Acta Materialia 199 (2020) 397–412

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Acta Materialia
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Full length article

Additively-manufactured anisotropic and isotropic 3D plate-lattice

materials for enhanced mechanical performance: Simulations &
experiments
Shengyu Duan a, Weibin Wen b,∗, Daining Fang a,c,∗∗
a
Institute of Advanced Structure Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
b
School of Civil Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China
c
College of Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Plate-lattices are an emerging category of mechanical metamaterials with exceptional mechanical perfor-
Received 18 May 2020 mance. In this paper, a family of half-open-cell plate-lattices is innovated with exceptional mechanical
Revised 20 August 2020
properties and additive manufacturability. The elastoplastic properties and large strain response of the
Accepted 24 August 2020
novel plate-lattices are investigated both numerically and experimentally. Design maps for tailoring the
Available online 28 August 2020
anisotropic index reveal that elastically isotropic plate-lattices can be obtained for a wide range of rel-
Keywords: ative densities. Numerical results reveal that the isotropic plate-lattices exhibit significantly higher elas-
Mechanical metamaterials tic properties than other competing topologies such as conventional truss-lattices and isotropic smooth
Architected materials shell-lattices, and their bulk modulus can attain the Hashin-Shtrikman upper bound for all relative densi-
Plate-lattices ties. Large strain simulations demonstrate the remarkable energy absorption capacity of the novel plate-
Mechanical properties lattices. The numerical findings are confirmed through the compression experiments on the anisotropic
Energy absorption
and isotropic stainless steel 316 L specimens manufactured by selective laser melting. This work proposes
a novel type of plate-lattices with both exceptional mechanical performance and good additive manufac-
turability, which opens a new channel for the design of lightweight mechanical metamaterials.
© 2020 Acta Materialia Inc. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction 3D lattice materials with periodical truss-like topology received

considerable attention since they are more mechanically efficient
The growing need of ultra-light multifunctional materials with than random foams of equal density [5].
exceptional mechanical performance fueled a surge of interest in According to the uniaxial tension/compression or bending
mechanical metamaterials. Over the past decade, much attention response of the beam elements under macroscopically ap-
has been paid to the three-dimensional (3D) stochastic foams and plied stresses, the truss-lattices exhibit stretching-dominated or
two-dimensional (2D) honeycombs limited by the manufacturing bending-dominated behavior [6]. The stretching-dominated lattices
techniques [1]. From a mechanical point-of-view, the commercially (e.g., the octet truss lattice) exhibit near-linear scaling of elastic
random foams suffered a low elastic and plastic properties due to moduli with relative density, while the elastic modulus of bending-
their natural morphological defects [2]. Although honeycombs ex- dominated lattices (e.g., the body-centered cubic (BCC) truss lat-
hibit high mechanical efficiency, their strong anisotropy restricts tice) scales quadratically [7]. Another fact should be noted is that
their use to engineering structures such as the core of sandwich the mechanical properties of some truss-lattices exhibit signifi-
panels [3]. In recent years, as the advent of additive manufactur- cant loading direction dependency. For example, the elastic mod-
ing, the design space for man-made mechanical metamaterials has ulus of BCC truss lattices between the [100] and [111] directions
increased tremendously, and numerous new internal structures are may differ by two orders of magnitude [8]. The isotropic truss-
constantly emerging in seeking for architected materials with ex- lattice can be obtained through the assembly of two different lat-
ceptional weight-specific mechanical properties [4]. In this context, tice unit cells with complementary modulus along various spa-
tial directions [9]. Nevertheless, even the highest attainable elastic
modulus of stretching-dominated isotropic truss-lattices is about
∗
Corresponding author:. three times lower than the Hashin-Shtrikman (HS) upper bound
∗∗
Co-Corresponding author [10] for isotropic cellular materials due to the stress concentra-
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (W. Wen), [email protected] (D. Fang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2020.08.063
1359-6454/© 2020 Acta Materialia Inc. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
398 S. Duan, W. Wen and D. Fang / Acta Materialia 199 (2020) 397–412

