Interview Questions

1. What is creep of a concrete? And it’s Effects of structure.

Concrete creep is defined as: deformation of structure under sustained load. Basically, long
term pressure or stress on concrete can make it change shape. This deformation usually
occurs in the direction the force is being applied. Like a concrete column getting more
compressed, or a beam bending. Creep does not necessarily cause concrete to fail or break
apart. When a load is applied to concrete, it experiences an instantaneous elastic strain which
develops into creep strain if the load is sustained.

Creep is factored in when concrete structures are designed.

Factors Affecting Creep

1. Aggregate
2. Mix Proportions
3. Age of concrete

The magnitude of creep strain is one to three times the value of the instantaneous elastic
strain, it is proportional to cement-paste content and, thus, inversely proportional to aggregate
volumetric content. The magnitude of creep is dependent upon the magnitude of the applied
stress, the age and strength of the concrete, properties of aggregates and cementitious
materials, amount of cement paste, size and shape of concrete specimen, volume to surface
ratio, amount of steel reinforcement, curing conditions, and environmental conditions.

1. Influence of Aggregate

Aggregate undergoes very little creep. It is really the paste which is responsible for the creep.
However, the aggregate influences the creep of concrete through a restraining effect on the
magnitude of creep. The paste which is creeping under load is restrained by aggregate which
do not creep. The stronger the aggregate the more is the restraining effect and hence the less
is the magnitude of creep. An increase from 65 to 75 % of volumetric content of the
aggregate will decrease the creep by 10 %.

The modulus of elasticity of aggregate is one of the important factors influencing creep. It
can be easily imagined that the higher the modulus of elasticity the less is the creep. Light
weight aggregate shows substantially higher creep than normal weight aggregate.

2. Influence of Mix Proportions:

The amount of paste content and its quality is one of the most important factors influencing
creep. A poorer paste structure undergoes higher creep. Therefore, it can be said that creep
increases with increase in water/cement ratio. In other words, it can also be said that creep is
inversely proportional to the strength of concrete. Broadly speaking, all other factors which
are affecting the water/cement ratio are also affecting the creep.

3. Influence of Age:

Age at which a concrete member is loaded will have a predominant effect on the magnitude
of creep. This can be easily understood from the fact that the quality of gel improves with
time. Such gel creeps less, whereas a young gel under load being not so stronger creeps more.
What is said above is not a very accurate statement because of the fact that the moisture
content of the concrete being different at different age also influences the magnitude of creep.

Effects of Creep on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete

 In reinforced concrete beams, creep increases the deflection with time and may be a
critical consideration in design.

 In eccentrically loaded columns, creep increases the deflection and can load to
buckling.

 In case of statically indeterminate structures and column and beam junctions creep
may relieve the stress concentration induced by shrinkage, temperatures changes or
movement of support. Creep property of concrete will be useful in all concrete
structures to reduce the internal stresses due to non-uniform load or restrained
shrinkage.

 In mass concrete structures such as dams, on account of differential temperature

conditions at the interior and surface, creep is harmful and by itself may be a cause of
cracking in the interior of dams. Therefore, all precautions and steps must be taken to
see that increase in temperature does not take place in the interior of mass concrete
structure.

 Loss of prestress due to creep of concrete in prestressed concrete structure.

  Because of rapid construction techniques, concrete members will experience loads
that can be as large as the design loads at very early age; these can cause deflections
due to cracking and early age low elastic modulus. So, creep has a significant effect
on both the structural integrity and the economic impact that it will produce if
predicted wrong.

2. Long and short term deflections

Difference between Short- and Long-term Deflections:

Short-term deflection means the immediate deflection after casting and application of
partial or full service loads, while the long-term deflection occurs over a long period of
time largely due to shrinkage and creep of the materials.

The following factors influence the short-term deflection of structures:

(a) Magnitude and distribution of live loads,

(b) Span and type of end supports,

(c) Cross-sectional area of the members,

(d) Amount of steel reinforcement and the stress developed in the reinforcement,

(e) Characteristic strengths of concrete and steel, and

(f) Amount and extent of cracking.

