (stiffness).
Stretching of fibers
• Stretchiness protects against bumps and
bruises, stiffness may save limbs.
Stretching of matrix, ε • Stores less elastic energy than Hookean
ordering of fibers materials, low likeliness of crack formation.
Why things break (cracks)
Griffith:
• Cracks advance when release of stored elastic
energy becomes greater than increase in surface
energy caused by propagation of crack.
• Criterion (critical crack length lc):
energy per surface area created  2Y
lc   
  energy per volume affected   1  2  2
2 Y

How to avoid cracks?

• use materials with high Y and γ (metals).
• clean surfaces (cracks start from surface steps
and defects).
• create composite material with brittle features of
dimension l < lc (f.e. biominerals like sponge).33
End of Elasticity!
Additional Problem A

What is the length of a wire that breaks under its own weight
when suspended vertically?

Density of material of the wire = 104 kg/m3

Breaking stress = 5 x 109 Nm-2

Solution: 50 km
Solution:
A (cross section)
 = 104 kg/m3 L (length of the wire)
break = 5 · 109 N·m-2
Fw (weight of the wire)

• Gravity acting on wire:

Fw  m  g    V  g    L  A  g
• Criterion for breaking:
FW   L  A  g
 break     L g
A A
• Determine length of wire:
 break 5 109 N  m 2
L  4  5  10 4
m  50 km
  g 10 kg  m 10m  s
3 2
Additional Problem B

A wire 50 cm long, and 1 mm2 in cross section has the

Young’s modulus, Y = 2 · 1010 Pa. How much work is
done in stretching the wire through 1 mm?

Solution: 2 · 10-2 J
Solution:
A (cross section)
L = 0.5 m
A = 1 mm2 = 10-6 m2
L (length of the wire)
Y = 2·1010 Pa
ΔL = 1 mm = 10-3 m

• Stress and force: F (tension)

F L L
  Y  F Y A
A L L
• Work done on wire:
1 1 (L) 2
W   F  dl  F  L  Y A
2 2 L
• Determine work:
1 (L) 2 1 N 10 6
m 2

W Y  A   (2 1010 2 )  106 m 2  2 102 N  m  2 10 2 J

2 L 2 m 1
m
2
 3

5
2

4
1
Strain  (e/L0)