tions at nodes [11]. In practice, the geometric imperfections such maps for tailoring the anisotropic index of the plate-lattices are
as the strut waviness and strut thickness variation caused by ad- presented and the elastically isotropic plate-lattices are obtained
ditive manufacturing may bring further performance knockdowns at various relative densities. The buckling-to-yield failure transi-
[12]. tion is analyzed to identify the initial failure mode of the novel
Periodical shell-lattices composed of non-intersecting shell mi- plate-lattices. Large strain simulations are conducted to character-
crostructures of uniform thickness provide another alternative to ize the large deformation behavior and energy absorption capacity
stochastic foams and truss-lattices. In the scientific literatures, of the plate-lattices. In addition, Large strain compression experi-
much attention is paid to the shell-lattice based on the Triply Pe- ments are performed on elastically anisotropic and isotropic stain-
riodic Minimal Surfaces (TPMS) [13]. Han et al. [14] proposed a less steel 316 L plate-lattices manufactured by selective laser melt-
new type of shell-lattice named “shellular” based on the modi- ing (SLM) to validate the numerical results.
fied Schwarz P structure. The experiment on the ultralow den-
sity shellulars fabricated through electroless Ni plating on the shell 2. Architecture of the novel 3D plate lattice metamaterial
polymer templates revealed superior stiffness and strength than
those of foams and truss-microlattice of same density. Then Lee The unit cell configuration of the proposed plate lattice is il-
et al. [15] confirmed these findings by numerical simulations. The lustrated in Fig. 1(a). It can be observed that the proposed lattice
experiments on the additively-manufactured aluminum alloy gy- unit cell is of cubic symmetry and has three types of plate regions
roidal shell-lattices showed a significant energy absorption capac- (regions A, B, and C). In the figure, Lc is the unit cell length, t is
ity enhancement as compared to BCC truss-lattices of equal mass the thickness of the plates, L1 and L2 are two length dimension
[16]. More detailed discussion on the elastoplastic properties and that can uniquely determine the shape of the unit cell. The rela-
large deformation behavior of TPMS shell-lattices can be found in tive density ρ̄ is the ratio of the density of the cellular material ρ
the review by Al-Ketan and Abu Al-Rub [17]. Similar to the truss- and the density of its constituent material ρ s , and defined as
lattices, the elastoplastic mechanical response of the TPMS shell- ρ
lattices depends on the loading orientation. To design shell-lattices ρ̄ = (1)
ρs
with controllable anisotropy, Bonatti and Mohr [18] introduced a
local bending-energy based potential function to define the mi- An analytical expression of ρ̄ can be obtained as
crostructures of shell lattices. They obtained a family of TPMS-like    2  t
1 L1 2 1 1 L1 L2 √ L1 L2 t
shell-lattices with a shape factor which can be utilized to tailor ρ̄ = 12 − − − − + 24 2
2 Lc 2 2 Lc Lc Lc Lc Lc Lc
the elastic anisotropy. Their numerical results demonstrate that the
√  2 √   
elastically-isotropic shell-lattices of various relative density can be 3 1  √ L2  L1 3 3 L1 2 t
obtained. Although the isotropic smooth shell-lattices present su- +8 + 2 2−1 − − (2)
4 2 Lc Lc 2 Lc Lc
perior mechanical performance as compared to truss-lattices, their
elastic modulus is below the half of the HS upper bound at low where L1 /Lc and L2 /Lc are two dimensionless geometric parame-
relative densities [19]. ters. It can be observed that this type of lattice is of half-open-cell
Another emerging category of lattice microstructures are plate- structures. The plate surfaces divide the unit-cell into an intercon-
lattices consisting of closed-cell plate-architectures. Berger et al. nected void phase and eight closed void phases (Fig. 1(b)). Com-
[20] numerically demonstrated that the elastically isotropic cu- pared to the fully-enclosed closed-cell lattices, this type of novel
bic + octet (CO) plate-lattice can attain the HS upper bound plate lattice can be easily manufactured by powder-bed based SLM
at ultra-low relative density and remain about 90% of the up- and liquid-bath based SLA additive manufacturing techniques after
per bound at higher relative densities. Tancogne-Dejean et al. making few small holes on the plate faces (Fig. 1(c)). Examples of
[21] proposed several different types of isotropic plate-lattices the novel plate-lattice unit cells are shown in Fig. 1(d) for different
through mixing of simple cubic (SC), BCC, and face-centered-cubic values of geometric parameters L1 /Lc and L2 /Lc . Fig. 1(e) illustrates
(FCC) elementary plate-lattices. The elastic modulus of the SC-BCC the ratio of wall-thickness to unit-cell length of the novel plate-
isotropic plate-lattice can reach the HS bound at low relative den- lattices and other competing topologies. It can be seen that the
sities. The latest study of Crook et al. [22] experimentally demon- aspect ratio of the proposed plate-lattices, which is close to that of
strated that the pyrolytic carbon OC plate-nanolattices manufac- Schwarz P TPMS shell-lattices, but significant higher than that of
tured by two-photon-polymerization direct laser writing can ap- the CO and CB (simple-cubic + body-centered cubic) hybrid plate-
proach the HS and Suquet upper bound for isotropic stiffness and lattices [21]. From the manufacturing point-of-view, higher aspect
strength, respectively. ratio indicates better printing quality and less manufacturing im-
Although the hybrid plate-lattices exhibit high mechanical effi- perfections (e.g. warping of the thin wall features).
ciency, their superiority comes at the cost of remarkably increased
manufacturing difficulty. From a manufacturing point-of-view, their 3. Computational models
closed-cell nature obstacles the use of powder-bed or liquid-bath
based additive manufacturing techniques. In addition, there are so To study the mechanical behavior of the novel plate-lattice ma-
many plate elements in a unit cell that extremely thin wall is re- terial over a wide range of relative densities, finite element simula-
quired for plate-lattices of low relative densities. Take the CO plate- tions are conducted using commercial software ABAQUS/Standard
lattice for instance, the wall thickness is thinner than 0.1% of the and ABAQUS/Explicit to identify the elastic properties, yield
unit cell size [20], which brings difficulty for fabrication due to the strength, energy absorption capability and large-strain behavior of
manufacturing limits of maximum printing volume and minimum the plate-lattices. The relative density ranges from 1% to 50%. Two
printing resolution. Therefore, the above manufacturing challenges types of simulation models are built: unit-cell models with peri-
obstruct the application of plate-lattices in engineering structures. odic boundary conditions (PBC), and multi-cell models for charac-
In the present work, a novel plate-lattice with controllable elas- terization of the large strain compression behavior.
tic anisotropy is proposed, numerical and experimental analysis
are conducted to investigate the elastoplastic properties and large 3.1. Constituent material
strain response of the novel plate-lattices. Finite element simu-
lations are performed to characterize the effect of relative den- An isotropic elasto-plastic model is used to describe the stress-
sity and geometric parameters on the elastic properties. Design strain response of the constituent material. The elastic behavior
 S. Duan, W. Wen and D. Fang / Acta Materialia 199 (2020) 397–412 399