The long-term deflection is almost two to three times of the short-term deflection.

The following are the major factors influencing the long-term deflection of the structures:

(a) Humidity and temperature ranges during curing,

(b) Age of concrete at the time of loading, and
(c) Type and size of aggregates, water-cement ratio, amount of compression
reinforcement, size of members etc., which influence the creep and shrinkage of concrete.

3. Axial shortening and its consequences.

Axial shortening of columns in tall buildings

 In tall buildings, columns carry huge loads which effectively compress the
column along its axis. This is commonly known as ‘axial shortening’. The
axial column displacements generate significant forces within the structural
elements they support, and can also cause failure of surrounding non-
structural elements.

As an approximate example, a 60-storey interior column in a steel-framed

building can be expected to shorten by roughly 100-150 mm, due to dead
and live loads. An equivalent concrete column may shorten by about 175-
250 mm, this increased displacement arising from the additional effects of
shrinkage and creep of this material.
 

Causes of axial shortening

Concrete

1. Elastic deformation (∆i): Instantaneous deformation that depends on the

magnitude of load, strength of concrete and age of concrete at the time of
load application.

2. Shrinkage (∆s) and creep (∆c): Time and deformation dependent on

concrete properties, amount of reinforcement, volume/surface ratio, ambient
humidity conditions, magnitude of sustained load (affects creep only) and
loading history. As a rough guide, 40% of the inelastic deformation takes place
within the first 28 days, while after three to six months, 60% and 70% of the total
deformation will occur, increasing to 90% after two years.

Steel

1. Whilst reinforced concrete columns are subject to elastic, creep and

shrinkage shortening, steel columns are only subject to elastic shortening
(∆i).
Figure 2: Shortening of concrete column and steel column

Note, deformation due to temperature effects differs from other types of

shortening as it varies continuously and can produce lengthening as well as
shortening for the member.

Effects of axial shortening

Effect on structural elements

Generally, the main structural concern relates to ‘differential shortening’ which is

the relative displacement between the vertical elements rather than the absolute
magnitude.

Differential shortening in concrete structures primarily takes place between

columns and shear walls because of the difference in stress levels,
reinforcement ratios and volume-surface ratios. This results in significant
differences in creep and shrinkage movements which are cumulative over the
height of the building, reaching the maximum vertical deformation at roof level.
As a result, load redistribution between vertical elements occurs, where a portion
of load transfers from the member that shortens most to the member that
shortens least. This also results in additional forces (moments and shear) being
induced in horizontal elements (slabs and beams). (See Figure 3.)

Figure 3: Differential Shortening

Effect on non-structural elements

Potential differential movements must be calculated and properly

accommodated in the architectural details, as any restraint to the movement can
transmit large forces into the architectural elements.

As an example, Figure 4 indicates column shortening having taken place, with

insufficiently sized joints being provided between the external blockwork façade.
As a result the blockwork becomes load-bearing and is subjected to unexpected
compressive stresses which can lead to spalling and crushing of the blocks. At
the same time, this differential movement can cause the slab to rotate,
developing levelness problems as well as potential damage to floor finishes,
services, etc.
Figure 4: Effects of shortening on a blockwork façade

A similar effect to a glazed façade is demonstrated in Figure 5.

Figure 5:   Effects of shortening on a glazed façade

 How to minimise differential shortening

With design

Aim to achieve uniformity of compressive stresses and percentages of

reinforcement within vertical elements.

Increase the bending stiffness of horizontal members to limit column shortening.

Provide additional reinforcement in columns anticipated to be subject to the

greatest magnitude of shortening to increase axial stiffness. 

During construction

During construction of the columns the concrete can be ‘over cast’ to

accommodate the expected axial shortening. This approach requires an
accurate prediction of the anticipated shortening values, on a floor-by-floor basis,
as well as highly accurate construction.