Fig. 1. (a) View of the [100]- and [110]-oriented unit cells of novel plate-lattices. (b) View of the two phases separated by the novel plate-lattices. (c) Two types of novel
plate-lattice unit cells with face-holes suitable for additive manufacturing. (d) Effect of parameters L1 /Lc and L2 /Lc on the plate-lattice unit cells. (e) The ratio of wall-thickness
to unit-cell length as a function of relative density.

is linear isotropic. The material parameters are given as, Young’s there exists a node b on face XP for any node a on Face XN. And
modulus Es = 150GPa, Poisson’s ratio νs = 0.3, and density ρs = the coordinates of node a and b can be given as
7.8g/cm3 . A von Mises yield function with isotropic hardening
based on a Swift law is adopted to describe the plastic behavior, xa = xb + Lc nx (4)
and we have
where nx is the unit normal vector of face XP (and XN). Due to the
σ̄ = A(ε̄ p + ε0 )n (3) translational symmetry of periodic lattice material, the displace-
ments of node a and b satisfy
where the Swift parameters A = 825.5MPa, ε0 = 0.0022 and n =
0.1106. These parameter values are obtained based on the exper- ua = ub + Lc E · nx (5)
imental results (yield strength, ultimate strength, ultimate strain)
of the additively-manufactured 316L stainless steel supplied by the where E is the macroscopic strain tensor. Analogously, the dis-
manufacturer. According to the work of [18,19], the adopted plas- placement relationship of the node pairs on face YP-YN and ZP-
ticity model is reliable for the 316L stainless steel manufactured by ZN can be obtained. Three additional dummy nodes MN 1, MN 2,
SLM. and MN 3 are added to control the macroscopic strain tensor. The
“equation” constrain function in ABAQUS is adopted to enforce the
3.2. Unit-cell models displacements difference of the node pairs on the corresponding
faces equal to the displacements of the dummy nodes. For exam-
The novel plate-lattice is of cubic symmetry. The cubic unit-cell ple, the displacements of node a on Face XN and node b on face
models are adopted to determine the elastic and plastic response XP are set to satisfy
of the plate-lattice material. The unit cells are meshed with tetra-
ua − ub = uMN1 (6)
hedron elements C3D4 with four elements along the thickness di-
rection. The element size is determined based on our convergence For node c on Face YN and node d on face YP, we have
study. The implicit solver ABAQUS/Standard is used to perform the
unit cell simulations. Contact is defined between all surfaces with uc − ud = uMN2 (7)
a friction coefficient of 0.2.
For node e on Face ZN and node f on face ZP, we have
3.2.1. Periodic boundary conditions ue − uf = uMN3 (8)
As shown in Fig. 2(a), periodic boundary conditions are applied
on the unit-cell model. The meshes of the unit-cell model are de- It can be found from Eq. (5) and Eqs. (6)-(8) that the components
signed for each node lying on a given face there exists a node on of macroscopic strain tensor E depend on the degrees of freedom
the opposite face. Take the face pair XP and XN as an example, of the three dummy nodes.
400 S. Duan, W. Wen and D. Fang / Acta Materialia 199 (2020) 397–412

Fig. 2. (a) The unit cell finite element model with periodic boundary conditions; (b) The multi-cell finite element model.

3.2.2. Determination of elastic stiffness tensor and elasto-plastic

properties C31 + 2C32 − 3C1 C22
E= (15)
In this section, the elastic stiffness tensor and elasto-plastic C21 − C22
properties is deduced. In this study, the strain energy-based ho-
C3
mogenization method [23,24] is used to obtain the equivalent elas- A= (16)
C1 − C2
tic properties of the plate-lattice material. For a microstructure
with cubic symmetry, the constitutive relationship can be written To identify initial yield stress, elastoplastic simulations of the unit-
as cell model are performed for uniaxial compression. The initial plas-
tic yield stress is defined as the stress at the plastic strain of 0.2%.
 =C·E (9)
where the macroscopic averaged stress  , strain E and the equiv- 3.3. Multi-cell models
alent elastic tensor C with cubic symmetry are given as
⎤ ⎡ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
11 E11 C1 C2 C2 0 0 0 To investigate large deformation behavior of the novel plate-
⎢22 ⎥ ⎢E22 ⎥ ⎢C2 C1 C2 0 0 0 ⎥ lattice material, the uniaxial compression response is analyzed us-
⎢33 ⎥ ⎢E33 ⎥ ⎢C2 C2 C1 0 0 0 ⎥ ing full specimen models comprising multiple unit-cells. The com-
⎢
=⎢ ⎥ , E = ⎢ ⎥, and C = ⎢
⎢ ⎥ ⎥ (10)
12 ⎥ E12 ⎢ 0 0 0 C3 0 0 ⎥ putational model is shown in Fig. 2(b). The multi-cell specimens
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
13 E13 0 0 0 0 C3 0 consist of 5 × 5 × 5√= 125 unit √ cells for models oriented in the
23 E23 0 0 0 0 0 C3 [100] direction and 4 2 × 4 2 × 5 = 160 unit cells for models
oriented in the [110] direction. The multi-cell specimen is quasi-
To determine three independent components of the equivalent statically compressed between two rigid platens. The S3 shell ele-
elastic tensor, it is necessary to analyze three independent strain ment is adopted for the finite element model where meshes are
states. The strain energy density of the unit cell can be defined as small enough to make numerical results convergent and accu-
rate. The simulations are performed using ABAQUS/Explicit with
1 1
w= ·E = E·C·E (11) semiautomatic mass scaling. The surface-to-surface contact with
2 2
penalty friction coefficient of 0.2 is adopted for both internal and
The strain energies for three independent strain states are obtained platen-to-specimen contact. The upper and lower rigid plates are
as coupled with reference points 1 and 2, respectively. During com-
 T pression, all degrees of freedom of the reference point 2 are fixed,
w (1 ) =1 (1 )
E · C · E(1 ) = 12 C1 , f or E(1 ) = 1 0 0 0 0 0
2
 T and the reference point 1 moves downward until the compression
{ w = 2 E · C · E(2 ) = C1 + C2 , f or E(2 ) =
( 2) 1 (2 )
1 1 0 0 0 0
 T strain reaches 0.5. The same computational approach is adopted for
w(3 ) = 12 E(3 ) · C · E(3 ) = C3 , f or E(3 ) = 0 0 0 1 0 0 the multi-cell lattice models oriented in the [110] direction.
(12)
With Eq. (12), the independent components of the cubic elastic 4. Experimental procedures
tensor can be calculated as
To verify finite element analysis, uniaxial compression experi-
C1 = w ( 1 ) ments are performed on the novel plate-lattice specimens of dif-
{C2 = w ( 2 ) − 2w ( 1 ) (13) ferent geometric parameters and different relative densities.
C3 = w ( 3 )
According to the definitions of bulk modulus K and shear modulus 4.1. Specimen description
G, we have
The specimens with relative density 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 are fabri-
K = 3C1 +5 C2
{ 9
C3 (14) cated to investigate the mechanical properties of elastic isotropic
G= 2
plate-lattice materials. These experimental specimens have the
The elastic modulus E and Zener anisotropic index A [25] can be identical configurations as the previous computational models.
obtained as Compression experiments are performed along the [100] and [110]
 S. Duan, W. Wen and D. Fang / Acta Materialia 199 (2020) 397–412 401

Fig. 3. (a) View of untested specimens of ISO-1,2,3 with different unit cell orientations; (b) View of untested specimens of ANI-1,2,3; (c) Scanning electron micrographs of
the 316 L stainless steel powders; (d-e) Scanning electron micrographs of the ISO-3 specimen.

Table 1 chosen for all plate-lattice specimens. After the sandblasting post-
Geometric parameters and dimensions of the specimens.
processing, the specimens show low surface roughness (Fig. 3(d,
Label Relative Orientation Geometric Dimensions (mm) e)). But at the same time, internal porosity can be found in the
density parameters cell wall of the specimens.
L1 /Lc L2 /Lc

ISO-1 0.1 100 0.06 0.05 81.00 × 81.00 × 81.00 4.2. Macroscopic compression experiments
ISO-1 0.1 110 0.06 0.05 91.64 × 91.64 × 81.00
ISO-2 0.2 100 0.1 0.065 37.50 × 37.50 × 37.50 Fig. 4(a) provides a schematic diagram of the experimental set-
ISO-2 0.2 110 0.1 0.065 42.43 × 42.43 × 37.50
up. The uniaxial compression tests were performed on a 200KN
ISO-3 0.3 100 0.15 0.125 25.00 × 25.00 × 25.00
ISO-3 0.3 110 0.15 0.125 28.28 × 28.28 × 25.00 universal testing machine using a crosshead velocity correspond-
ANI-1 0.2 100 0.1 0.35 37.50 × 37.50 × 37.50 ing to an engineering strain rate of 4.44 × 10−4 s−1 . Two additional
ANI-2 0.2 100 0.2 0.25 37.50 × 37.50 × 37.50 platens with speckle pattern are added. A high-resolution digital
ANI-3 0.2 100 0.35 0.1 37.50 × 37.50 × 37.50
camera is used to capture the movement of the platens and the
front face of the specimen. Five virtual extensometers are placed
on the top and bottom platens to record the displacements of two
directions. In addition, three specimens with significantly differ- platens by digital image correlation. Then the engineering strains
ent geometric parameters are prepared to verify the anisotropic can be obtained from the recorded displacements.
mechanical properties of the novel plate-lattice materials. The de-
tailed relative density and geometric parameters are shown in 5. Results and discussion
Table 1. The elastic isotropic specimens are of label “ISO” while
the anisotropic specimens are of label “ANI”. 5.1. Elastic properties
All specimens are manufactured through selective laser melt-
ing process. Stainless steel 316L is the parent material. Photographs 5.1.1. Elastic properties of anisotropic plate lattices
of the specimens are given in Figs. 3(a) and (b). The SLM pro- From the FEM results, smoothened design maps (Fig. 5) of the
cessing parameters adopted in manufacturing are given as follows: novel plate-lattices at relative densities 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, and 0.4
the laser power is 450w, the laser scanning speed is 1300mm/s, (top to bottom) are obtained, and the normalized elastic modu-
the hatch spacing is 100μm and the layer thickness is 35μm. The lus, bulk modulus, and shear modulus are color-coded as a func-
scanning electron micrographs of stainless steel powder with par- tion of the geometric parameters L1 /Lc (abscissa) and L2 /Lc (ordi-
ticle size distribution in the range 20-50μm are given in Fig. 3(c). nate). It should be noted that only the elastic modulus along the
To minimize variations of the parent material properties related to [100] direction is taken into consideration in this figure. For elas-
the manufacturing process, the same wall thickness of 500μm is tic modulus, it can be seen that the smaller L1 /Lc and larger L2 /Lc
402 S. Duan, W. Wen and D. Fang / Acta Materialia 199 (2020) 397–412

Fig. 4. (a) Schematic diagram of the experimental set-up; (b) Virtual extensometers used to record the compressive displacements through digital image correlation.