4. Stiffness modifiers

The concept of stiffness modifiers is introduced for the first time in IS 1893 (Part 1) : 2016.
The clause no. 6.4.3.1 of the code defines requirements for structural analysis. It is
mentioned in the clause that for structural analysis, we should consider reduced moment of
inertial for RCC structures. For columns, 70 percent of Igross should be considered and for
beams, 35 percent of Igross to be considered. This clause has generated many questions
among the group of structural engineers. The overall objective of writing this article is to
collate views/suggestions from the wider group of engineers. In the following section, I have
attempted to give answers to few questions, received from different engineers. The
answers are given for buildings having height less than 50 m. The
comparison of stiffness modifiers with IS 16700 : 2017 & IS 15988 : 2013 will be
done in the subsequent article.

 Q-1 Why stiffness modifiers are introduced in the code?

Before this clause, in the structural analysis, we were considering 100% of moment of inertia
for RCC beams and columns. In RCC member, the cracks will generate in the tension zone of
concrete due to application of different loads. Due to these cracks, the moment of inertia of
RCC member will be lesser than the gross moment of inertia. Hence, to account for the
reduced moment of inertia of the cracked section, the concept of stiffness modifiers is
introduced in the code.

 Q-2 Why stiffness modifier value is higher for column than beam?

The pattern and extent of cracks will vary substantially from structure to structures and
members to members even in a similar structure. It is very difficult to assign the unique
values of the stiffness modifiers for different members. The values which are suggested in the
code are based on the numerous experiments and might have been referred from different
international standards. The stiffness modifier value for column is higher than the beam since
the columns will have higher axial compression than the beam. Hence, the extent of cracks
would be lesser in the columns as compared to the beams. Hence, the stiffness modifier value
for column is higher than the beams.

Q-3 What impact stiffness modifiers will make on overall analysis?

There will be two major impacts in the structural analysis results as compared to the model
using 100% of gross moment of inertia:

1)     Since we are considering the reduced moment of inertia, the overall stiffness of the
structure will reduce. Due to the reduced stiffness, the structure will be relatively flexible and
hence would attract the lower seismic forces.

2)     Drift of the structure will increase because it is relatively flexible.

 Q-4 Are stiffness modifiers required only for analysis or for design as

well?

        The stiffness modifiers should be considered only for the structural analysis. The
analysis results to be derived considering the stiffness modifiers. The structural design to be
done with the conventional procedure considering the analysis results.

 Q-5 Should we consider stiffness modifiers for all load cases or only

for seismic loads?

The stiffness modifiers mentioned in IS 1893 (Part 1) : 2016 are only for ultimate condition,
i.e. for seismic load case. The same modifiers should not be considered for the other load
cases. 

 Q-6  Is it required to consider the value of torsional stiffness

modifiers?
As per IS 1893 (Part 1) : 2016, no reduction to be considered for torsion constant, i.e. 100%
of torsion constant to be considered for the structural analysis.

 Q-7 What will happen if we consider unique stiffness modifiers for

both serviceability and ultimate conditions?

 Generally, the stiffness modifiers are different for serviceability and the ultimate conditions.
As discussed above, the stiffness modifiers defined in IS 1893(Part 1) : 2016 are for the
ultimate condition. If we consider the same stiffness modifiers for the serviceability condition
as well then the moment at beam column junction will be higher and the span moment will be
lesser as compared to the model without stiffness modifiers. In my opinion, the span moment
may err on the unconservative side, if we consider the same stiffness modifiers for the
serviceability condition.

 Q-8 Is it required to consider stiffness modifiers for the shear wall and
slab?

At present, I think it is not required for the shear wall & slab as per IS 1893 (Part 1) : 2016. It
is only required for RCC beams and columns.

Q-9 Should we consider stiffness modifiers for design of foundations?

 As mentioned above, the stiffness modifiers to be considered only for seismic load case. The
structural analysis is to be performed with the seismic loads having stiffness modifiers.
Thereafter, the analysis results should be used for design of the foundation.