Fig. 5. Contour plots of the normalized elastic modulus (left row), normalized shear modulus (middle row), and normalized bulk modulus (right row) of the plate-lattices
with relative densities 0.01, 0.05, 0.1 and 0.4, for varying L1 /Lc and L2 /Lc .
 S. Duan, W. Wen and D. Fang / Acta Materialia 199 (2020) 397–412 403

Fig. 6. (a-c) The range of (a) normalized elastic modulus, (b) normalized shear modulus, and (c) normalized bulk modulus varying with the relative density, as compared to
the Hashin-Shtrikman bounds; (d) The range of Zener anisotropic index as a function of the relative density.

(the upper left corner of the contour diagrams) means the larger to the HS bound. Fig. 6(d) presents a plot of the anisotropic in-
elastic modulus, and vice versa. This is easy to understand because dex of the structures as a function of the relative density. It can
the plate lattices with smaller L1 /Lc and larger L2 /Lc have an anal- be observed that the maximum values are greater than 1, and the
ogous configuration to the cubic foam [26] with high elastic mod- minimum values are less than 1 for all relative densities. As the
ulus along the [100] direction. This cubic-foam-like plate lattices relative density increases, the maximum value decreases, and the
are stretch-dominated. By contrast, the plate lattices with larger minimum value increases accordingly.
L1 /Lc and smaller L2 /Lc are bending-dominated. For shear modulus,
the plate lattices with smaller L2 /Lc have higher shear modulus. In 5.1.2. Elastic properties of isotropic plate lattices
addition, the shear modulus does not change monotonously with It can be found in Fig. 6(d) that the range of Zener anisotropic
the variation of L1 /Lc , but has the maximum value when parameter index covers the line of A = 1 for all relative densities, which
L1 /Lc is in the range 0.2 to 0.35. Finally, it is noticed that L2 /Lc has means the novel plate-lattice materials are able to harvest elas-
small effect on the bulk modulus. As shown in Fig.5, the minimum tic isotropy. In this section, the elastic mechanical properties of
values of the bulk modulus are located at the lower right corner of isotropic plate-lattice materials are analyzed. Fig. 7(a) shows the
the diagrams, while the maximum values are at the leftmost side. influence of the geometric parameters L1 /Lc and L2 /Lc on the Zener
Fig. 6(a-c) illustrate the scaling of the maximum and minimum anisotropic index A of the plate-lattices under relative density ρ̄ =
(for all geometric parameters) elastic modulus, shear modulus, and 0.1. It should be mentioned that the value above the A = 1 line is
bulk modulus with the relative density of the plate lattice. Those less than 1 and the value below the A = 1 line is greater than 1.
values are compared with the Hashin-Shtrikman (HS) upper bound Fig. 7(b) is an enlargement of the marked part in Fig. 7(a),
[10]. It can be seen that the maximum and minimum values of which shows the contour lines of A = 1. Clearly, the geometric
elastic modulus, shear modulus, and bulk modulus increase with parameters located on this contour line are elastically isotropic.
the increase of relative density. For elastic modulus, there is a sig- Fig. 7(c-e) illustrate the unit-cell configurations and 3D spatial
nificant difference between the maximum and minimum values. representations of effective Young’s modulus surfaces correspond-
The maximum value for all relative densities exceeds the HS up- ing to the (c-e) points in Fig. 7(a), respectively. For the plate
per bound, while the minimum value for low relative densities is lattice with L1 /Lc = 0.05 and L2 /Lc = 0.4 (Fig. 7(c)), the Zener
far lower than the HS bound. For instance, at 0.01 relative density, anisotropic index A = 0.49, and the elastic modulus along the di-
the maximum and minimum elastic modulus attain 24% and 140% rection [100] is larger than that along the direction [111] (i.e.,
of the HS upper bound, respectively, but for shear modulus, there E[100] > E[110] > E[111] ). For the plate lattice with L1 /Lc = 0.4 and
is relatively small difference between the maximum and minimum L2 /Lc = 0.05 (Fig. 7(d)), the Zener anisotropic index A = 2.02, and
values, and the maximum values are lower than the HS bound. For the elastic modulus along the direction [111] is larger than that
bulk modulus, it is noticed that the maximum values are very close along the direction [100] (i.e., E[111] > E[110] > E[100] ). For the plate
404 S. Duan, W. Wen and D. Fang / Acta Materialia 199 (2020) 397–412

Fig. 7. (a-b) Contour plots of Zener anisotropic index of the plate-lattices with relative density of 0.1, varying with L1 /Lc and L2 /Lc . Black solid lines correspond to the
isotropic solutions (A = 1). (c-e) The unit cell configurations and corresponding 3D spatial representations of specific effective elastic modulus surfaces of the plate-lattices
(ρ̄ = 0.1) with geometric parameters of (c) (L1 /Lc = 0.05, L2 /Lc = 0.4), (d) (L1 /Lc = 0.4, L2 /Lc = 0.05), and (e) (L1 /Lc = 0.06, L2 /Lc = 0.05).