 Concluding remarks:
Consideration of the stiffness modifiers will reduce the seismic demand on the structure. But
at the same time, it will result in relatively higher drifts due to increased flexibility of the
structure. The stiffness modifiers value should be different for the serviceability and the
ultimate conditions. The stiffness modifiers are to be used only for structural analysis. The
comparison of stiffness modifiers with IS 16700 : 2017 & IS 15988 : 2013 will be done in the
subsequent article. The above mentioned answers are based on my
understanding. If you have further questions / difference of opinion,
then please share details in the below comment box. 

5. Model analysis
MODAL ANALYSIS
What Is Modal Analysis?
The most common type of analysis is quasi-static analysis, where the load
is applied at a very slow rate so that the acceleration is negligible (or
almost zero). Dynamic analysis is where the effects of acceleration cannot
be ignored. Both types provide a one-to-one relationship between a
particular input (for example, a force applied on a system) to its system
response (for example, a displacement of the system due to its load).

In contrast to quasi-static and dynamic, modal analysis provides an

overview of the limits of the response of a system. For example, for a
particular input (like an applied load of certain amplitude and frequency),
what are the limits of the system’s response (for example, when and what
is the maximum displacement).

Fig. 01: Amplitude of system

response (y-axis) w.r.t. the frequency of the applied input (x-axis) (Source)

As shown in Fig. 01, every object has an internal frequency (or resonant
frequency) at which the object can naturally vibrate. It is also the frequency
where the object will allow a transfer of energy from one form to another
with minimal loss—here it is from vibrational to kinetic. As the frequency
increases towards the “resonant frequency,” the amplitude of response
asymptotically increases to infinity. In other words, the result of modal
analysis are these frequencies at which the amplitude increases to infinity.

How Are Eigenvalues, Eigenvectors,

MODAL METRICS

and Eigenmodes Related?

Any object can be considered a connection of complicated springs, and
then the system response “x” for any applied input “y” could be given using
a scaling factor as

k*x = y 
This is similar to the spring equation where “k” is the spring stiffness, “x” is
the spring displacement and “y” is the applied force. For any generic
system, it can be written as
[K] {x} = {y}
where {x} can be displacements, temperatures, etc., while {y} is a force,
flux, etc. The matrix [K] can be considered a scaling factor, and it is more
commonly known as a stiffness matrix. Now, for some response {x} = {a}, if
the applied input was {y} = L*{a}, then L are known as the eigenvalues and
the response of the system {a} are known as the eigenvectors
corresponding to the eigenvalue L.

Fig. 02: Vector

scaling using eigenvalues (Source)
In other words, as shown in Fig 02, the magnitude of the applied input and
its response are just a multiple. The eigenfrequencies are those at which
this scaling is maximum (i.e., the eigenvalue).

MODAL ANALYSIS So Why Are These Frequencies

Important?
Every system can be described in terms of a stiffness matrix that connects
the displacements (or system response) and forces (or system inputs).
These frequencies are known as natural frequencies of the system and are
provided by the eigenvectors of the stiffness matrix. These frequencies are
also known as the resonant frequencies.

The resonant frequencies related to mechanical structures are known as

mechanical resonance. Similarly, every system—like acoustic, thermal, or
electromagnetic—has its own resonant frequencies at which resonance
occurs. As illustrated in Fig. 03, as the frequency of the applied load (or
input on the x-axis) nears the resonant frequency, the amplitude of
response (on the y-axis) nears infinity!

As governed by the first law of thermodynamics, one form of energy is only

converted to another. However, energy is neither created nor destroyed. In
any mechanical system, when an external time-varying load is applied, it is
equivalent to supplying the system with some kinetic or vibrational energy.
This is transmitted through the system resulting in a displacement of the
structure. However, due to the presence of friction, some of this energy is
also dissipated as heat.
Fig. 03: Amplitude of response as a function of the frequency ratio (Source)

To understand this process more physically, imagine that structure is in a

constant state of motion sub-atomically. The energy supplied is transported
from one part of the structure to the other through energy transfer by
atomic processes. However, when the frequency of loading is the same as
the averaged vibrational frequency of the atoms in the structure, the energy
is transferred with minimum loss. In other words, one can think of it as two
waves (one being the external load and the other being that of the internal
atomic structure) that are being superimposed. When the frequencies are
the same, they tend to add up.