Fig. 8. Contour plots of the Zener anisotropic index of the plate-lattices with relative densities of (a) 0.05, (b) 0.075, (c) 0.15, (d) 0.2, (e) 0.3, and (f) 0.4.

lattice with L1 /Lc = 0.06 and L2 /Lc = 0.05 (Fig. 7(e)), the Zener lattices can be obtained for a wide range of relative densities.
anisotropic index is A = 1, which means elastically isotropic and When the relative density ρ̄ = 0.05 (Fig. 8(a)), a large region of
the elastic modulus along the direction [111] is equal to that along the phase diagram satisfies A > 1, in other words, only a small
the direction [100] (i.e., E[111] = E[110] = E[100] ). region in the phase diagram satisfies A < 1. In Fig.8, the contour
Fig. 8 shows the influence of the geometric parameters L1 /Lc line A = 1 moves rightward as the increase of relative density, and
and L2 /Lc on the Zener anisotropic index A for all considered rel- as a result, for different relative densities, different geometric pa-
ative densities. It is noticed that the elastically isotropic plate- rameters are required to obtain elastic isotropy.
 S. Duan, W. Wen and D. Fang / Acta Materialia 199 (2020) 397–412 405

Fig. 9. Variations of (a) normalized elastic modulus, (b) normalized shear modulus, and (c) normalized bulk modulus of the elastically-isotropic plate-lattices in terms of
relative density, as compared to those values for isotropic shell-lattices and truss-lattices.

urations include traditional octet-truss lattice, isotropic truss lat-

tice [20], and the isotropic simple-cubic, body-centered cubic, and
face-centered cubic smooth-shell lattice [19]. It can be observed
from the figure that the three modulus increase with the increase
of relative density. In Fig. 9(a), the elastic modulus of isotropic
plate-lattice shows higher level compared with the truss-like lat-
tices and smooth-shell lattices, especially for low relative density
cases. As relative density increases, the elastic modulus of plate
lattice is closer to HS bound. As for the shear modulus as shown
in Fig. 9(b), the identical concluding remarks as the elastic modu-
lus can be made. In Fig. 9(c), the bulk modulus approaches the HS
bound for all relative densities. In general, Fig.9 demonstrates that
the isotropic plate-lattice materials possess better elastic proper-
ties than traditional truss-lattice materials and isotropic smooth-
shell lattice materials.
To verify numerical results, elastic modulus obtained from ex-
periment and FEA are compared in Fig.10 where the ISO-1,2,3 and
ANI-1,2,3 denote the specimens of elastic isotropy and anisotropy,
respectively. It can be seen that the experimental results are in
good agreement with the FE results. However, the FE results are
Fig. 10. Comparison of numerical and experimental results of elastic modulus for
plate-lattice specimens.
slightly higher than the experimental results, which may be at-
tributed to the overestimation of the stiffness by the adopted full-
integration elements. The experimental results show that the elas-
tic modulus of the isotropic specimens along the [100] direction
Fig. 9 exhibits the elastic modulus, shear modulus, and bulk is very close to the modulus along the direction [100], which con-
modulus of isotropic plate lattices and other competing lattice firms the elastic isotropy of the plate lattices.
topologies under different relative densities. The selected config-
406 S. Duan, W. Wen and D. Fang / Acta Materialia 199 (2020) 397–412

Fig. 11. (a) The first-order buckling mode of four plate lattices with a relative density of 0.05; (b) The equivalent plastic strain distribution of four plate lattices under plastic
yielding.

5.2. Initial yielding This definition shows that the plastic yield failure mode is the
dominant factor if Es /σ s ≥ N (i.e., σ y ≥ σ b ) and the elastic
Under uniaxial compression, the plate lattice may occur elastic buckling failure mode is the dominant factor if Es /σ s ≤ N (i.e.,
buckling or plastic yielding. The initial yield strength is usually de- σ y ≤ σ b ).
fined as the minimum value of the elastic buckling strength and Fig. 12 discloses the influence of the geometric parameters on
the plastic yielding strength. Here the initial yield behavior of the the normalized yield strength, normalized buckling strength, and
plate lattices is discussed. Fig. 11(a) provides the first-order buck- yield buckling strength ratio. It can be seen that the maximum
ling mode of plate lattices of four representative geometric param- value of the normalized yield strength is located at the upper
eters combinations with the same low relative density ρ̄ = 0.05. It left corner of the diagram, which means that the plate lattices
can be observed in Fig. 11(a 1 ) that the plate lattice with small with higher elastic modulus have higher plastic yield strength.
L1 /Lc and small L2 /Lc shows a buckling mode of half-wave shape In addition, the yield strength decreases with the increase of
along the loading direction. In Fig. 11(a 2 ), the plate lattice with L1 /Lc . By comparison, the normalized buckling strength does not
small L1 /Lc and large L2 /Lc shows a buckling mode of a full-wave change monotonically with L1 /Lc or L2 /Lc . As for the yield buck-
shape along the loading direction. As for the plate lattice with large ling strength ratio, the maximum value moves from the center
L1 /Lc , the buckling modes transform to a half-wave shape perpen- to the upper left corner of the diagram with the increase of rel-
dicular to the loading direction. Fig. 11(b) illustrates the distribu- ative density. Here the parent material is 316 L stainless steel
tions of the equivalent plastic strain of the plate lattices. It is ob- with elastic modulus Es = 150GPa, yield strength σs = 450MPa,
served that the regions with large plastic strain are concentrated and the ratio Es /σs = 333.33. From the right column subplots of
at the junction of the plates. Fig. 12, it can be found that Es /σ s > N (i.e., σ y > σ b ) holds
To quantify the initial yield strength of the plate lattices, the FE for all plate-lattices with relative densities above 0.05, which re-
results of plastic yield strength and elastic buckling strength are veals that the plastic yield deformation is the dominant initial
compared. Since the elastic buckling strength is proportional to the failure mode for plate-lattice with large relative density. As for
elastic modulus of parent material, the normalized elastic buckling other parent materials such as the polymer, nylon, aluminum al-
strength can be defined as loy, or titanium alloy, the dominant initial failure mode of the
plate lattices also can be characterized with above analogous
σ̄b = σb /(ρ̄Es ) (17)
approach.
where σ b is the elastic buckling strength of the plate lattice and Es To verify the effectiveness of FEA, Fig. 13 provides the com-
is the elastic modulus of the parent material. Besides, the normal- parison of the initial yield strengths obtained from the experi-
ized plastic yield strength can be defined as ment and FE calculation. Fig. 13 shows the experimental results
are in good agreement with the FE results. Similar to the dis-
σ̄y = σy /(ρ̄σs ) (18) cussion of Fig. 10, the slightly higher prediction of the initial
where σ y is the elastic buckling strength of the plate lattice and σ y yield strength of the FE results may be owing to the numeri-
is the yield strength of the parent material. To clarify the dominant cal artifacts of the adopted full-integration elements. For the ISO-
initial yield mode, we defined the “yield buckling strength ratio” 1,2,3 specimens, the initial yield strength along the [110] direc-
by tion is slightly lower than that along the [100] direction. The ANI-
1 specimen shows a higher initial yield strength than ANI-2 and
σ̄y σy /(ρ̄σs ) σy Es ANI-3, which is consistent with the results predicted by the FE
N= = = · (19)
σ̄b σb /(ρ̄Es ) σb σs simulation.
 S. Duan, W. Wen and D. Fang / Acta Materialia 199 (2020) 397–412 407