Therefore, it is important to know the frequencies at which the structure can

behave erratically.
Truss Bridge Eigenfrequency Analysis

MODAL EXAMPLES Practical Examples for Modal

Analysis
There are several examples where a prior accurate modal analysis could
have prevented loss of lives and property. Some famous ones include:

Tacoma Narrows Bridge Disaster of 1940

The Tacoma Narrows Bridge was built in the state of Washington (USA).
On November 7, 1940, at around 11 a.m., the bridge came down
instantaneously. A later investigation revealed that the cause of the
collapse was aeroelastic flutter.

Fig. 04: Collapse of the

Tacoma Narrows Bridge (Source)

In simpler terms, it was a wind-induced collapse. The winds were blowing

at a particular frequency, which happened to coincide with the resonant
frequency of the structure, resulting in the sudden collapse of the structure.

Mexico City Earthquake of 1985

Another real-life example was the 1985 earthquake in Mexico City. The
energy released during this earthquake was equivalent to 1114 nuclear
detonations, and the earthquake was felt as far as Los Angeles, which is
over 800,000 km away. Up to the 1950s, no earthquake codes existed. It
wasn’t until the later 1950s and 1970s that earthquake codes were
developed and introduced for building construction. Despite this, none of
these safety precautions accounted for an event of magnitude 7.0 plus,
which is exactly what occurred in Mexico City in 1985.

During the earthquake, most of the 6 to 15-story high-rises collapsed,

resulting in huge loss of life and property. Interestingly, buildings with less
than 6 or more than 15 stories were not damaged as much, while buildings
with 9 stories were completely destroyed to rubble! Two explanations were
offered for the earthquakes’ impact: the duration of the shaking and the
resulting resonance with the lakebed frequency. In other words, the
resonant frequency of the 6 to 15-story structures coincided almost exactly
with the frequency of the earthquake.

At present, there are several earthquake codes being implemented by civil

engineers that are specifically for structures being built in a zone that is
vulnerable to earthquakes.

Taipei 101 and Burj Khalifa

A real-life example can be seen in today’s skyscrapers like Taipei 101 in
Tokyo (Japan) or Burj Khalifa in Dubai (UAE). These megastructures use
tuned mass dampers to absorb the energy and dampen the oscillations of
the structures.

Taipei 101 in Tokyo experiences complex local wind systems that swirl
around the structures. The building acts like a large sail of a boat causing
vortex shedding, twisting or bending the structures in unimaginable ways.
Taipei 101 uses a tuned mass damper in the form of a large pendulum
between the 88th and 92nd floors. A video of the workings of the pendulum
is available on YouTube, as shown below:
The Burj Khalifa is known to oscillate about 5-6 ft at the top. These large
motions can be felt as creaking and can be significantly uncomfortable for
the inhabitants. For this reason, the Burj Khalifa does not use a damper
system. Instead, they change the external profile of the building based on
the wind system, thus reducing the overall force of the wind.

MODAL ANALYSIS
Conclusion
To summarize, we have examined the meaning of modal analysis and
various nomenclature. It is critical that a designer understands the natural
vibration frequencies of a system in order to ensure that they are not the
same as excitation frequencies, thus ensuring safety standards. This is a
key component in many fields like civil, aerospace, or automotive
engineering where loss of life and property is a major concern.
Starting with hand calculations in the 1980s, computer simulations have
made great breakthroughs to help improve the quality and robustness of
design processes. We look forward to the day when computer simulations
can replace engineering codes!

If you’d like to see how cloud-based engineering simulation can be used in

civil engineering, watch the recording of the “How to Predict Wind Loads
with CFD” webinar. Just fill out this short form and it will play automatically.

6. Pressure on four corners of isolated footing.

7. Portal frames
8. Checks for flat slab

9. Strong column weak beam

10. Ductility
 11. Boundry zones in shear wall

12. Nonlinear analysis in safe

DEFINING NONLINEAR LOAD CASES IN SAFE TO

CHECK UPLIFT IN FOUNDATION
Posted on April 16, 2018 by Engr Dennis Mercado

Before we get to define nonlinear load cases in SAFE, for the sake of those who
don’t have any idea on the difference of nonlinear and linear analysis, let me give
you an equivalent political example:

In a country ravaged by slavery, political unrest and drugs, you would expect more
decadence and decay that’s deeply ingrained as a result of its sustained and
cumulative damage on its victims which is the general populace.

The effect would be different if say we have peace and then invasion. And then
peace again, and then the political unrest. And then peace again and the drugs
infestation. If we combine the individual effects of which you won’t get the same
screwed state of the people like the first one.

Now, before Zack de la Rocha comes screaming in the background let me rephrase
the examples:

The last example is called the method of superposition where you combine the
individual effects of several loading conditions which all started from an underformed
condition. In ETABS and SAFE, if you don’t specify a nonlinear analysis, you will be
defining by default a superpositioning method which is called the linear analysis.

The first example however is the nonlinear case where you add a certain loading to
an already-deformed body, which has a different stiffness (taking into account the
presence of cracks) compared to an underformed condition. This is a more realistic
approach to analysis which is technically more correct than its linear counterpart.

After a long detour, let’s get back to our original topic.

Nonlinear analysis as defined is the accumulation of the results of a step-by-step

analysis. For example, we want to check the uplift (or the presence of which) in
SAFE considering the load combination 0.60 DL + 0.70 EQ which was stipulated in
ASCE 7-10 (clause 2.4.1 equation 8).

First and foremost, we need to establish which loads precede what. In this case, it
has to be the dead load first before applying the lateral loads. Lateral loads cannot
come first before the gravity loads, right?
So we will define a nonlinear load case called 0.6DL-NL where NL stands for
nonlinear. This is the initial condition, i.e., from an unstressed state, which we will
apply the dead loads. And what comes after this condition will be the starting point of
the succeeding loading condition. Just don’t forget the scale factors and to allow
uplift.

Continuing from the previous nonlinear dead load case, we define now the nonlinear
seismic load case. Again, please be mindful of the scale factor and to allow uplift.
In order to confirm that the results make sense after running the analysis, the
bearing contour should show zero values of the bearing pressures that were once in
tension using the linear load case/load combination.

And to add to the chaos, please keep in mind the following bits and pieces of my
gleaned realizations and conclusions:

1. A nonlinear load case involving spectral seismic loads is not possible in SAFE, hence
only static load cases can be used in nonlinear analysis.
2. The load combination with the highest tensile bearing pressure in linear analysis
does not ALWAYS produce the maximum equivalent compressive bearing stresses
on the other end of the footing. Hence, we cannot immediately conclude that that
nonlinear load case will always produce the greatest compressive stresses on the
footings.
3. Having said that, we must trace one by one, out of the 100+ or so seismic and wind
load combinations which produces uplift. And again, it is another matter of finding the
maximum bearing pressure and finding the maximum ultimate load combination for
design.
4. It is by far the best solution, if possible to totally eliminate if not significantly reduce to
a negligible amount the uplift in order not to go to this troublesome nonlinear
analysis.
Now feel free to add to these if you have something else in mind. Just head
to the leave a reply section below.

13. Long term deflection analysis in safe

Long Term Deflection Analysis using SAFE

Program
The Structural World > Topics > Slab Analysis > Long Term Deflection Analysis using SAFE Program
thestructuralworld January 28, 2018 20 Comments
Slab Analysis
Long term deflection, SAFE Finite Element Analysis, Slab Design
  

Long Term-Deflection in slabs/beams is the deflection or the deformation that occurs

over time due to shrinkage and temperature. It is also influenced by the condition of the
cracking before loading, then creeping, which depends on the time passed to the time of
the first loading, the environment, and other factors.
In this article, we will focus on the analysis of long-term deflections on slabs.