Fig. 12. Contour plots of the normalized yield strength (left row), normalized buckling strength (middle row), and normalized yield buckling strength ratio (right row) of
the plate-lattices with relative densities of 0.01, 0.05, 0.1 and 0.4, varying with L1 /Lc and L2 /Lc .

5.3. Large deformation behavior

5.3.1. Large strain compression of plate lattices

In this section, the large deformation behavior of the plate lat-
tices is analyzed. Fig. 14 provides the stress-strain curves of four
representative plate lattices (i.e., four different parameter combi-
nations) obtained from the multi-cell simulations. The red unit
cell in Fig. 14(a) represents the plate lattices of elastic isotropy.
The blue, green and purple unit cells in Fig. 14(b-d) respectively
represents the elastically-anisotropic plate-lattices with differ-
ent geometric parameter combinations (L1 /Lc = 0.1, L2 /Lc = 0.35),
(L1 /Lc = 0.2, L2 /Lc = 0.25) and (L1 /Lc = 0.35, L2 /Lc = 0.1). For
the plate lattices with a relative density ρ = 0.01, the compressive
response of all lattices except the elastically isotropic configuration
is similar to the crushing response of low-density metallic foams,
which shows considerable oscillations in stress. For the lattices
with a relative density of 0.1, the stress decreases after the initial
peak stress, then followed by slight oscillations. At high relative
densities (right column subplots for ρ̄ = 0.5), the stress increases
monotonously and smoothly and the curves display a high strain
Fig.13. Comparison of numerically-predicted and experimentally-measured values
hardening behavior, similar to the compressive behavior of bulk
of initial yield strength for nine plate-lattice specimens. metals. For the plate lattice of elastic isotropy, the stress-strain re-
408 S. Duan, W. Wen and D. Fang / Acta Materialia 199 (2020) 397–412

Fig. 14. Stress-strain curves obtained from multi-cell simulations under large strain compression along the [100] and [110] directions, at relative densities (left to right) 0.01,
0.1 and 0.5. Top-to-bottom: (a) elastically isotropic plate-lattices; (b-d) elastically anisotropic plate-lattices.

sponses along the [100] and [111] directions are very similar, which tally observed layer-by-layer progressively crushing modes roughly
means the isotropy is partly preserved even at large strains. match with the corresponding multi-cell simulation results. The
Fig. 15 exhibits the FE simulation and experimental results of corresponding distributions of the equivalent plastic strain reveal
the large strain compression of the specimens. The experimental that most of the plastic dissipation takes place on the plates along
curves for the [100] and [110] directions are shown as colored the compression direction. When loaded along the [100] direc-
solid lines and colored dashed lines, respectively. The correspond- tion, at the mesoscopic level (Fig. 16(c)), the A-type plates ex-
ing multi-cell simulation results are shown as gray solid lines with hibit a folding deformation along the loading direction that is very
square open symbols and gray dashed lines with circle open sym- similar to the large-strain deformation behavior of the metallic
bols. Overall, the experimental and numerical results match well. square honeycombs [27], while the B-type plates exhibit bending-
With regard to the plateau stress over the strain from 0.1 to 0.4, dominant deformation mode. When loaded along the [110] direc-
the relative difference between the experimentally-measured and tion, at the mesoscopic level (Fig. 17(c)), the A-type plates have
numerically-predicted values is less than 15%. For the plate lat- significantly high equivalent plastic strains (red zones) and exhibits
tices of elastic isotropy (Fig. 15(a-c)), the compressive responses a folding behavior, while the B-type plates exhibit bending defor-
along [100] and [110] directions are similar, which agrees with the mation, and thus discloses lower equivalent plastic strain.
above discussion. For the plate lattices of elastic anisotropy, it can
be noticed that the stress-strain curve of ANI-1 is higher than the
curves of ANI-2 and ANI-3, and the ANI-1 and ANI-2 specimens 5.3.2. Specific energy absorption
show higher strain hardening than the ANI-3 one. The energy absorption capacity of the cellular materials can be
Figs. 16 and 17 compare the sequences of deformed configu- characterized by the area under the nominal stress-strain curve.
rations of the ISO-1 specimens under uniaxial compression along The specific energy absorption (SEA) is defined as the absorbed en-
the [100] and [110] directions. It can be seen that the experimen- ergy per unit mass. In this study, the expression of SEA is given as
 S. Duan, W. Wen and D. Fang / Acta Materialia 199 (2020) 397–412 409

Fig. 15. Comparison of the numerical and experimental stress-strain curves of the (a-c) ISO-1,2,3 and (d-f) ANI-1,2,3 plate-lattices under large strain compression.