Analysis of Long-term deflection of the slab using  SAFE program is often confusing
especially for those newbies in structural design, but that’s already a few steps away of
knowing. This article will guide you with easy to understand step by step on doing slab’s
long-term deflection analysis using the SAFE program. Before we proceed further, let us
define the following parameters used. As we commonly encountered in the design, DL
stands for dead loads, LL designates the live loads and SDL denotes superimposed
dead loads.

In SAFE, the following principle may apply on the modeling; LONG TERM

DEFLECTION– is the sum of immediate deflection for 75% Live load, (DL+SDL+LL) –
(DL+SDL+0.25LL) and Long-Term Deflection for DL+SDL+25% Sustained Live Load.
Which means:
Long-term Deflection = 75%LL (immediate effect) + 25% LL+DL+SDL (long-term
effect).
But, how to apply these principles to the SAFE program? Supposed that we had already
a SAFE model of the slab that we are going to analyze and ready to run. The next
procedure is listed as follows:

Below are the procedures for applying the above principles of Long Term Deflection
Analysis:

1. Defining a Load Pattern: 

 Go to Define>Load Patterns

READ ALSO:   CSI SAFE’s Slab Design Considerations Prior to Analysis

2. Define a Load Case for Immediate All Loads

 Go to Define>Load Cases>Add New Case > tick nonlinear (cracked) for the analysis type
 3. Define a Load Case for Long-Term- Sustained
 Go to Define>Load Cases>Add New Case > tick nonlinear (long-term cracked) for the
analysis type 

4. Define a Load Case for Immediate-Sustained

 Go to Define>Load Cases>Add New Case > tick nonlinear (cracked) for the analysis type 
 5. Define Load Combination:
“Elastic”-to display elastic deflection for service loads.

 Go to Define>Load Combinations>Add new combinations

6. Define Load Combination:

“Long Term” – this is to combined 3 load cases for long-term analysis principle.

 Go to Define>Load Combinations>Add new combinations

 7. Run Analysis.
 Go to Run>Run Analysis & Design

Be sure to check the design preferences and edit the design parameters accordingly.

As well as the Cracking Analysis Options.

 

14. What is importance of R value in seismic design

Purpose of the R Factor

The R factor, or response modification coefficient, results from simplifying the seismic design process so
that linear elastic, static analysis can be used for most building designs.7 It is known from experience that
structures can withstand greater forces, without collapsing, than they were designed for through inelastic
strength behavior (see Figure 2).7 Designing for an expected seismic force using a fully linear elastic
system would result in unnecessarily large lateral loads and a costly building design. Given this concern
over the conservative nature of linear elastic design and its inherent high costs, the loads calculated for a
fully linear elastic structure are reduced by the R factor to account for the fact the building is allowed to be
damaged as long as it does not collapse (i.e., life-safety performance is provided, while allowing some
building damage to occur). Thus, the larger the R factor, the smaller the design forces and the easier it is to
find building components that can be used in the building design.
It is easy to see that the R factor serves as a basic measure of a system’s ability to resist seismic loads and
that it is the single most important parameter in seismic design. The R factor is represented graphically in
Figure 2 along with the remaining two seismic design factors: the system over-strength factor, Ω0, which is
a measure of the reserve strength (e.g., similar in concept to a factor of safety) of the building due to
inelastic behavior; and the deflection amplification factor, Cd, which is used to estimate the drift of the
structure by increasing the calculated elastic displacement of the structure to account for inelastic
deformations.
Figure 2 shows that the elastic seismic base shear force, Ve, is divided by the R factor to provide the design
seismic shear force, Vs.  The values of the R factor contained in the building code range from 1 to 8.
Clearly, larger values of the R factor are better, given that they reduce the needed resistance to much lower
seismic design forces.