Fig. 16. (a) Experimental pictures and (b-c) simulated equivalent plastic strain distribution of the compression deformation patterns of ISO-1 specimen, under [100]-oriented
compressive engineering strains of 0.1–0.4.

the SEA increases with the relative density for all plate-lattices. It
1 0.3 is interesting to observe that, the ordering of their energy absorp-
SEA = ∫ σ dε (20)
ρ ε=0 tion capacity follows that of the respective elastic moduli. More-
over, the anisotropy also becomes apparent in the SEA plots for
For the elastically isotropic and anisotropic plate-lattices, the ex- the blue and purple plate-lattices. The SEA along [100] direction
perimental and numerical results of the SEA as a function of the is significantly higher than that along the [110] direction for the
relative density are depicted in Fig. 18. The plots demonstrate that blue plate-lattice in Fig. 18(b), while the opposite holds true for the
410 S. Duan, W. Wen and D. Fang / Acta Materialia 199 (2020) 397–412

Fig. 17. (a) Experimental pictures and (b-c) simulated equivalent plastic strain distribution of the compression deformation patterns of ISO-1 specimen under [110]-oriented
compressive engineering strains of 0.1–0.4.

purple plate-lattice in Fig. 18(d). The difference of SEA along the 6. Conclusions
two directions becomes higher as the relative density increases.
At relative density of 0.1, the absolute differences between the In this study, a novel class of plate-lattice material with control-
[100] and [110] directions are 25% and 22% for the blue and pur- lable elastic anisotropy is proposed and their elastoplastic prop-
ple plate-lattices, respectively. At ρ̄ = 0.5, the corresponding per- erties and large deformation behaviors are investigated both nu-
centages are 35% and 34%. In contrast, the elastically-isotropic merically and experimentally. The elastically isotropic plate-lattices
plate-lattice (Fig. 18(a)) and the green plate-lattice (Fig. 18(c)) ex- can be obtained for a wide range of relative densities. The elas-
hibit the roughly same level of SEA along the [100] and [110] tically isotropic plate-lattices possess significant superior elastic
directions. properties than the isotropic smooth shell-lattices and conven-
Besides, the experimental results of FCC, SC, and BCC smooth tional truss-lattices of equal density. In particular, the isotropic
shell-lattices under uniaxial compression along their most absorb- plate-lattice exhibits a near two-fold higher elastic modulus than
ing direction [19] are also plotted in Fig. 18(a-d) for comparison. It that of isotropic truss-lattice at relative density 0.01, while their
can be found that the SEA of the isotropic plate-lattice (red lattice bulk modulus can attain the HS upper bound. The proposed elas-
in Fig. 18(a)) is slightly higher than the smooth shell-lattices, while tically isotropic plate-lattice also features a remarkably reduced
the green plate-lattice shows the roughly same level of energy ab- anisotropy even at large strains. For the elastically anisotropic
sorption capacity as the shell-lattices (Fig. 18(c)). The blue and pur- plate-lattices, their stiffness can be widely controlled through the
ple plate-lattices only show similar SEA to that of the shell-lattices geometric parameters. For instance, their elastic modulus can at-
under the compression along the [110] direction. It should be men- tain about 24% to 140% of the corresponding HS upper bound at
tioned that although the smooth shell-lattices in Ref. [19] are also 0.01 relative density. The numerical findings are confirmed through
additively-manufactured from stainless steel 316 L using selective compression experiments on stainless steel 316 L plate-lattices
laser melting, the mechanical properties of the obtained metal ma- manufacturing by selective laser melting.
terial may vary with manufacturing equipment setting and pro- In conclusion, the proposed plate-lattices exhibit superior
cessing parameters. Therefore, the experimental results in this pa- elasto-plastic mechanical performance over shell- and truss-
per and Ref. [19] cannot be regarded as a substantial evidence to lattices, especially for the elastically-isotropic cases. From a man-
conclude the energy absorption capacity of the plate-lattices is su- ufacturing perspective, their half-open unit cell topology is conve-
perior to that of the smooth shell-lattices. Actually, in a recent re- nient for the powder-bed based additive manufacturing techniques,
search, Li et al. showed that the dynamic energy absorption ca- as compared to the existing full closed-cell plate-lattices. More-
pacity of the FCC smooth shell-lattices is significantly higher than over, the plate-lattices are expected to possess significant advan-
that of elastically-isotropic SC-BCC plate-lattices of an equal mass, tages over conventional close-cell lattices with regard to multi-
which reveals great energy absorption potential of shell-lattices functionality (e.g. mass and heat transfer functions), which is a
[28]. good topic for future research.
 S. Duan, W. Wen and D. Fang / Acta Materialia 199 (2020) 397–412 411

Fig. 18. The specific energy absorption versus the relative density under uniaxial compression along the [100] and [110] directions for (a) elastically isotropic plate-lattices;
(b-d) elastically anisotropic plate-lattices.

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Mater, Sci 3 (3) (1998) 288–303.
[3] H.N. Wadley, Multifunctional periodic cellular metals, Philos Trans A Math
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